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: 05 @.@ 538 , at an average speed of 116 @.@ 330 miles per hour ( 187 @.@ 215 km / h ) . Häkkinen finished second 14 @.@ 7 seconds behind , ahead of Barrichello in third , Villeneuve in fourth , Ralf Schumacher in fifth and Trulli rounded out the points scoring positions in sixth . Frentzen , Button , Fisichella , Salo , Diniz and Heidfeld followed in the next six positions , with Irvine , Alesi and Gené the last of the classified finishers .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in the subsequent press conference . Coulthard described his race weekend as " exhausting " because of the problems his team encountered during the event . He also apologised for the hand gestures he made towards Michael Schumacher after his first overtaking manoeuvre on the Ferrari driver . Häkkinen stated that he was happy with his second @-@ place result and praised his team 's efforts . He also spoke of how he watched Michael Schumacher 's racing lines and believed he would have passed him had he not retired with an engine failure . Barrichello revealed that he was ordered by Ferrari to reduce his pace in the race 's closing stages as he held a large gap of 35 seconds to Villeneuve .
After Ferrari 's victory at the previous race , their team principal Jean Todt , said that " we seemed to be in a strong position but , of course , it is the order at the finish that counts " , while Michael Schumacher said that his car 's tyres dropped in performance after taking his first pit stop . McLaren technical director Adrian Newey said that the pit stop strategy was crucial in winning the race : " The tyre wear did not spring any surprises on us and we were able to trust our estimations and co @-@ ordinate the pit @-@ stops to our best advantage . " Villeneuve was happy with his strong finish and was surprised by his good start . Heidfeld , who made contact with his teammate Alesi during the race , apologised for the collision . Ralf Schumacher said that he reduced his pace to secure his fifth position . Trulli described his race as " difficult " because of the hot temperatures though he praised his mechanics for their work .
The overtaking manoeuvres made by Coulthard on Michael Schumacher received much media attention after the race . Coulthard accused the Ferrari driver of unsporting behaviour and dangerous driving , saying : " I had a clean run at Michael on the outside and equally I felt he drove me wide . You could say he had the right to do that because he had the track position , but I think it was a deliberate gesture in trying to run someone wide like that and I was very angry . " Michael Schumacher later denied any wrongdoing and citied an similar incident at the 1999 Japanese Grand Prix where Coulthard pushed him wide although no objections were made . He also admitted that he did not see Coulthard 's hand gesture . Coulthard sought clarification with the FIA over such overtakes with a source from Formula One 's governing body noting : " It was hard racing -- they are racing drivers aren 't they ? " GrandPrix.com said that Coulthard 's overtake meant that " He is ready to stand up to Michael and he is not afraid of what will happen if Michael does not lift . "
The race result meant that Coulthard narrowed the gap to Michael Schumacher in the Drivers ' Championship to twelve points . Häkkinen remained in third place , six points ahead of Barrichello . Fisichella behind them maintained fifth position . In the Constructors ' Championship , McLaren 's one @-@ two finish reduced the lead of Ferrari to six points . Williams made up two points on the Benetton team , although they were still one point behind . Jordan retained fifth on eleventh points , with eight races of the season remaining .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Xin Fengxia =
Xin Fengxia ( Chinese : 新凤霞 ; Wade – Giles : Hsin Feng @-@ hsia ; 1927 – 12 April 1998 ) was a Chinese pingju opera performer , known as the " Queen of Pingju " . She was also a film actress , writer , and painter . She starred in the highly popular films Liu Qiao 'er ( 1956 ) and Flowers as Matchmakers ( 1964 ) , both adapted from her operas .
Xin was married to Wu Zuguang , a prominent playwright and an outspoken critic of government policies . When Wu was denounced as a " rightist " in Mao Zedong 's Anti @-@ Rightist Movement , Xin refused to divorce him and was herself denounced as a result . She was later severely persecuted during the Cultural Revolution , becoming disabled after a beating and was later paralyzed due to a stroke . No longer able to perform , she dedicated the remainder of her life to teaching , writing , and painting . She studied painting with her godfather Qi Baishi , a master of Chinese painting , and studied writing with her husband . She published a two @-@ million @-@ word memoir , which has been translated into English and Urdu .
Xin Fengxia pioneered her own style of pingju , now called the " Xin " ( which also means " new " ) style . It has become one of the most important styles of the opera . In 2014 , the China Pingju Institute created the new pingju opera Xin Fengxia to commemorate her life .
= = Early life and career = =
Xin Fengxia was born in Suzhou , Jiangsu , China . When she was a toddler she was sold by human smugglers to Tianjin in northern China , and was given the name Yang Shumin ( 杨淑敏 ) . She was trained as an opera performer from a young age . At that time , the theatrical world in China was controlled by gangsters . Actors , even renowned performers , had little personal freedom . She originally trained for Peking opera under her " older sister " Yang Jinxiang , but later changed to pingju . She toured extensively , and by the 1940s , her fame had rivalled well known female stars such as Liu Cuixia , Bai Yushuang , and Fu Ronghua .
After the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , Xin moved to Beijing . Her first performance , in the modern pingju Little Erhei 's Marriage , was well liked and attracted the attention of the original novelist Zhao Shuli and the well known writer Lao She . Her next performance , in Liu Qiao 'er , was even more successful , making her a household name in China . In the opera Flowers as Matchmakers ( Hua Wei Mei ) , she transformed the traditional melancholy tunes of pingju into joyous ones , and enriched the pingju repertoire by creating many new melodies . It is now considered a classic of the Xin style pingju . Liu Qiao 'er was made into a film in 1956 , which was followed by Flowers as Matchmakers in 1964 . Both starred Xin and were extremely popular . Premier Zhou Enlai and his wife Deng Yingchao were both her fans . Zhou once said : " I can live without tea for three days , but not without watching Xin Fengxia . "
= = Marriage and persecution = =
In 1951 , Lao She introduced Xin Fengxia to the famous playwright Wu Zuguang . Like many intellectuals at the time , Wu held high hopes for the new People 's Republic and returned to China from British Hong Kong . Xin , who had acted in one of Wu 's plays , admired his talent . They married that year , despite the fact that they were from differing socioeconomic backgrounds ; she had no formal education and was nearly illiterate , while he was from a prominent family of scholars . Wu helped her to study reading , writing , and calligraphy . She also studied painting with Qi Baishi , one of the most celebrated masters of Chinese painting , who took her as his goddaughter .
Wu Zuguang , an outspoken critic of government cultural policies , was denounced in 1957 as a " rightist " in Mao Zedong 's Anti @-@ Rightist Movement , and was sent to the Great Northern Wilderness in Heilongjiang to be " reformed through labour . " Xin was pressured to divorce her husband , but refused . Citing a legendary love story from one of her operas , she said " Wang Baochuan waited 18 years for Xue Pinggui , and I will wait 28 years for Wu Zuguang . " As a result , she was herself labeled a rightist and went through struggle sessions .
Wu returned to Beijing after three years of hard labour , but six years later , China fell into the even greater turmoil of the Cultural Revolution , which began in 1966 . Xin Fengxia and Wu Zuguang were both denounced at the beginning of the period . She was severely beaten by a junior actor of the China Pingju Institute ; her left knee was broken and she never fully recovered from the injury . The couple 's friend Lao She drowned himself after being similarly tortured . After her beating Xin served seven years of forced labour . In December 1975 , she became paralyzed after suffering a stroke . Wu took care of her for the rest of her life .
= = Post @-@ Cultural Revolution = =
After the Cultural Revolution , Xin Fengxia was politically rehabilitated in 1979 , but was unable to return to the stage because of her disability . Her performance in Flowers as Matchmakers in 1964 proved to be her last . She devoted her energy to writing , painting , and training the younger generation of pingju performers . In 1997 , she published her two @-@ million @-@ word memoir , which has been translated into English and Urdu . Ye Shengtao , the renowned writer and publisher , greatly encouraged her to write . He composed two poems praising her courage and talent . Her paintings , which were decorated with her husband 's calligraphy , were also popular , and an exhibition of them was held at the China Military Museum in 1994 . She was elected as a member of the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference .
In April 1998 , while visiting Changzhou , her husband 's hometown , she suffered a cerebral hemorrhage . She was sent to Changzhou No. 1 People 's Hospital , where she died after a week , on 12 April 1998 .
= = Legacy = =
Xin Fengxia and Wu Zuguang had three children . Their son , Wu Huan , is also a writer , painter , and calligrapher . After the deaths of Xin in 1998 and of Wu Zuguang in 2003 , he organized the exhibition " A Hundred Years of the Wu Family " at the Poly Art Museum in Beijing . It was also shown in France , Hong Kong , and Taiwan .
The " Xin " style of pingju pioneered by Xin Fengxia has become one of the most important styles of the opera . In 2014 , the China Pingju Institute created a new opera entitled Xin Fengxia to commemorate her life , with focuses on her reformation of the opera , and the love story of Xin and Wu . It is written by Huang Weiruo ( 黄维若 ) , and directed by Guo Xiaonan ( 郭小男 ) .
= United States Senate election in Massachusetts , 2012 =
The 2012 United States Senate election in Massachusetts took place on November 6 , 2012 , concurrently with the U.S. presidential election and elections to the U.S. Senate in other states , as well as elections to the House of Representatives and various state and local elections .
Incumbent Republican Senator Scott Brown ran for re @-@ election to a first full term . He had been elected in a special election in 2010 following the death of incumbent Democratic Senator Ted Kennedy . Brown faced no challengers from his own party . For the Democrats , an initial wide field of prospective candidates narrowed after the entry of Harvard Law School Professor Elizabeth Warren , the architect of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau . Warren clinched near @-@ unanimous party support , with all but one of the other Democratic candidates withdrawing following her entrance . After winning her party 's nomination , eliminating any need for a primary , she faced Brown in the general election .
The election was one of the most @-@ followed races in 2012 and cost approximately $ 82 million , which made it the most expensive election in Massachusetts history and the second @-@ most expensive in the entire 2012 election cycle , next to that year 's presidential election . This was despite the two candidates ' having agreed not to allow outside money to influence the race . Opinion polling indicated a close race for much of the campaign , though Warren opened up a small but consistent lead in the final few weeks . She went on to defeat Brown by over 236 @,@ 000 votes , 54 % to 46 % .
= = Background = =
Democratic U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy was re @-@ elected in 2006 , and died on August 25 , 2009 from a malignant brain tumor . On September 24 , 2009 , Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick appointed longtime friend of Kennedy and former Democratic National Committee Chairman Paul G. Kirk to succeed Kennedy until a special election could be held . Kirk 's appointment was especially controversial , as the Governor 's ability to appoint an interim Senator was removed during the Romney administration by the Democratic @-@ controlled legislature , as a precaution if Senator and presidential nominee John Kerry was elected President in 2004 . Laws surrounding Senate appointment were quickly changed following Kennedy 's death . The Massachusetts Republican Party sued in an attempt to halt Kirk 's appointment , but it was rejected by Suffolk Superior Court Judge Thomas Connolly .
In the special election held on January 19 , 2010 , Republican State Senator Scott Brown defeated Democratic State Attorney General Martha Coakley in an upset victory . Brown thus became the first Republican to be elected from Massachusetts to the United States Senate since Edward Brooke in 1972 and he began serving the remainder of Kennedy 's term on February 4 , 2010 .
= = Republican primary = =
Incumbent Scott Brown faced no challenges from within his party . The political action committee National Republican Trust , a group integral to Brown 's election in 2010 , vowed to draft a challenger for Brown but were unable to find one .
= = = Candidates = = =
Scott Brown , incumbent U.S. Senator
= = = Polling = = =
= = = Results = = =
= = Democratic primary = =
The Massachusetts Democratic Convention was held on June 2 , 2012 , where Warren received 95 @.@ 77 % of delegate votes . As the only candidate with 15 % of delegate votes necessary to qualify for the primary ballot , Warren eliminated her challenger Marisa DeFranco , becoming the de facto nominee . The Democratic primary was held September 6 , 2012 , with Warren running unopposed .
= = = Candidates = = =
= = = = Declared = = = =
Nominee : Elizabeth Warren , Harvard Law School professor and architect of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
Eliminated at convention : Marisa DeFranco , immigration lawyer
= = = = Withdrew = = = =
Tom Conroy , State Representative ( Withdrew December 12 , 2011 )
Alan Khazei , founder of City Year ( Withdrew October 26 , 2011 )
James Coyne King , corporate lawyer ( Withdrew March 21 , 2012 )
Bob Massie , entrepreneur and nominee for Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts 1994 ( Withdrew October 7 , 2011 )
Herb Robinson , engineer ( Withdrew December 15 , 2011 )
Setti Warren , Mayor of Newton ( Withdrew September 29 , 2011 )
= = = = Declined = = = =
Mike Capuano , U.S. Representative
Kim Driscoll , Mayor of Salem
Barney Frank , U.S. Representative
Joseph P. Kennedy II , former U.S. Representative
Victoria Reggie Kennedy , Ted Kennedy 's widow
Stephen Lynch , U.S. Representative
Rachel Maddow , television host , and political commentator
Marty Meehan , former U.S. Representative
Thomas Menino , Mayor of Boston
Deval Patrick , Governor of Massachusetts
John F. Tierney , U.S. Representative
Warren Tolman , former State Senator and former State Representative
= = = Polling = = =
= = = Results = = =
= = General election = =
= = = Campaign = = =
Brown ran as a moderate , stressing his ability to cross party lines and highlighting his votes for the Dodd @-@ Frank financial reform law and to repeal " don 't ask , don 't tell " . Warren campaigned on a platform championing the middle class , and supporting Wall Street regulation . Warren criticized Brown for continually voting with Republican leadership , and argued that he was not the bipartisan moderate he claimed to be . A staple of Brown 's attack tactics against Warren was his consistent reference to her as " Professor Warren " , in attempt to portray her as an elitist academic . Brown faced blowback after the second debate , during which he claimed conservative Antonin Scalia was a " model " Supreme Court Justice , prompting boos from the debate audience .
Warren spoke at the 2012 Democratic National Convention immediately before Bill Clinton on the penultimate night of the convention . Warren contrasted President Obama 's economic plan with Mitt Romney 's in the 2012 election and rebuked the Republican Party 's economic policy stating : " Their vision is clear : ' I 've got mine , and the rest of you are on your own . ' " Warren positioned herself as a champion of a beleaguered middle class that , as she said , " has been chipped , squeezed and hammered . " Brown attended the 2012 Republican National Convention , but was not a speaker there . According to Brown , he had rejected an offer to play a larger role , and limited his attendance to a single day because of scheduling demands .
Following Todd Akin 's controversial " legitimate rape " comments , Brown was the first sitting Senator to demand he drop out of the Missouri U.S. Senate race . He also called on his Party to " recognize in its platform that you can be pro @-@ choice and still be a good Republican . " Brown 's campaign had been endorsed by many Massachusetts Democrats , many of whom were prominently featured in his campaign ads .
In September 2011 , a video of Warren explaining her approach to economic policy gained popularity on the internet . In the video , Warren rebuts the charge that asking the rich to pay more taxes is " class warfare " , pointing out that no one grew rich in America without depending on infrastructure paid for by the rest of society . On July 13 , President Obama sparked a controversy when he echoed her thoughts in a campaign speech saying , " Somebody helped to create this unbelievable American system that we have that allowed you to thrive . Somebody invested in roads and bridges . If you 've got a business — you didn 't build that . Somebody else made that happen . "
On September 14 , 2011 , Warren declared her intention to run for the Democratic nomination for the 2012 election in Massachusetts for the United States Senate . The seat had been won by Republican Scott Brown in a 2010 special election after the death of Ted Kennedy . A week later , a video of Warren speaking in Andover became popular on the internet . In it , Warren replies to the charge that asking the rich to pay more taxes is " class warfare , " pointing out that no one grew rich in America without depending on infrastructure paid for by the rest of society , stating :
There is nobody in this country who got rich on his own . Nobody . ... You moved your goods to market on the roads the rest of us paid for ; you hired workers the rest of us paid to educate ; you were safe in your factory because of police forces and fire forces that the rest of us paid for . You didn 't have to worry that marauding bands would come and seize everything at your factory , and hire someone to protect against this , because of the work the rest of us did . Now look , you built a factory and it turned into something terrific , or a great idea . God bless . Keep a big hunk of it . But part of the underlying social contract is , you take a hunk of that and pay forward for the next kid who comes along .
President Barack Obama later echoed her sentiments in a 2012 election campaign speech .
Warren won the Democratic nomination on June 2 , 2012 , at the state Democratic convention with a record 95 @.@ 77 % of the votes of delegates . She was endorsed by the Governor of Massachusetts , Deval Patrick . Warren and her opponent Scott Brown agreed to engage in four televised debates , including one with a consortium of media outlets in Springfield and one on WBZ @-@ TV in Boston .
Warren encountered significant opposition from business interests . In August 2012 , Rob Engstrom , political director for the United States Chamber of Commerce , claimed that " no other candidate in 2012 represents a greater threat to free enterprise than Professor Warren . " She nonetheless raised $ 39 million for her campaign , the most of any Senate candidate in 2012 .
Warren received a primetime speaking slot at the 2012 Democratic National Convention , immediately before Bill Clinton , on the evening of September 5 , 2012 . Warren positioned herself as a champion of a beleaguered middle class that " has been chipped , squeezed , and hammered . " According to Warren , " People feel like the system is rigged against them . And here 's the painful part : They 're right . The system is rigged . " Warren said that Wall Street CEOs " wrecked our economy and destroyed millions of jobs " and that they " still strut around congress , no shame , demanding favors , and acting like we should thank them . "
= = = = Native American ancestry controversy = = = =
In April 2012 , the Boston Herald sparked an election controversy when it drew attention to Warren 's Association of American Law Schools ( AALS ) directory entries from 1986 to 1995 , which listed her as a minority professor . According to the AALS , the directory was compiled by information supplied by law school deans , based on questionnaires filled out by individual teachers . Warren stated that she had self @-@ identified as having Native American ancestry in order to meet others with a similar background . Harvard Law School had listed her as a minority professor in response to criticisms about a lack of faculty diversity , but Warren said that she was unaware of this until she read about it in a newspaper during the 2012 election .
Her opponent Scott Brown speculated that she had fabricated a native ancestry to gain an advantage in the employment market ; the Brown campaign used Warren 's lineage in several attack ads . In response , Warren 's brothers issued a joint statement stating that they " grew up listening to our mother and grandmother and other relatives talk about our family ’ s Cherokee and Delaware heritage " . Brian Leiter of the Chicago Law School dismissed the allegations against Warren , noting that law schools have " no pressure to hire Native Americans for affirmative action reasons " , and that Warren 's record of scholarship was " clearly sufficient to get her appointed at Harvard " .
According to the New England Historical Genealogical Society , several members of Warren 's maternal family claim Cherokee heritage ; the Society found a family newsletter that alluded to a marriage license application that listed Elizabeth Warren ’ s great @-@ great @-@ great grandmother as a Cherokee , but could not find the primary document and found no proof of Warren 's Native American heritage . The Oklahoma Historical Society stated that finding a definitive answer about Native American heritage can be difficult because of intermarriage and deliberate avoidance of registration . Some members of the Cherokee Nation protested her claim to Native American ancestry and questioned whether she benefitted from it . Former colleagues and supervisors at the universities where she had worked ( including Charles Fried , former Solicitor General under President Ronald Reagan ) said Warren 's ancestry was either not mentioned , or played no role in her hiring .
The question of Warren 's ancestry was pressed by the Brown campaign throughout the election . However , polls showed that most voters said that the controversy would not impact their vote in the election . Warren ’ s 2014 autobiography devoted a section to the allegations , describing them as untrue and hurtful .
= = = Endorsements = = =
= = = Debates = = =
Both candidates agreed to four televised debates , three of which were held . The candidates agreed to a fourth debate which was to be held on October 30 in WGBH @-@ TV 's studio , hosted by a Boston mediaB consortium , and moderated by John King , but the day before both pulled out due to Hurricane Sandy . Victoria Kennedy , widow of Ted Kennedy , had proposed an additional debate with Tom Brokaw as moderator , however Brown would only accept the invitation if she pledged not to endorse Brown 's opponent ; which she refused .
Debate 1 : September 20 at WBZ @-@ TV studio , hosted by WBZ and WBZ Newsradio 1030 . Moderated by the station 's political reporter Jon Keller .
Complete video and transcript available at C @-@ SPAN .
Debate 2 : October 1 at UMass Lowell , co @-@ hosted by UMass and The Boston Herald . Moderated by David Gregory .
Complete video and transcript available at C @-@ SPAN .
Debate 3 : October 10 at Springfield Symphony Hall , hosted by a Western MassachusettsA consortium . Moderated by WGBY @-@ TV 's Jim Madigan .
Complete video and transcript available at C @-@ SPAN .
= = Fundraising = =
The election cost approximately $ 82 million , making it the most expensive election in Massachusetts ' history and of any Congressional race in history as well as the second @-@ most expensive election in the 2012 election cycle , behind only the 2012 presidential election .
= = = The People 's Pledge = = =
Both Warren and Brown stated early in the race that they would not accept television advertisement assistance from Super PACs and interest groups . On January 23 , 2012 , both candidates signed the agreement , or People 's Pledge . While no outside groups were obligated by the agreement , both candidates agreed to donate a sum equal to 50 % of an advertisement run by any groups to a charity of the other candidate 's choice . The pledge was broken twice , by Brown supporters . In March the American Petroleum Institute and Coalition of Americans for Political Equality launched ads supporting Brown , and as a result , the Brown campaign agreed to make donations of $ 1 @,@ 000 and $ 34 @,@ 545 , respectively , to the charity of Warren 's choice : the Autism Consortium .
= = = Top donors = = =
Contributions by affiliationC
Source : Center for Responsive Politics
Contributions by industry
Source : Center for Responsive Politics
= = = Polling = = =
* RV = Registered voters ; LV = Likely voters
= = Results = =
Despite President Obama 's winning the state easily , and winning all of the states counties , this race was fairly close . As expected , Warren performed very well in Suffolk County , which is home to the state 's largest city and its capital Boston . Brown performed well in the southern part of the state near Cape Cod . Warren made history by becoming the first woman elected to the U.S. Senate in the state of Massachusetts .
= = Aftermath = =
The People 's Pledge was a popular concept , which Common Cause proposed being implemented in other races . The pledge also resulted in fewer attack ads on the airwaves .
Less than two months after the election , President Barack Obama nominated Senator John Kerry to become United States Secretary of State . Kerry was sworn in on February 1 , making newly inaugurated Warren the state 's senior Senator , and the Senate 's most @-@ junior senior senator . In the Senate special election to replace Kerry the following year , Democratic nominee Ed Markey asked his Republican rival Gabriel E. Gomez to sign a similar pledge with him , although Gomez refused .
The election was a critical event in both candidate 's political careers , with Warren becoming a political icon after entering the Senate , and being drafted to run for President in 2016 . After the election loss , Brown was considered the most prominent Republican in Massachusetts and heavily favored to run in the Senate special election the following year or for Governor in 2014 , though he declined to do either . He instead moved to New Hampshire and ran for the Senate there in 2014 against Democratic incumbent Jeanne Shaheen . He lost , 51 % to 48 % , becoming the first man to lose two Senate races to women .
= TNA World Heavyweight Championship =
The TNA World Heavyweight Championship is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship owned by Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . It is currently the highest ranked championship in TNA and is primarily defended in TNA 's heavyweight division . It was unveiled on May 14 , 2007 , at the taping of TNA 's primary television program , TNA Impact ! ; this episode of Impact ! did not air until May 17 , 2007 . The inaugural champion was Kurt Angle .
Like most professional wrestling championships , the title is won via the result of a scripted match . Before the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was created , TNA held control over the NWA World Heavyweight Championship due to an agreement between TNA and the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) , the organization which owned the NWA Championship . In 2007 , the agreement between TNA and the NWA ended , leading to the creation of the TNA World Heavyweight Championship .
= = History = =
The Total Nonstop Action Wrestling promotion formed in May 2002 . Later that same year TNA was granted control over the NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships by the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) governing body ; subsequently becoming an official NWA territory as NWA – TNA . On June 19 , 2002 , NWA – TNA held its first show ; a weekly pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event . The main event of the telecast was a twenty @-@ man Gauntlet for the Gold match in which twenty men trying to throw each other over the top rope and down to the floor in order to eliminate them , until there were two men left who wrestle a standard match to become the first ever TNA @-@ era NWA World Heavyweight Champion . Ken Shamrock defeated Malice to win the vacant championship with Ricky Steamboat as Special Guest Referee at the event .
= = = Creation = = =
The NWA World Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships were contested for in TNA until the morning of May 13 , 2007 . On that day , NWA 's Executive Director Robert Trobich announced that the NWA were ending their five – year agreement with TNA , which had allowed them full control over both titles . Trobich went on to state that effective that morning , then @-@ NWA World Heavyweight Champion Christian Cage and the Team 3D pairing of Brother Ray and Brother Devon , then @-@ NWA World Tag Team Champions , were stripped of their respective championships . The alleged motivation behind these actions was because Cage refused to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against wrestlers from NWA territories . That same day , TNA were scheduled to produce their Sacrifice 2007 PPV event , in which both Cage and Team 3D were to defend their respective championships . On the card , Cage was scheduled to defend the NWA World Heavyweight Championship against Kurt Angle and Sting in a match involving three competitors , also known as a Three Way match .
That night , the onscreen graphic used to refer to the champions and their respective championships credited both Cage and Team 3D as still being NWA Champions . However , the ring announcers for the encounters proclaimed the matches as being strictly for the " World Heavyweight Championship " and the " World Tag Team Championship " . Angle defeated Cage and Sting to win the " World Heavyweight Championship " .
TNA held a set of tapings for the next two episodes of TNA Impact ! on May 14 , with the episodes set to air on tape delay on May 17 and May 24 , 2007 . At the first taping , Angle came to the ring with the new TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt and announced that he was the " new TNA World Heavyweight Champion " . TNA commentator Mike Tenay announced when Angle made his way to the ring that Management Director Jim Cornette , TNA 's on @-@ screen authority figure at the time , " made the decision that due to TNA 's growing worldwide exposure , the company needed to have its own TNA title belts " ; thereby not acknowledging the NWA ending their agreement with TNA and giving a storyline explanation as to why the championship was created . Later on during the broadcast , Cornette stripped Angle of the TNA World Heavyweight Championship due to a controversial finish to the match at Sacrifice . Cornette then announced the championship would be contested for at TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 17 , 2007 in a King of the Mountain match — a match which involves five participants racing to gain a pinfall or submission to become eligible to hang a championship belt to win . On May 15 , 2007 Jeremy Borash unveiled the TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt on that day 's edition of TNA 's online podcast TNA Today .
The five participants for the King of the Mountain match were determined in a series of standard wrestling matches that took place on Impact ! leading up to the event . Angle defeated Rhino in the first bout to gain entry on the May 17 episode of Impact ! . On May 24 episode of Impact ! , Samoa Joe defeated Sting to become the second participant . The third qualification match was held on the May 31 episode of Impact ! between AJ Styles and Tomko , which Styles won . The next bout pitted Chris Harris against James Storm on the June 7 episode Impact ! , which ended in a double disqualification ; neither man advanced to the King of the Mountain match . The final qualification match was won by Christian Cage over Abyss on the June 14 episode of Impact ! . Angle ended up winning the King of the Mountain match at Slammiversary over Joe , Cage , Styles , and Harris , who was a mystery participant chosen by Cornette , to become the " undisputed TNA World Heavyweight Champion " .
= = Belt design = =
During the championship 's history , it has had three designs . The original belt , unveiled in May 2007 , had on its center plate an imprint of an eagle with its wings extended . The word " World " was placed above the eagle 's head on a ribbon . The ribbon was wrapped around the bird 's wings and body . Five stars were engraved on the ribbon when it passed over each of the bird 's wings and the word " Champion " as it passed over the bird 's talons . The words " Heavyweight Wrestling " were printed across the bird 's chest . At the top of the center plate , was TNA 's logo . Four smaller side plates had an imprint of a globe centered with TNA 's logo at the top and bottom of each . At each end of the belt was a small plate that covered the belt snaps with TNA 's logo engraved on each . [ 1 ]
At the November 8 , 2010 , tapings of the November 11 edition of Impact ! , TNA introduced a new design for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship belt , which the champion Jeff Hardy dubbed the " Immortal Championship " . The new design consisted of a purple strap with a silver center plate depicting a masked head ( designed to resemble Hardy 's face with face paint ) , the TNA logo on the forehead and blue lines along the mask . There are four irregular dodecagonal side plates on the belt , shaped like stars with rounded edges on two of the sides of these plates .
The Immortal belt was replaced by the third design of the belt at the March 14 , 2011 , tapings of the March 17 edition of Impact ! , introduced by the reigning champion at the time , Sting . The new design features seven gold plates over a black leather strap . The largest plate is the center plate with faux diamonds aligned along its multiple rounded edges , similar to that of the Big Gold Belt . Over the center plate is a large TNA Wrestling logo and below it the words " Heavyweight Champion " are engraved in silver . On each side of the center plate is a group of three smaller plates , one with a TNA logo engraved while the other two feature separate corresponding halves of a globe , on either side of the TNA logo side plate .
= = Reigns = =
Overall , there have been 33 reigns shared among 18 wrestlers . The inaugural champion was Kurt Angle , who won the championship by defeating Christian Cage and Sting in a Three Way match on May 13 , 2007 , at TNA 's Sacrifice event . Angle 's first reign also holds the record for shortest reign in the title 's history at 1 day . Angle also holds the record for the most reigns at six . At 256 days , Bobby Roode 's first reign is the longest in the title 's history . The title has been vacated three different times .
Lashley is the current champion in his third reign . He defeated Drew Galloway to win the title on June 12 , 2016 , in Orlando , Florida at Slammiversary .
= Milton Bradley ( baseball ) =
Milton Obelle Bradley , Jr . ( born April 15 , 1978 ) is a retired Major League Baseball ( MLB ) outfielder . Standing 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and weighing 215 pounds ( 98 kg ) , Bradley is a switch hitter who throws right @-@ handed . Over his 11 @-@ year MLB career , Bradley played with the Montreal Expos ( 2000 – 2001 ) , Cleveland Indians ( 2001 – 2003 ) , Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2004 – 2005 ) , Oakland Athletics ( 2006 – 2007 ) , San Diego Padres ( 2007 ) , Texas Rangers ( 2008 ) , Chicago Cubs ( 2009 ) , and Seattle Mariners ( 2010 – 2011 ) . His career was also marred by legal troubles and several notable on @-@ field incidents .
Born in Harbor City , California , Bradley attended Long Beach Polytechnic High School before he was drafted by the Expos in the 1996 Major League Baseball draft . After playing four seasons of minor league baseball for the organization , he made his major league debut on July 19 , 2000 . In 2001 , Bradley was traded to the Cleveland Indians in exchange for pitching prospect Zach Day ; he was again traded in 2004 to the Los Angeles Dodgers . After playing in 216 games for the Dodgers , the most among all teams he has played for , Bradley was traded to the Oakland Athletics for Andre Ethier . Bradley was traded to the Padres in 2007 , was granted free agency after one season with the team , and signed with the Texas Rangers in 2007 . He was voted to the 2008 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game with the Rangers , and led the American League with a .436 on @-@ base percentage and a .999 on @-@ base plus slugging percentage . For the year , Bradley finished 17th in American League Most Valuable Player Award voting .
After becoming a free agent , Bradley signed with the Chicago Cubs in January 2009 , who traded him in December of that year to the Seattle Mariners . In Seattle , Bradley batted .205 in 2010 and .218 in 2011 before he was released by the club . He has a career batting average of .271 with 135 home runs and 481 runs batted in ( RBI ) in over 1 @,@ 042 games played , and was described as having " power , speed , a strong arm and star qualities " , although " his temper … has never allowed him to fulfill his immense potential . "
= = Early life = =
Bradley was born on April 15 , 1978 , in Harbor City , California . His mother , Charlena Rector , worked as a clerk at a local Safeway supermarket , while his father , Milton Bradley Sr. , was a veteran of the Vietnam War , and was awarded a Purple Heart for his service . Bradley was named Milton Bradley Jr. when Milton Bradley Sr. filled out his son 's birth certificate without Rector 's permission . According to Bradley Jr . ' s mother , Bradley Sr. was addicted to cocaine , physically abused her , and was homeless for several years . Growing up , Bradley had four half @-@ siblings from Rector 's previous marriage .
Bradley played baseball at Long Beach Polytechnic High School , and was a teammate of Chase Utley . After graduating high school with a 3 @.@ 7 grade point average , he committed to California State University , Long Beach , but instead signed with the Expos on July 1 , 1996 after being drafted by the team in the second round of the 1996 Major League Baseball draft .
= = Major League Baseball career = =
= = = Montreal Expos ( 1996 – 2001 ) = = =
Bradley began his professional baseball career with the GCL Expos of the Gulf Coast League in 1996 ; in 32 games , he batted .241 with 27 hits . The following season , he played nine games for the GCL Expos and 50 for the Vermont Expos , a short season affiliate of the Montreal Expos . For the Expos , he was named to the postseason New York – Penn League All @-@ Star team . In 1998 , he played for the Cape Fear Crocs and the Jupiter Hammerheads , tying for the Croc team lead in doubles with 21 while hitting .302 for the Crocs and .287 for the Hammerheads . While playing for the Harrisburg Senators the next season , he was suspended seven games for starting a fight after he had been hit by a pitch . He also played for the silver @-@ medal @-@ winning United States in the 1999 Pan American Games .
Finishing 76 – 66 , the Senators played the Norwich Navigators for the Eastern League championship . The series was tied two games to two in a best @-@ of @-@ five series . In the final game , Bradley hit a walk @-@ off grand slam with two outs and a full count , in the bottom of the ninth inning , to give the Senators a 12 – 11 win . During the next season , after playing in 88 games for the Ottawa Lynx , he was promoted to the major league club and made his MLB debut on July 19 , 2000 . In his debut , he hit three straight singles against the New York Mets ; and for the season , he batted .221 with 15 RBI over 42 games played .
For the 2001 Expos , Bradley played 67 games , including one on April 26 in which he walked to give the Expos the go @-@ ahead run against Rick Ankiel of the St. Louis Cardinals in the top of the 15th inning . On July 31 of that year , he was traded to the Cleveland Indians to serve as a possible replacement for Kenny Lofton ; in exchange , the Expos received right @-@ handed pitcher Zach Day . Speaking to the Associated Press about the trade , Indians General Manager John Hart stated :
= = = Cleveland Indians ( 2001 – 2003 ) = = =
After the deal , Bradley was assigned to the Triple @-@ A Buffalo Bisons and reported to the team on August 2 . In addition to the 30 games he played for the Bisons , he also played 10 games for the major league Indians .
On April 15 , 2002 , he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) following an appendectomy a day earlier at St. Anthony 's Hospital in St. Petersburg , Florida . He went on the disabled list again on May 2 with a broken orbital bone and a scratched iris after a batted ball had bounced off the outfield wall and hit him below his left eye while he was trying to make a catch ; up to that point , he was hitting .266 in 23 games . After a rehabilitation stint of six games with the Bisons , he was reactivated by the Indians on June 4 and finished the season with a .249 batting average , 38 RBIs and nine home runs .
Bradley spent the entire 2003 campaign with the Indians . Despite being placed on the 15 @-@ day DL with a strained right hamstring and missing the final six weeks of the season with a lower back injury , he led the team in stolen bases , with 17 . On August 30 , while on the DL with a back injury , he was ticketed for speeding in Cuyahoga Falls , Ohio . After being stopped , he refused the ticket and sped away . He pleaded not guilty to speeding and fleeing charges on September 12 , but was sentenced to a three @-@ day jail term . The ruling was upheld by the Supreme Court of Ohio in December 2004 .
On November 19 , 2003 he signed a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 73 million contract with the Indians in order for the Indians to avoid salary arbitration with him . During spring training , he was banned from the Indians ' training camp after not running out a popup a game earlier . On April 3 , 2004 , he was traded to the Dodgers for Franklin Gutiérrez and a player to be named later ( Andrew Brown ) ; the Akron Beacon Journal later reported that manager Eric Wedge had insisted that Bradley be traded .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = =
In his first game with the Dodgers , playing center field , Bradley went 2 @-@ for @-@ 3 , with two singles and two walks . On June 1 , he was ejected from a game by home plate umpire Terry Craft for arguing over balls and strikes . After being restrained by manager Jim Tracy , he returned to the dugout and threw a ball bag onto the field . Bradley was suspended for four games and Tracy for one game . On September 19 , he hit a 479 @-@ foot home run against the Colorado Rockies in Coors Field . On September 28 , during a home game against the Rockies , Bradley mishandled a line drive and was charged with an error . A fan threw a bottle at Bradley , who left his position in right field , picked up the bottle and threw it into the stands , yelling at the fan . Bradley was immediately ejected from the game . The next day , MLB suspended him for the remainder of the season and fined him an undisclosed amount . In postseason play , he hit .273 with a home run while the Dodgers lost the National League Division Series to the St. Louis Cardinals three games to one . He finished the 2004 season batting .267 with 19 home runs and 67 RBIs , but was caught stealing 11 times , tying for eighth most in MLB .
During the offseason , Bradley went through anger management counseling . In a game against the San Francisco Giants on April 12 , 2005 , he drove in two runs with a single to tie the game in the bottom of the ninth inning with two outs , the winning run then scoring on Jason Ellison 's error in the same play . On August 25 , 2005 , after hitting .290 with 38 RBIs in 75 games , he was put on the 15 @-@ day DL with a torn patellar tendon and anterior cruciate ligament which rendered him inactive for the remainder of the season . On December 13 , 2005 , the Dodgers traded him to the Oakland Athletics along with infielder Antonio Pérez for outfielder prospect Andre Ethier .
= = = Oakland Athletics ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = =
In his first season with the Oakland Athletics , Bradley posted a .276 batting average with 14 home runs and 52 runs batted in a part @-@ time role . He went on the 15 @-@ day DL on May 11 , 2006 for a strained oblique muscle and a sprained right knee . On July 30 , he hit a three @-@ run walk @-@ off home run to beat the Toronto Blue Jays with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning . During game four of the 2006 American League Championship Series versus the Detroit Tigers , Bradley became the third player in MLB history to hit home runs from each side of the plate in a postseason game , joining Bernie Williams and Chipper Jones . For the series , he went nine @-@ for @-@ eighteen with two home runs and five RBIs .
On June 21 , 2007 , the Athletics designated him for assignment . A trade completed the next day , which would have sent Bradley to the Kansas City Royals for Leo Núñez was voided by the Royals because he had sustained an oblique injury in his last game as an Athletic . He was then traded to the San Diego Padres on June 29 , with cash , in exchange for Andrew Brown ; it was the second time those two players had been traded for each other .
= = = San Diego Padres ( 2007 ) = = =
Bradley started his tenure with the Padres on the 15 @-@ day DL , but came off it on July 7 ; in July , he batted .364 with four home runs and 12 RBI in 18 games . On September 23 , 2007 , however , he tore his right ACL while being restrained by Padres manager Bud Black during an altercation with first base umpire Mike Winters . Home plate umpire Brian Runge reportedly told Bradley that Winters said that he had tossed his bat in Runge 's direction in a previous at @-@ bat . After Bradley reached first base , he questioned Winters about the alleged bat throwing and subsequent communication with Runge . According to Bradley and Padres first base coach Bobby Meacham , Winters addressed Bradley with a barrage of profanity . Bradley then moved towards Winters . While restrained by Black , Bradley fell to the ground and injured himself . He missed the final week of the regular season in 2007 , during which the Padres lost to the Colorado Rockies in a one game playoff for the National League wild card on October 1 .
Winters was suspended for the remainder of the season and also spent the postseason on the restricted list for the incident , after MLB determined that he had indeed directed obscene language toward Bradley . Bradley was not suspended , MLB finding no need for such discipline since he did not make physical contact with Winters .
= = = Texas Rangers ( 2008 ) = = =
After the 2007 season , Bradley agreed to a one @-@ year contract with the Texas Rangers . He announced in early January 2008 that he expected to be healthy and ready to play in the season opener .
As the Rangers designated hitter , he led the AL in on @-@ base plus slugging with a .999 mark . He was third in batting average ( .321 ) , and led the league in on @-@ base percentage ( .443 ) . On making the All @-@ Star game , he stated , " If I somehow miraculously made it to the All @-@ Star Game , I would be floored . I 'd really be totally humbled by that . I 'm just happy right now to play , to produce and to be with a good group of guys . " He was selected to play in his first All @-@ Star Game in 2008 as a designated hitter ( DH ) after being officially selected as a DH reserve , but due to an injury to David Ortiz he became the starting DH in the 2008 MLB All @-@ Star Game .
According to The Dallas Morning News Bradley attempted to confront Kansas City Royals television announcer Ryan Lefebvre in the press box following a June 2008 game for what he believed were unfair comments made on the air . As the Rangers ' designated hitter , Bradley watched the broadcast when he was not batting and took offense to a comparison Lefebvre made between him and Josh Hamilton . Manager Ron Washington and general manager Jon Daniels chased after him and stopped him before he got to Lefebvre , at which point he returned to the clubhouse in tears and said :
He was quoted by Rangers radio broadcasters as saying that he never intended to physically harm Lefebvre but did want to speak to him ; Daniels said he was upset that someone he didn 't know was judging him .
= = = Chicago Cubs ( 2009 ) = = =
On January 8 , 2009 , Bradley signed a three @-@ year , $ 30 million deal with the Chicago Cubs . He was issued a two @-@ game suspension for supposedly making contact with umpire Larry Vanover while arguing a strike call on April 16 , which was reduced to one game on appeal . During an interleague game against the Minnesota Twins on June 12 , he caught a routine fly in right field and threw it into the stands , believing it was the third out of the inning when there were only two outs . The umpire allowed each of the Twins ' baserunners to advance two bases as a result .
Later that month , Cub manager Lou Piniella told Bradley to leave the dugout and go home after he " went after " a Gatorade cooler in frustration after flying out in another interleague game , against the Chicago White Sox . Piniella and Bradley later confronted each other in the locker room and exchanged words . Piniella later apologized to Bradley , and reinserted him back into the line @-@ up during the team 's next start .
On September 20 , 2009 , the Cubs announced that Bradley would be suspended for the remainder of the season after an interview in which Bradley talked about " negativity " on the part of the Cub organization and declared , " You understand why they [ the Cubs ] haven 't won in 100 years here . " He also said he was uncomfortable just being on the Cubs . General Manager Jim Hendry felt the comments were disrespectful . Bradley later apologized to the Cubs organization for his remarks . For the Cubs , Bradley hit .257 with 12 home runs and 40 RBIs before being traded to the Seattle Mariners for Carlos Silva and cash on December 18 , 2009 .
= = = Seattle Mariners ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =
Bradley was part of a flurry of offseason moves by the Mariners in hopes of returning to the playoffs , having not reached the postseason since 2001 . On May 4 , 2010 , he removed himself from a game and left the stadium . He asked the Mariners for help with a personal problem , and the organization responded . He was placed on the restricted list , and returned to the team on May 18 after undergoing treatment of an undisclosed nature . He ended the season on the DL after having been placed on it on July 31 prior to right knee arthroscopic surgery on August 17 . He finished the 2010 season batting .205 , with eight home runs and 29 RBIs over 73 games played .
On May 9 , 2011 , the Mariners designated Bradley for assignment after starting the 2011 season hitting .218 with two home runs and 13 RBI in 28 games . Unable to trade Bradley , the Mariners released him on May 16 .
= = Personal = =
In 2005 , Bradley was the Dodgers ' nominee for the Roberto Clemente Award for working with the Dodgers Dream Foundation , Children 's Hospital Los Angeles , and the Long Beach Boys & Girls Clubs , among other charities . Bradley has also opened two baseball academies , one in Long Beach and another in Baldwin Hills . In August 2005 , Redondo Beach police received three domestic @-@ violence @-@ related calls from Bradley 's house . No charges were filed . In 2006 , Bradley filed for divorce but the petition was never finalized .
On January 18 , 2011 , Bradley was arrested at his home in Encino , California and charged with making criminal threats to his wife , Monique . When he agreed to participate in an out @-@ of @-@ court hearing process , no charges were filed against him . However , his wife subsequently filed for divorce .
On June 3 , 2013 , Bradley was convicted by a jury of nine counts of physically attacking and threatening his wife including four counts of spousal battery , two counts of criminal threats , one count of assault with a deadly weapon , one count of vandalism and one count of brandishing a deadly weapon . On July 2 , 2013 , he was sentenced to 32 months in prison and 52 weeks of domestic violence and anger @-@ management classes , and was released on $ 250 @,@ 000 bail .
On September 14 , 2013 , at the age of 33 , Monique Bradley died at Encino Hospital Medical Center . A death certificate dated October 10 lists the causes as cryptogenic cirrhosis of the liver , hemorrhagic shock and cardiac arrest .
On January 21 , 2015 , a Los Angeles appellate court rejected Bradley 's appeal . Sports Illustrated reported in April 2015 that Bradley is free pending a second appeal , and has not yet spent a day in jail . He has sole custody of his and Monique 's two sons .
= Nasir al @-@ Dawla =
Abu Muhammad al @-@ Hasan ibn Abu 'l @-@ Hayja ' Abdallah ibn Hamdan Nasir al @-@ Dawla al @-@ Taghlibi ( Arabic : أبو محمد الحسن ابن أبو الهيجاء عبدالله ابن حمدان ناصر الدولة التغلبي ; died 968 or 969 ) , more commonly known simply by his laqab ( honorific epithet ) of Nasir al @-@ Dawla ( " Defender of the [ Abbasid ] Dynasty " ) , was the second Hamdanid ruler of the Emirate of Mosul , encompassing most of the Jazira .
As the senior member of the Hamdanid dynasty , he inherited the family power base around Mosul from his father , and was able to secure it against challenges by his uncles . Hasan became involved in the court intrigues of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad , and , between 942 and 943 , he , with the assistance of his brother Ali ( known as Sayf al @-@ Dawla ) , established himself as amir al @-@ umara , or de facto regent for the Abbasid caliph . He was driven back to Mosul by Turkish troops , however , and subsequent attempts to challenge the Buyids who seized control of Baghdad and lower Iraq ended in repeated failure . Twice , his capital Mosul was captured by Buyid forces , which were , however , unable to defeat local opposition to their rule . As a result of his failures to retain power , Nasir al @-@ Dawla declined in influence and prestige . He was eclipsed by the actions of his brother Ali , who established his rule more firmly over Aleppo and northern Syria . After 964 , Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's eldest son Abu Taghlib exercised de facto rule over his domains , and in 967 , Abu Taghlib and his brothers deposed and imprisoned their father , who died in captivity a year or two later .
= = Life = =
= = = Origin and family = = =
Nasir al @-@ Dawla was born al @-@ Hasan ibn Abdallah , the eldest son of Abu 'l @-@ Hayja Abdallah ibn Hamdan ( died 929 ) , son of Hamdan ibn Hamdun ibn al @-@ Harith , who gave his name to the Hamdanid dynasty . The Hamdanids were a branch of the Banu Taghlib , an Arab tribe resident in the area of the Jazira ( Upper Mesopotamia ) since pre @-@ Islamic times . The Taghlibs had traditionally controlled Mosul and its region until the late 9th century , when the Abbasid government tried to impose firmer control over the province . Hamdan ibn Hamdun was one of the most determined Taghlibi leaders in opposing this move . Notably , in his effort to fend off the Abbasids , he secured the alliance of the Kurds living in the mountains north of Mosul , a fact which would be of considerable importance in his family 's later fortunes . Family members intermarried with Kurds , who were also prominent in the Hamdanid military .
Hamdan 's possessions were captured in 895 by the Abbasid Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tadid , and Hamdan himself was forced to surrender near Mosul after a long chase . He was put in prison , but his son Husayn ibn Hamdan , who had surrendered the fortress of Ardumusht to the Caliph 's forces , managed to secure the family 's future . He raised troops among the Taghlib in exchange for tax remissions , and established a commanding influence in the Jazira by acting as a mediator between the Abbasid authorities and the Arab and Kurdish population . It was this strong local base which allowed the family to survive its often strained relationship with the central Abbasid government in Baghdad during the early 10th century . Husayn was a successful general , distinguishing himself against the Kharijites and the Tulunids , but was disgraced after supporting the failed usurpation of Ibn al @-@ Mu 'tazz in 908 . His younger brother Ibrahim was governor of Diyar Rabi 'a ( the province around Nasibin ) in 919 and after his death in the next year he was succeeded by another brother , Dawud . Hasan 's father Abdallah served as emir ( governor ) of Mosul in 905 / 6 – 913 / 4 , was repeatedly disgraced and rehabilitated as the political situation changed in Baghad , until re @-@ assuming control of Mosul in 925 / 6 . Enjoying firm relations with the powerful commander of the caliphal army , Mu 'nis al @-@ Khadim , in 929 he played a leading role in the short @-@ lived usurpation of Al @-@ Qahir ( who would later reign as caliph in 932 – 934 ) against Al @-@ Muqtadir ( r . 908 – 932 ) , and was killed during its suppression . According to the researcher Marius Canard , Abdallah established himself as the most prominent member of the first generation of the Hamdanid dynasty , and was essentially the founder of the Hamdanid Emirate of Mosul .
= = = Consolidation of control over the Jazira = = =
During his absence in Baghdad in his final years from 920 / 921 on , Abdallah relegated authority over Mosul to Hasan . After Abdallah 's death , however , al @-@ Muqtadir took the opportunity to avenge himself upon the Hamdanids , and appointed an unrelated governor over Mosul , while Abdallah 's domains were divided among his surviving brothers . Faced with the claims of his uncles , Hasan was left in charge of a small portion , on the left bank of the Tigris . In 930 , after the caliph 's governor died , Hasan managed to regain control over Mosul , but his uncles Nasr and Sa 'id soon removed him from power and confined him to the western parts of the Diyar Rabi 'a . In 934 , Hasan again recovered Mosul , but Sa 'id , residing in Baghdad and supported by the caliphal government , evicted him again . Hasan fled to Armenia , from where
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he orchestrated Sa 'id 's murder . Only then did his troops occupy Mosul and establish him permanently as its ruler . Finally , after defeating caliphal forces under the wazir Ibn Muqla and the Banu Habib , his rivals among the Taghlib , in late 935 the Caliph al @-@ Radi was forced to formally recognize him as governor of Mosul and the entire Jazira , in exchange for an annual tribute of 70 @,@ 000 gold dinars and supplies of flour for the two caliphal capitals of Baghdad and Samarra .
Resistance to Hasan 's rule outside of his family 's core region around Mosul remained , however — in Diyar Bakr , the governor of Mayyafariqin , Ali ibn Ja 'far , rebelled against Hasan , and in Diyar Mudar , the Qaysi tribes of the region around Saruj also revolted . Hasan subdued them and secured control over the entire Jazira by the end of 936 , due to the efforts of his brother Ali , who was given the governorship of the two provinces as a reward . In the meantime , the defeated Banu Habib , some 10 @,@ 000 strong and under the leadership of al @-@ Ala ibn al @-@ Mu 'ammar , left their lands and fled to territory controlled by the Byzantine Empire . This unprecedented move may be explained by the fact that a significant portion of the tribe still practised Christianity , or by pressure upon their grazing lands by tribes from the south , but the primary goal of the move was to escape from Hamdanid authority and taxation . Hasan also attempted to extend his control to Sajid @-@ ruled Azerbaijan in 934 and 938 , but his efforts failed .
= = = Struggle for control of the Caliphate = = =
While he tried to consolidate his rule over Mosul , Hasan showed himself conspicuously loyal to the Abbasid regime , and refused to support the revolt of Mu 'nis al @-@ Khadim against the Caliph al @-@ Muqtadir in 932 . Mu 'nis succeeded in overthrowing and killing al @-@ Muqtadir , but over the next few years the Abbasid government all but collapsed , until in 936 the powerful governor of Wasit , Muhammad ibn Ra 'iq , assumed the title of amir al @-@ umara ( " commander of commanders " ) and with it de facto control of the Abbasid government . The Caliph al @-@ Radi was reduced to a figurehead role , while the extensive civil bureaucracy was cut down dramatically both in size and power . Ibn Ra 'iq 's position was anything but secure , however , and soon a convoluted struggle for control of his office , and the Caliphate with it , broke out among the various local rulers and the Turkish and Daylamite military chiefs , which ended in 946 with the ultimate victory of the Buyids .
Thus , in the late 930s , Hasan , encouraged by his control over a large and rich domain , entered the intrigues of the Abbasid court , and became one of the main contenders for the title of amir al @-@ umara . At first , Hasan tried to exploit the weakness of the Abbasid government to withhold his payment of tribute , but the Turk Bajkam , who had ousted Ibn Ra 'iq in 938 , quickly forced him to back down . Hasan then supported Ibn Ra 'iq in the latter 's quest to regain his lost position . Bajkam tried to forcefully evict Hasan from his Jaziran domains , but in vain , and was eventually killed in a skirmish with Kurdish brigands in early 941 . Hasan 's great chance came in early 942 , when the Caliph al @-@ Muttaqi ( r . 940 – 944 ) and his closest aides fled Baghdad to escape the city 's imminent fall to the Barids of Basra and sought refuge at Mosul . Hasan now made a direct bid for power : he had Ibn Ra 'iq assassinated and succeeded him as amir al @-@ umara , receiving the honorific laqab of Nasir al @-@ Dawla ( " Defender of the Dynasty " ) . He then escorted the Caliph back to Baghdad , which they entered on 4 June 942 . To secure his position further , Nasir al @-@ Dawla married his daughter to the Caliph 's son . Along with their cousin , Husayn ibn Sa 'id , Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's brother Ali was instrumental in the Hamdanid enterprise , taking the field against the Baridis , who still controlled the rich province of Basra and were determined to regain Baghdad . After scoring a victory over them , Ali was awarded the laqab of Sayf al @-@ Dawla ( " Sword of the Dynasty " ) , by which he became famous . This double award marked the first time that a laqab incorporating the prestigious element al @-@ Dawla were granted to anyone other than the wazir , the Caliphate 's chief minister , and was a symbolic affirmation of the military 's predominance over the civil bureaucracy .
The Hamdanids ' success and rule over the Abbasid capital lasted for little more than a year . They lacked funds and were politically isolated , finding little support among the Caliphate 's most powerful vassals , the Samanids of Transoxiana and the Ikhshidids of Egypt . Consequently , when in late 943 a mutiny broke out among their troops ( mostly composed of Turks , Daylamites , Carmathians and only a few Arabs ) over pay issues , under the leadership of the Turkish general Tuzun , they were forced to quit Baghdad and return to their base , Mosul . Caliph al @-@ Muttaqi now appointed Tuzun as amir al @-@ umara , but the Turk 's overbearing manner induced al @-@ Muttaqi to once again seek refuge in the Hamdanid court . The Hamdanid forces under Sayf al @-@ Dawla took the field against Tuzun 's army , but were defeated . The Hamdanids now concluded an agreement with Tuzun which allowed them to keep the Jazira and even gave them nominal authority over northern Syria ( which at the time was not under Hamdanid control ) , in exchange for an annual tribute of 3 @.@ 6 million dirhams .
In the meantime , the Caliph was brought to al @-@ Raqqah for greater safety , while Husayn ibn Sa 'id tried to secure control over northern Syria and pre @-@ empt Egypt 's ruler Muhammad ibn Tughj al @-@ Ikhshid taking control of the region . The attempt failed , as al @-@ Ikhshid himself advanced into Syria , took Aleppo and marched to Raqqah , where he met the Caliph . Al @-@ Ikhshid tried to persuade al @-@ Muttaqi to come to Egypt under his protection , but the Caliph refused , and al @-@ Ikhsid returned to Egypt . Instead , al @-@ Muttaqi , persuaded by Tuzun 's assurances of loyalty and safety , returned to Baghdad , where Tuzun deposed and blinded him , replacing him with al @-@ Mustakfi ( r . 944 – 946 ) . At the news of this crime , Nasir al @-@ Dawla again refused payment of tribute , but Tuzun marched against him and forced his compliance . Henceforth , Nasir al @-@ Dawla would be tributary to Baghdad , but he would find it difficult to resign himself to his loss of power over the city he once ruled , and the subsequent years would feature several attempts to regain it .
= = = Wars with the Buyids = = =
In late 945 , Tuzun died . His death weakened the Abbasid government 's ability to maintain its independence against the rising power of the Buyids , who under Ahmad ibn Buya had already consolidated control over Fars and Kerman , and secured the cooperation of the Barids . Al @-@ Mustakfi 's secretary , Ibn Shirzad , tried to confront the Buyids by calling upon Nasir al @-@ Dawla , but Ahmad advanced on Baghdad with his troops , and in January 946 he obtained his appointment as amir al @-@ umara with the honorific Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla ( " Strengthener of the State " ) . To secure their position , the Buyids immediately marched against the Hamdanids . Nasir al @-@ Dawla countered by marching down the eastern bank of the Tigris river and blockading Baghdad . In the end , however , the Buyids defeated the Hamdanids in battle and forced Nasir al @-@ Dawla to retire to Ukbara . From there , Nasir al @-@ Dawla began negotiations with the Buyids , aiming to secure recognition of Hamdanid control over the Jazira , Syria and even Egypt as tributaries of the Caliphate , with the boundary between Buyid and Hamdanid spheres placed at Tikrit . Negotiations were disrupted by a rebellion among the Hamdanids ' Turkish troops , but Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla , who for the moment preferred a stable Hamdanid state to anarchy on his northern border , helped Nasir al @-@ Dawla suppress it . The peace was agreed on the terms outlined above , and was affirmed by one of Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's sons being taken as a hostage to Baghdad .
Conflict between the two rivals was renewed in 948 , when Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla again marched against Mosul , but was forced to cut off his campaign to assist his brother Rukn al @-@ Dawla , who was having trouble in Persia . In exchange , Nasir al @-@ Dawla agreed to recommence the payment of tribute for the Jazira and Syria , as well as to add the names of the three Buyid brothers after that of the Caliph in the Friday prayer . Another round of warfare erupted in 956 – 958 . While the Buyids were preoccupied with the rebellion of their Daylamite troops under Rezbahan ibn Vindadh @-@ Khurshid in southern Iraq , Nasir al @-@ Dawla the opportunity to advance south and capture Baghdad . After the suppression of the Daylamite revolt , however , the Hamdanids were not able to maintain their position in the face of the Buiyd counteroffensive , and abandoned the city . Peace was renewed in exchange for the recommencement of tribute and an additional indemnity , but when Nasir al @-@ Dawla refused to send the second year 's payment , the Buyid ruler advanced north . Unable to confront the Buyid army in the field , Nasir al @-@ Dawla abandoned Mosul and fled to Mayyafariqin and then to his brother Sayf al @-@ Dawla in Aleppo . The Buyids captured Mosul and Nasibin , but the Hamdanids and their supporters withdrew to their home territory in the mountains of the north , taking with them their treasures as well as all government records and tax registers . As a result , the Buyid army was unable to support itself in the conquered territory , all the more since the predominantly Daylamite troops were resented by the local people , who launched guerrilla attacks on them . Sayf al @-@ Dawla tried to mediate with Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla , but his first approaches were rebuffed . Only when he agreed to assume the burden of paying his brother 's tribute for the entire Diyar Rabi 'a , did the Buyid ruler agree to peace . This agreement marks the reversal of roles between the two Hamdanid brothers , and the establishment of the predominance of the family 's Syrian branch .
In 964 , Nasir al @-@ Dawla tried to renegotiate the terms of the arrangement , but also to secure Buyid recognition for his eldest son , Fadl Allah Abu Taghlib al @-@ Ghadanfar , as his successor . Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla refused Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's demands , and again invaded Hamdanid territory . Once again Mosul and Nasibin were captured , while the Hamdanids fled to the mountain fortresses . As in 958 , the Buyids were unable to maintain themselves for long in the Jazira , and soon an agreement was reached which allowed the Hamdanids to return to Mosul . This time , however , Abu Taghlib emerged as the effective leader in his father 's place : it was with him , rather than the aged Nasir al @-@ Dawla , that Mui 'zz al @-@ Dawla concluded a treaty . The end of Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's rule came in 967 , in the same year that saw the deaths of his brother Sayf al @-@ Dawla and his great rival Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla . Nasir al @-@ Dawla was reportedly so much affected by his brother 's death that he lost interest in life and became remote and avaricious . In the end , Abu Taghlib , already the de facto governor of the emirate , deposed him with the aid of his Kurdish mother , Fatima bint Ahmad . Nasir al @-@ Dawla tried to counter them by turning to one of his other sons , Hamdan , but he was seized and imprisoned in the fortress of Ardumusht , where he died in 968 or 969 .
= = = Domestic policies = = =
Nasir al @-@ Dawla was heavily criticized by contemporaries for his oppressive fiscal policies and the suffering they caused among the population . The traveller Ibn Hawqal , who visited Nasir al @-@ Dawla 's domains , reports in length on his seizure of private land in the most fertile regions of the Jazira , on flimsy legal charges , until he became the greatest landowner in his province . This was linked with the practice of a monoculture of cereals , destined to feed the growing population of Baghdad , and coupled with heavy taxation , so that Sayf al @-@ Dawla and Nasir al @-@ Dawla are said to have become the wealthiest princes in the Muslim world . Nevertheless , the Hamdanid administrative machinery seems to have been fairly rudimentary , and the tribute paid to the Buyids — estimated at somewhere between two and four million dirhams , when it was paid at all — was a heavy burden on the treasury .
= Willie Irvine =
William John " Willie " Irvine ( born 18 June 1943 ) is a former professional footballer who played as a centre forward . Born in Eden , County Antrim , into a large family , he grew up in the nearby town of Carrickfergus . He did well at school , but chose to pursue a career in professional football and initially played for local club Linfield . After a spell in amateur football , Irvine travelled to England for a trial with Burnley at the age of 16 . He was offered a professional deal and spent three years playing for the youth and reserve teams , before making his senior debut at the end of the 1962 – 63 season . Over the following seasons , Irvine became a regular feature of the Burnley team and in the 1965 – 66 campaign , he scored 29 goals and was the highest goalscorer in the Football League First Division .
Irvine lost his place in the Burnley team after suffering a broken leg during a cup tie in 1967 , and never properly regained his form for the club . He was later transfer listed , and joined local rivals Preston North End in March 1968 . In the Football League Second Division , he began to score goals again and was Preston 's top goalscorer in the 1968 – 69 season despite suffering a serious leg injury which forced him to miss much of the campaign . When Alan Ball was named Preston manager in the summer of 1970 , Irvine found himself out of the team . He joined Brighton & Hove Albion in July 1971 after impressing during a loan spell earlier in the year . He moved to Halifax Town midway through the 1972 – 73 season , but left the club after six months . Irvine ended his football career with a spell at semi @-@ professional Great Harwood , before retiring at the age of 29 .
In addition to playing club football , Irvine also represented the Northern Ireland national football team . He won 23 caps for his country , scoring eight goals . After retiring from football , he ran his own do @-@ it @-@ yourself shop but suffered from severe depression when the business collapsed . Irvine spent time in hospital after taking an overdose of medication , but recovered and later worked as a community worker before becoming a window cleaner . As of 2010 , he works full @-@ time in an aerospace factory , and also gives guided tours of Burnley 's stadium , Turf Moor , on matchdays .
= = Early life = =
Willie Irvine was born on 18 June 1943 in the village of Eden , County Antrim , on the east coast of Northern Ireland . He was born to Alex and Agnes Irvine , and had 17 half @-@ brothers and half @-@ sisters from his mother 's previous marriages . Irvine was 11 months old when his father , who had played football for Distillery , died after being involved in a motorcycle accident . He came from a poor background and when he was young the family resided in a small wooden bungalow that had neither electricity nor running water . His mother worked often , and Irvine was looked after by his elder siblings . At the age of one , he started to attend Eden School so that he could be looked after by the teachers while his sisters earned money . When he was seven years old , the family moved to the Sunnylands estate in nearby Carrickfergus after his mother was sent to Omagh Prison for falsely claiming benefits .
Irvine soon warmed to his new neighbourhood ; he enjoyed visiting Carrickfergus Castle and often spent time at the harbour . In 1950 , he moved to Sunnylands Primary School and began to play football seriously . He initially concentrated on playing as a goalkeeper for the school team . In 1953 , the team reached the final of the County Cup , but were defeated 0 – 3 by an older side from Carrick Technical School . Irvine 's elder brother Bobby , who went on to represent Stoke City and was also a Northern Ireland international , played for the opposition . Along with his schoolmate William Donnelly , Irvine often frequented Windsor Park to watch the Northern Ireland national team , and he idolised players such as Jimmy McIlroy and Danny Blanchflower .
At 14 , Irvine enrolled at Carrick Technical School , where he studied German , physics , chemistry and woodwork . He excelled in his studies and was urged to go to university , but his family could not afford the fees . His interest in football increasing , he started to play in a midfield position for the Carrickfergus @-@ based Barn United and was selected to represent the East Antrim Schoolboys as well as the Irish Schools team . His performances while playing for Northern Ireland in the Victory Shield led to him signing junior terms with Belfast @-@ based club Linfield , where his brother Bobby was the first @-@ team goalkeeper . Several months later , Irvine left Linfield and joined local men 's team Barn United , who competed in the Northern Ireland Amateur League . Several clubs , including Manchester United , Arsenal and Wolverhampton Wanderers showed an interest in him and in 1959 , Jimmy McIlroy invited Irvine to a trial at English side Burnley .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Burnley = = =
Irvine joined the Burnley youth team initially on a month 's trial , along with other young players including Brian O 'Neil and Willie Morgan . He suffered an injury to his ankle but recovered in time for the final trial match against local rivals Blackburn Rovers . His performances during the month had sufficiently impressed manager Harry Potts , and Irvine was offered a permanent contract . He became a full member of the youth team and was an understudy to the team that won the Football League First Division in the 1959 – 60 season . As an apprentice footballer he earned a basic wage of £ 7 per week . While in the youth squad , Irvine was converted into a centre forward and in his first match in the position scored a hat @-@ trick for the Burnley C team . He scored more than 40 goals for the A team in the Lancashire League during the 1961 – 62 season , including 6 in an 8 – 3 win against a Blackburn Rovers representative team . On 14 October 1961 , Irvine made his debut for the Burnley reserve side , scoring a hat @-@ trick in the 6 – 1 victory over Barnsley . Both the A team and the reserves were crowned champions of their respective divisions at the end of the season , and Potts singled out Irvine for particular praise , stating that Burnley had not " had a more consistent goal getter than Willie for a very long time . "
Going into the 1962 – 63 campaign , Irvine returned to the Burnley A team and scored a hat @-@ trick against Bury early in the season . After Andy Lochhead was promoted to the first team in October 1962 , Irvine became the reserve side 's first @-@ choice centre forward . He continued to score regularly , netting 8 goals in 15 appearances , although he was forced to stop playing for a period in the winter of 1963 when adverse weather caused the postponement of several matches . After his Northern Ireland debut in April that year , he made several more appearances for the reserves , and his goal against Blackpool was described by journalist Keith McNee as " the finest goal [ he had ] seen " . On 11 May 1963 , Irvine was asked by manager Potts to travel with the first team for their final away fixture of the season at Arsenal . He was a boot boy , and was originally only intended to assist Ray Bennion in transporting the team kit to and from the game . It was reported in the Burnley Express the day before the match that he would be making his professional debut against Arsenal , although Irvine himself only found out just before the match . He started at centre forward in place of Lochhead , who was unable to play because of a leg injury . Irvine had a successful introduction to senior football and scored a headed goal after 20 minutes of play , the first goal in a 3 – 2 win for Burnley . He was again selected three days later for the last game of the campaign at home to Birmingham City and scored a hat @-@ trick as Burnley ended the season with a 3 – 1 victory .
Irvine started the first match of the 1963 – 64 campaign , a 1 – 3 defeat away to Ipswich Town . However , he suffered a broken hand during the game , which left him unable to play throughout the following months . Even after recovery , he remained sidelined , unable to regain his place in the starting eleven . Irvine did not play again for Burnley until 30 March 1964 , when he was chosen to play at inside @-@ right in the away tie against Bolton Wanderers . Despite Irvine 's fifth goal in four league starts , Burnley were beaten 1 – 2 . He retained his place in the team for the next two matches , before returning to his more preferred centre forward position for the 0 – 3 loss at home to Liverpool on 14 April 1964 . He scored three more goals in the final two matches of the season , including two in the 7 – 2 win against Tottenham Hotspur . His frequent goalscoring led to him becoming a more integral part of the Burnley side during the following campaign , in which he scored three goals in the first six matches , although the team achieved only four draws and two losses . He was dropped from the starting line @-@ up for the away match at Birmingham City on 12 September 1964 . The team suffered three defeats in the following four fixtures , and Irvine was reinstated to the team for the trip to West Bromwich Albion two weeks later . He immediately marked his return with both Burnley goals in a 2 – 1 win , the team 's first away victory of the season . Irvine retained his place in the side for most of the remainder of the campaign , and in December he scored seven goals in four games , including a hat @-@ trick in the 4 – 0 win over Fulham . Despite missing a small portion of the campaign through injury , Irvine ended the season with a total of 22 goals in 37 league and cup matches , one more goal than centre forward partner Lochhead .
The Irvine – Lochhead partnership continued into the 1965 – 66 campaign . Irvine scored a goal in a 2 – 1 win against Lausanne Sports on a pre @-@ season tour of Switzerland , and his first competitive goal of the season came on 24 August 1965 in the 3 – 1 home victory against Blackpool . He scored two in the return match at Bloomfield Road the following week , and two matches later he netted a hat @-@ trick in the 4 – 1 defeat of Northampton Town . Between the 1 – 1 draw away at Leeds United on 30 October 1965 and the 5 – 2 win against Fulham on 11 December 1965 , Irvine scored in seven consecutive league matches . In the 3 – 1 win against West Ham United , Irvine and Lochhead both scored in the same match for the first time , despite having played together for almost three seasons . Irvine took his goalscoring form into the cup competitions , netting five times in three FA Cup ties , and scoring the winning goals against Southampton and Stoke City as the team reached the fifth round of the Football League Cup before being knocked out by Peterborough United . During the second half of the season , he went through a somewhat barren spell , failing to score in the league between 8 January 1966 and 26 March 1966 . He ended his poor run of form with a hat @-@ trick in the 4 – 1 win over Nottingham Forest at Turf Moor . He subsequently got on the scoresheet in the next six league games , including two goals against Sheffield Wednesday which took him to 27 league goals , the joint @-@ highest total since George Beel 's 30 in the 1928 – 29 season . Irvine 's 29th and final goal of the season came on 23 April 1966 in the 2 – 0 home victory against Liverpool . He was the highest scorer in the Football League First Division that season , the first , and to date only , time a Burnley player had achieved the feat .
In June 1966 , Irvine had an altercation with Burnley chairman Bob Lord after returning late from a Northern Ireland match . Nevertheless , he retained his place in the starting line @-@ up at the start of the 1966 – 67 campaign , and scored in the first match of the season against Sheffield United . After a pre @-@ season tour of Austria , throughout which Burnley remained undefeated , the team were confident of a successful season and especially looked forward to European competition in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup . On 20 September 1966 , Irvine scored the sole Burnley goal in the 1 – 1 draw against German side VfB Stuttgart . The following month , he scored in consecutive league matches against Leicester City and Manchester City at Turf Moor . Irvine was on the scoresheet again in the next round of the Fairs Cup as Swiss team Lausanne Sports were beaten 5 – 0 in Burnley on 25 October 1966 . By the middle of the season , Irvine had scored 13 goals in the league , four fewer than the same stage of the previous campaign . He scored his first goal of the new year on 31 January 1967 in the FA Cup third round replay against Everton at Goodison Park . However , early in the second half , Irvine was tackled by Everton defender Johnny Morrissey . The challenge — not deemed a foul by the referee — broke his shin bone , and Irvine was immediately substituted and replaced by fellow Irishman Sammy Todd . The injury meant that he did not play again for Burnley for the remainder of the season . He was forced to remain on the sidelines as Burnley finished 14th in the First Division and reached the fourth round of the Fairs Cup before being knocked out by Eintracht Frankfurt .
Irvine regained his place in the Burnley team at the start of the 1967 – 68 campaign , and scored in the first two league matches of the season . However , he was dropped from the starting eleven after four games . On 7 October 1967 , in the 1 – 1 draw with Nottingham Forest , he became the first ever Burnley player to score after coming on as a substitute , after replacing Martin Dobson . Irvine made six consecutive starts throughout October and November 1967 , before again being dropped following the 2 – 0 home win against Newcastle United . After this , he played less often and scored his final goal for the club on 5 December 1967 in the 1 – 2 defeat to Arsenal in the fifth round of the League Cup . Just over two months later , on 24 February 1968 , Irvine made his last appearance for Burnley when he played in an unfamiliar inside @-@ right position in the 0 – 1 loss away at Nottingham Forest . In the same month , he formally requested to be placed on the transfer list after becoming increasingly unhappy at Burnley . The request was granted by Potts , who set a price of £ 60 @,@ 000 for Irvine . Altogether , he had scored 97 goals in a total of 148 first @-@ team matches for Burnley during his eight years with the club .
= = = Preston North End = = =
In March 1968 , Irvine signed for Preston North End , who were struggling at the bottom of the Football League Second Division , for a transfer fee of £ 45 @,@ 000 and a signing @-@ on fee of £ 5 @,@ 000 . He was one of five Burnley first @-@ team players to leave the club during that year . Irvine made his debut for Preston North End on 14 March 1968 in the 0 – 4 defeat away at Ipswich Town . He scored his first goal for the club in the following match , a 2 – 1 win against Aston Villa at Deepdale . The team subsequently went on a run of eight games without defeat in the league , including a 3 – 1 win over Huddersfield Town in which Irvine scored a hat @-@ trick . On the morning of 27 April 1968 , the Preston North End team were each offered £ 2 @,@ 500 to purposely lose the match against Bristol City in order that Bristol City could improve their chances of avoiding relegation . Irvine , along with team @-@ mate Derek Temple , refused , saying : " I 'm a professional . I want no part of this " . Irvine scored the team 's only goal in a 1 – 4 defeat that day , and by the end of the 1967 – 68 season he had scored six times in eleven matches for his new side . He carried his goalscoring form into the new campaign , scoring the winner against Oldham Athletic in the first round of the League Cup , and netting a consolation goal in the 1 – 3 defeat to Crystal Palace .
After 16 matches of the 1968 – 69 season , Irvine had scored 13 goals . However , he suffered a knee injury midway through the season in the FA Cup fourth round tie against Chelsea . He was injured ten minutes into the match but played for most of the first half before being substituted . He had a chipped bone and ligament damage , requiring him to undergo an operation in February 1969 that forced him to miss the rest of the campaign . Despite missing many games , he was Preston 's top scorer that season with 20 goals in all competitions . Irvine never fully recovered from the injury , and played only 16 games the following season , scoring five goals . Preston North End were relegated to the Football League Third Division in 1970 after finishing bottom of the league . Manager Bobby Seith was dismissed following the relegation , and replaced by former Halifax Town coach Alan Ball in May 1970 . Ball was reluctant to play Irvine after discovering the knee injury from the previous season . Nevertheless , he appeared in the first three matches of the 1970 – 71 campaign , scoring in the 1 – 0 win against Stockport County in the first round of the League Cup . He was dropped from the team after missing several chances in the 1 – 3 defeat to Torquay United on 22 August 1970 . After this , Irvine did not feature regularly for Preston North End and from October 1970 , he played mostly for the reserve team . He made his final senior appearance for the club on 26 December 1970 in the 3 – 3 draw with Tranmere Rovers at Deepdale . During a three @-@ year spell , he played 81 league games for Preston North End , scoring 27 goals in the process .
= = = Later career = = =
In March 1971 , Ball offered Irvine the opportunity of a three @-@ month loan spell at fellow Third Division side Brighton & Hove Albion . Irvine made his debut for Brighton on 10 March 1971 in the 3 – 2 win against Fulham . He scored in the match , and manager Pat Saward was effusive in his praise of his new signing . Irvine became a regular starter for Brighton , and scored again in the 1 – 1 draw with Plymouth Argyle at the Goldstone Ground on 28 April 1971 . During the loan spell , he played 14 league games and scored six goals . At the end of the season , Irvine temporarily returned to Preston but a transfer fee of £ 7 @,@ 000 took him to Brighton on a permanent deal in July 1971 . Irvine became known as " late @-@ goal Willie " after scoring a succession of last @-@ minute goals . On 11 December 1971 , he scored against Walsall in the second round of the FA Cup to take the tie to a replay . He scored the equaliser in the 2 – 2 draw away at Bristol Rovers on 22 January 1972 , followed by a late winner in the 2 – 1 defeat of Wrexham two weeks later .
Irvine added to his tally with home and away goals against Halifax Town , where he would go on to play the next season , and a strike against Aston Villa that was named as runner @-@ up in a Goal of the Season competition by television programme Match of the Day . With the forward partnership of Irvine and Kit Napier , Brighton performed better than expected in the 1971 – 72 season . At the end of the campaign , following a 1 – 1 draw with Rochdale the team was promoted to the Second Division , after finishing as runners @-@ up behind Aston Villa . Irvine continued to score in a higher division , netting five times in the first eleven matches of the season . However , he was then dropped from the team and never regained his place in the starting line @-@ up . Several clubs became interested in his services , including West Ham United , a number of American teams , and Scottish side Heart of Midlothian , where Bobby Seith was the manager . Irvine played his last match for Brighton on 18 November 1972 , when the team lost 0 – 1 at home to his former club Burnley .
After turning down potential transfers to West Ham and Torquay , because neither he nor his wife wanted to live in either place , Irvine decided to sign for Third Division outfit Halifax Town in December 1972 . Despite taking a considerable pay cut , he chose Halifax to enable his family to return to live near Burnley . Irvine made a total of 11 first @-@ team appearances for Halifax Town , scoring one goal for the club . He played his last competitive game for the club in the 1 – 0 win against York City on 13 March 1973 , after manager George Mulhall accused Irvine of not trying and not deserving his wage . At the end of the 1972 – 73 season , the team avoided relegation to the Fourth Division on goal difference . After failing to report for the away game at Walsall on 1 May 1973 , to play in a testimonial match for Burnley defender John Angus , he was fined two weeks ' wages and forced into extra training sessions . In the summer of 1973 , Irvine left Halifax Town by mutual consent , his professional football career over at the age of 29 . Despite having the option to sign for Rochdale , he joined semi @-@ professional side Great Harwood , who played in the Northern Premier League . At Great Harwood , he played alongside two former Burnley team @-@ mates ; goalkeeper Adam Blacklaw and midfielder Les Latcham . Irvine remained at the club for a number of months , before leaving midway through the 1973 – 74 season and retiring from football altogether .
= = International career = =
Irvine 's first taste of international football came in 1958 , when he represented the Northern Ireland schoolboy team in the Victory Shield . Five years later , he made his debut for the Northern Ireland national under @-@ 23 football team , when he played alongside his brother Bobby in the 1 – 5 defeat to Wales on 27 February 1963 . During the next two years , he played twice more for the under @-@ 23 team , scoring three goals for the side . Irvine received his first call @-@ up to the Northern Ireland senior team in April 1963 , one month before he made his professional debut for Burnley . He went straight into the team and won his first cap on 3 April 1963 in the 1 – 4 loss to Wales in the British Home Championship . He received his next cap the following month and scored his first international goal on 30 May 1963 in the 1 – 1 draw with Spain in the first round of the 1964 European Nations Cup . It was over a year before Irvine was selected to represent his country again , when he was included in the squad for the 1 – 2 defeat to Switzerland in a qualification match for the 1966 FIFA World Cup . On 25 November 1964 , he scored his second Northern Ireland goal in the loss to Scotland in the British Home Championship . Irvine was involved in his first win with the Northern Ireland team when they defeated the Netherlands in a World Cup qualifying game on 17 March 1965 . During the remainder of the 1964 – 65 season , he won a further three caps for his country .
Between 2 October 1965 and 30 March 1966 , Irvine scored in four consecutive international fixtures . The run started with a goal against Scotland in the British Home Championship , followed by a goal in the 1 – 2 loss to England on 10 November 1965 . Two weeks later , he netted in a World Cup qualifier against Albania before scoring in the 4 – 1 win against Wales to complete the run . Irvine continued to play for Northern Ireland , winning caps against Mexico , England and Scotland , but it was almost two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years before he scored again in international football . His two goals in a friendly match against Israel were his last for Northern Ireland , although he did win another five caps for his country . After leaving Burnley in 1968 , his inclusion in the Northern Ireland squad became less frequent and between 1969 and 1972 he did not make an appearance for the team . After three years out of the side , he returned for the 0 – 2 loss to Scotland on 20 May 1972 . He played against England three days later before winning his 23rd and final cap in the goal @-@ less draw with Wales , the team against which he had made his international debut , on 27 May 1972 .
= = = International goals = = =
= = = = Under – 23 = = = =
Scores and results list Northern Ireland U23 's goal tally first .
= = = = Senior team = = = =
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, Stern contacted Bruce and Utsler , asking them to appear on his show the following day to talk with Coal Chamber 's manager , Sharon Osbourne .
Before the show went on air , Osbourne bet Bruce and Utsler $ 50 @,@ 000 that Insane Clown Posse 's next album would not even sell 200 @,@ 000 copies — a bet that Bruce accepted . On air Osbourne informed Bruce and Utsler that Coal Chamber filed a lawsuit for breach of contract . Osbourne stated that her group was to receive $ 12 @,@ 500 per show for a scheduled two @-@ month package tour . Bruce reiterated that Coal Chamber 's music did not appeal to Insane Clown Posse fans , and that ticket refunds decreased after Coal Chamber had been removed from the tour . Osbourne then made public the bet with Bruce about Insane Clown Posse 's next album , also stating that the duo would be subsequently dropped from their distributor . In Osbourne 's words , " You 're dead . Your career is over . " Bruce predicted that the group 's next album would sell at least 500 @,@ 000 copies ; however , the bet officially stood at 200 @,@ 000 copies as agreed by both Bruce and Osbourne backstage .
= = = 2000 – 01 : Bizaar and Bizzar Era = = =
On January 10 , 2000 , Utsler collapsed on stage during a performance at the House of Blues in Chicago and was rushed to Northwestern Memorial Hospital . He was diagnosed with flu @-@ related symptoms and abnormally low blood sugar . As a result of the incident , the following week 's concert dates were rescheduled . In June 2000 , Eminem physically attacked Douglas Dail , an Insane Clown Posse affiliate , threatening him with a gun in the parking lot of a car audio store in Royal Oak , Michigan . Eminem pleaded guilty to a lesser charge in exchange for two years probation and a $ 10 @,@ 000 fine . In July 2000 , Bruce and Utsler staged the first annual Gathering of the Juggalos at the Novi Expo Center in Novi , Michigan . Described by Bruce as a " Juggalo Woodstock " , the Gathering of the Juggalos was a three @-@ day music festival that featured wrestling , games , seminars , contests , sideshows , and performances by all Psychopathic Records ' artists . Also featured at the event were Vampiro — who both wrestled and performed — Project Born , and Kottonmouth Kings . On July 18 , 2000 , Big Money Hustlas was released direct @-@ to @-@ video .
After the Gathering of the Juggalos , Insane Clown Posse set out to release its sixth and seventh studio albums — Bizaar and Bizzar — as a double album . While recording the albums , the duo had a fallout with long @-@ time producer Mike E. Clark . Bizaar and Bizzar were the last complete albums Clark would produce with Insane Clown Posse until his return in 2007 . Bruce and Utsler flew to Denver , Colorado to add the finishing touches to the albums . Bizaar and Bizzar were released on October 31 , 2000 , peaking at # 20 and # 21 , respectively , on the Billboard 200 . In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide , Ben Sisario wrote that the albums " qualify as ICP 's masterworks of both merchandising and music " . Both albums were given a " three out of five stars " rating . The combined sales were around 400 @,@ 000 copies , exceeding the bet placed previously with Sharon Osbourne ; Osbourne did not come through with payment for having lost the bet .
Two music videos were released from the albums : " Tilt @-@ a @-@ Whirl , " from Bizaar , and " Let 's Go All The Way " , a cover of a Sly Fox song from Bizzar . MTV agreed to play " Let 's Go All The Way " on their network , airing it once in the late evening . Bruce and Utsler decided to bombard Total Request Live ( TRL ) with requests for the video . While on their " Bizaar Bizzar Tour " , Insane Clown Posse posted on its website that December 8 was the day for their fans request the video . Bruce and Utsler named that day " The Mighty Day of Lienda , " meaning " The Mighty Day of All or Nothing " . On December 8 , Rudy Hill , Robert Bruce , Tom Dub , and six other Psychopathic Records employees and friends drove down to New York City .
They were met by nearly 400 Insane Clown Posse fans standing outside in front of the TRL studio window , all with signs supporting the duo . Thirty minutes before the show began , Viacom security guards and New York City police officers were dispatched to remove all the fans from the sidewalk . When some fans , including Robert Bruce , refused to move because it was a public street and no other individuals were asked to move , they were assaulted . All telephone requests for the video to be played were ignored , and Insane Clown Posse was never mentioned during the show . MTV later informed Island Records that the heads of the network must choose the band first before it can become eligible to be featured on TRL .
Bruce and Utsler left Island Records , signing a contract with D3 Entertainment to distribute every release on Psychopathic Records , which would remain independently funded , produced , and recorded . Insane Clown Posse had their own studio built , called " The Lotus Pod " . In the spring of 2001 , Insane Clown Posse 's road manager William Dail was arrested in Omaha , Nebraska , for allegedly choking a man who waved an Eminem T @-@ shirt in front of the band . Dail was charged for misdemeanor assault and battery . The charges were reduced to a $ 100 fine after he pleaded guilty to a lesser charge .
The second Gathering of the Juggalos was held from July 13 – 15 at the SeaGate Convention Centre in Toledo , Ohio . The event featured the same activities as the first Gathering of the Juggalos , as well as guests such as Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony , Vanilla Ice , and Three 6 Mafia . On June 15 , 2001 , Bruce was arrested in Columbia , Missouri for an outstanding warrant in St. Louis stemming from an incident in February 2001 . That incident involved Insane Clown Posse allegedly attacking employees of a St. Louis radio station over disparaging remarks that a disc jockey made on the air . The police used several squad cars to detain Bruce , Utsler , and two associates a few miles from a venue where the group had completed a concert . Bruce was transferred to St. Louis the following day and released on bail without charge on June 18 .
= = = 2002 – 03 : The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La Era = = =
The face of the sixth Joker 's Card is " The Wraith " , a personification of Death . The card features two " exhibits " , Shangri @-@ La and Hell 's Pit , each of which would be given its own album . On November 5 , 2002 , Insane Clown Posse released their eighth studio album , The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La , which debuted at # 15 on the Billboard 200 and # 1 on the Top Independent Albums chart . The album was notable for its explicit acknowledgment of ICP 's belief in God .
Ben Sisario criticized the album in the Rolling Stone Album Guide , writing that " the whole thing was some bland divine plan " and asking , " Is this man 's final dis of God , or His of us ? " Some critics perceived the spiritual element of the storyline to be a joke or stunt . Allmusic writer Bradley Torreano wrote that " Even if it is a joke , it isn 't a funny one , or even a clever one . " In September 2003 , Insane Clown Posse was voted the worst band of any musical genre in Blender , with The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La named as the group 's worst album . However , the magazine also gave the album a positive review for its " charming , good @-@ natured idiocy " .
According to Bruce , " Some people might 've been upset [ by spiritual themes in The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La ] , but through our eyes all we did was touch a lot of people . We definitely wanted it to be something everlasting . Maybe a 19 @-@ year @-@ old might not understand or like that ending now . But later , when he has four kids , he might think , ' That was the shit . ' " Following the release of The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La , Bruce and Utsler signed a new contract with Sony BMG 's RED Distribution and launched the Psychopathic Europe record label .
The duo went on the 75 @-@ date " Shangri @-@ La World Tour " , where they performed across the United States , Australia , and Europe . While in Australia , customs confiscated all the group 's Faygo , assuming that they were bringing it for commercial purposes . Insane Clown Posse tried to explain that they are performers and that the soda was part of their act , but were still unable to use the Faygo and forced to use a different form of soda for their Australian tour .
= = = 2004 : The Wraith : Hell 's Pit Era = = =
Following the release of The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La , Bruce admitted that he was considering not completing the production of Hell 's Pit . He is quoted as describing Shangri @-@ La as " the end of the road . It 's the end of the Joker 's Cards . After this I could do anything I want , for the rest of my life . The positivity was so unbelievable " . On August 31 , 2004 , Insane Clown Posse released their ninth studio album , Hell 's Pit , the second exhibit of The Wraith , intended to warn listeners of the horrors of Hell . Bruce described the album as the darkest , most painful work he had ever done . Two versions of the album were released , each containing a different DVD . One release featured a live concert and a twelve @-@ minute music video for the song " Real Underground Baby " , and another featured a short film for the song " Bowling Balls " , which was the first 3 @-@ D film shot in high @-@ definition video . In 2005 , D12 and Insane Clown Posse ended their feud , with the help of member Proof . Attempts to officially end the feud between Eminem and Insane Clown Posse have been unsuccessful , but Bruce states that the rivalry has ended .
= = 2005 – 06 : Post @-@ First Deck Era = =
On February 1 , 2006 , Insane Clown Posse fan Jacob D. Robida attacked individuals in a gay bar in New Bedford , Massachusetts with a handgun and a hatchet — a weapon featured in the logo of the group 's record label , Psychopathic Records . Robida had a swastika tattoo and flaunted Nazi insignias and paraphernalia on his website . On February 5 , Robida shot and killed a traffic officer during a routine stop . When police pulled Robida over during a later stop , he killed his girlfriend , Jennifer Bailey of Charleston , West Virginia , then opened fire on the police . Robida was shot twice in the head during the shootout with the police , and later died in the hospital . On February 7 , Insane Clown Posse released a statement on the Robida attacks . The group 's manager Alex Abbiss extended Bruce and Utsler 's condolences and prayers to the families of the victims , stating that " It 's quite obvious that this guy had no clue what being a Juggalo is all about . If anyone knows anything at all about ICP , then you know that they have never , ever been down or will be down with any racist or bigotry bullshit " .
On October 21 , 2006 , Insane Clown Posse performed at one of twenty benefit shows organized by Myspace as part of the " Rock for Darfur " campaign to raise awareness of the War in Darfur and funds for the region 's aid .
= = 2007 – 08 : The Tempest Era = =
On March 20 , 2007 , Insane Clown Posse released their tenth studio album , The Tempest , which debuted at # 20 on the Billboard 200 and sold nearly 33 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . In 2008 , Bruce and Utsler starred in the film Death Racers . It was released direct @-@ to @-@ video on September 16 , 2008 , by The Asylum . In December 2008 , John Antonelli filed a lawsuit against the group after being struck by an unopened two @-@ liter of Faygo during a performance at the Fargo nightclub The Hub , formerly known as Playmakers . Antonelli is seeking at least $ 50 @,@ 000 in damages . The lawsuit also names the venue , Playmakers , as a defendant . An attorney for Playmakers states that only Bruce should be held liable .
= = 2009 – present : Second Joker Card Deck = =
= = = Big Money Rustlas = = =
Filming of Big Money Rustlas , a Western spoof , began in January 2009 , and concluded on February 24 , 2009 . The tenth Gathering of the Juggalos took place at Hogrock in Cave @-@ In @-@ Rock , Illinois , from August 6 to 9 . The event had the largest attendance in Gathering history with over 20 @,@ 000 people . Over 120 musical artists performed at the event , including the likes of Tech N9ne , Kottonmouth Kings , Ice Cube , GWAR , Coolio , Vanilla Ice , Onyx , Scarface , The Dayton Family , Bizarre , Esham , and NATAS . At the event , the Big Money Rustlas trailer was screened twice . An infomercial for the event was released online by Psychopathic Records . After the event , a friend of Esham 's handed Bruce a copy of his album I Ain 't Cha Homey , which depicted a clown committing suicide with a gun on the front cover . Bruce listened to the album and saw it as a diss towards Insane Clown Posse . While Esham claimed that the album was not a diss in his podcast , the album strained the relationship between Bruce and Esham , and the two have not spoken since its release .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Bang ! Pow ! Boom Era = = =
Insane Clown Posse 's eleventh studio album , Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! , was released on September 1 , 2009 . It debuted at # 1 on the Billboard Top Independent Albums chart and # 4 on the Billboard 200 . The album was later revealed to be the first of a " second deck " of Joker 's Cards . The Detroit News music critic Adam Graham gave the album a B rating , describing it as " the best material the Clowns have touched since 1999 's The Amazing Jeckel Brothers " .
On December 5 , 2009 , Saturday Night Live aired a sketch titled " Kickspit Underground Rock Festival " , which parodied the Gathering of the Juggalos infomercial . Bruce stated that he was not offended by the parody , and that he thought that the sketch was " hilarious " and " a humongous compliment " . On February 17 , 2010 , Psychopathic Records signed a contract with Universal Music Group 's Fontana Distribution . On March 9 , 2010 , Insane Clown Posse were interviewed by Nightline journalist Martin Bashir . Bruce hated the segment , stating that Bashir took statements made by the duo out of context , pairing one of Bruce 's responses with a different question than he had been asked .
The trailer for Big Money Rustlas spawned a parody video called " Juggalo News " , which achieved popularity on CollegeHumor and Funny or Die , and was praised by Bruce on his Twitter account . On April 6 , 2010 , Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! was reissued in a " Nuclear Edition " , which featured previously unreleased material and music videos for the songs " In Yo Face " and " Miracles " . During this period , the duo won the Detroit Music Award for Outstanding Hip @-@ Hop Artist / Group . On April 17 , Saturday Night Live aired a sketch which parodied the " Miracles " music video , featuring host Ryan Phillippe and cast member Bobby Moynihan . Insane Clown Posse responded favorably to the parody , and asked to appear on the show .
Before the 12th annual Gathering of the Juggalos , Insane Clown Posse were contacted by Jack White , who invited Bruce and Utsler to his mansion because he wanted to collaborate with them . White played the track he was working on , an arrangement of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 's " Leck mich im Arsch " with live instrumentation by JEFF the Brotherhood , for Bruce and Utsler and explained that the title of the track translated to " Lick My Ass " . Bruce perceived that the scatological nature of the composition was the reason why White asked Bruce and Utsler to appear on the song , but once White explained Mozart 's sense of humor , they became excited to work with White , went back to their hotel room to write their lyrics , and returned to record with White and JEFF the Brotherhood in White 's home recording studio . Bruce and Utsler 's vocals were recorded in one take . The song was released as a single on September 13 by White 's label Third Man Records , paired with another song , " Mountain Girl " , which Bruce describes as his favorite of the two songs recorded with White , and " more ICP 's feel " .
Big Money Rustlas was released on August 17 , 2010 . Insane Clown Posse returned to Europe for a tour . The group released a three @-@ disc compilation of their guest appearances with other artists called Featuring Freshness in November 2011 . The compilation also included new songs with artists Paris , Cold 187um , and Tone Tone .
At the 2011 Detroit Music Awards , Insane Clown Posse received the Distinguished Achievement Award . In June , Insane Clown Posse issued a cease and desist notice to the Upright Citizens Brigade , threatening legal action over a planned performance , " The Gathering of the Juggalos For A Mother Fucking Baby Funeral " .
= = = 2012 – 14 : The Mighty Death Pop ! Era = = =
At their 2010 Hallowicked concert , Insane Clown Posse announced that the second new Joker 's Card would be The Mighty Death Pop ! The album has two faces , the first of which was revealed at the Hallowicked concert . The Mighty Death Pop ! features appearances from Tech N9ne and Hopsin .
Additionally , the album was released in three variant editions , containing three individual full @-@ length bonus albums . The first variant edition , dubbed the Red Pop edition , contains an album of cover songs entitled Smothered , Covered & Chunked , which features appearances by Psychopathic artists Twiztid , Anybody Killa , Blaze Ya Dead Homie , Cold 187um and Boondox , as well as Limp Bizkit frontman Fred Durst and rapper Lil Wyte . The second variant , the Black Pop edition , contains the album Freaky Tales , consisting of a single , album @-@ length rap , inspired by Too Short 's song of the same name . The third variant , the White Pop edition , contains the remix album Mike E. Clark 's Extra Pop Emporium , which features remixes , outtakes and leftover songs recorded during the Mighty Death Pop sessions ; these tracks include appearances by Kottonmouth Kings , Three 6 Mafia , Color Me Badd , Ice Cube , Scarface , Geto Boys , Twiztid , Kreayshawn , Swollen Members and Willie D. ICP said in their December 21 , 2012 Hatchet Herald edition that they will be releasing a sideshow EP for The Mighty Death Pop ! in 2013 . The EP is titled House Of Wax set to be released on November 25 , 2014 packaged inside The First Six .
= = = = 2013 – 14 : Continued legal troubles = = = =
Insane Clown Posse sued the FBI , whose National Gang Intelligence Center listed Juggalos as " a loosely organized hybrid gang " in a 2011 report . The report states that Juggalos are " recognized as a gang in only four states ... law enforcement officials in at least 21 states have identified criminal Juggalo sub @-@ sets " . The report also noted that New Mexico was seeing a lot of Juggalo gang expansion due to their attraction to " the tribal and cultural traditions of the Native Americans " . The lawsuit asks for the documents that the FBI used to reach this conclusion ; in August 2013 , federal authorities had " filed a motion to dismiss the case , saying they had already released several news media reports about Juggalos involved in criminal activity " . The American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan is working with ICP 's lawyers in order " to ensure the right of Juggalos everywhere to gather together and express their support of the I.C.P. without having to worry about being unfairly targeted and harassed by law enforcement " . On January 8 , 2014 , Insane Clown Posse , along with the American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan , filed suit again against the FBI . The suit aims to have Juggalos no longer considered to be a gang and to have any " criminal intelligence information " about Juggalos destroyed . ICP announced in the edition of December 21 , 2012 of the Hatchet Herald that they will be releasing a sideshow EP to The Mighty Death Pop ! in 2013 . After no word was heard on the album , it was speculated that it had been scrapped . In mid 2013 it was announced that ICP would be releasing their first ever box set titled The First Six . After the release date came and passed , The First Six was not released . In a February 2014 interview with Faygoluvers , the question was asked if we would be able to get the box set . ICP thought it had already been released . Dog Beats ( the first ever release on Psychopathic Records ) was set to be the bonus album in the box set , ICP went back and decided to put House of Wax in the box set instead . The First Six was set to be released on October 28 , 2014 . After a minor setback , was ultimately released on November 25 , 2014 .
Additionally , Psychopathic Records is pushing back against a former publicist who is suing the label for sexual harassment . In late 2013 ICP teamed up with Da Mafia 6ix to create The Killjoy Club , and released their debut album Reindeer Games on September 2 , 2014 . ICP went on " The ShockFest Tour " with Da Mafia 6ix , Mushroomhead , Madchild and Jelly Roll , additionally Big Hoodoo joined the tour to perform before the ticketed acts . To close out the shows on the tour Insane Clown Posse and Da Mafia 6ix performed on stage together as The Killjoy Club , doing only two songs .
= = = 2015 – present : The Marvelous Missing Link : Lost / Found Era = = =
During their 2014 Hallowicked concert , ICP revealed the 3rd Joker Card in the 2nd Deck of the Dark Carnival saga . The first part of the third card is titled The Missing Link : Lost , which is set to be released on Violent J 's 43rd birthday , April 28 , 2015 . The second part of the third card is titled The Missing Link : Found , which is set to be released during the 2015 Gathering of the Juggalos , July 28 , 2015 . ICP will give away a free poster of The Marvelous Missing Link , and will have The Marvelous Missing Link merchandise available , ( before it 's on their online store - Hatchet Gear ) , at their annual " Big Ballas Xmas Party " with Kottonmouth Kings , DJ Clay , Critical Bill , and Young Lyte , on December 20 , 2014 .
In a February 21 , 2015 interview with Billboard , Violent J stated that Mike E. Clark will not be producing either album due to prior engagements , which include working with Kid Rock , so they will have other people do the production . He also said that " LOST " will have darker beats , and no comedy on it . The album is like looking at the world through negative lenses . He said that " FOUND " is like you have been found , and has songs about the good times , and songs with comedy . Also in the interview it was announced that the " 20th Anniversary Riddle Box Tour " has been temporarily sidelined . They plan to tour in early spring into most of the summer , ending at the GOTJ 2015 , then tour again ending at the annual Hallowicked concert .
Young Wicked of the Axe Murder Boyz posted on his personal Instagram account , that this album was one of the Insane Clown Posse 's best albums ever . He stated specifically that it was going back to the Insane Clown Posse 's roots in the era of the first deck of Jokers Cards . Young wicked also made a statement that referenced the idea that he may have some featured spots on one of the albums .
On April 7 , 2015 The Marvelous Missing Link : Lost was made available for digital download preorder . Those who preordered on that day received the first single off the album , titled " Vomit " . The rest of the album will automatically download on the release date , April 28 , 2015 .
Michigan @-@ based author Steve Miller is writing a book , Juggalo : Insane Clown Posse , Their Fans , and the World They Made — it 's due out in 2016 via Da Capo Press . The book will detail the fandom associated with juggalos and their struggle with the FBI .
In late 2015 2 flyers were released with Phantom : X @-@ tra Spooky EP , promoting 2016 solo album releases from Violent J titled , Karma Forest , and Shaggy 2 Dope titled , F.T.F.O.M.F ..
In an April 8 , 2016 faygoluvers.net interview with Violent J , he stated that Shaggy 2 Dope has been working with Young Wicked , who is also producing the album , without asking Violent J for any help this far .
= = Style and influences = =
= = = Lyrics and music = = =
Insane Clown Posse 's performance style is often described as horrorcore hip hop , which " utilize [ s ] shocking ( and blatantly over @-@ the @-@ top ) narratives to give an over @-@ exaggerated , almost cartoon @-@ like version of urban deprivation in Detroit " , according to author Sara Cohen . Bruce and Utsler describe many of their lyrics as being tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek . The group 's early work features a raw , minimalistic sound , which later evolved into a more rock @-@ oriented style . The group 's lyrics serve as morality tales , with songs focusing on subjects such as cannibalism , murder and necrophilia . Insane Clown Posse 's debut album , Carnival of Carnage , features a politically @-@ oriented focus , criticizing elitism and prejudice against those who live in the ghetto , while the album 's liner notes criticize the Gulf War . The group 's lyrics have opposed racism , bigotry , domestic violence , and child abuse .
Insane Clown Posse has covered songs by Geto Boys , Sly Fox , and Above the Law . Bruce and Utsler refer to Ice Cube , Awesome Dre , Geto Boys , and Esham as influences on their own music , while Bruce has expressed admiration for Gong , Pearl Jam , and Michael Jackson . Mike E. Clark 's production for the group incorporates elements such as " carnival organ riffs , power chords and shotgun blasts ... banjolike plucking and Van Halen @-@ esque guitar squeals " , while Bruce and Utsler sometimes alternate between rapping and screaming . Bruce has credited pop music as an influence on some of the group 's material , even terming the music " Wicked Pop " . Bruce has also stated " We do our own genre of music " . In his review of The Tempest , Allmusic 's David Jeffries writes that Bruce and Utsler " [ rap ] in a carnival barker fashion that fits with their circus motif , their Insane Clown disguises , and Mike E. Clark 's big top @-@ inspired production . " Insane Clown Posse has influenced similar acts , such as Axe Murder Boyz , Blaze Ya Dead Homie and Boondox .
= = = Live performances = = =
Insane Clown Posse is known for their elaborate concert performances . In Marley Brant 's Tales from the Rock ' n ' Roll Highway , Bruce described a typical performance : " We toss out , kick out , and shoot out into the crowd about three to four hundred two @-@ liters of Faygo at every show ... We bring with us monsters , dancing clowns , girls , trampolines , and pure and absolute madness to the stage ... Shaggy and I know that without all that crazy shit going on around us , we 'd just be two more idiots walking back and forth , rapping on stage ... ICP 's motto has always been ' Fuck keepin ' it real : we just keep it entertaining . ' " Performances feature backdrops including , among other settings , a game show set and a cemetery . Bruce stated , " We always have a different set , not only for Hallowicked but every tour we go out on . We 've been around so long that we get to dig up the many cool sets that we used back in the day and then get to use them again on a national level . Something we might 've done once in ' 94 at St. Andrew 's Hall , we can go back again and now do it nationwide @-@ style " .
On tour following the release of Dog Beats , Insane Clown Posse was scheduled to perform at Ferris State University in Big Rapids , Michigan , but were delayed by a blizzard . After they arrived , the group was announced by their manager , Alex Abbiss . Bruce remembers that " [ w ] e came out with no microphones or nothing ; we were just right up in the people 's faces . Shaggy and I were just fuckin ' yelling over our own cassette . The people were staring at us in amazement and bewilderment . They must have been in shock and awe . We finished our two @-@ song set , and the crowd ... didn 't cheer or boo . They just stood there , stunned " ; they later learned that the concert was supposed to occur earlier in the evening , and that they were performing in the wrong building .
The group was unable to bring the large amounts of Faygo needed for their concerts to their European tours without a sales permit visa because customs believed that the group had intended to sell the soda at their concerts . As a result , the group 's European record label purchased similar quantities of another soda and created fake Faygo stickers to label the bottles . According to Bruce , " The craziness was this : they were not the regular two @-@ liter bottles we 're used to ; they were some other amount ... maybe one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ liter bottles . Over there , they make their plastic bottles taller and thinner ... when you 're doing what we do with them — that makes a world of difference " . During a performance in England , Bruce recounts that he " rocketed one of them bottles off my foot and that motherfucker shot straight up and out like a guided Patriot missile , right towards the disco ball high above the crowd ... The bottle nailed the disco ball , and ... came falling down ... on top of some English kid 's head . ... We must 've knocked fifteen or twenty people flat @-@ out cold on that tour ... Shaggy and I both had black eyes and several injuries and bruises ourselves from them things hittin ' us " .
Bruce and Utsler did not expect many of their fans to attend Woodstock 1999 , and were surprised when thousands of people chanted " I @-@ C @-@ P ! I @-@ C @-@ P ! " as they waited for the group to perform . Bruce told his stage crew that he would pay $ 2 @,@ 000 to each person who ran around the stage naked , and two people took up his offer . Insane Clown Posse also brought naked women on stage . Bruce and Utsler felt that because the tickets to the event were over @-@ priced , they needed to " give something back . " According to Bruce , " We brought along these big beach balls . We announced to the crowd that they each had a hundred dollars taped to them , and then we proceeded to kick about thirty of them into the crowd . Then we rolled out these bigger giant @-@ ass beach balls and announced , ' These ones have five hundred bucks taped to them ! ' We booted a gang of them into the human sea . " Bruce also recounts that their set had multiple technical problems , and the audience was not allowed to get close to the stage , which made the duo feel less connected with them .
The group 's 2009 tour in support of Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! featured clowns , showgirls , a ringmaster and caged " attractions " , including " Ape Boy " . According to Bruce , " This is actually the biggest tour we 've ever brought out , as far as stage theatrics and extras on stage ... We 've got a whole circus . We 're touring clubs and theaters , but it 's more like an arena show . It 's like an arena concert packed into a club " .
= = = Spirituality = = =
The themes of God 's presence and the final judgment of individuals are explored in multiple Insane Clown Posse songs . Throughout their career , the group has used parables set within the Dark Carnival mythology to warn of the ultimate consequences of immoral behavior . Their 2002 album The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La ended the first set of Joker Card albums and included the song The Unveiling , which explicitly revealed that the hidden message of ICP 's music had always been to follow God . Joseph Bruce remarked that " The ending of the Joker Cards , the way we looked at it , was death . Heaven and hell . That 's up to each and every juggalo [ to decide ] " .
Several journalists have commented on the apparent conflict between the group 's sexualized and often violent lyrics and their stated spiritual message . In a June 2010 interview with The Columbian 's Alan Sculley , Bruce explained , " [ Sex and violence is ] the stuff that people are talking about on the streets ... to get attention , you have to speak their language . You have to interest them , gain their trust , talk to them and show you 're one of them . You 're a person from the street and speak of your experiences . Then at the end you can tell them God has helped me out like this and it might transfer over instead of just come straight out and just speak straight out of religion " .
In an October 2010 article for The Guardian , Jon Ronson characterized the Insane Clown Posse as " evangelical Christians " who have " only been pretending to be brutal and sadistic to trick their fans into believing in God " . In an interview with ICP conducted for the article , two of Ronson 's queries referred parenthetically to ICP 's " Christian message " and to the members ' identities as " [ secret ] Christians " . Several papers , including The Washington Post , published summaries of Ronson 's claims .
Eight days after publication of the Guardian article , Joseph Bruce Tweeted " I think [ it 's ] crazy how some press say we 're a Christian band and act like we 're all religious [ ... ] I 'm proud that we believe in God but I haven 't been to church since I was like 10 . I don 't even know if [ Utsler has ] ever been to church ! " Christianity Today writer Mark Moring also challenged Ronson 's characterization , writing that " The guys in ICP haven 't used the word ' Christian ' or ' evangelical ' [ ... ] so let 's not call them anything that they 're not claiming for themselves " .
In 2011 , Insane Clown Posse appeared on Attack of the Show ! and repudiated claims that they were a Christian band . Bruce explained that their Dark Carnival mythology " comes from the basic principle of right and wrong , you know . Evil and good . That 's all . We 're just trying to say that there 's bad guys out there and that there 's good guys out there [ ... ] We were taught there 's a heaven and a hell , but that 's all we were taught . We weren 't taught about the [ Ten ] Commandments [ ... or ] what 's in the Bible and all that . We just [ ... ] want to see good people hopefully go to heaven , which we refer to as Shangri @-@ La " . Joseph Utsler explained in a 2002 interview with Craig Markley that " God is in your heart [ ... ] In my definition , it doesn 't matter what creed , religion , or group you belong to . If you 're doing what 's right and are a good person , then you 're right with God . " Bruce and Utsler have also stated that they are not certain that God and the afterlife exist , but that they 'd like to believe that there is something after death .
= = Wrestling = =
Both Bruce and Utsler began wrestling as single competitors in 1983 in their backyard wrestling promotion Tag Team Wrestling , later renamed National All @-@ Star Wrestling . The two moved on to compete in various independent promotions in Michigan from 1990 to 1997 before making an appearance together in Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) as Insane Clown Posse . In 1998 , the team had a three @-@ month stint in World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) where they wrestled alongside The Oddities and , later , The Headbangers .
After leaving the company , they went to wrestle for World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) with The Dead Pool and The Dark Carnival between 1999 and 2000 . On December 19 , 1999 , Bruce and Utsler created their own wrestling promotion , Juggalo Championshit Wrestling ( now known as Juggalo Championship Wrestling ) . In 2004 , they briefly wrestled in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . The duo continues to wrestle today in Juggalo Championship Wrestling as well as in various independent promotions .
Insane Clown Posse gained fame for being both professional musicians and professional wrestlers . Overall , they are two @-@ time JCW Tag Team Champions . Additionally , Bruce is a one @-@ time JCW Tag Team Champion with 2 Tuff Tony , and Utsler is a one @-@ time JCW Heavyweight Champion . Bruce and Utsler are also
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founding members of the Juggalo World Order .
In addition they were largely involved in Backyard Wrestling : Don 't Try This at Home , where most of the wrestlers in the game were members of JCW .
= = Band members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Carnival of Carnage ( 1992 )
Ringmaster ( 1994 )
Riddle Box ( 1995 )
The Great Milenko ( 1997 )
The Amazing Jeckel Brothers ( 1999 )
Bizaar ( 2000 )
Bizzar ( 2000 )
The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La ( 2002 )
Hell 's Pit ( 2004 )
The Tempest ( 2007 )
Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! ( 2009 )
The Mighty Death Pop ! ( 2012 )
The Marvelous Missing Link : Lost ( 2015 )
The Marvelous Missing Link : Found ( 2015 )
= = Joker Cards and sideshows = =
= = = 1992 – 04 : First Deck = = =
Joker Card : Carnival of Carnage - October 18 , 1992
Sideshow : Beverly Kills 50187 EP - July 16 , 1993
Joker Card : Ringmaster - March 8 , 1994
Sideshow : The Terror Wheel EP - August 5 , 1994
Joker Card : Riddle Box - October 10 , 1995
Sideshow : Tunnel of Love EP - June 11 , 1996
Joker Card : The Great Milenko - June 24 , 1997
Sideshow :
Joker Card : The Amazing Jeckel Brothers - May 25 , 1999
Sideshow
Joker Card : The Wraith : Shangri @-@ La - November 5 , 2002
Sideshow :
Joker Card : The Wraith : Hells Pit - August 31 , 2004
Sideshow :
= = = 2009 – present : Second Deck = = =
Joker Card : Bang ! Pow ! Boom ! - September 1 , 2009
Sideshow :
Joker Card : The Mighty Death Pop ! - August 14 , 2012
Sideshow : House of Wax EP - November 25 , 2014
Joker Card : The Marvelous Missing Link : Lost - April 28 , 2015
Sideshow :
Joker Card : The Marvelous Missing Link : Found - July 31 , 2015
Sideshow :
= = Solo Albums = =
Enter The Ghetto Zone ( 1990 ) ( Violent J ) ( Rude Boy Productions )
Fuck Off ! EP ( 1994 ) ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ( Psychopathic Records )
Wizard of the Hood EP ( July 22 , 2003 ) ( Violent J ) ( Psychopathic Records )
F.T.F.O. ( February 21 , 2006 ) ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ( Psychopathic Records )
The Shining ( April 28 , 2009 ) ( Violent J ) ( Psychopathic Records )
F.T.F.O.M.F. ( 2016 ) ( Shaggy 2 Dope ) ( Psychopathic Records )
Karma Forest ( 2016 ) ( Violent J ) ( Psychopathic Records )
= = Filmography = =
Big Money Hustlas ( 2000 )
Mad TV ( 2002 )
ego trip 's The ( White ) Rapper Show ( 2007 )
Death Racers ( 2008 )
A Family Underground ( 2009 )
Aqua Teen Hunger Force [ TV series , " Juggalo " episode ] ( 2010 )
Big Money Rustlas ( 2010 )
1000 Ways to Die [ TV series , " Deadliest Kitsch " episode ] ( 2011 ) ( Themselves )
Lopez Tonight ( 2011 )
Tosh.0 [ TV series , special " Web Redemption " segment ] ( 2012 )
ICP Theater [ TV series ] ( 2013 )
= Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge ( local / keɪpən / ) , formerly known as South Branch Bridge or Romney Bridge , is a historic Whipple truss bridge in Capon Lake , West Virginia . It is located off Carpers Pike ( West Virginia Route 259 ) and crosses the Cacapon River . The bridge formerly carried Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) over the river , connecting Capon Springs and Capon Lake .
The bridge 's Whipple truss technology was developed by civil engineer Squire Whipple in 1847 . J. W. Murphy further modified Whipple 's truss design in 1859 by designing the first truss bridge with pinned eyebar connections . The design of the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge incorporates Murphy 's later modifications with double @-@ intersections and horizontal chords , and is therefore considered a Whipple – Murphy truss bridge . The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is West Virginia 's oldest remaining example of a Whipple truss bridge and its oldest extant metal truss bridge .
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was originally constructed in 1874 as part of the South Branch Bridge ( or alternatively , the Romney Bridge ) , a larger two @-@ span Whipple truss bridge conveying the Northwestern Turnpike ( U.S. Route 50 ) across the South Branch Potomac River near Romney . The larger Whipple truss bridge replaced an 1838 wooden covered bridge that was destroyed during the American Civil War . In 1874 , T. B. White and Sons were charged with the construction of a Whipple truss bridge over the South Branch ; that bridge served travelers along the Northwestern Turnpike for 63 years until a new bridge was constructed in 1937 .
Dismantled in 1937 , the bridge was relocated to Capon Lake in southeastern Hampshire County to carry Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) between West Virginia Route 259 and Capon Springs . The bridge was dedicated on August 20 , 1938 . In 1991 , a new bridge was completed to the south , and the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was preserved in place by the West Virginia Division of Highways , due to its rarity , age , and engineering significance . The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 15 , 2011 .
= = Geography and setting = =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is located in a predominantly rural agricultural and forested area of southeastern Hampshire County within the Cacapon River valley . Baker Mountain , a forested narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises to the immediate west , and the western rolling foothills of the anticlinal Great North Mountain rise to the bridge 's east . The confluence of Capon Springs Run with the Cacapon River lies just north ( downstream ) of the bridge . George Washington National Forest is located to the bridge 's southeast , covering the forested area south of Capon Springs Road .
The bridge is located along Carpers Pike ( West Virginia Route 259 ) in the unincorporated community of Capon Lake , 2 @.@ 05 miles ( 3 @.@ 30 km ) southwest of Yellow Spring and 6 @.@ 77 miles ( 10 @.@ 90 km ) northeast of the town of Wardensville . The historic Capon Springs Resort and the unincorporated community of Capon Springs are located 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) east of Capon Lake on Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) . The bridge is located immediately north ( downstream ) of the intersection of Carpers Pike with Capon Springs Road , which is carried across the Cacapon River via the current Capon Lake Bridge , a steel stringer bridge built in 1991 to replace the Whipple truss bridge for conveying vehicle traffic . The property containing the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is less than 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) in size .
= = Architecture = =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge is an early example of the use of metal truss bridge load @-@ bearing superstructure technology , which defined highway bridge design well into the 20th century . Because of " its uncommon innovative design and age " , the bridge is one of West Virginia 's most historically significant bridges . It is the oldest remaining example of a Whipple truss bridge in West Virginia , and the oldest extant metal truss bridge in the state . The metal truss technology of the bridge displays distinctive innovations developed by the prominent civil engineers and bridge designers Squire Whipple and J. W. Murphy ; the innovations are evident in the bridge 's double @-@ intersection diagonals and counter @-@ diagonals with pin connections .
Approximately 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in width and 176 feet ( 54 m ) in length , the bridge is built atop a reinforced concrete abutment and pier . Its truss structure exhibits a double @-@ intersection configuration , constructed of 14 bays , each measuring approximately 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) in height , with the diagonals extending across two bays each . The bridge is fabricated of wrought iron bracketed with pins . Spanning the full length of the bridge is a wooden pedestrian walkway that consists of an observation deck and wooden seating near the bridge 's midspan .
= = History = =
= = = Whipple truss development = = =
The bridge 's Whipple truss technology was developed in 1847 by civil engineer Squire Whipple , who received a patent from the U.S. Patent Office the same year . Whipple was one of the first structural engineers to use scientific and mathematical methods analyzing the forces and stresses in framed structures to design the bridge , and his groundbreaking 1847 book , A Work on Bridge Building , had a significant influence on bridge engineering . Whipple 's truss bridge design incorporated double @-@ intersection diagonals into the standard Pratt truss , thus allowing the diagonals to extend across two truss bays . Engineer J. W. Murphy further modified Whipple 's truss design in 1859 when he designed the first truss bridge with pinned eyebar connections , which utilized pins instead of trunnions . Murphy 's design removed the need for riveted connections and allowed for easier and more widespread construction of truss bridges . In 1863 , Murphy designed the first pin @-@ connected truss bridge with both wrought iron tension and compression components and cast iron joint blocks and pedestals . Murphy 's truss design consisted of double @-@ intersection counter @-@ diagonals , and along with the eyebar and pin connections , permitted longer iron bridge spans .
The technological design advances made by Whipple and Murphy , in addition to further advances in steel and iron fabrication , made wrought iron truss bridges a major industry in the United States . The Capon Lake bridge was a Whipple – Murphy truss bridge , since it incorporated Murphy 's later modifications with double @-@ intersections and horizontal chords . At the time of the bridge 's original fabrication in 1874 , metal truss bridges were ordered from catalogs by county courts and other entities responsible for transportation construction and maintenance . These entities provided the desired width , length , and other specifications , and the truss materials were shipped to the construction site and assembled by local construction teams . Metal truss bridges were more economically feasible , could span longer distances , and were simpler to construct than stone bridges , and they were more durable than wooden bridges . They were also marketed as detachable and transportable structures that could be dismantled and reassembled . The technology used in the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge revolutionized transport throughout West Virginia . While the Whipple truss bridge had waned in popularity by the 1890s , the bridges were commonly disassembled and re @-@ erected for use on secondary roads , as was the case with the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge in 1938 .
= = = T. B. White and Sons = = =
The construction company that built the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge , T. B. White and Sons , was established in 1868 . Its founder Timothy B. White had been a carpenter and contractor in New Brighton , Pennsylvania since the 1840s . White also operated factories for iron cars and woolen mill machinery until 1859 , when he began to concentrate solely on bridge construction . White 's bridge company operated from a factory on the Beaver River in New Brighton until the factory was destroyed by fire in 1878 . After the fire , the company relocated across the river to Beaver Falls and restructured as the Penn Bridge and Machine Works . In addition to iron truss bridges , the company produced a range of structural and architectural components and continued to expand ; it employed over 500 workers by 1908 . Penn Bridge and Machine Works fended off purchase by the American Bridge Company and continued to operate independently , unlike similar small bridge companies founded in the 19th century . The most prolific of its kind in the Pittsburgh region , the company was responsible for the construction of bridges throughout the United States .
= = = South Branch Bridge = = =
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was originally constructed in 1874 as part of the South Branch Bridge ( or the Romney Bridge ) , a larger two @-@ span Whipple truss bridge conveying the Northwestern Turnpike ( U.S. Route 50 ) across the South Branch Potomac River 0 @.@ 57 miles ( 0 @.@ 92 km ) west of Romney . The 1874 Whipple truss bridge across the South Branch replaced an 1838 wooden covered bridge that had been chartered by the Virginia General Assembly during the construction of the Northwestern Turnpike . Before the construction of the covered bridge in 1838 , a public ferry conveyed traffic across the river . Isaac Parsons ( 1752 – 1796 ) operated a ferry there following its establishment by an act of the Virginia General Assembly in October 1786 . The 1838 covered bridge remained in use until it was destroyed by retreating Confederate forces during the American Civil War . Throughout the course of the war , Romney reportedly changed hands 56 times between Confederate and Union forces , and the crossing of the South Branch Potomac River served as a strategic point due to its position along the Northwestern Turnpike , an important east – west route .
Following the conclusion of the war , nearly all bridges along the Northwestern Turnpike had been destroyed , including the South Branch Bridge . In order to restore local businesses and industry , Hampshire County citizens called a meeting and steps were taken at the local level to proceed with the construction of new bridges . Local citizens and the South Branch Intelligencer newspaper of Romney campaigned for the immediate replacement of the bridge because of " continual risk , danger and inconveniences arising from want of the South Branch Bridge at Col. Gibson 's ( destroyed during the war ) ... " . Hampshire County began issuing bonds for the construction of a new bridge over the South Branch in 1868 , and by 1874 , construction of the Whipple truss bridge had commenced . T. B. White and Sons were charged with the bridge 's construction .
The South Branch Intelligencer published periodic updates on the progress of the South Branch Bridge 's construction . According to the newspaper , the bridge was scheduled to be completed by July 1875 . During the course of construction , John Ridenour lost a finger while working on the bridge . The new South Branch Bridge was completed well ahead of schedule in October 1874 . The October 12 , 1874 , edition of the South Branch Intelligencer characterized the new bridge as a " complete , handsome and durable structure " , and further recounted that " the contractors , Messrs. White & Sons , New Brighton , Pennsylvania ' Penn Bridge & Machine Works , ' have given us , in general opinion , a first rate , durable work , and deserve our best commendations .... We are confident that ours will realize a very handsome income and fully vindicate the wisdom of the County Court in voting its construction . "
Following its construction in 1874 , the Whipple truss bridge over the South Branch Potomac River served Romney and travelers along the Northwestern Turnpike for 63 years . In 1935 , the West Virginia State Road Commission began organizing a project to replace the Whipple truss bridge , and construction of the new bridge had begun by 1936 . In November of that year , a car collided with the south side of the eastern Whipple truss span , which knocked the span completely off its eastern abutment . The car plunged into the South Branch Potomac River , followed by the compromised truss span , which collapsed on top of the car . Unaware of the span 's collapse , a car traveling from the west drove off the end of the west span at the bridge 's center pier , and fell onto the collapsed span . According to the Hampshire Review , the only serious injury sustained was a broken wooden leg . Following the collapse of the eastern Whipple truss span , a temporary wooden span was hastily constructed between the western truss span and the eastern abutment , so that traffic was uninterrupted until the new bridge was completed and opened on June 21 , 1937 . The 1937 bridge was used until 2010 when it was replaced by the current South Branch Bridge .
= = = Capon Lake Bridge = = =
Because Whipple truss bridges were easily disassembled and re @-@ erected , the remaining western span of the Whipple truss over the South Branch was dismantled in 1937 and relocated to Capon Lake in southeastern Hampshire County to convey Capon Springs Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 16 ) between West Virginia Route 259 and Capon Springs . According to Branson Himelwright , a Capon Springs resident who had been a construction worker involved in the re @-@ erection of the Whipple truss span at Capon Lake , the only two ways to cross the Cacapon River to reach Capon Springs were to cross a swinging footbridge or ford the river . During the bridge 's construction , a new pier and abutments were constructed to carry the Whipple truss span and a connected Pratt truss that had been salvaged from an unknown bridge . Himelwright and Jacob " Moss " Rudolph , who had also participated in the bridge 's construction , stated in interviews that both the site excavation and concrete work for the pier and abutments were completed by hand .
The newly erected Capon Lake Bridge was dedicated on August 20 , 1938 , with a ceremony including musical performances by the Romney High School and Capon Springs Resort bands . Former West Virginia Governor and Capon Springs native Herman G. Kump , West Virginia State Road Commission Secretary Cy Hammill , and numerous other state officials were in attendance at the dedication .
In 1991 , the new steel stringer Capon Lake Bridge was constructed 187 feet ( 57 m ) to the southwest of the Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge , after which the Whipple truss bridge was closed to vehicle traffic . Due to its rarity , age , and engineering significance , West Virginia Division of Highways District 5 decided to preserve the Whipple truss bridge . During the bridge 's restoration , the Pratt truss span was removed due to significant deterioration , and the roadway deck was also removed . A wooden pedestrian walkway and observation deck were constructed across the full span of the remaining truss bridge .
The Capon Lake Whipple Truss Bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 15 , 2011 , for its " engineering significance as an excellent example of a Whipple / Murphy Truss bridge . " Since its listing , the bridge has been maintained as a historic site for pedestrians by the West Virginia Division of Highways District 5 . In 2012 , the West Virginia Division of Highways , in association with the West Virginia Archives and the history department of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History , installed a historical marker at the northwestern entry to the bridge as part of the West Virginia Highway Historical Marker Program . The marker reads :
First erected in 1874 as a two span bridge on US 50 near Romney , one span was moved here in 1938 and re @-@ erected on a new foundation . The 17 ' wide by 176 ' long bridge is a Whipple – Murphy Truss . The state 's oldest extant metal truss , the bridge is one of a few of its type in WV . Listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2011 .
= Bella Bond murder case =
Bella Neveah Amoroso Bond ( August 6 , 2012 – May or June 2015 ) , previously known as the Deer Island Jane Doe and " Baby Doe " , was an American child found dead in a plastic bag on the shore of Deer Island in Boston , Massachusetts on June 25 , 2015 . Authorities pursued investigation into discovering who the child was until her identification in September 2015 .
The National Center for Missing & Exploited Children reconstructed the child 's face to provide the public with an estimation of the victim 's appearance during life . They aimed to generate tips to a potential identity and to locate the individual or individuals responsible for the disposal of her body . After the reconstruction was released and news coverage began nationwide a large amount of public attention emerged ; an estimated 56 million people viewed reports on the case . Half of these occurred within the first week after the body was found .
The publicity generated many tips with possible leads , one of which led to the girl 's identity . Bond was identified on September 18 , 2015 . Bond 's mother and her mother 's boyfriend were arrested , and authorities confirmed that Bella had been murdered , despite the fact that an initial autopsy performed on the body did not uncover the exact cause of death . Investigation is continuing toward solving the case , and the boyfriend of the victim 's mother was charged with her murder and her mother was charged as an " accessory after the fact " .
= = Discovery = =
The body was found inside a plastic garbage bag on the shoreline of Deer Island in Boston , Massachusetts . A woman walking her dog discovered Bond 's remains on the afternoon of June 25 , 2015 , when the dog stopped at the plastic bag . After the body was found , the public placed flowers near the scene . She wore only a pair of white leggings designed with a black polka @-@ dot pattern . A zebra @-@ print blanket was also inside the bag . Initially , police were unsure if there would be additional bodies at the scene , so they attempted unsuccessfully to use cadaver dogs to locate any other possible remains .
Authorities originally estimated that the girl had died within days of her discovery . Later developments in the case have suggested that Bella 's body had been " hidden in a fridge " for as long as one month before it was deposited on Deer Island . Despite the fact that she appeared to be deceased a short amount of time , she had already begun to decompose and become bloated , and so was impossible to identify visually . Decomposition had also made it impossible to collect fingerprints , due to exposure to the water . Investigators were able to conclude that she was a young child but were initially unsure of her race and ethnicity .
It was unknown how the remains had settled at the location ; the body might either have been placed at the beach or have drifted in the water from another location , some presuming from as far as Canada . The United States Coast Guard entered the investigation and analyzed the currents of the water in the area to estimate where the bag containing the remains could have originated from . Dive teams were also used around the time the body was discovered . As of mid @-@ July and August , authorities believed the victim had been placed at the scene , rather than washing onto Deer Island from another location , because the body was not in an advanced enough stage of decomposition . The beach is near a waste @-@ water treatment plant . One of the investigators thought there was a possibility that the disposal had been performed by an employee of the nearby water treatment plant . Since the area has been regarded as a " busy " area for both workers and the public , it was also possible that the person who placed the bag at the scene did so overnight , to avoid being seen .
= = Examination = =
A " preliminary " autopsy was conducted on July 3 but did not conclude what had caused the girl 's death . However , authorities suspected foul play as a factor in the case . Yet no signs of obvious injury have been found on the remains . Tests were later conducted to find any toxins , drugs or alcohol present in the body as a possible explanation for the death . Examiners were unable to find any trace of cleaners such as bleach in the remains , but continued with more testing in hopes of finding another toxin as a possible cause of death . After the identification of the victim , a conclusive cause of death had yet to be announced , yet all forms of a " natural death had been excluded " . Suffocation has not been ruled out as the cause .
The clothing found on the toddler , believed to be a " size 4T " was determined to have been manufactured by the Circo company and was likely sold at a Target store . The blanket was possibly made by the Cannon Mills company and sold at K @-@ Mart . A hair band made from elastic material was also found .
She was eventually determined to be between the ages of three and five and appeared to be white with possible Hispanic ancestry . Her hair was described as being " brown , wavy and fourteen inches in length " . It is presumed that the child 's hair was left untrimmed for approximately two years , judging by its length . It was also estimated that she was between three feet one and three feet six inches tall and weighed around thirty pounds . There were no distinct birthmarks or scars on the body . It was later discovered that the girl had pierced ears , so the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children released an updated image of the child wearing earrings . The girl appeared to have been " well @-@ cared for " during her life ; no signs of malnutrition or abuse were noted , and investigators stated the clothing also reinforced the theory .
= = Investigation = =
The National Center for Missing & Exploited Children digitally reconstructed the face of the child after preceding attempts to identify the body failed . The reconstruction was created in four hours using Adobe Photoshop with the influence of mortuary and " stock " photographs to give an estimation of the child 's appearance while alive . The reconstruction , created by forensic artist Christi Andrews , was released on July 2 , 2015 . Because of the end result of the composite created with Adobe Photoshop , many viewers mistook it for an actual photograph . The organization also digitally enhanced images of the leggings and the blanket found with the remains and created a poster featuring them on their website . Flyers containing images of the Jane Doe and her belongings were eventually dispersed in hopes of obtaining more information .
The child was entered into the National Missing and Unidentified Persons System on July 4 , 2015 , including details of the discovery of the subject and physical estimations . Many missing persons were excluded as possible identities ; authorities checked Shoshana Black , Paula Ramerez @-@ Figuroa , Ofir Ben – Haim , Cassidy Gibbs and Ayla Reynolds . Other leads were pursued involving children that were reported missing , some of whom were foreign to the United States . Some of the potential matches were later located alive . The disappearance case of Sarah Hoggle had been analyzed to have a possible link to the case , yet investigators stated it was " unlikely " to have been related to this case . In all , over two hundred missing people were ruled out from the case .
A press conference displaying the reconstruction and the enhanced images of the clothing and blanket was later held at the location where the body was found . It was televised to ask the public for assistance identifying the victim and to request of those that may have known her , especially her parents , to identify the girl . During the press conference , officials urged viewers to be aware of children that may have disappeared or gone uncounted for in the days leading up to the celebration of Independence Day . Despite their hopes , no one came forward to claim responsibility for the crime or to confirm who the victim was . Hundreds of tips were submitted over the phone and online and were investigated .
When searching missing persons databases produced few cases matching her profile , authorities began to believe that the child may never have been reported missing . They explored the guess that the family of the child could be unaware of her death . Another explanation for why no matches were achieved was that she could have belonged to an " undocumented " family . Police were focused on investigating in the local community , yet they believed it possible that the girl was not from the area and continued to search through various cases of missing children .
Among other theories about the case , early speculation was that the girl could have been murdered by a member of her family . A criminologist stated that it did not seem likely that she would have been " murdered by a stranger , " according to statistics of similar cases . The fact that she had been disposed of along with personal items reinforced this theory . The fact that there were not yet any tips from relatives with information about the child supported the idea that family members were involved with the disposal of the body — and possibly with her death . Investigators feared for other children that may have been in the care of those that disposed of the body , as they could be in danger . A different theory held that the child 's family members might also be deceased , having faced a similar demise .
= = = Forensic testing = = =
Forensics teams analyzed the DNA of Deer Island Jane to exclude some missing persons and in hopes of matching it to possible relatives of the girl whose DNA was on record . It was obtained through samples of hair and a tooth . The DNA did not match the profiles stored in databases of known missing persons . Officials stated that they also sent samples to the University of North Texas to create a more specific profile , a time @-@ consuming process . Mitochondrial DNA from the bones of the child was later developed to compare to possible relatives .
Besides DNA testing , authorities conducted efforts into forensic palynology as well as isotope examination of water found at the scene . Results of the testing indicated that the child had spent time in the local , urban area , most likely in Boston , as traces of both pine and soot were found through the tests . Eventually , it was also determined that she may have spent time in " any [ ... ] New England " state and possibly others . The hair and enamel tests also indicated she could have " moved across the country . "
= = Public interaction = =
Since the reconstruction and the story was publicized , an unexpectedly large amount of public interest in the case developed internationally . Many remarked on the so @-@ called " beauty " of the girl . Many people have since shared and viewed reports detailing the case on social networks , such as Twitter and Facebook . Several individuals offered to pay for the child 's funeral and burial if she could not be identified . One funeral home stated that they would donate the means to bury the child under a headstone , so she would not be buried in a pauper 's grave . Local businesses in the area began placing posters of the child in their buildings , hoping to create awareness for the case and to generate potential leads . The Massachusetts Water Resources Authority reported plans to donate a bench in memory of the girl . The digital reconstruction has been viewed an estimated fifty million times by the public , which officials have stated is significantly efficient in assisting with the case .
On July 10 , CNN News host Anderson Cooper interviewed the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children 's co @-@ founder and former emcee of America 's Most Wanted , John Walsh about the case . Walsh stated that " absolutely someone knows " the identity of the Jane Doe and that in similar cases , it was often the " live @-@ in boyfriend " or the mother of the child that had abused or neglected one of several children in a family , citing that the victim could have been " accidentally killed or starved to death . " When explaining a probable reason why the girl had remained unidentified , Walsh stated that " people do not want to talk to cops , " possibly due to the fear of authorities investigating their own lives . For instance , the family of Anjelica Castillo , who were undocumented immigrants and never reported the victim missing due to fear of deportation . Walsh encouraged viewers to contact him instead , giving the number for the show he hosts , The Hunt With John Walsh and the URL for his profile on the CNN website . He confirmed that those submitting tips could remain anonymous .
= = = Tips = = =
Many leads were followed that appeared to match the circumstances of the case . A woman witnessed throwing a garbage bag over a bridge was later questioned by police , but it was found that that bag contained only spoiled fruit . Other individuals stated they had seen toddlers resembling the Jane Doe , one at a store and another at a playground , seen with a woman clothed in a " burka . " Investigators were unable to find any trace of the girl at the store through information gathered by security cameras , and the subject at the playground has yet to be located . A man stated he believed he had seen the toddler in November 2014 at a laundromat with a " heavyset " and " dirty blond " woman pushing the child in a stroller .
The local police department reported that they received many tips suggesting possible identities for the child , those of missing girls throughout the country . Many readers online told police that the girl could be Aliya Lunsford of West Virginia , who disappeared on September 24 , 2011 . Lunsford would have been six at the time of the discovery and did bear a resemblance to the reconstruction of the Jane Doe , but she was later excluded from the case . The Massachusetts State Police later released statements on their Facebook pages regarding the exclusions of Lunsford , as well as Ayla Reynolds . Police were made aware of a possible link between the Jane Doe and Katherine Phillips , nicknamed as " Baby Kate , " who went missing in 2011 . Phillips ' body has never been recovered , despite the fact that her father has since been charged with her murder and convicted of kidnapping . Authorities expressed their doubts that the body was Katherine Phillips but said they would investigate the lead . DNA between the pair was eventually compared . Phillips was later ruled out as " Baby Doe " and an announcement to the public was released on July 10 .
Investigators set up a twenty @-@ four @-@ hour hotline for those with information on the case to call . A text hotline was also created . Many submitted information about potential matches , later revealed to be missing children in over half of the United States as well as European and South and Central American countries . A total of eighty @-@ four billboards , including digital signs donated by Clear Channel , were also placed across the state of Massachusetts , encouraging individuals to report tips to the anonymous hotlines created for the child .
= = Identification = =
The child was identified as Bella Neveah Amoroso Bond on September 18 , 2015 . The identification was made after the sister of one of Rachelle Bond 's neighbors reported to police a link between Bond and the Jane Doe . Apparently , the neighbor had noticed Bella was absent from the household and had confronted Rachelle Bond and her boyfriend Michael McCarthy . They stated that the girl had been " taken away by the Department of Children and Families " ( this was later disproved ) . Subsequently , the neighbor told his sister that he believed that " Baby Doe " was Bella Bond , and she contacted authorities .
On September 17 , 2015 , a search warrant was executed at the home of Rachelle Bond , 40 , the child 's mother , in Dorchester , Massachusetts . Since the identification was made , images of the toddler from her mother 's Facebook page have been released .
= = = Later developments and trials = = =
Rachelle Bond , known as a habitual drug user , had two other children that had been removed from her custody . She had also been arrested multiple times in the past , for other crimes , including prostitution . Police commented that they had dealt with complaints that she was neglecting her daughter and had had four separate encounters with Bond . Bella 's family was interviewed after the identification was announced . Her aunt stated that she had never suspected that " Baby Doe " was Bella , and the maternal grandmother of the victim was unaware that the child was ever born . The Department of Children and Families had responded to two neglect complaints regarding Bella ; both cases were closed .
Police released the information that the child was a murder victim and charged Michael McCarthy , the mother 's boyfriend , with Bond 's death . They also charged her mother with being an accessory to the crime , believing her to have assisted McCarthy with " covering up " Bella 's death . Larceny was added to Rachelle Bond 's charges after it was discovered that she accepted $ 1 @,@ 400 of welfare income after she knew about the death of her daughter . The pair were arraigned on September 21 , 2015 . Rachelle 's bail was set for one million dollars ; McCarthy was not eligible for bail . McCarthy was scheduled to appear in court again on February 16 , 2016 , after Rachelle Bond 's appearance on January 6 . A judge later set Rachelle Bond 's trial date to December 1 , 2016 .
Authorities have acknowledged that since the exact cause of Bella 's death remains unknown , asserting that it was homicide to a jury could be " difficult to prove . " Rachelle Bond alleged that McCarthy had punched the toddler in the stomach multiple times after claiming Bella was a " demon " , and that he was the sole perpetrator of the murder . Prosecutors of McCarthy allege that Bella was murdered in one of many abusive occasions after she had been uncooperative about going to bed . Citing that McCarthy had decided to " calm the child down , " they say Rachelle had not entered the room alongside her boyfriend . When she did enter , they say she witnessed him near the girl 's body , which was " swollen and gray , " indicating she was deceased . Rachelle Bond 's attorney claims McCarthy threatened to murder her client if she contacted authorities . She also maintained that Rachelle was not involved with hiding the victim 's body , which had initially been placed in garbage bags and concealed in a refrigerator . A cadaver dog brought to the house later indicated that it smelled something on the refrigerator . Bond contradicted the belief that the body was placed on Deer Island ; she stated that McCarthy had placed the body in a weighted duffel bag and disposed of it in the water , suggesting it drifted to the location where it was found .
McCarthy claimed Rachelle was responsible for the death . McCarthy 's lawyer objected to claims made by Rachelle Bond 's defense and stated that his client had no knowledge of Bella 's death , saying no sufficient evidence exists to indicate otherwise . They have also claimed that he had moved out of Rachelle Bond 's residence before Bella 's death . McCarthy claimed he had left after witnessing Rachelle 's negative treatment of Bella , which included emotional and physical abuse . His defense also cited that Rachelle 's statements could not be confirmed and that she was more likely to have killed her daughter because of her drug history . The claim of Bella being beaten to death was also challenged , as the autopsy did not indicate any signs of injuries consistent with what Rachelle described . Other claims exist that accuse Rachelle Bond of fabricating the story as a way to avoid being charged with murder . It was announced that McCarthy had sent Rachelle a text message that said " don 't tell them you have a daughter . We don 't want [ the Department of Children and Families ] getting involved " .
Bella 's biological father , Joe Amoroso , had allegedly never met his daughter , but had spoken over a telephone with her . Amoroso had stated he had learned of Bella 's death when Rachelle told him during a visit , within a week before the identification was made . He states that he believed that Bond would not ever have hurt her daughter . Amoroso elaborated in another interview that he believed Rachelle had been " sedated " with an injection of heroin by her boyfriend quickly after Bella 's death , as a " track mark " visible on her neck could not be the result of her own action . Unlike her son , Bella 's paternal grandmother stated that she believed Rachelle Bond was heavily involved in Bella 's death and openly questioned the truthfulness of her allegations toward Michael McCarthy . Amoroso announced plans to bury Bella in Winthrop , Massachusetts among family members , stating he had decided to have the " funeral and wake services to be public . " Bella Bond was buried on November 28 , 2015 at the Winthrop Cemetery during a private funeral , after her parents later came to a consensus not to have the service open to the public . She was buried under a headstone reading " Bella N. Bond Amoroso " with the date of death listed as the day she was discovered .
= Remy Hamilton =
Remy Martin Hamilton ( born August 30 , 1974 ) is a former American football kicker who played in the National Football League ( NFL ) and Arena Football League ( AFL ) . In college , he was an All @-@ American for the Michigan Wolverines football team . As a professional , he played for the Detroit Lions of the NFL in addition to exhibition and training camp experience with the Seattle Seahawks , St. Louis Rams and Chicago Bears . He also played for the Grand Rapids Rampage , Carolina Cobras , Milwaukee Mustangs , Los Angeles Avengers , and Dallas Desperados of the AFL . In the AFL , he holds records for all @-@ time career points and single @-@ season kick points.c
At Michigan , he set the current Big Ten Conference record for single @-@ season field goals , which is 25 . He ranks both first and second in school history in single @-@ season field goals made and co @-@ holds the school record for consecutive field goals made along with Brendan Gibbons . He is the only All @-@ American placekicker in Michigan history .
= = Early years = =
Hamilton attended Spanish River Community High School in Boca Raton , Florida , where he was a three @-@ sport star in football , soccer , and tennis . In football , he played as a kicker , punter , defensive back , and quarterback , and as a senior , the Sun @-@ Sentinel named him the Offensive Player of the Year . In his senior season , Hamilton passed for 1 @,@ 147 yards and 12 touchdowns , and rushed for 249 yards and six touchdowns .
= = College career = =
Hamilton attended the University of Michigan
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starts mimicking the song , whilst in the frame . The story of the woman in the frame is told throughout the video — after crossing a field , she finds the mansion . Her photograph is taken by the dressed @-@ in @-@ black Ellis @-@ Bextor , and she is trapped in the frame . Whilst walking down a staircase , the " temptress " passes by a bearded man who stares at her interestingly . Both enter the mansion , where they drink ; the dressed @-@ in @-@ black Ellis @-@ Bextor holds his hand . She convinces him to take his photograph , and after realizing it is a trap , he tries to escape . However , the " temptress " finds him running and takes his photograph ; trapping him in a frame as well .
" Love Is a Camera " has been performed throughout Ellis @-@ Bextor 's 2014 tour in promotion of Wanderlust . Whilst singing the track , Ellis @-@ Bextor would reference her participation on Strictly Come Dancing and dance a " half @-@ hearted sway " , as musicOMH 's Helen Clarke described it . Reviewing her concert at the Bush Hall , James Lachno of The Daily Telegraph lauded Ellis @-@ Bextor 's performance of the song . Lachno stated , " [ It was ] one of the oddest , and best , songs of the night . " After attending Ellis @-@ Bextor 's concert at the Oran Mor , an anonymous writer for The Scotsman commented that the song " sounded grand in the live setting " .
= = Track listing = =
Promotional CD single
Details adapted from the liner notes of " Love Is a Camera " ' s CD single .
" Love Is a Camera " ( Radio edit ) – 3 : 21
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Wanderlust .
Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor – lead vocals , songwriting
Ed Harcourt – backing vocals , guitar , keyboards , piano , production , samples , synth
Arnulf Lindner – double bass
Richard Woodcraft – engineering , mixing
Miles Showell – mastering
= = Weekly charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Ricardio the Heart Guy =
" Ricardio the Heart Guy " is the seventh episode of the first season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez , from a story by Merriwether Williams , Tim McKeon , and Adam Muto . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 26 , 2010 . The episode guest stars George Takei as the title character , Ricardio .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn believes that Princess Bubblegum 's ( voiced by Hynden Walch ) new friend , a heart named Ricardio , is evil , and is proven right after learning that Ricardio is the heart of the Ice King ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) . Ricardio reveals that he wants to " make out " with Bubblegum 's heart , but he is defeated by Finn and Jake .
Ricardio would become a minor recurring villain , reappearing in the fourth season entry " Lady & Peebles " . After the episode aired , series composer Casey James Basichis posted a video explaining his inspiration and the method in which he produced the music featured in the episode . Basichis largely scored the episode with opera music , because he felt the genre suited Ricardio . " Ricardio the Heart Guy " was watched by 1 @.@ 91 million people and received largely positive critical attention , with many reviews praising Takei 's voice work .
= = Plot = =
After the Ice King captures Princess Bubblegum , Finn and Jake manage to save her . Bubblegum is so happy that she decides to throw a party for Finn as a thank you . Finn makes a Paper Crane for Bubblegum as a gift , but Jake says that Finn has a crush on her , which Finn denies . When they arrive at the party , however , no one notices them ; everyone , including Bubblegum , is too preoccupied with a heart @-@ shaped man named Ricardio . He and Bubblegum begin discussing scientific topics on the dance floor , which leaves Finn feeling jealous .
Finn begins to think that Ricardio is a villain , but Jake just notes that Finn is jealous . However , the two spy on Ricardio to see if he is evil or not . They see Ricardio going into a dumpster and acquiring a rope and broken bottles . Then they see him throwing the Ice King into the dumpster , so they decide to question Ricardio about being a super @-@ villain . Finn punches Ricardio right when Bubblegum comes . Mad and upset , she takes Ricardio away . However , the Ice King soon crawls toward Finn and Jake , looking sickly . He reveals that Ricardio is actually his own heart , which gained sentience after the Ice King performed a failed love spell . Ricardio desires to cut out Bubblegum 's heart and make it his bride .
Finn and Jake race to Bubblegum 's castle and find her tied to a chair , with Ricardio about to rip her heart out . Finn and Jake then fight Ricardio and manage to beat him up . The Ice King crawls into the castle and places Ricardio back into his chest . Later during dinner , Bubblegum tells Finn that he does not need to be jealous anymore , but Finn denies that he was jealous in the first place .
= = Production = =
" Ricardio the Heart Guy " was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez , from a story by Merriwether Williams , Tim McKeon , and Adam Muto . Directed by Larry Leichliter , the episode introduces the recurring villain Ricardio , played by George Takei , a character that Tom Kenny later called " the valentine from Hell " . Takei later reprised the role in the season four episode " Lady and Peebles " . Initial drafts of the character featured him looking more like an anthropomorphic heart , complete with arteries and ventricles . Ricardio is one of the few individuals in the Adventure Time universe to have a highly detailed face ; during the commentary for the episode , his design was compared to that of the face on the moon in the 1902 French silent film Le Voyage dans la Lune , based on H.G. Wells 's 1901 novel The First Men in the Moon .
After the episode aired , series composer Casey Basichis posted a video explaining his inspiration and method of producing the music featured in the episode . According to the video , Basichis created a " skeleton " of the score in his shower using his voice and a ukulele ; the audio was captured on a phone . Originally , the score was going to have a " New York City , taxi , and jazz " feel , but Basichis was unhappy with the genre choice , and changed the feel . For the music that played while the Ice King interacted with Ricardio , Basichis was inspired by the score from the original seven @-@ minute short . In addition , opera singer Karen Vuong lent her voice to the episode . According to Basichis , Vuong was able to record her vocals successfully in one take . Basichis chose opera because he knew it had a reputation for being " sickeningly intellectual " and " preoccupied with murder " , traits that he felt suited Ricardio .
= = Reception = =
" Ricardio the Heart Guy " first aired on Cartoon Network on April 26 , 2010 . The episode was watched by 1 @.@ 91 million viewers , and scored a 1 @.@ 3 / 2 percent Nielsen household rating , meaning that it was seen by 1 @.@ 3 percent of all households and 2 percent of all households watching television at the time of the episode 's airing . The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2011 Adventure Time : My Two Favorite People DVD , which included 12 episodes from the series ' first two seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete first season DVD in July 2012 ; commentary for the episode was also included on the DVD .
The episode garnered mostly positive reviews from critics . Matt Fowler of IGN , in a review of the My Two Favorite People DVD , noted that while " the idea of a walking , talking heart named Ricardio [ … ] who plans to cut out Princess Bubblegum 's heart is potent nightmare fuel " , the show nevertheless " finds a way to make that grim idea accessible and fun . "
Takei 's appearance as Ricardio gained critical favor . Charlie Anders of io9 named Takei 's appearance in the episode as one of his " greatest moments " , noting , " how could we have missed that Takei did the voice for this sleazy science @-@ talking heart on Adventure Time , our new favorite show ? " Tyler Foster of DVD Talk called Ricardio one of the highlights of the season . The A.V. Club reviewer Oliver Sava , in a review for " Lady & Peebles " , wrote that Ricardio is " always welcome on this series , largely due to Takei ’ s delightful voice work . " Furthermore , he praised the way that Takei delivered his lines , noting that " there ’ s a theatrical smarminess to his vocals that is a stark contrast to the Ice King ’ s nasality " , and that " Takei always sounds like he ’ s having a great time reading the ridiculous lines that are written for him . "
= Restoration spectacular =
The Restoration spectacular , or elaborately staged machine play , hit the London public stage in the late 17th @-@ century Restoration period , enthralling audiences with action , music , dance , moveable scenery , baroque illusionistic painting , gorgeous costumes , and special effects such as trapdoor tricks , " flying " actors , and fireworks . These shows have always had a bad reputation as a vulgar and commercial threat to the witty , " legitimate " Restoration drama ; however , they drew Londoners in unprecedented numbers and left them dazzled and delighted .
Basically home @-@ grown and with roots in the early 17th @-@ century court masque , though never ashamed of borrowing ideas and stage technology from French opera , the spectaculars are sometimes called " English opera " . However , the variety of them is so untidy that most theatre historians despair of defining them as a genre at all . Only a handful of works of this period are usually accorded the term " opera " , as the musical dimension of most of them is subordinate to the visual . It was spectacle and scenery that drew in the crowds , as shown by many comments in the diary of the theatre @-@ lover Samuel Pepys . The expense of mounting ever more elaborate scenic productions drove the two competing theatre companies into a dangerous spiral of huge expenditure and correspondingly huge losses or profits . A fiasco such as John Dryden 's Albion and Albanius would leave a company in serious debt , while blockbusters like Thomas Shadwell 's Psyche or Dryden 's King Arthur would put it comfortably in the black for a long time .
= = Introductory : " A lion , a crocodile , a dragon " = =
The distinction between " legitimate " Restoration drama and the Restoration spectacular , or " musical spectacular , " or " Dorset Garden spectacular , " or " machine play " is one of degree rather than kind . All plays of the period featured music and dancing and some scenery , most of them also songs . Restoration heroic drama , for all its literariness , relied on opulent scenery . However , the true spectacular , of which Milhous counts only eight over the entire 1660 – 1700 Restoration period , was produced on a whole different scale . The spectacular is defined by the large number of sets and performers required , the vast sums of money invested , the potential for great profits , and the long preparation time needed . Milhous calculates a likely requirement of at least four to six months of planning , contracting , building , and rehearsing , to be compared with the four to six weeks of rehearsal time a new " legitimate " play would get .
Previous generations of theatre historians have despised the operatic spectaculars , perhaps influenced by John Dryden 's sour comments about expensive and tasteless " scenes , machines , and empty operas " . However , audiences loved the scenes and machines and operas , as Samuel Pepys ' diary shows . Dryden wrote several baroque machine plays himself . The first , The State of Innocence ( 1677 ) , was never staged , as his designated company , the King 's , had neither the capital nor the machinery for it : a dramatisation of John Milton 's Paradise Lost , it called for " rebellious angels wheeling in the air , and seeming transfixed with thunderbolts " over " a lake of brimstone or rolling fire " . The King 's Company 's Theatre Royal , Drury Lane was not up to lakes of rolling fire ; only the " machine house " at Dorset Garden was , and that belonged to the competition , the Duke 's Company . When the two companies had merged in the 1680s and Dryden had access to Dorset Garden , he wrote one of the most visual and special @-@ effects @-@ ridden machine plays of the entire Restoration period , Albion and Albanius ( 1684 – 85 ) :
The Cave of PROTEUS rises out of the Sea ; it consists of several arches of Rock @-@ work adorned with mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , coral , and abundance of shells of various kinds . Through the arches is seen the Sea , and parts of Dover @-@ pier ; in the middle of the Cave is PROTEUS asleep on a rock adorned with shells , & c. like the Cave . ALBION and ACACIA seize on him ; and while a symphony is playing , he sinks as they are bringing him forward , and changes himself into a Lion , a Crocodile , a Dragon , and then to his own shape again ; he comes forward to the front of the stage , and sings . "
How were such effects produced , and how did they look ? The crocodile etc. obviously used the floor trap , but was it an illusionistically painted figure worked with sticks , or a man in a crocodile suit ? There are no extant drawings or descriptions of machinery and sets for the Restoration theatre , although some documentation exists for court masques from the first half of the 17th century , notably the work of Inigo Jones and his pupil John Webb . One reason for the lack of information for the public theatres is that stage effects , and particularly machines , were trade secrets . Inventors of theatrical effects took great pains to hold on to their secrets , and the playhouses guarded their machine workings as zealously as a magician guards her or his tricks .
What the technology and the visual experiences were can only be tenuously inferred from stage directions . Milhous concludes from a review of Dorset Garden performances that " at a conservative estimate " the theatre was equipped to fly at least four people independently , and had some very complex floor traps for " transformations " such as that of Proteus . The plates printed in the first edition of Elkanah Settle 's Empress of Morocco ( 1673 ) ( see detail , top right ) are the only pictures of actual Restoration stage sets . Pepys ' mentions of stage effects in his diary , 1660 – 68 , give the modern reader some help in visualising what audiences saw in the 1660s , and even more in entering into their enthusiasms , but the 1660s were still early days . There are scarcely any descriptions or reactions preserved from the heyday of the machine play in the 1670s – 90s , although a general idea of its technology can be gathered from the better @-@ documented French and Italian opera scenery which inspired Thomas Betterton at Dorset Garden Theatre .
= = 1625 – 1660 : Court masques and stealth performances = =
In the early 17th century , moveable " scenes " — painted wings and backdrops — and technical " machines " or " devices " for flying and other special effects were used in the masques produced for and by the court of Charles I. In William Davenant 's Salmacida Spolia ( 1640 ) , for instance , the last of the court masques before the Civil War , Queen Henrietta Maria ( pregnant at the time ) makes her entrance " descending by a theatrical device from a cloud . " As early as 1639 , Davenant had obtained a royal patent authorising construction of a large new public theatre with technology that would allow such effects and accommodate music , scenery , and dancing . Such an invasion of court @-@ drama technique in the public theatre met opposition from " legitimate " dramatists , and before the opposition could be overcome , the war had closed down the theatres in 1642 .
The public stage ban 1642 – 60 imposed by the Puritan regime represents a long and sharp break in dramatic tradition , but was still never completely successful in suppressing the ideologically hateful make @-@ believe of play @-@ acting . Performances in grand private houses were not unusual , and could have quite elaborate sets , as can be seen from the extant drawings for the original performance of Davenant 's opera The Siege of Rhodes ( 1656 ) at his home Rutland House . This was public theatre in all but name , as Davenant charged 5 shillings for admission . Some professional actors also managed to scrape a living and evade the authorities in stealth acting companies in London , such as that of Michael Mohun at the Red Bull Theatre . Professional writers from the previous era were growing middle @-@ aged , biding their time , and hoping for the monarchy to be restored . By the later 1650s , it was becoming obvious that that time was at hand , and William Davenant , for example , stepped up his theatrical activities .
= = 1660s : Company competition = =
= = = William Davenant , impresario = = =
When the public performance ban was lifted at the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 , Charles II immediately encouraged the drama and took a personal interest in the scramble for acting licences and performance rights which followed . Two middle @-@ aged pre @-@ Commonwealth playwrights notable for their loyalty during Charles ' exile emerged from the struggle with royal Letters Patent for new , or refurbished , patent theatre companies : Thomas Killigrew and William Davenant . Killigrew was able to take over Michael Mohun 's skilled veteran troupe for his " King 's Company " and to start with " what was essentially a going concern " ( Hume ) , with the added advantage of the traditional performance rights Mohun brought with him for practically the whole classic repertory of William Shakespeare , Ben Jonson , and the Beaumont and Fletcher team . The competition , Davenant 's " Duke 's Company " , seemed doomed to a secondary position with its young , scratched @-@ together troupe and scarcely any performance rights . They were only allowed to put on abridged and modernized versions of Shakespeare plays , and a few that Davenant had written . However , Davenant , " a brilliant impresario " ( Hume ) , was soon able to turn the tables on Killigrew by realising his old pre @-@ Civil War dream of music , dance , and spectacular visual effects on the public stage .
During the autumn of 1660 , while the Duke 's Company was still getting financed ( mostly by means of the actors buying company shares ) and having temporary quarters set up , the King 's Company offered a string of well @-@ received productions . Their new albeit traditional theatre in Vere Street was already fully operational . The devoted playgoer Samuel Pepys called it " the finest playhouse ... that ever was in England " in his diary , a sentiment he would need to revise many times over the coming decade , and recorded his awe at seeing Michael Mohun , " who is said to be the best actor in the world " , act on its stage . Davenant was far behind , but daringly put all his capital into the outfitting of a new superior playhouse in Lincoln 's Inn Fields ( simultaneously , with great foresight , prying loose the rising young star Thomas Betterton from the King 's Company ) , and perfectly hit public taste .
= = = Changeable scenery = = =
Lincoln 's Inn Fields opened on 28 June 1661 , with the first " moveable " or " changeable " scenery used on the British public stage , i.e. wings or shutters that ran in grooves and could be smoothly and mechanically changed between or even within acts . The production was a revamped version of Davenant 's own five @-@ year @-@ old opera The Siege of Rhodes . It is not known who painted the scenes or shutters , or whether continental craftsmen were responsible for the technical construction , but the result was such a sensation that it brought Charles II to a public theatre for the first time . The competing King 's Company suddenly found itself playing to empty houses , as Pepys notes on 4 July :
I went to the theatre [ in Vere Street ] and there I saw Claracilla ( the first time I ever saw it ) , well acted . But strange to see this house , that use to be so thronged , now empty since the opera begun — and so will continue for a while I believe .
The Siege of Rhodes " continued acting 12 days without interruption with great applause " according to the prompter John Downes in his " historical review of the stage " Roscius Anglicanus ( 1708 ) . This was a remarkable run for the limited potential audience of the time . As four more acclaimed Duke 's Company productions " with scenes " followed at Lincoln 's Inn Fields in the course of 1661 ( including Hamlet ) , all highly admired by Pepys , the King 's Company had no other recourse than to hastily commission a changeable @-@ scenery playhouse of their own . Bowing to the inevitable just seven months after the opening of Lincoln 's Inn Fields , Killigrew and his actors signed orders for a new , even more magnificent , theatre in Bridges Street . This theatre , the first step in the war of spectacle escalation of the 1660s , was so full when Pepys and his wife went to see an opera there that " they told us we could have no room " . The large , yet compact , Restoration playhouses , with audience capacities from 700 ( Bridges Street ) to upwards of 2 @,@ 000 ( the next house on the same site , the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , finished in 1674 ) , were enormous investments , financed through selling shares in the companies , which were thus bound to make more and more money from ticket sales . Not only the theatres and their technical equipment , but the flats painted for a single performance , the special effects , and the elaborate stage clothes , were extremely expensive . Audiences appreciated both luxury and appropriateness of décor and costume : Pepys was quite capable of going several times to see a play that , as such , he disliked , purely for the pleasure of viewing striking and innovative scenery like " a good scene of a town on fire " . The companies struggled to outdo each other in catering to these expensive tastes , with precarious finances and the ever @-@ present consciousness that the investments could literally burn to the ground in a few hours . When the theatre in Bridges Street did burn down in January 1672 , with its entire stock of scenery and costumes , it was an economic blow from which the King 's Company 's never recovered .
The Duke 's Company , operating smoothly under what soon became Davenant 's and Thomas Betterton 's joint management , consistently led the way while the King 's lagged further and further behind , moving only in forced response and suffering from chronic management conflict between Killigrew and powerful actor shareholders like Michael Mohun and Charles Hart , who insisted on actor @-@ centred " talk " drama . The difference can be traced in Pepys ' regular preference for performances at the Duke 's , and in his ever @-@ renewed admiration for Betterton 's acting . In December 1667 , the King 's Company even ceased acting for some days because of a quarrel between Mohun and Hart . With the escalation of expense , days with zero takings were a very serious matter . The crowning grand investment of the Duke 's Company was totally beyond the King 's means to respond to : the " machine house " at Dorset Garden .
= = 1670s : Machine theatre = =
= = = Dorset Garden Theatre = = =
An era came to an end in 1668 with two events : Davenant died suddenly , leaving a messy ownership situation for the Duke 's Company , and Pepys ' eyesight forced him to stop keeping a diary . Thomas Betterton , though formally a minority shareholder , continued to run the Duke 's Company , and , in the spirit of Davenant , commissioned the most elaborate of the Restoration playhouses , the theatre at Dorset Garden ( or Dorset Gardens ) , with a flat for himself on top . Although the Dorset Garden Theatre quickly became a famous and glamorous venue , very little is concretely known about the building and outfitting of it : a vague and undocumented tradition ascribes its design to Christopher Wren . The absence of Pepys ' record means that performance data for the next decades are only patchily known .
= = = " Obliged to the French " = = =
The machines at Dorset Garden and several of the most flamboyant production concepts realised through them were strongly influenced by the French opera and tragédie en machines . Paris was home to the most elaborate visual and musical stage productions in Europe , and Betterton travelled to Paris in the summer of 1671 to learn from the sensation of the season , the comédie @-@ ballet Psyché by Molière , Corneille , and Quinault , to music by Lully . " For several things concerning the decoration of the play , I am obliged to the French " , acknowledged Thomas Shadwell in the introduction to his own Psyche in 1674 . Even more directly influential were the French operatic visits to London , which sparked off a new interest in opera proper in London audiences . In a brilliant move , the King 's Company , all but bankrupt after the crushing blow of the fire in Bridges Street , invited the French musician Robert Cambert to perform his opera Ariadne as one of the first productions at their new playhouse in Drury Lane . The Duke 's Company responded to the visual gorgeousness of this guest appearance with a Shakespearean extravaganza at Dorset Garden : Shadwell 's adaptation of Davenant 's and Dryden 's version of Shakespeare 's Tempest , a piece designed to show off the new machinery :
The Front of the Stage is open 'd , and the Band of 24 Violins , with the Harpsicals and Theorbo 's which accompany the Voices , are plac 'd between the Pit and the Stage . While the Overture is playing , the Curtain rises , and discovers a new Frontispiece , joyn 'd to the great Pylasters , on each side of the Stage ... Behind this is the Scene , which represents a thick Cloudy Sky , a very Rocky Coast , and a Tempestuous Sea in perpetual Agitation . This Tempest ( suppos 'd to be rais 'd by Magick ) has many dreadful Objects in it , as several Spirits in horrid shapes flying down amongst the Sailers , then rising and crossing in the Air . And when the Ship is sinking , the whole House is darken 'd , and a shower of Fire falls upon ' em . This is accompanied with Lightning , and several Claps of Thunder , to the end of the Storm .
This multiplication of effects at the very outset of the play served as a shock and foretaste of what the audience would find farther along .
= = = Dorset Garden specials = = =
The technical capacities of Dorset Garden were little used for Restoration comedy , and , while most heroic drama included some scenes that showed off the perspective stage or used some of the simpler machines , spectacle on this limited scale could be just as well staged at Drury Lane . The plays for which Dorset Garden was built , the " machine plays " of the 1670s and 1680s and the operas of the 1690s , were a category to themselves , different from ordinary serious drama : more static , more mythological , much more gorgeous , infinitely more expensive . So elaborate was the scale of these productions , and so long each preparation time , that only five " machine plays " were produced during the 1670s ; yet they were hugely important for the finances of the Duke 's Company , mostly in a positive sense . They were Davenant 's version of Macbeth ( 1672 – 73 ) , Settle 's Empress of Morocco ( probably 1673 ) , Shadwell / Dryden / Davenant 's Tempest ( 1673 – 74 ) , Thomas Shadwell 's long @-@ awaited Psyche ( 1674 – 75 ) , and Charles Davenant 's Circe ( 1676 – 77 ) .
Psyche had not one , but two , extremely elaborate sets for each of five acts . This is the setting for the beginning of Act 3 :
The Scene is the Palace of Cupid , compos 'd of wreath 'd Columns of the Corinthian Order ; the Wreathing is adorn 'd with Roses , and the Columns have several little Cupids flying about ' em , and a single Cupid standing upon every Capital . At a good distance are seen three Arches , which divide the first Court from the other part of the Building : The middle Arch is noble and high , beautified with Cupids and Festoons , and supported with Columns of the foresaid Order . Through these Arches is seen another Court , that leads to the main Building , which is at a mighty distance . All the Cupids , Capitals and Inrichments of the whole Palace are of Gold . Here the Cyclops are at work at a forge , forging great Vases of Silver . The Musick strikes up , they dance , hammering the Vases upon Anvils . After the Dance , Enter Vulcan .
( The gold cupids on the columns are due to come to life and jump off . ) The use of perspective scenery and many arches is evident here , creating an illusion of the first court being " at a good distance " and the next " at a mighty distance " . This creation of fake depth was a favourite device , repeated when the scene changed halfway through the act :
The scene changes to the principal street of the city , with vast numbers of people looking down from the tops of houses , and out of the windows and balconies , which are hung with tapestry . In this street is a large triumphal arch , with columns of the Doric order , adorned with the statues of Fame and Honour , & c. beautified with festoons of flowers ; all the enrichments of gold . Through this arch , at a vast distance , in the middle of a piazza , is seen a stately obelisk .
The numbers of performers used , mainly dancers , is clearly staggering compared to the regular comedy or serious play , where the norm was something like 10 – 15 actors plus a few extras . Although actual numbers are generally vague in these mass scene stage directions , dance scenes like that of the cyclops , and all the cupids who will join them on the floor minutes later , rely on coordination , choreography , and generous collective effects . Of course the many highly paid dancers would be busy in many roles , returning as townspeople after the scene change of Act 3 with most of the gold paint hastily washed off , and entranced looking upwards to see " Mars and Venus meet in the air in their chariots , his drawn by horses , and hers by doves " .
Each production was a gamble . The aspect of the machine plays that posterity knows most about is their economics , as this was what the old prompter Downes most vividly recalled when he wrote his Roscius Anglicanus in 1708 . The scenery alone for Psyche cost more than £ 800 , which can be related to the entire annual box office takings for the company of £ 10 @,@ 000 . Ticket prices for these performances would be raised to up to four times normal . Both Psyche and The Tempest actually complained of the production costs in their epilogues , hinting pointedly that the public ought to reward the " poor players " for their risk @-@ taking and for offering splendours that had so far been reserved for royal masques :
We have stak 'd all we have to treat you here ,
And therefore , Sirs , you should not be severe .
We in one Vessel have adventur 'd all ;
The loss , should we be Shipwrack 'd , were not small .
...
Poor Players have this day that Splendor shown ,
Which yet but by Great Monarchs has been done .
The audience apparently agreed , transfixed by such sights as Venus ascending into the heavens and " being almost lost in the clouds " , whereupon " Cupid flies up and gets into her chariot , and brings her back " , followed by Jupiter appearing on a flying eagle . Psyche turned out highly profitable . It is altogether a pattern that the 1670s productions did make money , while those of the 1680s and 1690s barely broke even or were actual economic disasters .
= = = Parody : " Fire , apples , nuts " = = =
Even after the King 's Company got their new well @-@ appointed playhouse in Drury Lane in 1674 , they could not take full advantage of it , as they lacked the capital to mount competitive spectaculars . Instead , they attempted to simultaneously capitalise on and snipe at the Duke 's most successful mid @-@ 1670s offerings by mounting several burlesques or parodies of them , written by Thomas Duffett . The records for the mid @-@ 1670s are particularly incomplete , and neither exact dates nor the public reaction to Duffett 's pieces are known , but even the printed versions , pale shadows of Duffett 's travesty spectacles , have proved highly amusing to modern critics . The first of them , The Empress of Morocco , caricatured simultaneously Settle 's Empress of Morocco and the sumptuous new Dorset Garden production of Davenant 's Macbeth adaptation , with Duffett 's three witches flying in over the pit on brooms at the high point of the action , followed by the descent of Heccate over the Stage " in a glorious chariot , adorned with pictures of hell and devils , and made of a large wicker basket " . The Mock Tempest improves on the shower of fire over the audience in the Dorset Garden pseudo @-@ Shakespearean tempest scene with a rain of " fire , apples , nuts " .
= = 1680s : Political spectacular = =
There was no investment in spectaculars during the political unrest of 1678 – 84 with the Popish Plot and the Exclusion Crisis , lean years for theatre . In 1682 , the companies merged , making Dorset Garden 's technical resources available to Dryden , who rapidly got over his principled objection to the superficiality of " spectacle " and " empty operas " . The orgy of machinery and extravagant visuals that he went on to write , Albion and Albanius ( 1684 – 85 ) , is quoted in the " Introductory " section , with the cave of Proteus rising out of the sea . Here is Juno in her flying peacock machine :
The Clouds divide , and JUNO appears in a Machine drawn by Peacocks ; while a Symphony is playing , it moves gently forward , and as it descends , it opens and discovers the Tail of the Peacock , which is so large , that it almost fills the opening of the Stage between Scene and Scene .
Unusual visual allegory in this Tory panegyric of Charles II and the House of Stuart includes a figure representing the radical Whig leader Anthony Ashley @-@ Cooper , 1st Earl of Shaftesbury " with fiend 's wings , and snakes twisted round his body ; he is encompassed by several fanatical rebellious heads , who suck poison from him , which runs out of a tap in his side . " In an investor 's nightmare , while Dryden 's propaganda piece was in preparation , Charles II died , James II succeeded him , and the Monmouth Rebellion which Shaftesbury had fomented broke out . On the very day of the premiere , June 3 , 1685 , the Duke of Monmouth landed in the west . " The nation being in a great consternation " , recollected Downes , " it was performed but six times , which not answering half the charge they were at , involved the company very much in debt . " This traumatic fiasco ruled out all further operatic spectacle investment until the calmer times after the Glorious Revolution of 1689 .
= = 1690s : Opera = =
While the monopoly United Company 's takings were being bled off by Davenant 's shyster sons , one of whom , Alexander , was forced to flee the country in 1693 and other predatory investors , Thomas Betterton continued to act as de facto day @-@ to @-@ day manager and producer , enjoying a budget on the scale of Cecil B. DeMille . In the early 1690s , he staged the three real operas of the Restoration spectacular genre , or the shows usually so designated : Dioclesian ( 1689 – 90 ) by Massinger / Fletcher / Betterton ; King Arthur ( 1690 – 91 ) by John Dryden ; and The Fairy @-@ Queen ( 1691 – 92 ) , adapted from Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream by perhaps Elkanah Settle , all of them graced by music by Henry Purcell , and together perhaps a sign of the coming 18th @-@ century vogue for Italian opera . The lavish variety entertainment Dioclesian , adapted by Betterton , with many monsters , dragons , and machines , from Massinger and Fletcher 's History of Dioclesian , was very popular throughout the 1690s and made a lot of money for the United Company . So did Dryden 's much more serious King Arthur , the first operatic entertainment that Hume is prepared to consider an artistic success , with Purcell 's marvellous music a major part of the entertainment and the songs " for once well integrated into the play " .
At the very end of its history , the economics of the Restoration spectacular spiralled out of control with the magnificent production of The Fairy Queen in the 1691 – 92 season . It was a great popular success , but so stuffed with special effects and so expensive that it nevertheless proved impossible to make money from it . As Downes recalls : " Though the court and town were wonderfully satisfied with it ... the expenses in setting it out being so great , the company got little by it . " Its twelve @-@ foot @-@ high working fountain and six dancing real live monkeys have become notorious in theatre history .
The spectacular play died out with the Restoration period , but spectacle would continue on the English stage as the splendours of Italian grand opera hit London in the early 18th century . The dangerous Restoration economic spiral of the ever @-@ more @-@ expensive machine plays would teach 18th- and 19th @-@ century theatrical entrepreneurs to dispense with playwrighting altogether and minimise the cast , utilising any number of surprising effects and scenes in the dumbshow of pantomime and Harlequin , without attendant costs in music , dramatists , and cast .
There have been a small number of attempts to resurrect the Restoration spectacular as a background to modern cinema : Terry Gilliam 's The Adventures of Baron Munchausen features at its start perhaps the most accurate reconstruction , with painted scenery , mechanisms and lighting effects typical of the period .
= Ben Gascoigne =
Sidney Charles Bartholemew " Ben " Gascoigne AO ( 11 November 1915 – 25 March 2010 ) was a New Zealand @-@ born Australian optical astronomer and expert in photometry who played a leading role in the design and commissioning of Australia 's largest optical telescope , the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope , one of the world 's most important astronomical facilities . Born in Napier , New Zealand , Gascoigne trained in Auckland and at the University of Bristol , before moving to Australia during World War II to work at the Commonwealth Solar Observatory at Mount Stromlo in Canberra . He became skillful in the design and manufacture of optical devices such as telescope elements .
Following the war , Gascoigne and astronomer Gerald Kron used newly modernised telescopes at Mount Stromlo to determine that the distance between our galaxy and the Magellanic Cloud dwarf galaxies had been underestimated by a factor of two . Because this measurement was used to calibrate other distances in astronomy , the result effectively doubled the estimated size of the universe . They also found that star formation in the Magellanic Clouds had occurred more recently than in the Milky Way ; this overturned the prevailing view that both had evolved in parallel . A major figure at Mount Stromlo Observatory , Gascoigne helped it develop from a solar observatory to a centre of stellar and galactic research , and was instrumental in the creation of its field observatory in northern New South Wales , Siding Spring Observatory . When the British and Australian governments agreed to jointly build the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope at Siding Spring , Gascoigne was involved from its initial conception and throughout its lengthy commissioning , taking its first photograph . Gascoigne was made an Officer of the Order of Australia for his contributions to astronomy and to the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope .
Gascoigne and his wife , artist Rosalie Gascoigne , had three children . After he retired , Gascoigne wrote several works on Australian astronomical history . He acted as Rosalie 's photographer and assistant , using his technical skills to make her artworks resilient for public display .
= = Early life = =
Ben Gascoigne 's parents met and married in Levin , New Zealand , just before the First World War . They soon moved to Napier , where Gascoigne was born in 1915 . He attended Auckland Grammar School , and won a scholarship to Auckland University College ( now the University of Auckland ) a year before he was due to finish high school . Faced with a choice between studying history or the sciences , he chose the latter because he had a severe stammer and thought that it would be less of an impediment . He completed both a Bachelor 's degree and a Master 's qualification in science , securing Honours in both mathematics and physics , finishing his studies in 1937 . Despite these achievements , he did not consider himself to be practically trained , saying : " I was still very much a theorist , with no practical physics at all . The professor in Auckland used to wince when I walked past the cupboard in which the good instruments were kept ! "
In 1933 , while studying at the University , he met his future wife Rosalie Norah King Walker , although they did not marry for another decade . Rosalie completed a Bachelor of Arts while Gascoigne was studying in Auckland ; she also studied at Auckland 's teacher training college while he was in Bristol .
Although Gascoigne had always intended to study mathematics at Cambridge , an event occurred that significantly shaped his career . In 1931 , an earthquake in New Zealand killed Michael Hiatt Baker , a young traveller from Bristol , and his parents established a postgraduate scholarship in his memory , for study at the University of Bristol , which Gascoigne won and took up in 1938 . During his thesis studies at Bristol , Gascoigne developed a diffraction theory of the Foucault test that is used for evaluating the shape of large telescope mirrors . He completed his doctorate in physics in 1941 , but by then war had broken out in Europe , and he had already returned to New Zealand on the last available ship .
= = War service 1940 – 1945 = =
Returning to a job in the physics department at Auckland , Gascoigne worked on military optics , developing gun sights and rangefinders , although he did not remain there for long . Richard van der Riet Woolley , director of the Commonwealth Solar Observatory in Canberra ( now Mount Stromlo Observatory ) , sought out Gascoigne because his " experience in optical work [ was ] unique " and Gascoigne was " trained in a way that no one else in Australia has been qualified " . When in 1941 Gascoigne was offered a research fellowship by Woolley , he moved to Canberra . The Solar Observatory staff had similar responsibilities to those Gascoigne had held in New Zealand . His first task was to design an anti @-@ aircraft gun sight , and he was also involved in a range of other military optical projects . In 1944 , the Melbourne Observatory , home to the Commonwealth Time Service , was closed . Gascoigne reestablished the Time Service at Mount Stromlo , using two Shortt @-@ Synchronome clocks and astronomical observing equipment that he and his colleagues adapted ; the Time Service remained at Mount Stromlo until 1968 . The knowledge and experience Gascoigne gained during the war proved valuable . He was at the only facility in Australia where optical work could be done , from design and manufacture to assembly and testing . Gascoigne developed a wide range of skills and " finished up quite practical , especially with a screwdriver . "
A decade after Gascoigne first met Rosalie in New Zealand , she travelled to Canberra , and on 9 January 1943 they were married . Their first son , Martin , was born in November , and their second , Thomas , was born in 1945 .
= = Mount Stromlo = =
Following the end of the war Woolley redirected the Commonwealth Observatory from solar research towards the study of stars and galaxies . It took time to get the old and unused telescopes back up to working condition : they had to be overhauled and refurbished , and in one case rebuilt from scrap . Woolley got funding approval from the Prime Minister for construction of a 74 @-@ inch telescope , but it would not be finished for years . Gascoigne began to work in the nascent field of photoelectric photometry , using electrical devices to measure the brightness of stars more accurately than had been possible using photographic techniques . In 1951 , with equipment brought by visiting astronomer Gerald Kron from California 's Lick Observatory , he observed Cepheid variable stars , which are used to measure astronomical distances . Granted nine months of observing time on the Observatory 's Reynolds 30 @-@ inch reflector telescope – an extraordinary opportunity – Gascoigne , Kron and others surveyed Cepheid stars in both the Small Magellanic Cloud and , later , the Large Magellanic Cloud . They also examined the colours of star clusters in the Small Cloud . The research produced remarkable results : " it meant that the Magellanic Clouds were twice as far away as was previously thought , and if then the baseline is twice as long , the size of the universe is doubled . " It also showed that star formation in the Magellanic Clouds had occurred more recently than in the Milky Way . The results overturned the prevailing view that our galaxy and the Magellanic Clouds had evolved in parallel . Gascoigne said of his work :
When suddenly all this dropped into place , after I had been working away at it for quite a while , measuring more Cepheids in our own Galaxy and some in the Large Cloud , the feeling of triumph , the great feeling that I had really done something , was wonderful . I had joined the professional astronomers . Not only that , but I truly understood a problem , a proper problem ...
Subsequent research confirmed what were described as pioneering results , arrived at through very innovative techniques .
In 1949 , the Gascoignes ' third child , daughter Hester , was born . Like many Observatory personnel , the Gascoignes lived in a staff residence on Mount Stromlo , which was a long difficult trip away from Canberra . It was cold and lonely , particularly for Rosalie , but they enjoyed the outdoors , and the landscape inspired Rosalie 's creativity and later her artistic career . In 1960 they relocated to Deakin in suburban Canberra , and in the late 1960s they moved to another suburb , Pearce .
In 1957 , administrative responsibility for the Commonwealth Observatory was transferred from the Australian Government 's Department of the Interior to the Australian National University ( ANU ) , a move supported by both its director , Richard Woolley , and Gascoigne . This was an era of significant change at Mount Stromlo : in January 1956 Woolley had resigned as director of Mount Stromlo to take up a position as Astronomer Royal and director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich . He was replaced by Bart Bok , whom Gascoigne liked and under whose directorship he played a significant role . Also in 1957 , the Mount Stromlo team began searching for a new field observatory site , due to the increased light pollution from Canberra 's growth . The search was vigorously promoted by Bok , and after an examination of 20 possible locations , two were shortlisted : Mount Bingar , near Griffith , New South Wales , and Siding Spring , near Coonabarabran , New South Wales . Gascoigne was one of a group of scientists who visited Siding Spring Mountain as part of the search , and he was one of those who advocated this choice :
We had to climb the last bit on foot ... [ I was ] the first astronomer to set foot on Siding Spring . I liked the look of the place right away , partly because it had such good features for astronomy – for example , the north and west faces had sheer cliffs that were very good for draining away the cold air – and because of its beautiful outlook , on the edge of the national park . It really is a wonderful place to be .
In 1962 , Siding Spring was selected , and by 1967 Siding Spring Observatory was fully operational .
At the end of Woolley 's directorship , the 74 @-@ inch telescope he had initiated finally came online . Gascoigne , looking for a new research project and keen to use the new telescope , took up the study of globular clusters , compact groups of tens of thousands of ancient stars of similar age . With a new design of photometer , he was able to measure the exceptionally faint stars in these clusters . Gascoigne determined that the clusters in the Magellanic Clouds were both young and old , and had quite different characteristics to those in the Milky Way : this information was important for modelling the evolution of galaxies .
In 1963 , Gascoigne developed a device , known as an optical corrector plate , which allowed wide field photography on the new 40 @-@ inch telescope at Siding Spring . Such corrector plates were subsequently used on many telescopes and became known as Gascoigne correctors . During this period he was also active in supporting the establishment of a national research organisation for astronomers , the Astronomical Society of Australia . It held its first meeting in 1966 , and Gascoigne was made its first vice @-@ president .
When Bok retired as Stromlo 's director in early 1966 , Gascoigne became acting director for three months until the arrival of Bok 's replacement , American astronomer Olin J. Eggen . Eggen was an enormously productive scientist , but was " enigmatic " , " somewhat gruff " and selective in the friendships he formed . Although Eggen and Gascoigne had previously collaborated on research projects , when Eggen arrived to take up the post , he and Gascoigne did not get on well , in contrast to Gascoigne 's relationships with other astronomers . Gascoigne said of Eggen : " he made it clear I had no further part in running the Observatory . I was given no information , saw no documents , attended no meetings , and was asked for no advice , not even in optical matters . "
= = Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope = =
In 1963 Gascoigne published an article in the journal Nature titled " Towards a Southern Commonwealth Observatory " . Gascoigne was then given a significant opportunity that became the focus of the remainder of his paid academic career : to help establish one of the world 's largest optical telescopes , at Siding Spring . In the early 1960s , the Australian and British governments proposed a partnership to build a joint optical telescope facility , and Gascoigne was among the experts involved . Former Mount Stromlo director and now head of the Greenwich observatory , Richard Woolley , was prominent in supporting the project from the British end . In 1967 , the two governments formally agreed to collaborate on the construction of a large telescope , to be known as the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope ( AAT ) . Given the existing infrastructure of the ANU 's Siding Spring Observatory , the site was readily agreed as the location for the AAT . Gascoigne was one of the four members of the Technical Committee established to guide the telescope 's development . He provided leadership on the design and optics of the new telescope , and was made the chief commissioning astronomer in 1974 .
A bitter struggle over the management and operation of the new facility went on for some years . The Australian National University and the director at Stromlo , Olin Eggen , wanted the telescope to be under the control of the University while other Australian astronomers , including some at Stromlo , and the British wanted it established independently . Gascoigne 's co @-@ authored history of the telescope states that " None of the eight fellow of the Australian Academy of Science [ Gascoigne was one of them ] supported the ANU " and in 1973 the debate was resolved in favour of an independent structure , the Anglo @-@ Australian Observatory . Gascoigne was one of only a few Stromlo employees who ended up working on the AAT for an extended period during its establishment phase : the Anglo @-@ Australian Observatory chose to offer short @-@ term positions rather than academic tenure like that at the ANU .
The work at Siding Spring was rewarding , but it could also be dangerous . During construction , Gascoigne constantly warned colleagues to take care on the elevated catwalks around the telescope . However , Gascoigne himself was almost killed when , while working one night around the telescope structure , he fell seven metres to the floor of the observatory , narrowly missing " a massive steel structure with long protruding bolts " . He survived , and was the first to take a photograph using the telescope , on 26 or 27 April 1974 . Gascoigne was so pleased with the quality of the optics that he said he wanted a number describing the hyperboloid shape of the mirror ( 1 @.@ 1717 ) engraved on his headstone . The site quickly became one of the world 's most important astronomical observatories and was for many years home to world @-@ leading astrophotographer David Malin . The successes of the AAT have been documented in annual reports by its Board , while a 2008 analysis of the relative impacts of astronomical observing facilities placed the AAT in the top three , coming after only the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the W. M. Keck Observatory ( both telescopes built more than two decades later ) . For Gascoigne , it was " a wonderful thing to be associated with – the high point in my life . "
It was during the period of Gascoigne 's association with the Anglo @-@ Australian telescope that he and his wife commissioned architect Theo Bischoff to design a house for them , which was planned and constructed between 1967 and 1969 . Bischoff , who was responsible for numerous Canberra residences , designed a modernist home to the detailed , if contrasting , instructions from his client couple , who in turn were heavily influenced by their negative experiences with Canberra housing , particularly their home on Mount Stromlo . Based on Gascoigne 's interest in optics , and Rosalie 's strong visual sense as an artist , the resulting design " was based on maximising the potential for observation " , creating " a form of habitable optical instrument " .
= = Artist 's assistant and historian = =
By the middle of 1975 , the Anglo @-@ Australian Telescope was fully operational , and Gascoigne was offered a job with the new telescope , based in Sydney . By this time his wife was emerging as a significant artist who relied on the landscapes and materials around their home for her inspiration . Gascoigne decided to return to the Australian National University in Canberra ; he retired a few years later in 1980 , and supported Rosalie in her work .
Gascoigne completed a course in welding and became his wife 's assistant , making " her assemblies of ' found objects ' safer and more durable " . He also catalogued and photographed her work , describing himself as " artist 's handyman , cook , and archivist . " Rosalie Gascoigne 's artistic career came late – she was almost 60 when she held her first solo shows – and her rise was " meteoric " ; five public galleries purchased works from her early exhibitions . She died in 1999 . In 2008 , Gascoigne donated Rosalie 's final major work , a ten @-@ panel installation titled Earth ( 1999 ) , to the National Gallery of Australia .
As well as being an astronomer , Gascoigne was a scholar of the history of Australian astronomy . He wrote histories of major telescopes , such as the Melbourne Telescope and the AAT . He wrote biographies for the Australian Dictionary of Biography , including those of the first trained astronomer at Canberra 's Mount Stromlo Observatory , William Bolton Rimmer , and pioneering Australian astronomer Robert Ellery .
Gascoigne died on 25 March 2010 . A memorial service was held at St John 's Church in Reid , Canberra , on 12 April .
= = Recognition and legacy = =
Gascoigne was widely respected for his astronomical skills and his generous nature . English astronomer and writer Sir Fred Hoyle , at one time the Chairman of the AAT , gave Gascoigne considerable credit for the telescope 's success , and astronomer Harry Minnett likewise credited him , together with Roderick Oliver Redman , for the telescope 's extremely good optics . Former AAT director Russell Cannon regarded Gascoigne as a world leader in his field , as well as being " a delightful man " . Historian of astronomy Ragbir Bhathal considered Gascoigne to have been an important figure in Australian astronomy , responsible for substantial advances in the field .
In 1966 , Gascoigne was elected a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science . He was made an Honorary Fellow of the Astronomical Society of Australia ; became the first person to be elected as an Honorary Member of the Optical Society of Australia ; and was the first Australian to be elected as an Associate of the Royal Astronomical Society . On 11 June 1996 , Gascoigne was made an Officer of the Order of Australia for his contributions to astronomy and to the AAT . On 1 January 2001 , he was awarded the Centenary Medal , for his service to society and to astronomy .
= = Select bibliography = =
Scientific journal articles
Kron , Gerald E. ; White , Howard S. ; Gascoigne , S. C. B. ( 1953 ) . " Red and Infrared Magnitudes for 138 Stars Observed as Photometric Standards " . Astrophysical Journal 118 : 502 . Bibcode : 1953ApJ ... 118 .. 502K. doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 145778 .
Gascoigne , S. C. B. ; Burr , E. J. ( 1956 ) . " Surface photometry of the globular clusters 47 Tucanae and Omega Centauri " . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 116 ( 5 ) : 570 . Bibcode : 1956MNRAS.116 .. 570G. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / mnras / 116 @.@ 5 @.@ 570 .
Kron , G.E. ; Gascoigne , S. C. B. ; White , H. S. ( 1957 ) . " Red and infrared magnitudes for 282 stars with known trigonometric parallaxes " . Astronomical Journal 62 : 205 – 220 . Bibcode : 1957AJ ..... 62 .. 205K. doi : 10 @.@ 1086 / 107521 .
Gascoigne , S. C. B. ( 1966 ) . " Colour @-@ magnitude diagrams for nine globular @-@ like clusters in the Magellanic Clouds " . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 134 : 59 . Bibcode : 1966MNRAS.134 ... 59G. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / mnras / 134 @.@ 1 @.@ 59 .
Gascoigne , S. C. B. ( 1969 ) . " Further observations of Magellanic cloud cepheids " . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 146 : 1 . Bibcode : 1969MNRAS.146 .... 1G. doi : 10 @.@ 1093 / mnras / 146 @.@ 1 @.@ 1 .
Books
Gascoigne , S. C. B. ; Proust , Katrina M. ; Robins , Malcolm Owen ( 1990 ) . The creation of the Anglo @-@ Australian Observatory . Cambridge UK : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 35396 @-@ 3 .
= Hadropithecus =
Hadropithecus is a medium @-@ sized , extinct genus of lemur , or strepsirrhine primate , from Madagascar that includes a single species , Hadropithecus stenognathus . Due to its rarity and lack of sufficient skeletal remains , it is one of the least understood of the extinct lemurs . Both it and Archaeolemur are collectively known as " monkey lemurs " or " baboon lemurs " due to body plans and dentition that suggest a terrestrial lifestyle and a diet similar to that of modern baboons . Hadropithecus had extended
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molars and a short , powerful jaw , suggesting that it was both a grazer and a seed predator .
The monkey lemurs are considered to be most closely related to the living indriids and the recently extinct sloth lemurs , although recent finds had caused some dispute over a possible closer relation to living lemurids . Genetic tests , however , have reaffirmed the previously presumed relationship . Hadropithecus lived in open habitat in the Central Plateau , South , and Southwest regions of Madagascar . It is known only from subfossil or recent remains and is considered to be a modern form of Malagasy lemur . It died out around 444 – 772 CE , shortly after the arrival of humans on the island .
= = Etymology = =
The common names that Hadropithecus shares with Archaeolemur , " monkey lemurs " and " baboon lemurs " , come from their dental and locomotor adaptations , which resemble that of modern African baboons . The genus Hadropithecus is derived from the Greek words αδρος , hadros , meaning " stout " or " large " , and πίθηκος , pithekos , meaning " ape " . The species name derives from the Greek root στενο- , steno- , meaning " narrow " , and γναθος , gnathos , meaning " jaw " or " mouth " .
= = Classification and phylogeny = =
Hadropithecus stenognathus is classified as the sole member of the genus Hadropithecus and belongs to the family Archaeolemuridae . This family in turn belongs to the infraorder Lemuriformes , which includes all the Malagasy lemurs . The species was formally described in 1899 from a mandible ( lower jaw ) found at Andrahomana cave in southeastern Madagascar by paleontologist Ludwig Lorenz von Liburnau , who thought it represented an ape . A year later , Lorenz von Liburnau also described Pithecodon sikorae based on photographs of a skull , which upon further review turned out to be a juvenile version of Hadropithecus stenognathus . In a publication from 1902 , he declared that Hadrophithecus stenognathus was not an ape , but a lemur . Over 100 years later , the rarity of its skeletal remains has made this species one of the least understood species of subfossil lemur .
Based on similarities in their skull and teeth , it was later thought that monkey lemurs ( Hadropithecus and Archaeolemur ) were a sister group to the living indriids and the recently extinct sloth lemurs ( family Palaeopropithecidae ) . However , there was some debate over whether the monkey lemurs or the sloth lemurs were more closely related to today 's indriids . The monkey lemurs had skulls that more closely resembled the indriids , but their teeth were very specialized and unlike those of the indriids . The sloth lemurs , on the other hand , had teeth like the indriids , but very specialized skulls . The matter was settled with the discovery of new skeletons of Babakotia and Mesopropithecus , two genera of sloth lemur , both of which had indriid @-@ like skulls and teeth . More recently , postcranial remains of Hadropithecus found in the early 2000s prompted the suggestion that the monkey lemurs were more closely related to the lemurids . However , DNA sequencing has reaffirmed the sister group status of the monkey lemurs to indriids and sloth lemurs .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Hadropithecus stenognathus has been estimated to have weighed between 27 and 35 kg ( 60 and 77 lb ) and to have been roughly as large as Archaeolemur , although more gracile . Newer subfossil finds , however , suggest that Hadropithecus may have been more robust , and more like a gorilla than a baboon . It may also have been less agile than Old World monkeys . Both lemurs were quadrupedal ( walked on four legs ) . There is no evidence of cursoriality ( adaptations specifically for running ) in either species , and although Hadropithecus could have climbed trees , it lacked adaptations for leaping or suspension .
Although fewer postcranial remains have been discovered for Hadropithecus than for Archaeolemur , what has been found indicates that both were adapted for a terrestrial or semi @-@ terrestrial lifestyle , an unusual trait for lemurs . Both genera had short limbs and a powerful build . Due to its specialized dentition and likely diet , Hadropithecus is thought to have been the more terrestrial of the two , since Archaeolemur may have sent more time foraging and sleeping in the trees . Both genera also have shortened hands and feet , an adaptation for walking on the ground .
The face of Hadropithecus was shortened and adapted to heavy stress from chewing . The monkey lemurs had highly specialized teeth , but Hadropithecus went further by specializing in strong grinding . It had expanded molars that wore down quickly , much like those of ungulates , and its posterior premolars acted like molars to extend the grinding surface . It also had a robust mandible to facilitate crushing hard objects . Even the strepsirrhine toothcomb was reduced in this species . Its dental formula was 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 31 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 × 2 = 34
The skulls of both Hadropithecus and Archaeolemur indicate that monkey lemurs had relatively large brains compared to the other subfossil lemurs , with Hadropithecus having an estimated endocranial volume of 115 ml .
= = Ecology = =
Like all other lemurs , Hadropithecus was endemic to Madagascar . Because it died out only recently and is only known from subfossil remains , it is considered to be a modern form of Malagasy lemur . It once ranged across the Central Plateau , South , and Southwest regions of Madagascar . Within its original range , there were few other lemurs to overlap its ecological niche , and it has been shown to be the only subfossil lemur to consume both C3 and C4 ( or CAM ) plants , an indication that it lived in more open habitats and had a varied diet . Its physiology and dentition suggest that it may have been much like the Gelada Baboon in locomotion and diet , acting as a manual grazer ( picking grass with the hands ) since its teeth were well @-@ adapted for grinding either grass or seeds . Microwear patterns on its teeth , as well as its overly large molars , indicate it processed hard objects like nuts or seeds , making it a seed predator . More recent microwear analysis suggests differences between Gelada Baboons and Hadropithecus , indicating that this extinct lemur may not have been a grazer , but strictly a hard object processor .
= = Extinction = =
Because of the low number of subfossil finds , Hadropithecus is thought to have been rare , and it died out sooner than its sister taxon , Archaeolemur . Both disappeared shortly after the arrival of humans to the island , but being a large , specialized , terrestrial grazer , Hadropithecus would have faced more pressure from domestic livestock , introduced pigs , and spreading human populations than its more generalized cousin . The last known record was radiocarbon dated to around 444 – 772 CE .
= Nine Inch Nails live performances =
Nine Inch Nails , an industrial rock band fronted by Trent Reznor , did various live performances throughout the world , including tours in North America , South America , Europe , Australia , Japan , and China . While Reznor controls the creative and musical direction of Nine Inch Nails in @-@ studio , the touring band performs different arrangements of the songs in live settings . In addition to regular concerts , the band has performed in both supporting and headlining roles at festivals such as Woodstock ' 94 , Lollapalooza 1991 and 2008 , as well as many other one @-@ off performances including the MTV Video Music Awards . Prior to their 2013 tour , the band played 938 gigs .
Nine Inch Nails ' live performances contrast with its in @-@ studio counterpart . Reznor writes and performs nearly all Nine Inch Nails studio material , with occasional instrumental and vocal contributions from others artists . However , Reznor has typically assembled groups of backing musicians to interpret songs for tours and other live performances . Keyboardist Alessandro Cortini said that " if you see the show and you 're used to the CDs it 's pretty clear that the studio entity is different from the live entity " .
The only constant member of the live band is Reznor . Live Nine Inch Nails performances are typically accompanied by lighting , stage , and video projection effects . Since 1999 , the visual design components of live shows have been curated by Reznor with Rob Sheridan . Three tours have been chronicled on live albums and tour documentaries .
Critical and commercial response to Nine Inch Nails live performances has generally been positive . Critics have pointed to the concerts ' aggressive on @-@ stage dynamic and visual designs as high points . Reznor decided in 2008 to cease touring with the band after a 2009 farewell tour . The band resumed touring in 2013 , with the group planning a set of concerts in the U.S. beginning September 28 .
= = History = =
= = = Pretty Hate Machine Tour Series ( 1988 – 1991 ) = = =
Reznor assembled the first live line @-@ up in 1988 to support the Canadian industrial music band Skinny Puppy on tour . The three @-@ piece band consisted of Reznor on guitars and lead vocals , Ron Musarra on drums , and Chris Vrenna on keyboards . The band was poorly received , however , and they were asked to leave the tour after 10 dates . After the Skinny Puppy tour the band was rearranged and expanded to include a fourth member ; Musarra departed and Vrenna moved to drums , Gary Talpas , Nick Rushe , and later David Hymes contributed on keyboards , while Richard Patrick was added as guitarist .
Nine Inch Nails toured North America as an opening act for The Jesus and Mary Chain in 1990 , and later for Peter Murphy . During these tours , Reznor began to smash equipment while on stage , and Rockbeat interviewer Mike Gitter attributed the band 's early success to this aggressive attitude . In 1991 , the band undertook a world tour that continued through the first Lollapalooza festival , where , according to biographer Martin Huxley , they " stole the show " . New Musical Express had a sentiment after the performance , describing the show as " genuinely frightening " , and asking the reader to " decide for yourself if it 's choreographed chaos or unbridled grievous bodily harm " . Nine Inch Nails was then invited to open for Guns N ' Roses on their European Tour , though they were reportedly poorly received yet again . Before the Lollapalooza date , Chris Vrenna left the band due to a fall out with Reznor , and was replaced for the remainder of the tour by drummer Jeff Ward . Vrenna would rejoin the band for the Self @-@ Destruct tour in 1994 . At the conclusion of the Pretty Hate Machine tour , Richard Patrick left the group to form his own band , Filter .
= = = Self @-@ Destruct ( 1994 – 1995 ) = = =
After the 1994 release of The Downward Spiral , the live band embarked on the Self @-@ Destruct tour in support of the album . The Nine Inch Nails live band embarked on the Self Destruct tour in support of The Downward Spiral . Chris Vrenna and James Woolley performed drums and keyboards respectively , Robin Finck replaced Richard Patrick on guitar and bassist Danny Lohner was added to the line @-@ up . The stage set @-@ up consisted of dirty curtains which would pulled down and up for visuals shown during songs such as " Hurt " . The back of the stage was littered with darker and standing lights , along with very little actual ones . The tour debuted the band 's grungy and messy image in which they would come out in ragged clothes slathered in corn starch . The concerts were violent and chaotic , with band members often injuring themselves . They would frequently destroy their instruments at the end of concerts , attack each other , and stage @-@ dive into the crowd .
The tour included a set at Woodstock ' 94 broadcast on Pay @-@ per @-@ view and seen in as many as 24 million homes . The band being covered in mud was a result of pre @-@ concert backstage play , contrary to the belief that it was an attention @-@ grabbing ploy , thus making it difficult for Reznor to navigate the stage : Reznor pushed Lohner into the mud pit as the concert began and saw mud from his hair going into his eyes while performing . Nine Inch Nails was widely proclaimed to have " stolen the show " from its popular contemporaries , mostly classic rock bands , and its fan base expanded . The band received considerable mainstream success thereafter , performing with significantly higher production values and the addition of various theatrical visual elements . Its performance of " Happiness in Slavery " from the Woodstock concert earned the group a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1995 . Entertainment Weekly commented about the band 's Woodstock ' 94 performance : " Reznor unstrings rock to its horrifying , melodramatic core--an experience as draining as it is exhilarating " . Despite this acclaim , Reznor attributed his dislike of the concert to its technical difficulties .
The main leg of the tour featured Marilyn Manson as the supporting act , who Reznor had recently signed to his Nothing Records label . At the time , Marilyn Manson featured bassist Jeordie White ( then playing under the pseudonym " Twiggy Ramirez " ) , who would later play bass with Nine Inch Nails from 2005 to 2007 . After another tour leg supporting the remix album Further Down the Spiral , Nine Inch Nails contributed to the Alternative Nation Festival in Australia and subsequently embarked on the Dissonance Tour , which included 26 separate performances with co @-@ headliner David Bowie . Nine Inch Nails was the opening act for the tour , and its set transitioned into Bowie 's set with joint performances of both bands ' songs . However , the crowds reportedly did not respond positively to the pairing due to their creative differences .
The tour concluded with " Nights of Nothing " , a three @-@ night showcase of performances from Nothing Records bands Marilyn Manson , Prick , Meat Beat Manifesto , and Pop Will Eat Itself , which ended with an 80 @-@ minute set from Nine Inch Nails . Kerrang ! described the Nine Inch Nails set during the Nights of Nothing showcase as " tight , brash and dramatic " , but was disappointed at the lack of new material . On the second of the three nights , Richard Patrick was briefly reunited with the band and contributed guitar to a performance of " Head Like a Hole " . After the Self Destruct tour , Chris Vrenna , member of the live band since 1988 and frequent contributor to Nine Inch Nails studio recordings , left the act permanently to pursue a career in producing and to form Tweaker .
= = = Fragility ( 1999 – 2000 ) = = =
In support of Nine Inch Nails ' third full @-@ length studio album , The Fragile , the live @-@ band reformed for the Fragility tour . The lineup remained largely the same from the Self @-@ Destruct tour , featuring Finck , Clouser , and Lohner . To replace long @-@ time member Vrenna , Reznor held open auditions to find a new drummer , eventually picking then @-@ unknown Jerome Dillon . Dillon would remain a member of the live band until 2005 .
Nine Inch Nails ' record label at the time , Interscope Records , reportedly refused to fund the promotional tour following The Fragile 's lukewarm sales . Reznor instead committed himself to fund the entire tour out of his own pocket , concluding that " The reality is , I ’ m broke at the end of the tour , " but also adding " I will never present a show that isn ’ t fantastic . "
The Fragility tour began in late 1999 , running until mid @-@ 2000 , and was broken into two major legs , Fragility 1 @.@ 0 and Fragility 2 @.@ 0 respectively . Destinations included Europe , Japan , New Zealand , Australia , and North America . Before the first Fragility performance date in Spain , Nine Inch Nails opened their final rehearsal in London to 100 fans . Kick @-@ starting the tour was a performance of the title track from The Fragile at the MTV Video Music Awards . Atari Teenage Riot opened for Nine Inch Nails during Fragility 1 @.@ 0 , and A Perfect Circle for Fragility 2 @.@ 0 . At the time , A Perfect Circle featured Josh Freese on drums , who would later replace Dillon and play drums for Nine Inch Nails from 2005 to 2007 . The tour featured increasingly large production values , including a triptych video display created by contemporary video artist Bill Viola . Rolling Stone magazine named the Fragility the best tour of 2000 .
In 2002 , the tour documentary And All That Could Have Been was released featuring a collection of performances from the Fragility 2 @.@ 0 tour . While making the DVD , Reznor commented on the tour in retrospect by saying " I thought the show was really , really good when we were doing it " , but later admitted that he " can 't watch [ the DVD ] at all . I was sick for most of that tour and I really don 't think it was Nine Inch Nails at its best " .
= = = Live : With Teeth ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
Following the release of With Teeth in 2005 , the live band was reassembled for the Live : With Teeth tour . Since the previous tour five years earlier , much of band had moved on in their careers , and only drummer Jerome Dillon rejoined . To find replacements , Reznor held auditions during December 2004 . He stated that keyboardist Alessandro Cortini " fit in immediately " , though he had trouble finding a guitarist to replace Robin Finck until auditioning Aaron North .
The tour began with a series of small @-@ club performances early in 2005 . The band told journalists they were " pleasantly surprised by the interest " of fans despite their lengthy absence . This initial leg of the tour also included a headlining performance at Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival . The band followed with a North American arena tour in autumn 2005 , supported by Queens of the Stone Age , Death From Above 1979 , Autolux , and Saul Williams . Williams performed on stage with Nine Inch Nails at the Voodoo Music Experience festival during a headlining appearance in hurricane @-@ stricken New Orleans , Reznor 's former home . To conclude the With Teeth era of the band , Nine Inch Nails completed a tour of North American amphitheaters in the summer of 2006 , joined by Bauhaus , TV on the Radio , and Peaches . The 2007 release Beside You in Time features performances from the North American arena tour , the North American amphitheater tour , and a number of studio rehearsals .
Nine Inch Nails were scheduled to perform at the 2005 MTV Movie Awards , but dropped themselves from the show due to a disagreement with the network over the use of an unaltered image of George W. Bush as a backdrop to the band 's performance of " The Hand that Feeds " . Soon afterwards , Reznor wrote on the official Nine Inch Nails website : " apparently , the image of our president is as offensive to MTV as it is to me " . MTV replied by saying they respected Reznor 's point of view , but were " uncomfortable " with the performance being " built around partisan political statements " . A performance by the Foo Fighters replaced Nine Inch Nails ' time slot on the show .
During the first arena performance in 2005 , Dillon was forced to stop midway through the show and was subsequently hospitalized . His condition was later diagnosed as a non @-@ life @-@ threatening cardiac disorder , a consequence of his thyroid medication . Dillon later remarked that when he was ready to return he encountered " complete apathy and no sympathy " from Reznor and Nine Inch Nails management . Reznor in turn wrote that Dillon 's " recollection of the events leading to his departure from the band is once again inaccurate " . Josh Freese initially replaced Dillon for two shows before Alex Carapetis joined the band for the remainder of the arena tour . Freese eventually replaced Carapetis and joined the band on a permanent basis .
= = = Performance 2007 ( 2007 ) = = =
Having taken a break from touring to complete work on Year Zero , Nine Inch Nails began a world tour in 2007 , including their first ever performance in China . Reznor continued to tour with the same band he concluded the Live : With Teeth tour , which was composed of North , White , Freese , and Cortini . Supporting acts included Ladytron , Unkle , The Dandy Warhols , Alec Empire , and Serena Maneesh .
The Year Zero project included an alternate reality game of the same name , with much of the game revolving around various live shows . During a Nine Inch Nails concert in Lisbon , Portugal , a USB flash drive was found in a bathroom stall containing a high @-@ quality MP3 of the track " My Violent Heart " , a song from the then @-@ unreleased album . A second USB drive was found after a concert in Barcelona , containing the track " Me , I 'm Not " . Following the release of Year Zero the focus of the tour shifted towards debuting and promoting tracks from the new album . While some of these songs were performed by all 5 band members as conventional guitar @-@ driven rock songs , two of them ( " Me , I 'm Not " and " The Great Destroyer " ) were played by Reznor , guitarist North and keyboard player Cortini as a 3 piece , using a combination of live guitars and pre @-@ programmed samples triggered onstage with computers and manipulated in real time using Ableton software .
In April 2007 , Nine Inch Nails fans received in @-@ game telephone @-@ calls in which they were invited to a " resistance meeting " in Los Angeles . At the meeting , fans attended a fictional Art is Resistance meeting , and were later rewarded by an unannounced performance by Nine Inch Nails . The concert was cut short as the meeting was raided by a fictional SWAT team and the audience was rushed out of the building .
Later that year , the Honolulu Star @-@ Bulletin reported that the September 18 show in Honolulu would be the last performance of the current incarnation of the Nine Inch Nails live band . Reznor told the newspaper " at this point , I want to switch things around a bit . Nine Inch Nails as a rock band configuration , we 've done it and we 've done it again . I see other ways I can present the material in concert , more challenging , something new . I don 't want it to go stale " . In the same article , Reznor also admitted that " the idea of five guys playing loud music [ for ] two hours ... has got to change once finances come into play , especially performing in markets outside of the mainland U.S. I want to whittle things down " .
= = = Lights in the Sky ( 2008 ) = = =
The seventh and eighth major Nine Inch Nails studio @-@ releases , Ghosts I – IV and The Slip , were released in March and May 2008 respectively . Both albums feature contributions from live @-@ band member Alessandro Cortini . Since the release of Ghosts I – IV , a 25 @-@ date tour was announced in several North American cities . Cortini and Freese returned as members from the previous tour , while Robin Finck rejoined the band . The lineup was initially to include Rich Fownes , but before any scheduled performances it was revealed that Justin Meldal @-@ Johnsen would instead be contributing on bass guitar .
Supporting acts for the tour include Deerhunter , Crystal Castles , Does It Offend You , Yeah ? , Ghostland Observatory , A Place to Bury Strangers , and White Williams . In early June , a tour EP was released for free on the Nine Inch Nails website featuring four songs from the supporting artists and one from Nine Inch Nails . The files are DRM @-@ free MP3s that are fully tagged , and included with the download are desktop wallpapers and a printable tour poster .
The band headlined the 2008 Lollapalooza festival , the 2008 Virgin Festival , and the first Pemberton Music Festival . In May 2008 , Nine Inch Nails announced that premium seating for all the upcoming 2008 tour shows would be offered in a pre @-@ sale for fans who registered at the official Nine Inch Nails website . In an effort to combat ticket scalpers , each concert ticket will list the purchaser 's legal name . The ticketing process was previously used for smaller pre @-@ sales and was available exclusively to fan club members . On July 26 , Reznor introduced an " unplugged " portion into the live show in which the band steps to the front of the stage about an hour into the show , with Reznor on vibraphone and bassist Meldal @-@ Johnsen playing an upright bass . The 20 @-@ minute jazzy , acoustic set is taken mostly from Ghosts I - IV . The stage show also featured mesh LED curtains that projected various visuals , ranging from falling rain to static to a ruined city , and made the band appear to be playing on " a stage that appeared to be constructed entirely out of lights . " Nine Inch Nails later confirmed that the tour was to extend to South America and it was thought this would be the last Americas set of dates but soon after Reznor announced yet more North American dates including two dates in tourist capital Florida .
On October 8 , 2008 , after finishing up their last show in South America , Reznor posted on the official Nine Inch Nails website blog that Josh Freese would be leaving the band following the completion of the current tour . Shortly after , it was announced that Alessandro Cortini would also be leaving the band . On November 15 , 2008 , Reznor announced via the official Nine Inch Nails website that Ilan Rubin of Lostprophets would be replacing Freese after his departure at the end of 2008 . No replacement was announced for Cortini , and the band subsequently toured as a 4 @-@ piece without a full @-@ time keyboard player .
= = = NIN | JA / Wave Goodbye ( 2009 ) = = =
In 2008 , Reznor decided to put Nine Inch Nails on indefinite hiatus . He later clarified that " NIN as a touring live band or live band that 's on the road all the time [ would be ] stopping " after a comprehensive tour , but that he would continue to produce music thereafter .
After a set of shows in Australia and New Zealand , Nine Inch Nails embarked on a North American tour of amphitheatres with Jane 's Addiction and Street Sweeper Social Club dubbed " NIN / JA 2009 " . Concerts in Europe and Asia were also announced before Reznor added a series of smaller @-@ venue shows in New York , Chicago , and Los Angeles . The final show was on September 10 , 2009 .
= = = Festival Circuit / Tension ( 2013 @-@ 2014 ) = = =
In February 2013 , Trent Reznor announced that Nine Inch Nails would begin touring once more , with festival performances in the summer , arena performances in the fall , and worldwide performances throughout 2014 . After Eric Avery and Adrian Belew dropped out during rehearsals , the festival tour lineup featured Alessandro Cortini , Josh Eustis , Robin Finck , Trent Reznor , and Ilan Rubin .
= = Visual elements = =
Visual elements employed during Nine Inch Nails concerts have often included numerous lighting , stage and projection effects employed to accompany and augment presentation . Prior to the Fragility tour in 2000 , Reznor reflected that " I ’ ve adopted a philosophy of the way to present Nine Inch Nails live that incorporates a theatrical element . I want it to be drama . I want my rock stars to be larger than life , you know ? The Kurt Cobains of the world , I ’ m sick of that shit . I don ’ t want a gas station attendant being my hero . I grew up with Gene Simmons . I grew up with Ziggy Stardust . "
Many songs are typically accompanied with specially designed visual aids , including synchronized lighting effects and projected stock @-@ footage montages . Early performances of the song " Hurt " , for example , were accompanied by a projected montage of clouds , charred bodies , mushroom clouds , maggots , and war refugees , a performance of which is featured in the song 's music video . Recent performances of the song , however , have featured less lighting effects .
Since 1999 , the visual presentation of Nine Inch Nails live shows have been directed by Rob Sheridan , while Bill Viola designed a large triptych display for the Fragility tour . The images displayed on the triptych focused on storm and water imagery . And All That Could Have Been features an audio commentary track by Viola describing the display and his inspirations for it .
For the Live : With Teeth tour , Roy Bennett and Martin Phillips were responsible for the lighting design and stage design respectively . Bennett explained in a 2005 interview that much of the lighting was done using a series of LED lights arranged in " stalactites or stalagmites [ formations ] to tie in to the album artwork " . DLP projectors were also used to project images onto a gauze screen in front of the stage .
Using the gauze projection @-@ screen , Phillips , Reznor , and Sheridan devised a " gag " where they projected " a sheet of glass shattering onto a downstage kabuki scrim that would drop as the glass shatters fell . ... We settled on Trent swinging his guitar at the gauze [ and ] shattering it , but with all the pieces falling up as the [ screen ] flew out " . This technique can be seen in the tour documentary Beside You in Time . In contrast to the lighting of previous tours , Performance 2007 featured minimal lighting that was designed to shadow Reznor and the band .
The visual elements of the live shows has been subject to much commentary . The Boston Globe described the Fragility tour as " one of the most outstanding light shows in memory " . A reviewer from the Contra Costa Times described a Live : With Teeth performance as being " heightened by just the right amount of dark purple or blue spotlights , with up @-@ lighting from the stage front , giving the band a horror @-@ flick feel " .
= = Live releases = =
Nine Inch Nails has released one album and three videos featuring the live band . Closure , a double VHS set released in 1997 , features live performances from the Self @-@ Destruct Tour , including a performance of " Hurt " with David Bowie during the Dissonance Tour . The video has been out of print since its initial release , and all attempts to re @-@ release the video on DVD have failed . A deluxe two @-@ disc DVD version of Closure was delivered to Interscope Records in 2004 and indefinitely delayed from being released . However , both discs appeared on BitTorrent networks in December 2006 , presumably leaked by Trent Reznor himself . And All That Could Have Been , which features performances from the Fragility 2 @.@ 0 tour , was released in 2002 as a live CD and double DVD . An easter egg in the DVD version features a performance with Marilyn Manson at Madison Square Garden of the songs " Starfuckers , Inc . " and Manson 's " The Beautiful People " . In 2007 , Nine Inch Nails released Beside You in Time , featuring performances from the Live : With Teeth tour . The DVD also features rehearsal footage , music videos , and still photographs from the tour .
= = Live band members = =
The configuration of the band has evolved since first touring in 1988 . Early incarnations of the band had three people playing guitars , drums , keyboards , and samplers . Later incarnations replaced the keyboards and samplers with an additional guitarist , and incarnations after that added a multi @-@ instrumentalist whose main role was as a bassist but also played guitars and keyboards on a number of songs . Finally , the live component of Nine Inch Nails has settled as a five @-@ piece band since the Self Destruct tour from 1994 . On the Performance 2007 tour , some songs from the Year Zero album were performed as a 3 piece band , featuring Reznor , keyboard player Alessandro Cortini and guitarist Aaron North , using a combination of live guitars and triggered loops . In September 2007 , Reznor expressed his interest in moving away from the " rock band configuration " to explore " other ways [ to ] present the material in concert " , though once again the 2008 incarnation consisted of five positions , but adding a variety of instruments not normally used in Nine Inch Nails such as double bass , various percussion instruments , steel guitar , vibraphone and other acoustic instruments as well as sampled sounds triggered from a variety of electronic instruments . No replacement was hired for keyboard player Alessandro Cortini after he left the band in late 2008 , and the 2009 live band is a four @-@ piece , with the role of keyboard player being shared between all members .
Describing the selection process , early contributor Chris Vrenna told Gannett News " coming from the same emotional background , I feel , is more important than how well you can play your instrument . That 's one reason that makes our shows more intense when we 're up there ... We found people that understood that . It makes us stronger " . Reznor described his selection of the earliest incarnations of the live band by saying " I 'm not in the position to offer somebody a thousand dollars a week to rehearse ... So I took some young guys who were malleable , who would basically do what I want them to do but expand on it . The only context I 've worked with them in so far is , ' Here are the songs , here are your parts , learn them . ' "
Between major tours , live band members have on occasion contributed instrumental performances to official Nine Inch Nails releases , though creative control and direction has always been the responsibility of Reznor . Live @-@ band members who have contributed to major Nine Inch Nails studio releases are denoted by a " # " below . Most members provide backing vocals during live performances .
Personnel
Live guests
Mike Garson # – piano ( September 2009 at the Henry Fonda Theater for the song Just Like You Imagined )
= = Guest artists and collaborations = =
Through the years , Reznor has invited many prominent musicians on stage with his band to perform material outside the usual range of Nine Inch Nails songs :
During Lollapalooza ' 91 Jane 's Addiction members Dave Navarro and Eric Avery played guitars alongside Gibby Haynes and Ice @-@ T for the last song of the band 's set , " Head Like a Hole " .
In early 1995 , Adam Ant and Marco Pirroni joined Nine Inch Nails on stage to perform " Physical " and other Adam and the Ants songs .
During the Dissonance tour , Nine Inch Nails co @-@ headlined with David Bowie . Throughout the tour , Nine Inch Nails would perform first and segue into Bowie 's band . The two bands would play a mixture of Nine Inch Nails and David Bowie songs . Nine Inch Nails would eventually leave the stage and Bowie and his band would continue with their own set .
Marilyn Manson appeared on stage at during a concert at Madison Square Garden in 2000 to sing " Starfuckers , Inc . " and " The Beautiful People " . This performance is featured as an Easter Egg in the And All That Could Have Been DVD .
During the Live : With Teeth amphitheater tour , Nine Inch Nails and Peter Murphy of Bauhaus performed the Pere Ubu song " Final Solution " , which was also a solo hit for Murphy . For the last show , they collaborated to cover Joy Division 's " Dead Souls " , which Nine Inch Nails has regularly played since 1994 . Also during this tour , Reznor , Murphy , and other musicians performed four unique sets of their favorite songs on radio stations around the country .
Ben Weinman and Greg Puciato of The Dillinger Escape Plan joined Nine Inch Nails on stage during the encore of their performance at the Adelaide leg of the 2009 Soundwave Festival to perform Wish and joined again on the Perth leg with the full band . On June 15 , 2009 The Dillinger Escape Plan joined Nine Inch Nails on stage at Bonnaroo performing " Wish " .
During the Wave Goodbye tour in 2009 Nine Inch Nails invited many special guests to perform with them . The guest appearances included Gary Numan , Peter Murphy , Atticus Ross , Danny Lohner , Mike Garson , Dave Navarro , Eric Avery , Saul Williams , The Dillinger Escape Plan , and Health .
= The Teen Idles =
The Teen Idles were an American hardcore punk band formed in Washington , D.C. in September 1979 . Consisting of teenagers Nathan Strejcek , Geordie Grindle , Ian MacKaye and Jeff Nelson , the Idles ' recorded two demo sessions and the 1980 Minor Disturbance EP before they broke up in November 1980 . The influential independent record label Dischord Records was originally created with the sole purpose of releasing the Teen Idles 7 " record . They were an early landmark in the D.C. hardcore movement , and MacKaye and Nelson would later form the seminal punk outfit Minor Threat .
The Teen Idles were among the first punk rock groups from the early 1980s hardcore movement to break out of their regional scene to tour and sell nationally . Inspired by other American punk bands like the Cramps and Bad Brains , the Teen Idles ' music was an early version of hardcore punk , and an attempt , in the words of MacKaye , " to get away from a really corrupted music . " Their appearances , lyrics and musical style sought to revive a punk movement that they believed had lost its original zeal .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
In 1978 , Washingtonian teenager Ian MacKaye discovered punk rock through a local college radio station , Georgetown University 's WGTB . He met Jeff Nelson , a classmate of his , after Nelson set off a pipe bomb outside their school and MacKaye went to investigate . The two became friends and quickly discovered their shared interest in punk . MacKaye and Nelson saw their first punk show in January 1979 — a benefit concert by the Cramps for WGTB . The concert inspired the pair ; MacKaye later admitted , " It blew my mind because I saw for the first time this huge , totally invisible community that had gathered together for this tribal event . [ ... ] I thought , ' This appeals to me . This is the world I think I can breathe in . This is what I need . ' "
After seeing a Bad Brains concert , MacKaye and Nelson began playing in a punk band , the Slinkees , with school friends George Grindle and Mark Sullivan . The Slinkees played a single show before Sullivan went to college . After a failed attempt to recruit MacKaye 's friend Henry Garfield ( later Henry Rollins ) , the band recruited Nathan Strejcek as a vocalist . The Slinkees soon renamed themselves the Teen Idles . After touring and practising for several months , the band recorded two demo sessions at a local studio in February and April 1980 , despite the engineer and a visiting band openly laughing as they recorded . They also began playing at house parties and pizza parlors , and opened for Bad Brains at an art gallery , in a dilapidated row house in the Adams @-@ Morgan neighborhood , called Madam 's Organ .
To revive the fervor of punk , which the band felt was being distorted by new wave , the Idles sought to look as intimidating as possible . They shaved their heads , grew mohawks and wore various punk accessories . Nelson and MacKaye even drove thumbtacks into the soles of their boots so they would make an " ominous clacking " sound when they walked . The band 's visual presentation was at odds with their demeanor ; according to MacKaye , " in our shows and within our own community , we were totally goofy guys . We were painfully honest — we didn 't shoplift , we didn 't vandalize , we didn 't spray @-@ paint . [ ... ] We don 't do anything — everybody just hates us because of the way we look . "
After a number of concerts in D.C. opening for bands such as the Untouchables , the Idles decided to tour the West Coast in August 1980 . Along with roadies Garfield and Sullivan , the band traveled to California . They were immediately hassled by police upon their arrival , and after challenging the police , Nelson was handcuffed for an hour . When the Teen Idles eventually began their tour , they were refused entry at Los Angeles ' Hong Kong Cafe because of their age . Originally due to open for the Dead Kennedys and the Circle Jerks , they settled for playing the next night , opening for the Mentors and a band called Puke , Spit and Guts in exchange for just $ 15 . The Teen Idles impressed those at the venue ; MacKaye later said " People were freaked out by how fast [ we played ] . "
Upon returning to D.C. , the Teen Idles were asked by Skip Groff , owner of the Washington record store Yesterday and Today , to record some tracks at Inner Ear , a small recording studio in Arlington , Virginia . They were introduced to engineer and owner Don Zientara ( the " studio " was a four @-@ track recorder at Zientara 's house ) . The Teen Idles played live in the basement while Zientara engineered and Groff produced . Seven tracks were recorded in total . However , the band were undecided about what to do with the tapes and eventually shelved them .
= = = Breakup and Minor Disturbance = = =
In late 1980 , the Teen Idles decided to break up , mostly because Grindle had fallen out with Nelson . Grindle 's new girlfriend , a born @-@ again Christian , disapproved of the band , causing Grindle to question his role . Tensions between Grindle and Nelson , who was an outspoken atheist , escalated until Grindle decided to quit . Their last show was on November 6 , when they opened for SVT at the 9 : 30 Club . It was a key event for the popularity of all @-@ ages shows — where alcohol was not for sale , and thus no age restriction for admission . Previously , at the Mabuhay Gardens in California , the band were allowed entry to the club only after big Xs were drawn on their hands — this showed that they were under the legal drinking age . The Idles suggested this to 9 : 30 's management , and vowed that if youths were caught drinking , the club could ban them . The management agreed ; the Teen Idles ' final show passed without incident .
After a year in existence , the band had earned $ 700 total . They now faced two options : divide the money among the members , or press the recordings they had made with Zientara at Inner Ear . Choosing the latter , Nelson , Strejcek and MacKaye formed Dischord Records with Groff 's help , to release the recordings . The band sent the tapes to a pressing plant in Nashville , Tennessee that specialized in pressing country music records . Initially puzzled by the request to put eight songs on a 7 " record , they pressed 1 @,@ 000 copies . For the cover , the band took apart another 7 " record sleeve and used it as a template for their own cover design . They photocopied it on 11 " × 17 " paper , which the band members cut out with scissors , folded and glued by hand , then into these inserted the records and lyric sheets . Released in January 1981 Minor Disturbance was a local success , receiving radio air @-@ play and reviews from fanzines such as Touch and Go , which meant that Dischord now had enough money to release records by other bands .
After the Teen Idles disbanded , Grindle chose not to pursue a career in music . By the time of Minor Disturbance 's release , Nelson and MacKaye had already formed Minor Threat . The new band 's first show was on December 17 , 1980 . Strejcek became involved in the running of Dischord , until Nelson and MacKaye , disappointed by his lack of effort , " decided to take it back . " The Teen Idles appeared on a number of hardcore @-@ punk compilations throughout the 1980s and 1990s . Dischord , to celebrate their one hundredth release , issued Teen Idles in 1996 , comprising the two demo sessions the band had recorded in February and April 1980 .
= = Musical style and outlook = =
According to journalist Michael Azerrad , the Teen Idles " played proto @-@ hardcore tunes that skewered their social milieu " . MacKaye later explained in the hardcore documentary Another State of Mind : " When I became a punk , my main fight was against the people who were around me — friends . " When MacKaye was thirteen he moved to Palo Alto , California for nine months . On his return , his friends had begun taking drugs and drinking . He remarked , " I said , ' God , I don 't want to be like these people , man . I don 't fit in at all with them . ' So it was an alternative . "
The graphic emblem most associated with the Straight Edge movement is a black " X " , typically drawn onto the wearers hands with a marker . According to MacKaye , " We were in San Francisco , and we played a place called Mabuhay Gardens . They figured out we were underage , and they wouldn 't let us play . We worked out a deal with their management that we just wanted to play and we weren 't going to drink , so they got a marker and put a big ' X ' on our hand , So we came back to Washington D.C. and went to this nightclub , the 9 : 30 , and said ' Hey look , we 're not going to drink and we will put this ' X ' on our hand . If you see us drinking you can throw us out forever . We are not going to drink , we just came to see the music . ' " The band adopted the marking , and though it was initially meant to signify youth , it became a wider emblem for bands prepared to play to audiences under the legal age to be served alcohol . MacKaye noted that at the time the symbol " wasn 't supposed to signify straight edge — it was supposed to signify kids . It was about being young punk rockers ... it represents youth . "
Most of the band 's lyrics were written by MacKaye . Like the group 's appearance , their lyrical subject matter reacted against the then dominant New Wave scene , and the perceived complacency that many first @-@ wave punk bands , including the Clash and the Damned seemed to have fallen into by the early 1980s . In " Fleeting Fury " , Strejcek pleads , " The clothes you wear have lost their sting / So 's the fury in the songs you sing " . The Teen Idles were strongly influenced by punk bands in Washington and California , such as Bad Brains , Black Flag , and the Germs . These band 's influence is reflected in The Teen Idles ' songs , which consisted mostly of Strejcek shouting over a one @-@ two hardcore beat , with MacKaye and Grindle providing short and speedy riffs , interspersed with quick guitar solos from Grindle .
= = Discography = =
All Teen Idles records were issued by Dischord Records
Minor Disturbance , 7 " EP , 1981
3 songs on Flex Your Head , compilation LP , 1982
First EP reissued as part of Four Old 7 " s on a 12 " , 1984
First EP reissued on Dischord 1981 : The Year in 7 " s , 1995
Teen Idles ( 1980 demos ) , 1996
1 song on 20 Years of Dischord , compilation 3 @-@ CD box set , 2002
= 1866 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1866 Atlantic hurricane season was originally one of only four Atlantic hurricane seasons in which every known tropical cyclone attained hurricane status , along with 1852 , 1858 , and 1884 . Initially , there were three known storms during the season , but a re @-@ analysis confirmed the increased activity . There were also two other systems that were included as tropical cyclones at one time , although both were considered to have been other storms already in the database . All tropical activity occurred between the middle of July and the end of October . There may have been additional unconfirmed tropical cyclones during the season . Meteorologist Christopher Landsea estimates that up to six storms were missed from the official database , due to small tropical cyclone size , sparse ship reports , and relatively unpopulated coastlines .
Every storm but the fourth hurricane affected land during the season . The first hurricane hit Matagorda , Texas in July , the only one of the season to hit the United States as a hurricane . A month later a hurricane made two landfalls in Mexico . The third hurricane of the season formed near Bermuda and was last observed along the southern coast of Newfoundland . A few weeks later another storm executed a similar track , although it struck Newfoundland as a hurricane and caused damage . The most notable storm of the season was the Great Nassau Hurricane , which killed at least 383 people in the Turks and Caicos , Bahamas , and the western Atlantic Ocean . It attained winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) , which is a Category 4 on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The final hurricane developed over the Bahamas and later struck New Jersey , producing strong winds and high tides across New England .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane One = = =
The first hurricane of the season was observed on July 11 , when a schooner encountered heavy seas to the south of the Florida Panhandle . As the hurricane moved westward , it remained a short distance off the Gulf Coast of the United States , bringing strong winds to New Orleans on July 12 . High tides surrounded the lighthouse at Timbalier Bay for about 24 hours , prompting the lighthouse keeper to resign from loneliness and from fear of the weather .
On July 15 , the hurricane moved ashore near Matagorda Bay in Texas , with winds estimated around 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , or a Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . At landfall , the minimum barometric pressure was estimated at 969 mbar ( 28 @.@ 61 inHg ) . The hurricane 's strong winds broke all of the boats from their moorings in the Matagorda harbor . Four ships were either lost or wrecked , and one schooner was washed ashore . The storm dissipated early on July 16 after progressing further inland .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
On August 13 , a ship encountered a severe hurricane in the eastern Caribbean Sea . Based on observations , it is estimated the hurricane attained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . There were no reports for several days , although based on continuity it is estimated the storm passed south of Jamaica on August 15 . The following day , the hurricane struck the eastern Yucatán Peninsula , washing seven boats ashore . It is estimated to have weakened to a tropical storm while moving over land , although the system re @-@ intensified into a hurricane in the Bay of Campeche . It made its second and final landfall near Veracruz before dissipating on August 18 .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
The third hurricane of the season was first encountered on September 4 by a ship 200 mi ( 320 km ) north of Bermuda ; the vessel sustained damage to its foretopmast . The storm affected another ship later that day , leaving similar heavy damage . Tracking generally northeastward , the hurricane was last observed on September 7 near Newfoundland .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
On September 18 and for two days subsequently , a barque sailed through a hurricane near the Cape Verde islands . The vessel was en route from New York to Shanghai , but due to a leak from the storm it had to return to New York for repairs . Aside from a single reported location , the track of the hurricane is unknown . Winds were estimated around 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
A ship named " Honduras " observed the fifth hurricane of the season on September 22 to the south @-@ southeast of Nova Scotia . The ship lost its masts and sails from the storm , and based on the observations the winds were estimated around 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Additional ship reports indicated the hurricane maintained a northeast track toward Newfoundland . Late on September 23 , the hurricane made landfall in south @-@ central Newfoundland , although it quickly weakened to tropical storm intensity . The winds spread across much of the island , severing the telegraphs in and around St. John 's . Late on September 24 , the storm was last observed to the north of the island .
= = = Hurricane Six = = =
Known as the Great Nassau Hurricane of 1866 , the sixth hurricane of the season was also the longest @-@ lasting . The brig Jarien encountered the hurricane on September 24 to the west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde islands . The track is unknown for the following five days , until another ship reported a hurricane about 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Anegada in the British Virgin Islands . The hurricane affected the Leeward Islands , washing several ships ashore and destroying a pier in St. Thomas . On September 30 through the following day , the cyclone moved through the Turks and Caicos Islands , becoming what was considered " one of the most terrific hurricanes ever known " . About 75 % of the population was left homeless and moneyless .
After affecting the Turks and Caicos Islands , the hurricane passed through the Bahamas . The eye crossed over Nassau , where a barometric pressure of 938 mbar ( 27 @.@ 70 inHg ) was reported . Based on this observation , the hurricane is estimated to have had sustained winds of 140 mph ( 2
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20 km / h ) . The hurricane struck without warning in the Bahamas , either washing ashore or sinking every ship but one in Nassau . In addition , strong winds downed trees and destroyed roofs . Every building in Nassau was damaged or destroyed . After moving through the islands , the hurricane curved northeastward , affecting dozens of other ships and wrecking four . On October 4 , it passed north of Bermuda , where it produced Force 11 winds on the Beaufort scale . The hurricane was last observed on October 5 to the southeast of Atlantic Canada . Along its path through the Turks and Caicos , the Bahamas , and the western Atlantic , the hurricane killed at least 383 people , making it among the 100 deadliest Atlantic hurricanes as of 1997 .
= = = Tropical Storm Seven = = =
The final storm of the season was first observed on October 28 over the Bahamas , and may have been a hybrid or subtropical cyclone . It moved north @-@ northwestward through the island chain , followed by a turn to the north @-@ northeast over the western Atlantic . Several ships encountered the tropical storm , and one lost their supply of molasses . On October 30 , the cyclone , at the time transitioning to extratropical , struck on the southern end of Long Beach Island with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . As it moved through the northeastern United States , the storm dropped heavy rainfall , causing flooding near Jersey City and Hoboken , New Jersey . In Brooklyn , the storm moved the rail cars off their tracks , while in Providence , Rhode Island the winds destroyed three buildings and wrecked the roofs of two others . Further northeast , the storm disrupted shipping and cut telegraph lines , although no fatalities were reported . The post @-@ tropical storm was last observed over Vermont late on October 30 .
= Mandodari =
Mandodari ( Sanskrit : मंदोदरी Mandodarī , lit . " soft @-@ bellied " ; ) was the queen consort of Ravana , the king of Lanka , according to the Hindu epic Ramayana . The Ramayana describes Mandodari as beautiful , pious , and righteous . She is extolled as one of the Panchakanya ( " five virgins " ) , the recital of whose names is believed to dispel sin .
Mandodari was the daughter of Mayasura , the King of the Asuras ( demons ) , and the apsara ( celestial nymphs ) Hema . Mandodari bears three sons : Meghanada ( Indrajit ) , Atikaya , and Akshayakumara . According to some Ramayana adaptations , Mandodari is also the mother of Rama 's wife Sita , who is infamously kidnapped by Ravana . Despite her husband 's faults , Mandodari loves him and advises him to follow the path of righteousness . Mandodari repeatedly advises Ravana to return Sita to Rama , but her advice falls on deaf ears . Her love and loyalty to Ravana are praised in the Ramayana .
Different versions of the Ramayana record her ill @-@ treatment at the hands of Rama 's monkey generals . Some versions say they disturb a sacrifice by Ravana , and some that they destroy her chastity , which was the last protection for Ravana 's life . Hanuman tricks her into disclosing the location of a magical arrow which Rama uses to kill Ravana . After Ravana 's death , Vibhishana — Ravana 's younger brother who joins forces with Rama and is responsible for Ravana 's death — marries Mandodari on the advice of Rama . [ Citation needed . Going by unauthentic versions is meaningless )
= = Birth = =
The Uttara Ramayana narrates a story about the birth of Mandodari . Mayasura ( Maya ) , the son of sage Kashyapa is married to the apsara ( heavenly nymph ) Hema . They have two sons , Mayavi and Dundubhi , but long for a daughter , so they start performing penances to seek the favour of the god Shiva .
Meanwhile , an apsara named Madhura arrives at Mount Kailash , the abode of Shiva , to pay her respects . In absence of his wife Parvati , Madhura has clandestine coitus with Shiva . When Parvati returns , she finds traces of ashes from Shiva ’ s body on the breasts of Madhura . Agitated , Parvati curses Madhura and sends her to live in a well as a frog for twelve years . Shiva consoles Madhura and says she will become a beautiful woman and be married to a great valorous man . After twelve years , Madhura becomes a beautiful maiden again and cries out loudly from the well . Mayasura and Hema , who are performing penance nearby , answer her call and adopt her as their daughter . They bring her up as Mandodari .
= = Marriage and later life = =
Ravana comes to the house of Mayasura and falls in love with Mandodari . Mandodari and Ravana are soon married with Vedic rites . Mandodari bears Ravana three sons : Meghanada , Atikaya , and Akshayakumara . Mandore , a town located 9 km north of Jodhpur , is believed to be the native place of Mandodari . Ravana is treated as a son @-@ in @-@ law among some local Brahmins and has a temple dedicated to him here .
Despite Ravana 's faults , Mandodari loves him and is proud of his strength . She is aware of Ravana 's weakness towards women . A righteous woman , Mandodari tries to lead Ravana to righteousness , but Ravana always ignores her advice . She advises him to not to subdue the Navagraha , the nine celestial beings that govern one 's destiny , and not to seduce Vedavati , who would be reborn as Sita and cause the destruction of Ravana .
Ravana kidnaps Sita , the wife of Rama , the exiled prince of Ayodhya , who is an incarnation of the god Vishnu . Mandodari advises Ravana to return Sita to Rama , but to no avail . Mandodari knows this lust will bring the downfall of Ravana .
Mandodari is described as a beautiful woman in Valmiki 's Ramayana . When Hanuman , the monkey messenger of Rama , comes to Lanka in search of Sita , he is stupefied by Mandodari 's beauty when he enters Ravana 's bed chambers and mistakes Mandodari for Sita . When Hanuman finally finds Sita , he finds Ravana threatening to kill Sita unless she marries him . Ravana raises his sword to behead Sita when she refuses . Mandodari saves Sita by holding Ravana 's hand . Mandodari says that the murder of a woman is a heinous sin and thus Ravana should not kill Sita . She asks Ravana to entertain himself with his other wives and give up the idea of having Sita as his wife . Ravana spares Sita 's life , but does not give up his wish to marry Sita . Though Mandodari considers Sita inferior to her in beauty and ancestry , Mandodari acknowledges Sita 's devotion to Rama and compares her to goddesses like Sachi and Rohini .
When all attempts for a peaceful return of Sita fail , Rama declares war on Ravana 's Lanka . Before the final battle against Rama , Mandodari makes a last attempt to dissuade Ravana , but to no avail . Finally , Mandodari stands by her husband in the final battle like an obedient and faithful wife , though she also advises her son Meghanada , alias Indrajit ( " One who had conquered Indra ; the god @-@ king of heaven " ) , to not to fight Rama .
The Valmiki Ramayana narrates : When all of Ravana 's sons and warriors die , Ravana organizes a yajna ( " fire sacrifice " ) to assure his victory . Rama sends a troop of monkeys headed by Hanuman and the monkey prince Angada to destroy this yajna . The monkeys create havoc in Ravana 's palace , but Ravana continues the yajna . Angada drags Mandodari by her hair in front of Ravana . Mandodari pleads to her husband to save her and reminds him what Rama is doing for his wife . The enraged Ravana abandons the yajna and strikes Angada with his sword . With the yajna disturbed , Angada 's purpose is served and he leaves Mandodari and escapes . Mandodari again implores Ravana to surrender Sita to Rama , but he refuses . Other Ramayana adaptations present more gruesome descriptions of the incident . The Krittivasi Ramayan narrates that the monkeys dragged Mandodari .
Ravana fights the final duel with Rama . Rama fails to kill Ravana with his ordinary arrows , but finally kills with a magical arrow . While Valmiki 's Ramayana narrates that the magical arrow was given to Rama by Indra , in other versions the magical arrow is hidden in Mandodari 's bed chambers or under her bed . While Mandodari is engrossed in worshipping the goddess Parvati for Ravana 's wellbeing , Hanuman comes to her disguised as a Brahmin . After winning her confidence , he tricks her into revealing the secret location of the arrow . Hanuman seizes the arrow and gives it to Rama , leading to Ravana 's end . Mandodari appears at the death scene of Ravana in a disarrayed state and laments his death . In this battle , Mandodari loses her husband , her sons , and her kinsmen .
After the death of Ravana , Rama advises Vibhishana to take Mandodari as his wife , even though he already has a wife . A theory suggests that Ravana 's race may have had matrilineal families and thus , to restore order in the kingdom after Ravana 's death , it was necessary for Vibhishana to marry the reigning queen to get the right to rule . Another theory suggests it may be a non @-@ Aryan custom to marry the reigning queen . The marriage between Mandodari and Vibhishana is purely an " act of statesmanship " , rather than a marriage based on their " mutual sexual interference " . Mandodari may have agreed to marry Vibhishana , her younger brother @-@ in @-@ law , as this would lead the kingdom to prosperity and stability as allies of Rama 's Ayodhya , and she would continue to have a say in governance . Another reason for the marriage is as an alternative to suicide for the widowed Mandodari , which is averted by Rama .
= = Mother of Sita ? = =
Though Valmiki 's Ramayana does not record Mandodari as being the mother of Sita , some later adaptations of the Ramayana depict Mandodari as the mother of Sita or at least the cause of the latter 's birth .
The Adbhuta Ramayana narrates : Ravana used to store the blood of sages he killed in a large pot . The sage Gritsamada was practicing penance to acquire the goddess Lakshmi as his daughter . He stored milk from Darbha grass and purified it with mantras in a pot so that Lakshmi would inhabit it . Ravana poured the milk from this pot into his blood pot . Mandodari is frustrated seeing the evil deeds of Ravana , so she decides to commit suicide by drinking the contents of the blood @-@ pot , which is described to be more poisonous than poison . Instead of dying , Mandodari gets pregnant with the incarnation of Lakshmi due to the power of Gritsamada 's milk . Mandodari buries the foetus in Kurukshetra , where it is discovered by Janaka , who named her Sita .
The Devi Bhagavata Purana says : When Ravana wants to marry Mandodari , Maya warns him that her horoscope indicated her first @-@ born would destroy her clan and should be killed . Ignoring Maya 's advice , Ravana buries his first child by Mandodari in a casket in Janaka ’ s city , where it is discovered and grew up as Sita . Jain adaptations of the Ramayana like Vasudevahindi , Uttara @-@ purana , and others also state that Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari , and is abandoned when she is prophesied to be the cause of the end of Ravana and his family .
In the Malay Seri Rama and the Indonesian @-@ Javanese Rama Keling , Ravana wants to possess Mandodari , the mother of Rama , but instead marries a pseudo @-@ Mandodari , who looks like the real one . Rama 's father has a union with this pseudo @-@ Mandodari , resulting in the birth of Sita , who is nominally Ravana 's daughter .
According to the Ananda Ramayana , king Padmaksha had a daughter named Padma - an incarnate of the goddess Lakshmi . When her marriage is organized , Rakshasas ( demons ) kill the king . The grief @-@ stricken Padma jumps into fire . Ravana discovers her body , which had turned into five jewels , in the fire and takes it to Lanka sealed in a box . Mandodari opens the box and finds Padma inside it . She advises Ravana to cast off the box containing the ill @-@ fated Padma , who led to the doom of her father . When the lid of the box is closed , Padma curses Ravana that she will return to Lanka and cause his doom . Ravana buries the box in the city of Janaka , who discovers Padma and brings her up as Sita .
= = Assessment = =
Ahalyā draupadi kuntī tārā mandodari tathā
pañcakanyā smarenityaṃ mahapātaka nāśanaṃ
Remembering ever the virgins five -Ahalya , Draupadi , Kunti , Tara and Mandodari
Destroys the greatest of sins .
Hindus remember the panchakanya - the five virgins or maidens in this daily prayer , though none of them is considered an ideal woman who could be emulated . Mandodari , with Ahalya and Tara , belong to the Ramayana , while the rest are from the Mahabharata . Among the five elements , Mandodari is equated to water , " turbulent on the surface and deep in her spiritual quest " . The writer Dhanalakshmi Ayyer says :
Her story is a reminder that the universal denigration of a group , based on the behaviour of a few , cannot cloud the greatness of the individual . Mandodari defies the stereotype of this racism . She is simple , unswerving , and self @-@ effacing , driven by the light of knowledge which gives meaning to solid materialism in an age that is shrouded by impulse , passion , and desire . She is the instrument that awakens the mind and counsels reason when irrationality becomes the core being . That she goes unheard and unheeded does not change her path . To her , the dharmic part is inward @-@ looking , while the role of the dutiful wife is the external self . Mandodari thought that her duty to her husband on issues of morals and values ended with her telling him what she thought of his actions . She neither put up any brave fight to stop him nor considered it her duty to do so .
Mandodari 's role is short in the Ramayana but very important . She is described as a pious and righteous royal lady . Compared to the rest of the panchakanya , Mukherjee considers Mandodari 's life as " less colourful and eventful " . He adds : " Mandodari seldom got prominence ... Her image lacks substance and fades quickly " , though he stresses on her love and loyalty towards her husband . Pradip Bhattacharya , author of the book Panchkanya : Women of Substance notes that " there is hardly anything special that Valmiki ( Ramayana ) has written about her ( Mandodari ) except that she warns her husband to return Sita and has enough influence to prevent his raping her . "
= Adrift ( 1911 film ) =
Adrift is a 1911 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company and directed by Lucius J. Henderson . The film depicts a story of a young artist whose lack of success leads him to attempt suicide . Before he can carry out the act , his daughter follows and stops him . He confesses to his wife and she thanks her child , providing the inspiration for the artist to complete a great painting . It brings him success and he grows distant from his wife and becomes interested in another woman whom he was commissioned by . Once again saved by his daughters actions , whose crying moves the woman to break off the relationship with the artist . The artist destroys the painting and learns a moral lesson .
The film was advertised to the American churchgoer as a moral picture . The film was generally well received by critics , but the faults of story for the sake of a moral lesson was noted . Adrift , like all other American silents of the day , had no musical accompaniment , but a letter written into a trade publication provides a score for the drama . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
An official synopsis of the film was published in The Moving Picture World states : " Jack Thorne , a young artist , finds his efforts unappreciated , and he and his wife and little daughter are on the verge of starvation . The final blow comes when his last painting , on which he had built much hope , was rejected by a rich man , whom an artist chum kindly brought to the impoverished studio . Jack decides that he can struggle no longer . Unseen by his wife , he picks up his revolver , puts it in his pocket and goes out , intending to end everything . But his little daughter has watched him ; she follows him and stays his hand . Her prayers and entreaties bring him to a realization of what his rash act would mean to the two helpless ones that would be left behind . Penitent and remorseful , he accompanies his child back to their poor home . There he confesses to his wife that it was only the child 's timely interference that saved him from ending it all . The mother drops on her knees beside her child , and clasping her in her arms , raises grateful eyes to Heaven in a prayer of thankfulness . Jack , looking up suddenly , sees the beautiful group of mother and child , with a light as if from Heaven upon them . Realizing that [ this ] is the inspiration and subject for which he has sought in vain , he calls for them not to move , and at once begins his great painting of them , which brings him fame and wealth . "
" But with wealth , the artist becomes dissatisfied with his wife , and is infatuated with a beautiful society woman whose portrait he is painting . The couple , happy in poverty , are now rapidly drifting on the shoals of matrimonial disaster , but the child saves them . She is weeping one day when Miss Brent , the society woman , enters the room . Miss Brent , who has never seen the child before , asks the cause of her sorrow , and tries to comfort her . The child tells her , and Julia 's heart is touched . Though she has contempt [ u ] ously ignored the wife , she feels that she cannot ruin the life of the helpless child , even to win the artist 's love . On the spur of the moment , she writes a farewell note to Jack , and gives it to the child , saying that it will cure all her sorrow . Then she goes out of their lives forever . Jack realizes , when he sees that his child is the messenger , why Julia has broken with him . An outsider had made a sacrifice to save the future of little Marie , when he , her father , who had always loved her , had selfishly forgotten his duty . Remorsefully , he tears up the letter , and destroys the painting , not angrily , but as a symbol that he had cast the original out of his life . Then he makes peace with his wife and daughter , who are joyfully ready to forgive , and tells them that their love will keep him [ on ] the right path for the rest of his life , and that the lesson he has been taught will never be forgotten . "
= = Cast = =
William Garwood as the artist
Lucille Younge as the artist 's wife
Marie Eline as the young daughter
Katherine Horn as the society woman
= = Production = =
The single reel drama was directed by Lucius J. Henderson . Henderson was an important director at the Thanhouser Company who began directing in the late autumn of 1910 . It is unknown how many film 's Henderson directed prior to the release of Adrift , but one prior credit When Love Was Blind was released two weeks prior , on January 24 , 1911 . The New York Dramatic Mirror on February 4 , 1914 , stated that Henderson had directed about 150 one and two reel dramas for the Thanhouser Company .
= = = Musical accompaniment = = =
Musical accompaniment for the silent films were not provided by the studios , and the Thanhouser productions were no exception . The musical program for the screenings were decided and played by the individual accompanists . At times , musical accompaniments were shared in trade journals and the musical accompaniment for Adrift was provided by an unnamed writer from Oklahoma in The Moving Picture World . The suggestion was to begin with a waltz until the friend pats the artist on the shoulder , when All I Get is Sympathy is played . The suggestion for I Don 't Know Where I 'm Going completes the scene and Life 's A Funny Proposition follows the artist packing up until the artist pulls out the gun . A soft hurry follows as the girl confronts her father , leading to a crescendo at the climax .
Then the accompanist returns to Life 's A Funny Proposition until the father is sitting down in the house . What 's the Use of Dreaming leads to Gee , But It 's Great to Meet a Friend with the arrival of a friend . A waltz accompanies the gallery scene until the picture is shown , leading to Some Day When Dreams Come True as the artist becomes famous . The introduction with the society woman is accompanied by How Do You Do Miss Josephine and then by So Long Mary as she exits . No Place Like Home begins the next scene until the wife recognizes the emotional distancing of her husband when All I Ask is Love is played . The studio scene begins with I Love My Wife , But Oh You Kid and leads to Be Sweet to Me Kid or Next to your Mother ... with Nobody 's Little Girl during the crying scene .
The unnamed accompanist was using a range of works and shortened some titles in the letter , but these works are identifiable . They include :
All I Get Is Sympathy ( circa 1906 ) by Irving Berlin
I Don 't Know Where I 'm Going , But I 'm on My Way ( 1906 ) by Arthur Collins
Life 's a Funny Proposition After All ( 1904 ) by George M. Cohan
Gee , But It 's Great To Meet a Friend From Your Home Town ( 1910 ) by William Tracey and Jas . McGavisk
What 's the Use of Dreaming ( 1907 ) by Irving Gillette
How Do You Do Miss Josephine ( 1909 ) by Collins & Harlan
No Place Like Home may be a reference to Home ! Sweet Home ! ( 1823 ) by Henry Bishop or There 's No Place Like Home ( 1902 ) by Byron G. Harlan
So Long Mary ( 1905 ) by George M. Cohan
All That I Ask of You is Love ( 1910 ) by Edgar Selden and Herbert Ingraham
I Love I Love I Love My Wife ( But Oh ! You Kid ! ) ( 1909 ) by Jimmy Lucas and Harry Von Tilzer
Be Sweet To Me Kid ( 1907 ) by Joseph Howard
Next to Your Mother , Who do you Love ? ( 1909 ) by Irving Berlin
Nobody 's Little Girl ( 1907 ) by Jack Drislane and Theodore Morse
= = Release and reception = =
The Thanhouser Company released Adrift on February 3 , 1911 . The film was advertised as being of a moral picture and targeted towards the American churchgoer as an example of a film that would change the views of the demographic towards film productions in general . The Thanhouser advertisement in the Moving Picture News said " [ Adrift ] is a useful film with a big , simple moral that would do much to reconcile the Church to the Motion Picture — if the former knew that this sort of film was so much in evidence . " It saw a wide release across the United States , with showings in Pennsylvania , Indiana , Missouri , Kansas , and New Hampshire . One of the last advertisements for the film 's showing was in September 1913 .
The film was positively reviewed by critics , but contained within the reviews were often criticism on the execution of the story and plot . A review in the The Moving Picture World was positive to the moral lesson the film asserted and found the acting to be satisfactory . Walton of the The Moving Picture News criticized the type of film as invoking sudden and unnatural changes in character for the sake of a moral lesson . The child 's influence and ability to bring sense to her father was seen as cheap theatrics , but ended with the assertion that the film was not second rate for employing such theatrics . The New York Dramatic Mirror was positive , but said that the scene upon which the little girl follows her father was not believable because she was unaware of her father 's intentions to kill himself . The film is presumed lost .
= USS Chickasaw ( 1864 ) =
USS Chickasaw was an ironclad Milwaukee @-@ class river monitor built for the United States Navy during the American Civil War . The ship participated in the Battle of Mobile Bay in August 1864 , during which she was lightly damaged , and the bombardments of Forts Gaines and Morgan as Union troops besieged the fortifications defending the bay . In March – April 1865 , Chickasaw again supported Union forces during the Mobile Campaign as they attacked Confederate fortifications defending the city of Mobile , Alabama .
She was placed in reserve after the end of the war and sold in 1874 . Her new owners converted Chickasaw into a train ferry in 1881 and renamed her Gouldsboro . The ship was later converted into a barge and remained in use until she sank sometime during the 1950s . Her wreck was discovered in the Mississippi River in New Orleans in 2003 , although there are no plans to raise her .
= = Description = =
Chickasaw was 229 feet ( 69 @.@ 8 m ) long overall and had a beam of 56 feet ( 17 @.@ 1 m ) . The ship had a depth of hold of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) and a draft of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . She was 970 tons burthen and displaced 1 @,@ 300 long tons ( 1 @,@ 300 t ) . Her crew numbered 138 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal non @-@ condensing steam engines , each driving two propellers , using steam generated by seven tubular boilers . The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . Chickasaw carried 156 long tons ( 159 t ) of coal .
The ship 's main armament consisted of four smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets . Unlike her sisters , both of her turrets were designed by John Ericsson . Each gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) and could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° .
The cylindrical turrets were protected by eight layers of wrought iron 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates . The sides of the hull consisted of three layers of one @-@ inch plates , backed by 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of pine . The deck was heavily cambered to allow headroom for the crew on such a shallow draft and it consisted of iron plates .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . The pilothouse , positioned behind and above the fore turret , was protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor .
= = Construction and service = =
James Eads was awarded the contracts for all four of the Milwaukee @-@ class ships . He subcontracted Chickasaw to Gaylord , Son and Co. of St. Louis , Missouri who laid down the ship in 1862 . She was the first U.S. Navy ship to be named after the Indian tribe , and was launched on 10 February 1864 . Chickasaw was brought to Mound City , Illinois , on the Ohio River , on 8 May for fitting out and commissioned on 14 May 1864 .
After commissioning , Chickasaw patrolled the Mississippi River against Confederate raids and ambushes for several months . She was transferred to Rear Admiral David Farragut 's West Gulf Blockading Squadron on 9 July , together with her sister Winnebago . The ship required some time to refit at New Orleans and prepare for the voyage to Mobile across the Gulf of Mexico , so the two sisters did not depart New Orleans until 29 July . On the voyage down the Mississippi to the Pass A Loutre , Chickasaw was forced to anchor overnight because of steering problems and the two ships did not cross the sandbar at the mouth of the pass until the evening of the following day . Once in the Gulf , Chickasaw was taken under tow by the sidewheel gunboat Tennessee for the voyage across the Gulf . The two ships were forced to stop at Ship Island so Chickasaw 's engines could be repaired . That required only a day and the sidewheel gunboat Metacomet towed the monitor the rest of the way .
Farragut briefed Lieutenant Commander George H. Perkins , Chickasaw 's commander , on his ship 's intended role in the battle . The larger , more heavily armed monitors Tecumseh and Manhattan were to keep the ironclad ram CSS Tennessee away from the vulnerable wooden ships while they were passing Fort Morgan and then sink her . Chickasaw and Winnebago were to engage the fort until all of the wooden ships had passed . The four monitors would form the starboard column of ships , closest to Fort Morgan , with Chickasaw in the rear , while the wooden ships formed a separate column to port . The eastern side of the channel closest to Fort Morgan was free of obstacles , but " torpedoes " , as mines were called at the time , were known to be present west of a prominent black buoy in the channel .
The two Milwaukee @-@ class ships bombarded Fort Morgan for about an hour and a half while the wooden ships passed through the mouth of Mobile Bay . Chickasaw fired 75 rounds at the fort beginning at 07 : 10 ; the return fire badly damaged her funnel so that the crew was forced to use tallow and coal tar to generate enough steam to keep the ship in the fight . She engaged the Tennessee two hours later until the ironclad surrendered at 10 : 40 . The Confederate ironclad was shooting at the wooden ships at this time at point @-@ blank range in a chaotic melee with both sides making multiple attempts to ram each other . Chickasaw remained off the Tennessee 's stern through their engagement and fired on her at ranges between 10 to 50 yards ( 9 @.@ 1 to 45 @.@ 7 m ) . None of her 52 shells penetrated their target 's armor , but they did jam shut several of the armored shutters that protected the aft gun ports , including the stern gun port at 09 : 40 . Perkins claimed that his ship shot away the Tennessee 's flagstaff , smokestack and the exposed steering chains that controlled her rudder . Chickasaw was struck 11 times during the action , with one shot penetrating her deck that set some of the crew 's hammocks on fire . Two of Chickasaw 's sailors , Chief Boatswain 's Mate Andrew Jones and Master @-@ at @-@ Arms James Seanor , were later awarded the Medal of Honor for their actions during the battle .
Later that day , the ship captured a barge out from under the guns of Fort Powell , a fortification guarding another entrance to Mobile Bay further north . Chickasaw fired 25 shots at the fort and was struck once , another hit on her smokestack . On 6 August , the ship bombarded Fort Gaines for two hours in support of troops besieging the fort . Beginning on 13 August , she intermittently bombarded Fort Morgan until the fort surrendered on 23 August . Between 15 – 17 August , Chickasaw was operating further north in Mobile Bay and engaged several of the ships defending Mobile without result .
In March – April 1865 , Chickasaw bombarded fortifications during the Battles of Spanish Fort and Fort Blakley . Together with the ironclad Cincinnati and the steamboat Nyanza , under the overall command of Captain Edward Simpson , Chickasaw sailed up the Tombigbee River on 9 May 1865 to Nanna Hubba Bluff where Simpson accepted the surrender of the casemate ironclad Nashville , the gunboats Baltic and Morgan , and the river boat Black Diamond from Commodore Ebenezer Ferrand . The monitor remained in the vicinity of Mobile Bay until 3 July when she sailed for New Orleans .
= = Post @-@ war career and heritage = =
Upon her arrival at New Orleans on 6 July , Chickasaw was decommissioned . She temporarily bore the name Samson between 15 June and 10 August 1869 before resuming her original name . She was sold on 12 September 1874 to the New Orleans Pacific Railway Company who modified the ship into a coal barge with the name of Samson . The railroad converted the ship into a train ferry in 1880 and changed her to side @-@ wheel propulsion under the name Gouldsboro . She was sold in the 1940s to the New Orleans Coal & Bisso Towboat Co. and converted into a work barge . It sank off the Greenville Bend of the Mississippi River in New Orleans sometime during the 1950s .
The wreck of the Gouldsboro was discovered when a section of riverbank collapsed in 2003 and the Army Corps of Engineers surveyed the area in 2004 to determine how best to stabilize the riverbank . There are no plans to raise the wreck , but the Corps of Engineers will preserve it in place .
= California State Route 209 =
State Route 209 ( SR 209 ) was a state highway in the U.S. state of California , connecting Cabrillo National Monument with the interchange of Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and I @-@ 8 in San Diego , passing through the neighborhoods of Point Loma . The majority of the route was along Rosecrans Street ; it also included Cañon Street and Catalina Boulevard leading to the tip of Point Loma .
The Rosecrans Street portion of SR 209 corresponded to the original routing of the historic La Playa Trail . Rosecrans Street was paved in the late 1900s through the community of Roseville , and was added to the state highway system in 1933 as Route 12 . SR 209 was designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering , and a full interchange with I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 8 was completed in 1969 . The designation was removed from the state highway system in 2003 and responsibility for the road was transferred to the city of San Diego .
= = Route description = =
The route began at a turnaround next to the Old Point Loma Lighthouse in the Cabrillo National Monument , near the southern tip of Point Loma . Heading north along the crest of the Point Loma peninsula , it passed through Fort Rosecrans Military Reservation and Fort Rosecrans National Cemetery before exiting the former through a gate and entering the Wooded Area neighborhood of Point Loma as Catalina Boulevard . SR 209 passed through this residential neighborhood and provided access to Point Loma Nazarene University . The SR 209 designation then made a right turn onto Cañon Street , curved to the southeast , and went downhill to the bayside location of the old La Playa Trail . At the intersection with Rosecrans Street , the designation made a turn to the northeast at a right angle onto Rosecrans .
As it continued northeast through the Roseville and Loma Portal neighborhoods , SR 209 intersected both Harbor Boulevard and Nimitz Boulevard before passing along the northwestern edge of the Naval Training Center San Diego ( now closed and redeveloped as Liberty Station ) and providing access to the Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego at Barnett Street . SR 209 continued from Midway Drive northeast to the intersection of Sports Arena Boulevard and Camino del Rio West , where the highway continued north onto the latter , terminating at the ramps leading into the interchange with I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 8 .
In 1996 , SR 209 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 2 @,@ 600 at the southern end in Cabrillo National Monument , and 61 @,@ 000 at the northern end at the I @-@ 5 / I @-@ 8 junction , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway .
= = History = =
The Rosecrans Street portion of the highway followed the route of the historic La Playa Trail , the oldest European trail on the west coast , which connected the Spanish settlements in Old Town and Mission San Diego de Alcala with the ship loading and unloading area at La Playa .
In February 1907 , a petition to construct a railway line along Rosecrans Street from 38th Street to MacAuley Street was introduced to the San Diego City Council . By July , work was to begin on grading Rosecrans Street through what was known as the city of Roseville in preparation for construction of the Point Loma Electric Railway line . The work was briefly disrupted due to a labor dispute , but by June 1908 , two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) had been paved . By March 1909 , railroad tracks were being placed along Rosecrans Street . The city assumed maintenance of the road on May 1 , after it had been paved from Tide Street to Ocean Beach . Private citizens paid for over $ 100 @,@ 000 of the costs , and the city was to pay for $ 12 @,@ 000 , according to an agreement made in 1904 . However , by December the bill had not been paid by the city due to a lack of funds , and the construction company filed a claim ; on December 29 , the city agreed to pay $ 12 @,@ 000 , using funds from the water department .
The termination of the Point Loma streetcar line was considered in 1923 , but the San Diego Electric Railway decided to keep it running after residents opposed the idea of using buses instead . However , by 1946 , bus lines were in place on Rosecrans Street , and a petition for increased bus service to Point Loma was given to the city in October 1947 .
The new divided highway known as Rosecrans Boulevard from Lytton Street to Canon Street was dedicated on June 5 , 1940 , and was a part of the state highway system extending to Cabrillo National Monument , which served as the western end of Legislative Route 12 . Before this project , it was a two @-@ lane road that had issues such as traffic congestion and flooding . A monument marking La Playa Trail at Avenida de Portugal and Rosecrans Street that had been installed in 1934 was removed by the construction in the 1940s ; however , a replacement was installed in 2010 . Another of the six monuments was moved out of the median near the Midway Drive intersection to a commercial area that same year . During the 1950s , the route from Lytton Street and Rosecrans Street to Pacific Highway was considered a part of US 80 .
SR 209 was designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering . Plans for an interchange between I @-@ 5 , I @-@ 8 , SR 209 , and SR 109 date from 1965 , although several concerns had to be taken into account , including the preservation of historical Old Town and keeping traffic through the area moving during construction . The goal was to begin construction in 1966 , and complete the interchange in 1969 . There were concerns about a $ 3 billion shortfall in funding during May 1966 , which caused the San Diego Chamber of Commerce Highway Committee to recommend the completion of SR 109 as a project .
Construction had begun on September 22 , 1966 , and the interchange was to replace the intersection of Pacific Highway and Rosecrans Street . The cost of the interchange was projected to be $ 10 @.@ 86 million . The eight @-@ lane freeway was projected to relieve traffic in the Frontier Street area coming from the San Diego Sports Arena . Completion of both the interchange and SR 109 was planned for early 1969 . The ramp from south I @-@ 5 to Camino del Rio opened in February 1968 , with the remainder of the project to be completed in summer 1969 . The entire project was completed in September , with the road scheduled to open in October ; just a few months before , the routing of SR 209 had been determined . The routing of SR 109 was officially added to I @-@ 8 in 1972 .
In 1971 , there was a state proposal to remove SR 209 from the state highway system , which the City of San Diego objected to . However , SR 209 was deleted from the system in 2003 , and had been given to the City of San Diego in 2001 .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route was in San Diego , San Diego County .
= Julie Kavner =
Julie Deborah Kavner ( born September 7 , 1950 ) is an American film and television actress , voice actress and comedian . She first attracted notice for her role as Valerie Harper 's character 's younger sister Brenda in the sitcom Rhoda for which she won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series . She is best known for her voice role as Marge Simpson on the animated television series The Simpsons . She also voices other characters for the show , including Jacqueline Bouvier , and Patty and Selma Bouvier .
Known for her improvisation and distinctive " honeyed gravel voice , " Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern in Rhoda in 1974 . She received the Primetime Emmy Award in 1978 and three more nominations for playing the character . Following Rhoda , Kavner was cast in The Tracey Ullman Show , which debuted in 1987 . The Tracey Ullman Show included a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family . Voices were needed for the shorts , and the producers decided to ask Kavner to voice Marge . The shorts would eventually be spun off into The Simpsons .
Kavner has been described as " nearly reclusive " ; part of her contract says that she will never have to promote The Simpsons on video . For her work as Marge , Kavner received another Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 and an Annie Award nomination for her performance as the character in The Simpsons Movie .
Typically cast as a " woman who is supportive , sympathetic or self @-@ effacingly funny , " Kavner grew to dislike playing such roles . In 1992 , she starred in This Is My Life , her first leading role in a feature film . Kavner has also appeared in live @-@ action roles in seven films written by Woody Allen , and in the Adam Sandler comedy Click .
= = Early life = =
Kavner was born in Los Angeles , California , on September 7 , 1950 , the second daughter of Rose , a family counselor , and David Kavner , a furniture manufacturer , and grew up in Southern California . She decided to pursue a career in acting because " There was nothing else I wanted to do , ever . " She attended Beverly Hills High School ( which she later admitted she hated ) , where she was " something of a loner " , and unsuccessfully tried out for several plays . John Ingle , formerly the chairman of the Beverly Hills High School art department , later commented that Kavner was " excellent at improvisation but she wasn 't an ingenue and not that castable at that age . "
After graduating from high school , Kavner attended San Diego State University and majored in drama , being cast in several productions including a role as Charlotte Corday in Marat / Sade , becoming known for her improvisation and ability to do both comedy and drama . After graduating in 1971 she got a day job as a typist at the UCLA School of the Arts and Architecture .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1973 , Kavner auditioned for a role as one of Rhoda Morgenstern 's sisters in The Mary Tyler Moore Show . David
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Davis , producer of the show , had convinced her to audition for the part , but decided to cast another actress instead . A year later , Rhoda Morgenstern became the leading character in a spin @-@ off called Rhoda . Kavner was cast in her first professional acting role as Brenda Morgenstern , sister of the eponymous character . Rhoda ran on CBS from September 9 , 1974 , to December 1978 . She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Continuing Performance by a Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for playing Brenda , winning in 1978 . She also received four Golden Globe Award nominations . In 1975 , she received Daytime Emmy Award nomination for her starring role in the daytime special The Girl Who Couldn 't Lose .
Following Rhoda , Kavner had a guest appearance on Taxi and appeared in the 1985 comedy Bad Medicine as well as the 1987 film Surrender , both of which were box office failures . She appeared in the television movies Revenge of the Stepford Wives , No Other Love and A Fine Romance , and shot a television pilot . She also starred in several stage plays , including a play called It Had to be You at a dinner theater in Canada , Particular Friendships in New York in 1981 , and Two for the Seesaw , directed by Burt Reynolds . Woody Allen first saw Kavner one night while he was watching Rhoda in the 1970s . He thought that she was remarkable and later offered her a role in his 1986 film Hannah and Her Sisters . Kavner agreed , and credits Allen and the film with rejuvenating her career .
Kavner was then cast as a sidekick to Tracey Ullman in The Tracey Ullman Show , which debuted on Fox in 1987 . Kavner described the show as , " like being back in school , a chance to play a wide variety of characters , some really vicious people , to not rest on laurels , to not play it safe . " Kavner commented , " What I do is not mimicry or an impersonation , but more of an assimilation . [ On The Tracey Ullman Show ] we did a lot of looking at people to find out who to base our characters on . We did our homework on our lunch hour . " She received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Best Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program .
= = = The Simpsons = = =
Kavner became most famous for her role as Marge Simpson on the animated television show The Simpsons , a show that continues to the present . The Tracey Ullman Show included a series of animated shorts about the dysfunctional Simpson family . Voices were needed for the shorts , so the producers decided to ask Kavner and fellow cast member Dan Castellaneta to voice Marge and Homer rather than hire more actors . Kavner has what Hilary de Vries of The New York Times described as a " honeyed gravel voice " . Kavner says her distinctive voice is due to " a bump on [ her ] vocal cords . "
Although Marge is her most famous character , Kavner 's favorite characters to voice are her sisters Patty and Selma Bouvier because " they 're really funny and sad at the same time . " Series creator Matt Groening instructed Kavner to voice the duo as characters who " suck the life out of everything . " Both have similar raspy voices , but Patty 's voice is more masculine and has a lower register , while Selma 's voice is a little sweeter . Kavner also provides the voices of every other female member of the Bouvier family , including Marge 's mother Jacqueline , Great @-@ Aunt Gladys ( a dead relative who was introduced on season four 's " Selma 's Choice " ) , and an unnamed grandmother seen on the season six episode " Fear of Flying " .
Part of Kavner 's contract says that she will never have to promote The Simpsons on video and she rarely performs Marge 's voice in public because she believes it " destroys the illusion . People feel these are real people . " Kavner takes recording sessions seriously and feels that voice acting is , " a little more limiting than live acting . And I have nothing to do with my character 's movement . " Nancy Cartwright , who voices Bart Simpson , said in her book My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy that Kavner is " a workhorse of an actor " with " extraordinary professionalism and quiet work ethic , " and notes that she is rarely late for recording sessions .
Until 1998 , Kavner was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing to cast new voices . However , the dispute was soon resolved and she received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The issue was resolved a month later , and Kavner earned $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary re @-@ negotiations in 2008 , the voice actors received approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Kavner and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
At the 44th Primetime Emmy Awards , Kavner received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance for voicing Marge in the season three episode " I Married Marge " . In 2004 , Kavner and Dan Castellaneta won a Young Artist Award for " Most Popular Mom & Dad in a TV Series " . For her performance in The Simpsons Movie , Kavner was nominated for " Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature " at the 2007 Annie Awards , but lost to Ian Holm from Ratatouille . Kavner 's emotional performance in the movie got positive reviews and one critic said she " gave what must be the most heartfelt performance ever to find its way into a movie based on an irreverent cartoon . " Some scenes in the movie , such as Marge 's emotional video message to Homer , were recorded over one hundred times , leaving Kavner exhausted .
= = = Further career = = =
Many of Kavner 's roles have been described by New York Times writer Hilary de Vries as a " woman who is supportive , sympathetic or self @-@ effacingly funny . " Kavner grew to despise playing such roles , saying " If it smacks of Brenda Morgenstern , I won 't take the job . " She had a supporting role as Eleanor Costello , a nurse who befriends Robin Williams ' character in the Academy Award nominated film Awakenings . Kavner interviewed several nurses in preparation for the role , and Penny Marshall , the director of the film , described Kavner as " a low @-@ maintenance actor [ ... ] You never have to worry about giving [ her ] back @-@ story for her characters . " In 1992 , Kavner starred in This Is My Life , her first leading role in a feature film . Kavner played Dottie Ingels , an aspiring stand @-@ up comedian who starts neglecting her family when her career begins to take off . Kavner described Dottie as " really selfish " but admitted , " I liked the role for that very reason . " Kavner had been asked to play a character with a smaller role in the film , but Joe Roth , at the time the chairman of 20th Century Fox , suggested that they cast a lesser known actress in the lead role . Nora Ephron , the writer of This Is My Life , said Kavner " has so little vanity that it is almost shocking . Not only does she have no demands as an actress — ' How big is my trailer , what 's in my refrigerator ? ' — but she will do anything for the character if it makes sense to her . "
Kavner has frequently appeared in Woody Allen films , having roles in Hannah and Her Sisters ( 1986 ) , Radio Days ( 1987 ) , New York Stories ( 1989 ) , Alice ( 1990 ) , Shadows and Fog ( 1991 ) , the television movie Don 't Drink the Water ( 1994 ) and Deconstructing Harry ( 1997 ) . Allen described her as " a naturally funny person . When she does a scene you listen to her and look at her and the prism through which it 's all filtered is funny . " Kavner believes he is " a true filmmaker , one that has something to say , continually experimenting on different themes within his own film @-@ making , " adding that " anything [ Allen ] ever does , I always want to do , [ ... ] I don 't even have to read it . "
She has done voice @-@ over work in films such as The Lion King 1 ½ , Dr. Dolittle and an uncredited role as an announcer in A Walk on the Moon . Her most recent live @-@ action film was a role of the mother of Adam Sandler 's character in Click . She has also worked with Tracey Ullman in the HBO sketch comedy series Tracey Takes On ....
= = Personal life = =
Kavner leads a private , " nearly reclusive " life , " discreet and guarded beyond the usual reticent star routine . " She rarely makes public appearances and refuses to allow herself to be photographed at work , especially in the studio while doing The Simpsons . Her partner is retired producer David Davis ; they have lived together since 1976 . In a 1992 interview with The New York Times , Kavner said she was considering retiring , " except for doing three days a year for Woody [ Allen ] , " but felt that if she did retire , she would receive a script she wanted " to do more than life itself " .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
The Simpsons ( 1991 ) – Marge Simpson
Storybook Weaver ( 1994 ) - Mayzie Bird
The Simpsons Cartoon Studio ( 1996 ) – Marge Simpson
Virtual Springfield ( 1997 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
Simpsons Bowling ( 1999 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
The Simpsons Wrestling ( 2001 ) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons : Road Rage ( 2001 ) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons Skateboarding ( 2002 ) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons : Hit & Run ( 2003 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
Storybook Weaver Deluxe ( 2004 ) - Mayzie Bird
The Simpsons Game ( 2007 ) – – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
The Simpsons : Tapped Out ( 2012 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
= = = Music video = = =
" Do the Bartman " ( 1990 ) – Marge Simpson
= = = Theme park = = =
The Simpsons Ride ( 2008 ) – Marge Simpson , Patty and Selma Bouvier
= = Awards = =
= Gordon Roberts ( ice hockey ) =
Gordon William " Doc " Roberts ( September 5 , 1891 – September 1 , 1966 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward who played for the Ottawa Hockey Club and Montreal Wanderers of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and the Vancouver Millionaires and Seattle Metropolitans of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) . He was a member of the Ottawa team that defended the Stanley Cup in a 1910 challenge ; Roberts scored seven goals in two games in his team 's victory over the Edmonton Hockey Club . He moved to Montreal in 1910 where he was consistently among the NHA 's leading scorers with the Wanderers while also studying medicine at McGill University .
While in Montreal , Roberts attended McGill University where he studied to become a physician . Following his graduation , he settled in British Columbia to begin his medical career . Continuing his hockey career , Roberts joined the Vancouver Millionaires where he was named a PCHA all @-@ star at left wing and led the league in scoring with 43 goals in 1916 – 17 . He retired from hockey in 1918 following a season in Seattle before Vancouver lured him back to the game one year later . Roberts left the sport again in 1920 and his medical career ultimately took him to Oakland , California where he practiced for over 40 years . He was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1971 .
= = Playing career = =
Roberts participated in several sports in his youth . In addition to hockey , he played lacrosse and football . Roberts focused on hockey , however , and played for several teams in his hometown of Ottawa . He was the leading scorer of the Ottawa City Hockey League in 1908 – 09 as a member of the Emmitts Hockey Club with 19 goals in six games .
When he turned professional in 1909 by joining the Ottawa Hockey Club , Roberts was one of the youngest players in his league at the age of 18 years . He scored three goals with the team in a single game in the short @-@ lived Canadian Hockey Association before Ottawa jumped to the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) for the remainder of the season . In nine NHA games , Roberts recorded 13 goals . Ottawa was the defending Stanley Cup champions and , during the season , were challenged for the trophy by the Alberta champion Edmonton Hockey Club in January 1910 . The Ottawa Citizen described Roberts as being the star of the first game . The paper praised his defensive checking in addition to his four goals scored in an 8 – 4 victory . He added three goals in the second game as Ottawa retained control of the Stanley Cup by a 21 – 11 aggregate score .
Having enrolled at McGill University to study medicine , Roberts moved to Montreal . He continued to play hockey and lacrosse but could not play football as McGill was unable to have him certified as an amateur . Also ineligible to play collegiate hockey , he joined the Montreal Wanderers for the 1910 – 11 NHA season . Roberts played only four NHA games that year , but thereafter was consistently one of the league 's leading scorers . Following a pair of 16 @-@ goal seasons , Roberts finished second in league scoring with 31 goals in 1913 – 14 and with 29 in 1914 – 15 . He was also named a league all @-@ star in 1914 .
Roberts found it difficult to both study and play hockey , but praised the support of his classmates and the faculty in helping him earn his degree . He had to complete an extra year of schooling after failing his second year , but graduated from McGill in 1916 . Following an 18 @-@ goal season in 1915 – 16 , he left Montreal to take up practice in British Columbia . Roberts continued his hockey career and joined the Vancouver Millionaires of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association ( PCHA ) . He led the PCHA in scoring with 43 goals – in 23 games – and was named a league all @-@ star on left wing . His medical career took him to Seattle and as a result , he joined the Seattle Metropolitans for the 1917 – 18 PCHA season . He retired in 1918 to focus on his medical career in the Howe Sound region of British Columbia , but was lured back to the PCHA by the Millionaires for the 1919 – 20 season . He scored 16 goals in 22 games for Vancouver before permanently retiring from hockey .
= = Playing style = =
Roberts was considered by his contemporaries to be one of the greatest left wings in the sport 's history . His wrist shot , one of the most fearsome of the pre @-@ 1927 era , became the stuff of legend across the country , in both the PCHA and NHA . Roberts was sometimes described as being the inventor of the " curved shot " , preceding and outmatching players such as Harry Cameron , Babe Dye and Didier Pitre . Bernie Morris , and Hall of Famers Frank Foyston and Lester Patrick all attested to the unrivalled effectiveness and dramatic trajectory of Roberts ’ shot . Clint Benedict , often considered the greatest goalie of the 1893 @-@ 1926 era also gave praise to Roberts ’ accuracy coupled with his ability to curve the puck .
Roberts was noted for being able to get his shot off at very bad angles from close in , as well as drive it in from far outside the reach and typical positional range of defenceman .
Notwithstanding his shooting prowess , Roberts was also well regarded for his stamina and skating ability , as well as being an above @-@ average defensive checker . Despite being a physical player , Roberts ( like his contemporary Frank Nighbor ) was noted for his gentlemanly conduct on the ice – which he may have used to protect himself from retaliation :
“ Montreal boss George Kennedy told a story of a game against the Montreal Wanderers in which Pitre was being tripped and butt @-@ ended by rugged winger Gordon Roberts .
Kennedy screamed at Pitre , ‘ Are you afraid of Roberts ? ’
‘ No , sure not , ’ was Pitre 's surprised response .
‘ Well , why don 't you hit him back ? ’ Kennedy snapped .
‘ How can I hit back ? ’ Pitre asked . ‘ Roberts , he is very polite , very nice . Each time I fall , he helps me get up and apologizes and says it is an accident ... can I hit a man who is apologizing to me ? No , never , it is not done . ’ ' ”
= = Personal life = =
Born September 5 , 1891 , and raised in Ottawa , Roberts was the youngest of ten children ; he had eight brothers and a sister . His brother Laurie was also a doctor and athlete , while another brother , Eddie , fought and died in the First World War . Roberts returned east in 1922 where he did post @-@ graduate studies in New York . The Ottawa Senators , then of the National Hockey League , attempted to bring him out of retirement again and Cornell University sought his services as a lacrosse coach . Roberts turned down both offers and chose to retain focus on his medical career ; He moved to California where he taught for a time at Stanford University Hospital . By 1925 , he settled in Oakland where he practiced as an obstetrician for over 40 years . Roberts also acted as a referee at California Hockey League games . Roberts died September 1 , 1966 , and in 1971 was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = Career statistics = =
= SMS Graudenz =
SMS Graudenz was the lead ship of her class of light cruisers . She had one sister ship , SMS Regensburg . The ship was built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) in the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel , laid down in 1912 and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in August 1914 , days after the outbreak of World War I. She was named for the then @-@ German town of Graudenz ( now Grudziądz , Poland ) . The ship was armed with a main battery of twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns and had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Graudenz saw extensive service during World War I , including serving as part of the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group during the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby in December 1914 . The ship also took part in the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915 , and the Battle of the Gulf of Riga in August 1915 . She had been damaged by a mine and was unable to participate in the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 . She was assigned to the planned final operation of the High Seas Fleet in October 1918 , weeks before the end of the war , but a major mutiny forced the cancellation of the plan . After the end of the war , the ship was ceded to Italy as a war prize and commissioned into the Italian Navy as Ancona ; she remained in service until 1937 when she was stricken and broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Graudenz was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Prinzess Wilhelm " and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel in 1912 and was launched on 25 October 1913 . At her launch , the mayor of Graudenz , Dr. Kühnast , christened the ship . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 10 August 1914 . The ship was 142 @.@ 7 meters ( 468 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 8 m ( 45 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 75 m ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 382 t ( 6 @,@ 281 long tons ; 7 @,@ 035 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 26 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Graudenz carried 1 @,@ 280 t ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 375 t ( 369 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 21 officers and 364 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two in a superfiring pair aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . These were later replaced with seven 15 cm SK L / 45 guns and two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . Two deck @-@ mounted launchers were added when the gun armament was upgraded . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Graudenz 's first operation was the raid on Yarmouth on 3 November 1914 . She formed part of the reconnaissance screen for the battlecruisers of Rear Admiral Franz von Hipper 's I Scouting Group , along with the cruisers Kolberg and Strassburg . The bombardment was conducted without incident , but on the return , the armored cruiser Yorck struck a German mine outside Wilhelmshaven and sank . She was also present for the raid on Scarborough , Hartlepool and Whitby on 15 – 16 December 1914 . After completing the bombardment of the towns , the Germans began to withdraw , though British forces moved to intercept them . Graudenz , Stralsund , Strassburg , and two flotillas of torpedo boats steamed between two British squadrons . In the heavy mist , which reduced visibility to less than 4 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) , only Stralsund was spotted , though only briefly . The Germans were able to use the bad weather to cover their withdrawal . Graudenz again screened for the I Scouting Group for the sortie out to the Dogger Bank on 24 January 1915 . In the ensuing Battle of Dogger Bank , the large armored cruiser Blücher was sunk .
In August 1915 , Graudenz went into the Baltic for a major operation to clear the Gulf of Riga of Russian naval forces . Eight dreadnoughts and three battlecruisers from the High Seas Fleet were detached for the operation . Graudenz participated in the second attack on 16 August , led by the dreadnoughts Nassau and Posen . The minesweepers cleared the Russian minefields by the 20th , allowing the German squadron to enter the Gulf . The Russians had by this time withdrawn to Moon Sound , and the threat of Russian submarines and mines in the Gulf prompted the Germans to retreat . The major units of the High Seas Fleet were back in the North Sea before the end of August . Graudenz struck a mine in mid 1916 , and was in drydock for repairs in May 1916 . As a result , she was unavailable for the fleet operation that resulted in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May − 1 June 1916 . For the remainder of the war , she served as a torpedo boat flotilla leader .
By October 1918 , Graudenz was assigned to the II Scouting Group , which was to participate in a final , climactic attack by the High Seas Fleet . The planned operation called for raids on Allied shipping in the Thames estuary and Flanders to draw out the Grand Fleet . Graudenz , Karlsruhe and Nürnberg were assigned to the force tasked with attacking Flanders . On the morning of 29 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven the following day . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen and then on several other battleships mutinied . The unrest ultimately forced Hipper and Scheer to cancel the operation . Commodore Andreas Michelsen organized a force of light craft , including light cruisers , destroyers , and U @-@ boats to oppose a possible British attack while the heavy units of the fleet were in disarray ; he chose Graudenz as his flagship .
Graudenz served with the newly reorganized Reichsmarine in the aftermath of the war , through 1919 . She was stricken from the naval register on 10 March 1920 and surrendered to the Allies as a war prize . She was transferred to Italy on 1 June 1920 under the name " E " in the French port of Cherbourg . She was placed in Italian service and renamed Ancona . She was overhauled starting in 1921 through 1924 . Her coal storage space was reduced from 1 @,@ 280 t ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ; 1 @,@ 410 short tons ) to 900 metric tons ( 890 long tons ; 990 short tons ) and her oil bunker capacity was correspondingly increased from 375 t ( 369 long tons ; 413 short tons ) to 1 @,@ 520 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 680 short tons ) . Ancona was commissioned into the Italian Navy on 6 May 1925 . She was provided with equipment to handle an Macchi M.7 seaplane in 1926 . The ship 's bow and forecastle were lengthened between 1928 and 1929 to mount a catapult for the seaplane . She remained in service until 1932 when she was placed in reserve in Taranto . She was stricken on 11 March 1937 and subsequently broken up .
= Love Like This ( Natasha Bedingfield song ) =
" Love Like This " is a song performed by British pop singer Natasha Bedingfield . It was included on Bedingfield 's second North American album , Pocketful of Sunshine , and features vocals from reggae pop singer Sean Kingston . The song was written by Bedingfield , Kingston , Louis Biancaniello , Rico Love , Ryan Tedder , Sam Watters , and Wayne Wilkins , while production was handled by Biancaniello , Love , Tedder , and Watters under their production group , The Runawayz . Its lyrics discuss finding love with a person who has " been there all your life and has always loved you , but you 've never noticed it until now " . The official remix features vocals from rapper Lil Wayne and a slightly different beat , produced by Jim Jonsin .
The song was released in North America on 2 October 2007 to mixed reviews from critics . It was released in the United Kingdom and Ireland on 7 April 2008 . The song was a commercial success , reaching the top 20 on the majority of the charts it entered , and topped the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart in the United States . On 12 March 2008 , " Love Like This " was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
= = Background = =
In 2007 , Bedingfield began writing and recording new material for her second North American album Pocketful of Sunshine . Producer J. R. Rotem had been working with Bedingfield on the album . Rotem introduced Bedingfield to reggae pop singer / rapper Sean Kingston , who was also recording with Rotem . Bedingfield decided to work with Kingston because she " just Liked his thing " . In an interview with Digital Spy , she said that she respected rappers and seemed to " have a little thing with rappers " since she had previously worked with Estelle , Eve and Bizarre from D12 .
= = Composition = =
The song was written by Bedingfield , Kingston , Wayne Wilkins , Louis Biancaniello , Rico Love , Ryan Tedder from the band OneRepublic , and Sam Watters from the group Color Me Badd . It was also produced by Biancaniello , Love , Tedder , and Watters together in their production team , The Runawayz . The song is composed in the key of F major and set in common time . Bedingfield 's vocals span from C4 to F5 . The Auto Tune effect is heard in a few parts of the song . In the song , Bedingfield discusses finding love with a person who has always " been there all your life " , but that " you 've never noticed it until now " . According to her , it is all about realizing how that person is actually the " love of your life " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Love Like This " received mixed reviews from critics . Chuck Taylor in a review for Billboard described the song as a " jaunty , youthful track that clears home base and should propel Nat forward " , while Chris Boeckmann of Stylus Magazine called it " useless " and a " dud " . Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly found the song left him " feeling absolutely nothing " . Slezak was unimpressed with the pairing of Bedingfield and Kingston , writing " it 's as if two people who I 'm not entirely convinced can sing got together and recorded a heavily focus @-@ grouped song , then ran their vocals through a giant computer " .
In a review for About.com , Bill Lamb called the song " irrepressibly sunny , but forgettable " . In another review of the song , Lamb wrote that Kingston 's vocals " serve no purpose other than providing an extra element for the single 's marketing campaign " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Love Like This " was officially solicited to radio in the United States on 20 September 2007 . The song was released as a download on 2 October 2007 , and debuted at number 19 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . The following week the song rose to number four , before debuting on the Hot 100 chart at number 94 . Fifteen weeks later " Love Like This " reached number 11 . The song did well on pop @-@ oriented charts , reaching number 10 on the Pop 100 chart and number 10 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart . The single had crossover success in the dance charts , where it reached number one on the Hot Dance Club Play chart and number 17 on the Hot Dance Airplay chart . The song has sold over one million digital downloads and has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America .
Elsewhere , " Love Like This " was largely successful , reaching number nine in Canada and number five in New Zealand . In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 27 on 25 March 2008 . Four weeks later , it reached number 20 and remained on the singles chart for seven weeks .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Gil Green and produced by Merge @ Crossroads . Filmed in Los Angeles , California , the video features Bedingfield reuniting with a love from her past . The video begins with Bedingfield singing in a park . She then meets up with a boyfriend ( played by model Josh Slack ) from her past . The two then remember the good times they had together while sitting on a picnic bench . The video concludes with Bedingfield singing and dancing at a house party . Scenes of Kingston in front of an ice cream truck and at the house party are intercut throughout the video .
The video premiered on Bedingfield 's official US website on 27 October 2007 . In 2008 , the video reached number 2 on VH1 's VSpot Top 20 Countdown in the United States .
= = Formats and track listings = =
These are the formats and track listings of major single releases of " Love Like This " .
= = Personnel = =
Natasha Bedingfield – lead vocals
Sean Kingston – vocals
Ravaughn Brown - backing vocals
Keith Gretlein , Nate Hertweck , Matt Serrecchio - assistant engineer
Greg Ogan - vocal engineering
The Runawayz - mixing
David Kutch - mastering
Ryan Tedder -vocals , producer , composer
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves =
" Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ fifth episode overall . Written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer , the episode premiered on The CW on January 30 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , Veronica is hired by Max ( Adam Rose ) a student who is looking for his beloved , Chelsea , but Veronica learns that Chelsea is actually a prostitute hired to make Max lose his virginity . Meanwhile , Keith finds the official police report of Dean O 'Dell 's death . In addition , Veronica asks Logan about his past , eventually finding out that he had sex with Madison Sinclair ( Amanda Noret ) when they were broken up .
Adam Rose makes his second appearance in " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " , while the episode was one of Thomas 's favorites of the season , particularly enjoying scenes between Logan and Veronica , Veronica and Keith , and Chelsea and Max . In its initial broadcast , the episode received 2 @.@ 69 million viewers and mixed reviews from television critics , with critics being divided over the case of the week and the development of Veronica and Logan 's romance . Eric Goldman of IGN thought that the episode was " extremely witty and fast @-@ paced " , while Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , believed that the episode suffered from a " lack of development for Max 's character . "
= = Background = =
Veronica Mars is a student who progresses from high school to college while moonlighting as a private investigator under the tutelage of her detective father . In each episode , Veronica solves a different stand @-@ alone case while working to solve a more complex mystery . In addition , there is usually a major mystery throughout episodes that takes Veronica longer to solve . In the case of the third season , there are two standalone cases with nine and six episodes , respectively , followed by five episodes without a major story arc . " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " is the second episode to solely focus on the mystery of Dean O 'Dell 's ( Ed Begley , Jr . ) death , with the previous one being " Show Me the Monkey " ; the previous story arc , a serial rape , was solved in " Spit & Eggs " .
= = Plot synopsis = =
After a lunch with Logan , Veronica notices that the Hearst Lampoon ’ s offices were egged . Veronica is approached by a mysterious student , Max , hires her to find his beloved , Chelsea , who is engaged , in a week , or else he threatens to kill himself . They spent one night talk together talking . He tells her that she sent him a text message . Veronica quickly finds out that Max ’ s friends hired Chelsea , a prostitute , in order to make him be more confident with girls . His roommate sent him a text message in order to help him get over her . Keith receives the police report of Dean O ’ Dell ’ s death , but he doesn ’ t find anything useful in it . Veronica hires the two prostitutes who might be Chelsea , and one of them is Chelsea . She is incredibly happy to see Max , surprising both Veronica and Logan .
As Max and Chelsea ( whose real name is Wendy ) make out on the couch , Madison ( Amanda Noret ) appears , looking for Dick . Keith interrogates the Lilith house girls , who have alibis for the Dean ’ s death . A battered prostitute appears at Logan ’ s door and takes Wendy away , citing problems with their pimp , leaving Max heartbroken . Veronica finds a stain of purple makeup on a towel , and she immediately deduces that Wendy conned Max out of $ 1 @,@ 000 . Veronica blackmails a judge in order to secure the $ 1 @,@ 000 back . Veronica and Logan ask each other personal questions in an attempt to become more intimate , but it fails . At the bus locker at which Veronica instructed the judge to leave the money , she instead finds a note that tells Veronica and Max to get in a limo . In the limo , they find Wendy ’ s pimp , who is actually a woman . She tells them that she actually did fall in love with Max , but that she needed money for other reasons .
Max immediately pays $ 10 @,@ 000 in order for Wendy to be forgiven , under the condition that he doesn ’ t tell anyone about the judge . Unexpectedly , Wendy shows up at Max ’ s door . Keith informs Veronica that Nish ’ s alibi doesn ’ t check out for the Dean ’ s car but that it was likely true for Mindy ’ s car , putting her under suspicion . Max and Wendy ’ s relationship becomes difficult , and she leaves the following morning , claiming that he has acted differently towards her after he found out her occupation . Max pays back Veronica in $ 1 bills he received from Wendy , indicating that she had returned to stripping . Madison tells Veronica that she and Logan had sex when he and Veronica were broken up .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by executive producer Diane Ruggiero and directed by John T. Kretchmer , marking Ruggiero 's sixteenth and penultimate writing credit and Kretchmer 's twelfth directing credit . One scene in the episode depicts Veronica and Max sitting in the backseat of a vehicle with Chelsea 's pimp ( a woman ) and several bodyguards . Kretchmer decided to place one of the physically domineering bodyguards between Max and Veronica for comedic effect . In addition , Thomas noted that the actress of the pimp , Jackie Debatin , appeared in a similar role in an episode of The Office several weeks after the episode aired . The scene in which Keith , in a Sheriff 's uniform , spots Don Lamb in his car was difficult to edit because although there was initially no radio music playing , Michael Muhney , the actor of Lamb , was moving his mouth as if singing lyrics . Thomas reported difficulty in finding a song that would match the movements .
Adam Rose makes his second appearance in " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " , after being a suspect in " Hi , Infidelity " . From the very beginning of his appearances , Rose 's character , Max , was planned to begin a romantic relationship with Mac . When Rose received the call that he would be appearing in more episodes for a romantic storyline with Mac , Rose , who was roommates with the actor of Bronson , another Mac love interest , stated , " But I thought that 's what my roommate was doing . " Thomas called the scene in which Chelsea paints Max 's toenails one of his favorite scenes involving no series regulars , noting that it was nearly a three @-@ minute scene .
Thomas enjoyed Brianne Davis 's , the actress of Chelsea , performance so much that he called her and complimented her after filming ended , while Peter Roth expressed interest in giving her a job on another show . The episode was scored by Mark Lanegan , with whom Thomas had gone to elementary school . Thomas was favorable towards the scene in which Veronica and Logan discuss his past , stating that the scene could have dragged due to its length but that it did not . When scripting the scene , there was a discussion in the writers ' room regarding what the extent of Veronica 's jealousy could be , with Thomas and Ruggiero , who Thomas described as " naturally jealous people " , winning out and making Veronica more envious rather than less . For the scene in which Veronica asks Keith about the report on Dean O 'Dell 's suicide by humorously requiring him to sing what he has found , Colantoni gave nine different musical impressions of his dialogue , " I finally got the police report on the Dean 's suicide ! "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast in the United States , " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " was viewed by 2 @.@ 69 million viewers , ranking 92nd of 100 in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " received mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode an 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . He was positive towards many aspects of the episode , particularly the first half , while he was more mixed or negative towards the conclusion of the main storyline as well as the romantic development . He wrote that " The first half of this episode was extremely witty and fast @-@ paced . " However , he thought that the Max @-@ Chelsea storyline should have ended earlier in the episode , and that " love sick , mopey Logan has gotten very old . " However , he was complimentary towards Keith 's plotline . Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feelings towards the episode , being critical of the case of the week while enjoying some of the secondary storylines . While stating that the episode suffered from " the lack of exploration of Max 's character " and Wendy being underdeveloped , he elaborated that " those are generally minor quibbles with a decent standalone episode , however . " He went on to praise the Logan @-@ Veronica dynamic and Keith 's investigation into the Dean 's death .
Alan Sepinwall , on his blog What 's Alan Watching ? , was mostly positive towards the episode , praising the crew 's decision to focus on the mysteries of the week , stating that " if the last couple of episodes are an indication , maybe done @-@ in @-@ one is in the right direction . " He found that he was invested in the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week , while he felt as though the Dean O 'Dell plotline was not advancing quickly enough . Keith McDuffee of AOL TV was critical of nearly all aspects of the episode , stating that he was missing the longer story arcs and that once the mystery of Dean O 'Dell 's murder ended , the show would be relatively aimless . In addition , he decried Mac , Wallace , Piz , and Parker 's absences , saying , " I miss the ' gang ' . " Television Without Pity gave the episode a " B- " .
= Cyathus striatus =
Cyathus striatus , commonly known as the fluted bird 's nest , is a common saprobic bird 's nest fungus with a widespread distribution throughout temperate regions of the world . This fungus resembles a miniature bird 's nest with numerous tiny " eggs " ; the eggs , or peridioles , are actually lens @-@ shaped bodies that contain spores . C. striatus can be distinguished from most other bird 's nest fungi by its hairy exterior and grooved ( striated ) inner walls . Although most frequently found growing on dead wood in open forests , it also grows on wood chip mulch in urban areas . The fruiting bodies are encountered from summer until early winter . The color and size of this species can vary somewhat , but they are typically less than a centimeter wide and tall , and grey or brown in color . Another common name given to C. striatus , splash cups , alludes to the method of spore dispersal : the sides of the cup are angled such that falling drops of water can dislodge the peridioles and eject them from the cup . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin stria , meaning " with fine ridges or grooves " .
= = Taxonomy = =
Cyathus striatus was first described by William Hudson in his 1778 work Flora Anglica as Peziza striata . Carl Ludwig Willdenow transferred it to Cyathus in 1787 .
= = Description = =
The " nest " , or peridium , is usually about 7 to 10 mm in height and 6 to 8 mm in width , but the size is somewhat variable and specimens have been found with heights and widths of up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) . The shape typically resembles a vase or inverted cone . The outer surface ( exoperidium ) ranges in color from slightly brownish to grayish buff to deep brown ; the exoperidium has a shaggy or hairy texture ( a tomentum ) , with the hairs mostly pointing downward . The inner surface of the peridium ( the endoperidium ) is striated or grooved , and shiny . Young specimens have a lid , technically called an epiphragm , a thin membrane that covers the cup opening . The epiphragm is hairy like the rest of the exoperidial surface , but the hairs often wear off leaving behind a thin white layer stretched across the lid of the cup . As the peridium matures and expands , this membrane breaks and falls off , exposing the peridioles within . The peridium is attached to its growing surface by a mass of closely packed hyphae called an emplacement ; in C. striatus the maximum diameter of the emplacement is typically 8 – 12 mm , and often incorporating small fragments of the growing surface into its structure .
Peridiole structure
The peridioles are about 1 to 1 @.@ 5 mm wide and rarely up to 2 mm wide . They are disc @-@ shaped , but may appear angular due to pressure from neighbouring peridioles . Peridioles may be dark , or a drab gray if still covered with a thin membrane called a tunica .
Peridioles in C. striatus are sheathed and attached to the endoperidium by complex cords of mycelia known as a funiculus in the singular . The funiculus is differentiated into three regions : the basal piece , which attaches it to the inner wall of the peridium , the middle piece , and an upper sheath , called the purse , connected to the lower surface of the peridiole . Inside the purse and middle piece is a coiled thread of interwoven hyphae called the funicular cord , attached at one end to the peridiole and at the other end to an entangled mass of hyphae called the hapteron . When dry the funiculus is brittle , but when wet it is capable of long extension .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The basidia , the spore @-@ bearing cells , are club @-@ shaped with long stalks . They typically hold 4 spores that are sessile , that is , attached directly to the surface of the basidium , rather than by a short stalk ( a sterigmata ) . Spores measure about 15 to 20 µm long by 8 to 12 µm wide . They are elliptical , smooth , hyaline , and notched at one end . During development , the spores are separated from the basidia when the latter collapse and gelatinize along with other cells lining the inner walls of the peridiole . The spores expand in size somewhat after being detached from the basidia .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Cyathus striatus is a saprobic fungus , deriving its nutrition from decaying organic material , and is typically found growing in clusters on small twigs or other woody debris . It is also common on mulch under shrubs . The features of the microenvironment largely influence the appearance of C. striatus ; all else being equal , it is more likely to be found in moist , shallow depressions than elevated areas . It is very widespread in temperate areas throughout the world , growing in summer and fall . The fungus has been recorded from Asia , Europe , North America , Central America , South America , and New Zealand .
= = Life cycle = =
Cyathus striatus can reproduce both asexually ( via vegetative spores ) , or sexually ( with meiosis ) , typical of taxa in the basidiomycetes that contain both haploid and diploid stages . Basidiospores produced in the peridioles each contain a single haploid nucleus . After the spores have been dispersed into a suitable growing environment , they germinate and develop into homokaryotic hyphae , with a single nucleus in each cell compartment . When two homokaryotic hyphae of different mating compatibility groups fuse with one another , they form a dikaryotic mycelia in a process called plasmogamy . After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions , fruiting bodies may be formed from the dikaryotic mycelia . These fruiting bodies produce peridioles containing the basidia upon which new spores are made . Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse , and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce haploid basidiospores . The process of meiosis in C. striatus has been found to be similar to that of higher organisms .
= = Spore dispersal = =
The cone shaped fruiting body of Cyathus striatus makes use of a splash @-@ cup mechanism to help disperse the spores . When a raindrop hits the interior of the cup with the optimal angle and velocity , the downward force of the water ejects the peridioles into the air . The force of ejection rips open the funiculus , releasing the tightly wound funicular cord . The hapteron attached to the end of the funiculus is adhesive , and when it contacts a nearby plant stem or stick , the hapteron sticks to it ; the funicular cord wraps around the stem or stick powered by the force of the still @-@ moving peridiole ( similar to a tetherball ) . The peridioles degrade over time to eventually release the spores within , or they may be eaten by herbivorous animals and redeposited after passing through the digestive tract .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Cyathus striatus has proven to be a rich source of bioactive chemical compounds . It was first reported in 1971 to produce " indolic " substances ( compounds with an indole ring structure ) as well as a complex of diterpenoid antibiotic compounds collectively known as cyathins . Several years later , research revealed the indolic substances to be compounds now known as striatins . Striatins ( A , B and C ) have antibiotic activity against fungi imperfecti , and various Gram @-@ positive and Gram @-@ negative bacteria . C. striatus also produces sesquiterpene compounds called schizandronols . It also contains the triterpene compounds glochidone , glochidonol , glochidiol and glochidiol diacetate , cyathic acid , striatic acid , cyathadonic acid and epistriatic acid . The latter four compounds were unknown prior to their isolation from C. striatus .
= Penmon =
Penmon is a promontory , village and ecclesiastical parish on the south @-@ east tip of the Isle of Anglesey in Wales , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of the town of Beaumaris . It is in the community of Llangoed . The name comes from Welsh : pen ( which can mean " head " , " end " or " promontory " ) and Môn , which is the Welsh word for Anglesey . It is the site of a historic monastery and associated 12th @-@ century church . Walls near the well next to the church may be part of the oldest remaining Christian building in Wales . Penmon also has an award @-@ winning beach and the Anglesey Coastal Path follows its shores . Quarries in Penmon have provided stone for many important buildings and structures , including Birmingham Town Hall and the two bridges that cross the Menai Strait . The area is popular with locals and visitors alike for its monuments , tranquillity , bracing air and fine views of Snowdonia to the south across the Menai Strait .
= = History = =
According to tradition , the community at Penmon grew up around a monastery ( clas ) established in the early 6th century by Saint Seiriol on land provided by his brother Saint Einion , king of Llyn . Although Seiriol eventually removed himself to a hermitage on nearby Puffin Island , the monastery prospered and two crosses were set up at its gate . In 971 , Vikings destroyed much of Penmon . The two crosses and the decorated font remain from this time . During the 12th century , the abbey church was rebuilt under Gruffudd ap Cynan and Owain Gwynedd . In the 13th century , under Llywelyn ap Iorwerth , monasteries started a newer more regular kind of rule , and Penmon became an Augustinian priory with conventional buildings . The priory expanded . After surviving the conquest of Wales by King Edward , it was eventually dissolved in 1538 . The buildings were transferred to the ownership of the Bulkeleys of Beaumaris , a prominent local family , and are still in use today . The Bulkeleys also used most of the land for a deer park , and built the dovecot near the church .
= = Climate = =
The average temperature and rainfall figures taken between 1971 and 2000 at the Met Office weather station in Colwyn Bay , around 10 miles east of Penmon ( and also by the sea ) are set out in the table below . When compared to the corresponding figures for Wales as a whole , the area can be seen to be both warmer and drier than the average location in Wales throughout the whole year .
= = Demographics = =
The author of A History of Anglesey , written in 1775 , said of Penmon that there were " plenty of oysters , remarkable large , the poor find constant employ in the dredge , and in pickling the fish for foreign consumption . " The population in 1801 was 169 . The 1831 census recorded that there were 51 adult males ( over 20 years old ) and that the majority of residents were labourers or servants , with over half the male adult workers being employed in agriculture . After reaching a high of 291 in 1821 , the population declined to a low of 213 in 1871 . The population rose thereafter so that it was 300 in 1931 .
The Imperial Gazetteer of England and Wales of 1870 @-@ 2 noted that millstone , good limestone and marble were found in the area . It also recorded that the population was 240 and that there were 53 houses , with the property being " divided among a few " . In fact , the number of houses in Penmon did not exceed 60 throughout the 19th century , first reaching 60 in 1901 .
At the time of the 2001 census , Llangoed ward ( which includes the parish of Penmon ) had a population of 1 @,@ 275 . About 60 % of residents in the area had been born in Wales , with about 36 % having been born in England . About 63 % of residents were able to use the Welsh language to some degree . 99 @.@ 76 % of residents identified as White , and 0 @.@ 24 % as Black or Black British . Compared to Anglesey as a whole , Llangoed ward had a lower proportion of residents aged 0 – 4 years ( 4 @.@ 78 % compared to 5 @.@ 4 % ) and a higher proportion of residents aged 65 or over ( 25 @.@ 02 % compared to 18 @.@ 86 % ) . The general health of the population of Llangoed ward was poorer than that of Anglesey generally : 12 @.@ 47 % said that their health was " not good " ( Anglesey : 10 @.@ 53 % ) and 25 @.@ 73 % reported a " limiting long @-@ term illness " ( Anglesey : 2
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seeing his wife and son together " really represents is a further fracturing of his psyche " . A second season , Killen said , would have explored the idea of Michael 's wife and son both living but not ( necessarily ) a third reality . Another season also raised the possibility of Tara and Michael beginning a romantic relationship . Since the finale was written before the show 's cancellation , it was written so either reality could have been the " real " one : " [ the writers ] didn 't intend to have that mystery sewn up in [ ' Turtles All the Way Down ' ] " .
= = Characters and story arcs = =
= = = Main characters = = =
There are four main characters in each reality , totaling eight . Michael Britten ( the lead character ) is an LAPD detective who lives in both realities . Since he does not know which reality is " real " , he has routines to help him maintain the illusion of control ; however , he is also disorganized and sometimes behaves oddly . Michael is often confused , suffers from a sleep disorder and dislikes heights . He refuses treatment because he does not want closure for his family . Hannah Britten is Michael 's wife , who is grieving her son 's death . She was planned to have an unexpected pregnancy in the show 's second season . Rex Britten is Michael 's son , a teenage student who had previously been kidnapped . After school Rex often works on a motorbike with his best friend , Cole , at Cole 's house . He is emotional and angry over his mother 's death , keeping a tennis racket to deal with his grief . When Cole accidentally breaks it , Rex is enraged ; later , he apologizes .
Efrem Vega ( a detective in the " red reality " ) and Michael often argue about their cases , and is concerned about Michael 's erratic behavior . In " The Little Guy " , Vega and Michael are arguing about a case involving a short person when Captain Tricia Harper calls Michael into her office . Shortly afterwards , Michael puts Vega on the lead of a new case and the two become friends . Michael had previously worked with Bird in the " red reality , " but Bird is reassigned to a new division . Vega remains an officer in the " green reality " Bird and Michael now only work with each other as partners in the " green reality . " Michael sees two therapists : Dr. Jonathan Lee and Dr. Judith Evans . Dr. Lee claims that Michael 's two realities are problematic , and Dr. Evans states that they are " remarkable " . Rex 's tennis coach , Tara , only appeared in three episodes of the series . The character was planned as a potential love interest for Michael in the " green reality " near the end of the first season , but the writers abandoned that storyline ; Killen explained they would have explored this storyline during the second season .
= = = Recurring characters = = =
There are five recurring characters , all appearing in both realities . Captain Tricia Harper , Michael 's commanding officer at the precinct , was a co @-@ conspirator in Michael 's car accident ; however , it is hinted that her involvement was reluctant . Captain Carl Kessel ( commanding officer at Hawkins ' precinct ) hid heroin in a storage unit for himself and Harper , and was behind Michael 's car accident . For the crash the two used Ed Hawkins , on orders from Kessel .
Other recurring characters include Emma ( Daniela Bobadilla ) , Rex 's girlfriend . Pregnant with Rex 's baby , she was originally told to give it up for adoption ; however , after a talk with her father Joaquin ( Carlos Lacámara ) she is allowed to keep it . Cole , Rex 's best friend , is another recurring character . The two work on a motorbike together ; Cole lets Hannah ride it in the " red reality " , after she convinces him to finish it .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Awake received generally @-@ favorable reviews from critics . At Metacritic ( which assigns a weighted mean — out of 100 — based on reviews from mainstream critics ) the show received a weighted mean score of 75 from 29 reviews . It was the number @-@ two best @-@ reviewed show by Metacritic users for the 2011 – 12 season , with a user score of 8 @.@ 0 ( behind Revenge ) . TVLine called Awake in their review of 2012 the " most ambitious ill @-@ fated show " . Rachel Ray of The Daily Telegraph called the premiere episode " impressive " , while Tierney Bricker of E ! Online commented that he enjoyed the idea of a man living in two separate realities to stay in touch with the people he loves . NPR 's Linda Holmes said that the pilot laid the foundation for several emotional storylines , evaluating it among the strongest shows in recent memory and very engaging ( compared with similar shows ) .
James Poniewozik of Time noted that while its concept seemed melodramatic , the episode " focuses unflinchingly on the subject of loss , yet manages to be not a downer or painful to watch , but moving , absorbing and even hopeful . " He affirmed that the program effectively resolved the issues raised about the series , writing " Awake handles the confusion problem well : yes , it takes more concentration than a Law & Order , but it 's no Inception in its twistiness . Michael himself needs to hold on to markers to anchor his sense of reality — for instance , he wears a red and a green wristband in the existences in which his wife and his son are alive , respectively — and those help us follow along too . " Reuters ' Tim Molloy avouched that the episode was the " best new show of the season " : " Despite the most complicated narrative since ABC 's Lost kept skipping through time , Awake makes a fast , emotional connection that gives viewers an almost immediate stake in the lives of its compelling characters . "
RedEye journalist Curt Wagner stated that the series was smartly @-@ written , and praised its actors . BuddyTV writer Laurel Brown called the pilot a " great episode " . In his " A " -grade review , Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club said that the episode was a " great piece of televised art " , describing the script as " witty , warm , and soulful " . He praised Slade 's directing , calling the pilot episode " unique " and " wonderful " . " Pilot " was highly anticipated by Los Angeles Times journalist Robert Lloyd , who observed that " it promised to be one of the year 's best and most interesting new series . " In a pre @-@ broadcast review , Matt Fowler from IGN gave the pilot a 10 out of 10 , classifying it as a " masterpiece " . Writing for the New York Post , Michael Starr called Awake " compelling " .
Critics lauded the cast 's acting , specifically Isaacs ' performance . VanDerWerff concluded that the cast 's performances were " delicate and almost perfect " , while Wagner felt that Isaacs was well @-@ suited for the lead role and could easily captivate the audience ; " his touching , solid work grounds everything . He shows viewers what lengths one man in pain might go to hold onto those he loves . And it 's heartbreaking . " Denise Duguay of the Montreal Gazette thought that Isaacs evoked a " reservedness " and ambiguity which attracted viewers to his character . Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter echoed this sentiment , writing , " He perfectly conveys a man struggling with two horrible options . " Poniewozik considered Isaacs " utterly compelling " , calling him " mature " , " soulful " , and " wearied " . Although Stuever felt that Isaacs failed to engage the audience , he praised the performances of Wong and Jones ; " Jones and Wong [ ... ] are excellent and even vaguely sinister as the dueling shrinks . "
Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly was keen on Isaacs ' acting in the series . " It helps enormously to have Isaacs playing the lead . This actor knows how to convey a gravity that contrasts well with the series ' airy concept , but he avoids becoming heavy and morose . " Fowler stated that Isaacs " delivers a graceful and subdued performance as a man who , on a daily basis , must taste both heaven and hell . A man full of guilt , but also gratitude . " Fowler noted that Allen and Minnette 's acting in the series deserved praise for playing characters dealing with loss without closure , while Starr called the casting " fine all @-@ around " . Critics from IGN and Paste contended that Isaacs ' performance deserved an Emmy Award . After Awake 's cancellation , Mareen Ryan of The Huffington Post hoped that new dramas on NBC would " achieve the kind of visual and emotional poetry that Awake did . " Robert Bianco from USA Today thought that Awake could become one of the season 's best new shows . As the series progressed , " Say Hello to My Little Friend " was generally considered the best episode since " Pilot " .
Some critics were less enthusiastic . Writing for The Washington Post , Hank Stuever felt that despite high ambitions the pilot episode was slow and drowsy . David Hinckley , in the New York Daily News , claimed that Awake " requires more work [ to understand ] than the average viewer is likely to put in " and described it as a show which would not fit into prime @-@ time television . " Game Day " , in contrast , received mixed reviews from IGN and The A.V. Club ; the publications gave it their lowest scores of the season . Zack Handlen , an A.V. Club critic , described the mysteries of " Game Day " " childishly simple " . In addition , " Ricky 's Tacos " was criticized for being too much like Law & Order : Special Victims Unit . Despite this , recurring guest star Dr. Banks ( Chris McGarry ) was well received by Handlen , who thought that he " [ was ] becoming [ his ] favorite secondary character on the show " . " Nightswimming " also received mixed reviews from critics . That episode 's " red reality " storylines were praised ; those for the " green reality " were considered " boring " . Handlen thought that if the " red reality " storyline was not featured in " Nightswimming " , it would not work as an episode ; Sepinwall thought the episode should not have gone into detail about the guest stars .
= = = U.S. television ratings = = =
Awake had low viewership and ratings throughout its original run . The premiere episode , which was originally broadcast on March 1 , 2012 , was watched 6 @.@ 2 million viewers ( the most @-@ viewed program in its time slot for NBC since April 2010 and an improvement over its lead @-@ in show , Up All Night ) . NBC also won the hour for the 18 – 49 audience , nearly doubling its numbers with those viewers over The Firm . Awake debuted slightly better than the previous drama occupying the slot in fall 2011 , Prime Suspect , which premiered with 6 @.@ 05 million total viewers and a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 @-@ percent share in the 18 – 49 demographic .
The second episode fell by 2 million viewers , running against The Mentalist on CBS and a rerun of GCB on ABC . Awake had its series low with the episode " Two Birds " , which premiered on May 17 , 2012 against the season finales of the ABC political drama Scandal and The Mentalist on CBS . Awake averaged 4 @.@ 81 million viewers per episode , ranking 125th in viewership for the 2011 – 12 season .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
In June 2011 Awake was honored , along with seven others , with the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Most Exciting New Series , chosen by journalists who had seen the pilots . ET Online chose Isaacs as its first actor in their annual Emmy Preview , which predicts winners of particular Emmy Awards . ET Online reviewer Jarett Wieselman noted that Isaacs could snag an Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series nomination ; however , Isaacs was not on the list of nominees announced July 19 , 2012 . In 2013 , Zap2it included the show on their list of 22 great one @-@ season television shows .
= = = Fan base = = =
Awake generated viewer loyalty during its original three @-@ month broadcast run on NBC , with fans organizing to try and save the series from cancellation . Their efforts included a campaign entitled " Save Awake " , holding a " sleep blackout " ( fans wearing red and green wristbands with posters saying " Save Awake " ) outside major television networks in the United States , a letter @-@ writing campaign to networks such as Fox and CBS and a YouTube fan @-@ made video .
= = Distribution = =
Awake episodes premiered in March 2012 on NBC in the United States and the Global Television Network in Canada ( which had identical schedules ) . However , Global aired the series finale a day before its American premiere because the Canadian series Rookie Blue was broadcast in Awake 's time slot . It premiered on April 11 in Australia on W , and on May 4 in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky Atlantic . Fox picked up the rights to air the series in Asia , and debuted Awake on June 11 .
Episodes of the show are also available online at Netflix , Amazon Video , and the iTunes Store ( which offer all 13 episodes for purchase — with episodes originally appearing the day after their live airing — in standard @-@ definition and high @-@ definition ) . As of September 2012 , the final five episodes are available in streaming video on NBC 's official Awake webpage and Hulu . The first episode was made available two weeks before the series ' broadcast premiere ( on February 16 , 2012 ) on Hulu , YouTube ( its first seven minutes ) , and the iTunes Store .
= = Broadcast history = =
Awake consists of thirteen one @-@ hour episodes . The series originally aired in the United States at 10 : 00 pm ( EST ) Thursdays on NBC from March 1 to May 24 , 2012 ( although it was originally scheduled to premiere in fall 2011 ) . Awake debuted as a mid @-@ season replacement for The Firm , which moved to Saturday nights in the U.S. and Canada . The series ' final episode , " Turtles All the Way Down " , aired outside the television season on May 24 , 2012 . Low ratings resulted in NBC 's cancelling the show on May 11 , 2012 ( after eleven of the thirteen produced episodes were aired ) , although the network finished airing the remaining episodes in the series ' original time slot .
The A.V. Club opined that Awake 's slot ( opposite the hit drama The Mentalist ) contributed to the show 's failure . Film.com 's Gretchen Alice observed that Awake was in a " tough timeslot " , and NBC 's previous shows in that slot also fared poorly .
= The Gift That Keeps Giving =
See The gift that keeps on giving for the catchphrase .
" The Gift That Keeps Giving " is a song by Super Furry Animals taken from their 2007 album , Hey Venus ! . It was given away as a free download single from the band 's official website on Christmas Day 2007 .
The song was conceived as a Christmas single as part of the band 's plans to make a " pop record " in parent album Hey Venus ! The title stems from sessions in 2004 for the extended live version of " The Man Don 't Give a Fuck " , at which the group 's engineer repeatably used the phrase . Critical response to " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was generally positive with the NME claiming it to be one of the best songs on Hey Venus ! and BBC Wales describing the track as " brain @-@ bendingly catchy " .
A Team D.A.D.D.Y. directed music video was made to accompany the track 's release as a single . The video features a spoilt child being showered with Christmas presents while poorer children are shown in tears due to their lack of gifts . Two different endings for the video were produced - in one Santa Claus is shown crucified on a cross while another sees Santa laid on the floor with an arrow through his head .
= = Origins and recording = =
In a 2008 interview with Uncut singer Gruff Rhys stated that " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was written as an " AOR Christmas single " following a visit to Japan where " they celebrate Christmas as a commercial holiday with all the decorations .. in one store they had Santa on a cross hanging from the wall ... so the Christmas single was just an excuse to have Santa on a cross on the cover " . Although the cover art did not in the end feature this scene , a crucified Santa does appear in the accompanying music video .
Speaking to British music magazine Artrocker Rhys offered another explanation as to the origins of the song :
The track was recorded at Miraval Studios , France along with the rest of Hey Venus !
= = Musical structure = =
" The Gift That Keeps Giving " is 3 minutes 20 seconds long and is in the key of D minor . The track begins with a phased guitar melody backed only by synthesizer , hi @-@ hat and occasional guitar chords . Cian Ciaran 's piano joins the mix as the song builds up with the introduction of drums at 25 seconds . Gruff Rhys begins singing after 39 seconds and is joined by sleighbells which accompany the lines " all the bells started ringing " shortly before the first chorus which features harmony backing vocals ( the first of many in the " falsetto @-@ laden " track ) singing the title phrase . Another verse and chorus follow before an instrumental verse at 1 minute 46 seconds featuring a trumpet solo playing around the vocal melody . The song " crescendos tenderly " with a double chorus before entering the outro which initially includes spoken word backing vocals chanting " giving again " and is " enhanced by a horn section that the Furries seem to be able to utilise more effectively than anyone else " .
= = Critical response = =
Critical reaction to " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was generally positive with the New Musical Express rating it as one of the best on parent album Hey Venus ! ; " [ it doesn 't so much raise ] the bar , as balances it on top of Mount Snowdon " going on to state : " From a foundation of ELO guitar cloud @-@ swells , Gruff 's Elvis Costello @-@ in @-@ a @-@ bubblegum @-@ bath voice wraps around tender trombone parps to create the band 's most beautiful moment since " Demons " . BBC Wales commented on the track 's Christmas links , describing " The Gift That Keeps Giving " as a " mellow , mellifluous , slow ode to the joys of the festive season ... lyrically incredibly simple ... brain @-@ bendingly catchy " . The Guardian meanwhile , stated that the song " might sound more California than Christmas " but still possesses the " obligatory sleighbells ... shaken throughout " . Much was made of the ' retro ' nature of the track with Yahoo Music UK claiming that the song is " a pure blue @-@ eyed soul tune , of the sort that Dan Penn and Spooner Oldham used to churn out four decades ago " and The Guardian describing it as a " gorgeous , Bacharach @-@ tinged haze " . In contrast the UCSD Guardian described " The Gift That Keeps Giving " as " jazzy " and " lo @-@ fi " and saw it as " a throw @-@ back to 2000 's experimental Mwng " .
Billboard noted that " the group 's penchant for sonic flourishes is used to subtle effect " on " The Gift That Keeps Giving " and went on to suggest that the track is representative of Hey Venus ! as a whole . Cokemachineglow , however , thought that the song " will be cast into the void , one daring , lonely piece of the first Super Furry Animals album to not succeed as a thorough unit " and , in their single review of " The Gift That Keeps Giving " , the NME suggested that the track wasn 't one of the group 's best .
The band 's decision to employ Japanese surrealist Keiichi Tanaami to produce the cover for Hey Venus ! and its singles received some criticism , not least because the artist had already used similar designs . In a 2005 interview with German magazine Komakino , keyboard player Cian Ciaran stated that the artwork for " The Gift ... " was unique , however , and praised the artist .
= = Music video = =
The video for " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was directed by Team D.A.D.D.Y. and revolves around a festive theme in keeping with the track 's release date of Christmas day .
The video opens with a spoilt child opening numerous Christmas presents including a toy train , a box full of kittens and a copy of Hey Venus ! ( which he throws over his shoulder in disgust ) . Towards the end of the video less privileged children are shown crying at their lack of presents before we cut back to the initial child who is surrounded by gifts while Santa Claus is seen in front of a log fire , crucified on a cross . An alternative ending instead features Santa lying on the floor with an arrow through his head .
Despite the apparently cynical nature of the video , BBC Wales asserts that it is " not meant to be read in any deeper level than ' ain 't Christmas brilliant ? ' "
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
" The Gift That Keeps Giving " – 3 : 20
Although the track was initially reported to come with an " exclusive b @-@ side " this turned out not to be the case and only " The Gift That Keeps Giving " was made available .
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys : Vocals
Huw Bunford : Guitar
Guto Pryce : Bass guitar
Cian Ciaran : keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan : Drums
Kris Jenkins : Percussion
Matt Sibley : Saxophone
Gary Alesbrook : Trumpet
Nick Atwood : Trombone
= New Jersey Route 163 =
Route 163 is a short 0 @.@ 30 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) long state highway in the county of Warren in New Jersey . The route , which is currently a stub , used to be the approach to the destroyed Delaware Bridge , which was a road bridge over the Delaware River , connecting the settlement of Delaware , New Jersey with Portland , Pennsylvania . Until 1953 , the bridge carried U.S. Route 46 over the river . The bridge has been destroyed , but the approaches are still state @-@ maintained . A still @-@ existing bridge carries an abandoned ex @-@ Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad line across the river just north of the former road crossing . The unsigned Route 163 runs from US 46 north to a dead end on the east side of US 46 , all in Knowlton Township , New Jersey . From the dead end , the bridge approach continued northwest and west over US 46 to the bridge .
= = Route description = =
Route 163 begins north of an intersection with U.S. Route 46 and Roy Ace Road in the community of Delaware . The highway heads to the north along Lackawanna Road . Route 163 passes several residences to the north and a short stretch of homes to the south . There is a short intersection with an unnamed local road . After that intersection , Route 163 passes a truck stop that is visible on both Route 46 , which parallels to the south , and the short state highway . There is another short truck stop before an intersection with a return ramp to Route 46 . Route 163 officially terminates at a barricaded dead @-@ end near Hemlock Hill Road .
= = History = =
New Jersey Route 163 originated as an alignment of U.S. Route 46 ( co @-@ signed with New Jersey State Highway Route 6 ) . The alignment of 6 and 46 went along the alignment of the original State Highway Route 5 from the early 1920s , stretching from Newark to the bridge over the Delaware River at Delaware . The route was decommissioned when the 1927 renumbering occurred . After that renumbering , the route became State Highway Route 6 , a co @-@ designation to U.S. Route 46 , which had been assigned the prior year . The two highway designations remained intact until the 1953 renumbering , when Route 6 was decommissioned in favor of using the U.S. 46 designation . U.S. Route 46 was realigned once again when the Portland @-@ Columbia Toll Bridge opened in 1953 , when the alignment of the highway was changed to head along former State Highway Route 8 ( mostly New Jersey Route 94 ) , where it ended at U.S. Route 611 and NJ 94 , where its current terminus is located . After the realigning of the Delaware Bridge alignment , the route was renumbered to New Jersey Route 163 . Two years later , the Delaware Bridge was swept away in floods caused by Hurricane Connie and Diane in 1955 , which took out several other bridges over the Delaware .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Delaware , Warren County .
= 2012 Summer Paralympics =
The 2012 Summer Paralympics , the fourteenth Summer Paralympic Games , and also more generally known as the London 2012 Paralympic Games , were a major international multi @-@ sport event for athletes with disabilities governed by the International Paralympic Committee ( IPC ) , that took place in London , England from 29 August to 9 September 2012 . These Paralympics were one of the largest multi @-@ sport events ever held in the United Kingdom after the 2012 Summer Olympics , and were the largest Paralympics ever : 4 @,@ 302 athletes from 164 National Paralympic Committees participated , with fourteen countries appearing in the Paralympics for the first time ever . A total of 503 events in 20 sports were held during these games ; for the first time since their suspension after the 2000 Paralympics , events for the intellectually disabled were also held in selected sports .
The lead @-@ up to these games prominently emphasized the return of the Paralympic movement to its spiritual birthplace : in 1948 , the British village of Stoke Mandeville first hosted the Stoke Mandeville Games , an athletics event for disabled British veterans of the Second World War held to coincide with the opening of the Summer Olympics in London . They were the first @-@ ever organized sporting event for disabled athletes , and served as a precursor to the modern Paralympic Games . Stoke Mandeville also co @-@ hosted the 1984 Summer Paralympics with Long Island , New York , after its original host , the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , pulled out due to financial issues .
Organizers expected the Games to be the first Paralympics to achieve mass @-@ market appeal , fuelled by continued enthusiasm from the British public following the country 's successful performance at the Summer Olympics , awareness of the United Kingdom 's role in the history of the Paralympics , public attention surrounding South African sprinter Oscar Pistorius ( who , only just prior to the Paralympics , became the first double amputee to compete in the Summer Olympics alongside able @-@ bodied athletes ) , a major marketing campaign instituted by the Games ' local broadcaster , and growing media coverage of Paralympic sport . The games ultimately met these expectations , breaking records for ticket sales , heightening the profile of the Paralympics in relation to the Olympics , and prompting IPC president Philip Craven to declare them the " greatest Paralympic Games ever . "
= = Bidding process = =
As part of a formal agreement between the International Paralympic Committee and the International Olympic Committee established in 2001 , the winner of the bid for the 2012 Summer Olympics was also to host the 2012 Summer Paralympics . At the 117th IOC Session in Singapore , the rights to host the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympics were awarded to London .
= = Development and preparation = =
As with the Olympics , the 2012 Summer Paralympics were overseen by LOCOG and the Olympic Delivery Authority ( ODA ) . LOCOG was responsible for overseeing the staging of the games , while the ODA dealt with infrastructure and venues .
The Government Olympic Executive ( GOE ) within the Department for Culture , Media and Sport ( DCMS ) was the lead Government body for co @-@ ordinating the London 2012 Olympics and Paralympics . The GOE reported through the DCMS Permanent Secretary to the Minister for Sports and the Olympics Hugh Robertson . It focused on oversight of the Games , cross @-@ programme management and the London 2012 Olympic Legacy .
= = = Venues and infrastructure = = =
The 2012 Summer Paralympics used many of the same venues as the 2012 Summer Olympics , along with several new locations such as Eton Manor for wheelchair tennis and Brands Hatch for road cycling . London 's purpose @-@ built Olympic venues and facilities , including the Olympic Village itself , were designed to be accessible as possible so they could easily accommodate the Paralympics . Some venues also contained additional accessible seating areas during the Paralympics .
= = = Public transport = = =
Transport for London operated the Paralympic Route Network ( a downsized version of the Olympic Route Network operated during the Summer Olympics ) to facilitate road traffic between venues and facilities . The network provided 8 @.@ 7 miles ( 14 @.@ 0 kilometres ) of lanes specifically reserved for Paralympic athletes and officials . TfL continued to operate its Get Ahead of the Games website during the Paralympics , which provided updates and advice for commuters during the Games . Prior to the Games , concerns were raised by TfL commissioner Peter Hendy that London 's transportation system might not be able to handle the Paralympics adequately . He feared that the end of the school summer holiday ( which fell during the Games ) would result in increased traffic , and that commuters might not heed traffic warnings or change their travel behaviour as they had during the Olympics .
Sevenoaks railway station was designated as the preferred station for spectators travelling to watch the cycling at Brands Hatch . Organisers chose Sevenoaks over the closer Swanley railway station because of its " existing step @-@ free access and excellent transport links " , and because Swanley did not yet have a wheelchair lift . Whilst organisers did not believe that Swanley would be able to have wheelchair lifts installed by the start of the Paralympics , the station finished their installation by early August 2012 .
= = = Lead @-@ up and promotion = = =
= = = = Handover ceremony = = = =
The formal handover occurred during the closing ceremony of the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , when Mayor of London Boris Johnson received the Paralympic Flag from Mayor of Beijing Guo Jinlong . This was followed by a cultural presentation by Britain , which was similar to its presentation during the Olympics ' closing ceremony . It featured urban dance group ZooNation , the Royal Ballet , and Candoco , a physically integrated dance group , all dressed as London commuters and waiting for a bus by a zebra crossing . A double @-@ decker bus drove around the stadium , guided by Ade Adepitan , to music composed by Philip Sheppard . The top of the bus was open and folded down to show a privet hedge featuring London landmarks such as Tower Bridge , The Gherkin and the London Eye . Cherisse Osei , drummer for Mika , and Sam Hegedus then performed , before the top of the bus folded up into its original form , sporting multi @-@ coloured Paralympic livery . Both the Paralympic and Olympic flags were formally raised outside of London 's City Hall on 26 September 2008 . British Paralympians Helene Raynsford and Chris Holmes raised the Paralympic flag .
= = = = Paralympic Day and Super Saturday = = = =
On 8 September 2011 Trafalgar Square staged International Paralympic Day , hosted by Rick Edwards , Ade Adepitan and Iwan Thomas , to coincide with a visit to London by representatives of the IPC . The event celebrated the Paralympic Games , showcasing and demonstrating the 20 sports that would feature during the Games ( with some sessions also made inclusive to people with hearing disabilities ) . It also featured appearances by Paralympic athletes Oscar Pistorius , Ellie Simmonds and Sascha Kindred , and the unveiling of a bronze statue of Pistorius by Ben Dearnley . British Prime Minister David Cameron and London 's mayor Boris Johnson also appeared . Two days later on 10 September , supermarket chain Sainsbury 's and Channel 4 presented Sainsbury 's Super Saturday , a family event at Clapham Common . The event featured showcases of Paralympic sports , and a concert featuring pop music acts including Nicola Roberts , Olly Murs , The Wanted , Will Young , Pixie Lott , Dappy , Sugababes , The Saturdays , Chipmunk and Taio Cruz .
= = = = Channel 4 promotional campaign = = = =
Channel 4 , the host broadcaster of the 2012 Summer Paralympics in the United Kingdom , promoted its coverage of the Games with a multi @-@ platform advertising campaign that included television adverts , online content , and billboard advertising , some of which carrying the tagline " Thanks for the warm @-@ up . " Overall , Channel 4 's campaign aimed to change the public 's view of the Paralympics , encouraging viewers to see the Games as an " event in its own right " rather than as an afterthought to the Olympics . As part of the campaign , Channel 4 produced a two @-@ minute @-@ long trailer for its coverage entitled Meet the Superhumans , which was directed by Tom Tagholm with input from Deborah Poulton , 2012 Paralympic Project Leader and Alison Walsh , Editorial Manager of Disability , both at Channel 4 . The trailer , set to Public Enemy 's song " Harder Than You Think " , focused on the competitive and " superhuman " aspects of Paralympic sport , while acknowledging the personal events and struggles that reflected every athlete 's participation in the Games . Meet the Superhumans premiered on 17 July 2012 , and aired simultaneously as a " roadblock " advert on 78 different commercial television channels in the UK ( which included rival channels ITV1 and Sky1 ) .
The advert was met with critical acclaim : Adweek 's Tim Nudd declared it " the summer 's most stunning sports commercial " , while Simon Usborne of The Independent felt it was " an act of branding genius " and " a clear bid to bring the Paralympics from the sporting wings to centre stage . " The advert was seen by an estimated audience of 10 million viewers ; Channel 4 's marketing and communications chief Dan Brooke estimated that reaction to the advert through social media was double that of the première of the BBC 's trailer for its Olympics coverage .
Meet the Superhumans won a Golden Lion award at the Cannes Lions Festival in June 2013 , losing the overall award to Dumb Ways to Die . Sir John Hegarty , the jury president said of it : " When you 've got some really outstanding work it is tragic in some ways it can 't get a bigger award , but there can only be one grand prix " , while jury member Carlo Cavallone added " [ Meet the Superhumans ] is an amazing campaign , one of the golds that went through [ the judging process ] immediately ... Everyone felt it had the highest level of craft . It puts an issue that was really important before London 2012 to raise awareness of the Paralympics [ and ] they were hyper successful … Dumb Ways to Die was a tough contender . "
= = = = Royal Mail stamps and gold post boxes = = = =
In August 2009 Royal Mail unveiled a series of 30 stamps ( reflecting the 30th Olympiad ) about the coming Olympic and Paralympic Games . They were released in batches of ten between 2009 and July 2011 ; each stamp featured an Olympic or Paralympic sport and the London 2012 logo .
As it had done during the Olympics , Royal Mail honoured Britain 's Paralympic gold medallists by painting a post box gold in each of their home towns ( along with an additional post box outside the National Spinal Injuries Centre in Stoke Mandeville , in honour of its role in the Games ' history ) , and featured them on commemorative stamps released throughout the Games . Royal Mail originally planned only to release a series of six stamps with group portraits of Britain 's medallists ; however , the decision was met with backlash from critics , who argued that the organization was discriminating against Paralympians by not granting them the same individual recognition as their Olympian counterparts . Olympic shadow minister Tessa Jowell was also critical of Royal Mail 's plan , saying that the stamps were a symbolic aspect of Britain 's celebration of the Olympics and that " it would be a shame if this important symbol was not offered to our Paralympian heroes as well . "
Royal Mail initially defended its decision , arguing that it would have been " logistically and practically impossible " to issue individual stamps for each gold medallist , since it expected the British team to meet or exceed its performance at Beijing of 42 gold medals . As a result of the criticism , Royal Mail announced on 15 August 2012 that it would release individual stamps for each British gold medallist during the Paralympics .
= = = = Test events = = = =
Several Paralympics @-@ specific events were held during the London Prepares series of test events for the Olympic and Paralympic Games ; these included the London International Goalball Tournament , and the London Disability Grand Prix — which was also the first Paralympic event to be held at London 's Olympic Stadium .
= = = Torch relay = = =
The Paralympic torch relay began on 22 August , when groups of disabled and non @-@ disabled scouts kindled four Paralympic flames on the highest peaks of each nation of the United Kingdom ; Scafell Pike in England , Ben Nevis in Scotland , Slieve Donard in Northern Ireland , and Snowdon in Wales . On 24 August the four flames were used to light ceremonial cauldrons in London , Edinburgh , Belfast and Cardiff during special " Flame Festival " events ; smaller " Flame Celebration " events were also held in various communities over the bank holiday weekend .
On 28 August the four flames were united during a ceremony at Stoke Mandeville Stadium . The flame then travelled a 92 @-@ mile ( 148 @-@ kilometre ) route to Olympic Stadium in a 24 @-@ hour relay , with 580 torchbearers working in teams of five . After a two @-@ hour weather delay , a backup flame was taken straight to the stadium as a contingency , and the relay route was modified . However , as the opening ceremony 's parade of nations took longer than expected , the flame was able to arrive at Olympic Stadium in time .
= = = Ticketing = = =
2 @.@ 7 million tickets were offered in total , including event @-@ specific tickets and those granting access solely to the Olympic Park , along with multi @-@ event passes offered for ExCeL London and Olympic Park that were intended to allow spectators to discover a variety of Paralympic events . Unlike previous Paralympics , tickets were in extremely high demand , and the ticket allocation was increased from the originally planned 2 @.@ 5 million . Whilst the period during the Olympics has historically been the busiest for Paralympic sales , 1 @.@ 4 million tickets were already sold before the start of the Summer Olympics , already surpassing the total number sold in Sydney . The high demand resulted in technical issues with the Ticketmaster @-@ operated website , which led to complaints via social networking services by users who were struggling to order .
Organisers expected the first ever sell @-@ out in the history of the Paralympics . LOCOG 's chief executive Paul Deighton remarked that " the interest in attending the Paralympics has been extraordinary from the start . " This success was attributed to the enthusiasm surrounding Great Britain 's performance during the Olympics , fan interest in South African " Blade Runner " Oscar Pistorius ( a Paralympic athlete who was the first ever double amputee to compete in the Olympics ) , and affordable prices .
On 8 August LOCOG announced that 2 @.@ 1 million tickets had been sold ( 600 @,@ 000 in the previous month alone ) , breaking the record of 1 @.@ 8 million set in Beijing ( 1 @.@ 6 million tickets were also distributed by the Chinese government ) . IPC president Philip Craven congratulated London for this achievement , crediting it to " the insatiable appetite the public has for top class elite sport " , and noted it would be fitting for a Paralympics held in its spiritual birthplace to have filled venues . By the opening ceremony , 2 @.@ 4 million had been sold , with the remaining 100 @,@ 000 sold during the Games ; 10 @,@ 000 were offered each day . The last 800 tickets to the Opening Ceremony were distributed to police and the military , while Mayor Boris Johnson arranged for the distribution of 1 @,@ 100 to members of London 's youth athletics clubs . Due to popular demand , a further 100 @,@ 000 contingency tickets were released on 6 September ( which included multi @-@ event passes , and event tickets given up by sponsors and partners ) , along with 100 @,@ 000 giving access solely to the Olympic Park .
= = = Logo = = =
The 2012 Summer Paralympics used an emblem sharing a common design with that of the Summer Olympics — the first time this had ever been done . The logo , designed by Wolff Olins , was unveiled on 4 June 2007 , and is a representation of the number 2012 . The Paralympic version has its own distinct colour scheme , and substitutes the Olympic Rings with the Paralympic " agitos " .
= = = Mascots = = =
The official mascot of the 2012 Summer Paralympic Games , Mandeville , was unveiled alongside its Olympic counterpart Wenlock on 19 May 2010 . As characters , they are portrayed drops of steel from a steelworks in Bolton , and feature singular camera eyes — representing " focus " and the cameras being used to capture the Games . Mandeville is named in honour of Stoke Mandeville due to its significance in the origins of the Paralympics . Mandeville also wears a helmet emblazoned in the red , green , and blue colours of the Paralympic emblem .
= = = Opening ceremony = = =
The opening ceremony was held on 29 August at the Olympic Stadium . It was inspired by William Shakespeare 's play " The Tempest " and themed around the concept of " Enlightenment " . It featured appearances by theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking , along with actors Ian McKellen and Nicola Miles @-@ Wildin playing the roles of Prospero and Miranda from " The Tempest " . The ceremony also featured a performance by British electronic music group Orbital . The leading UK disabled theatre company Graeae played their version of the polio survivor Ian Dury 's 1981 protest song ' Spasticus Autisticus ' .
The final bearers of the Paralympic flame represented several generations of Paralympic athletes . Joe Townsend , a Royal Marine who lost both of his legs after stepping on a land mine on duty in Afghanistan ( who represented the future , as he plans to compete in Rio ) , delivered the flame to Olympic Stadium via a zipline from the ArcelorMittal Orbit tower . He passed the flame to long @-@ time British Five @-@ a @-@ side football captain David Clarke , who then passed it to the lighter of the Paralympic cauldron , Margaret Maughan , who was the winner of Britain 's first gold medal at the first official Paralympics , in Rome .
= = = Closing ceremony = = =
The closing ceremony was held on 9 September at the Olympic Stadium . Entitled " The Festival of the Flame " , the ceremony was themed around the gathering of people in celebration , and was directed by Kim Gavin , who also directed the closing ceremony of the Summer Olympics just a few weeks prior . The ceremony featured sequences set to a live performance by the British rock band Coldplay , who were accompanied by guest performers such as the British Paraorchestra ( who accompanied the band on " Strawberry Swing " , and also performed the Paralympic anthem ) , Barbadian singer Rihanna ( who performed her collaboration with Coldplay , " Princess of China " , and her solo hit " We Found Love " ) and American rapper Jay @-@ Z ( who performed " Run This Town " with Rihanna and Coldplay , and joined in a reprise of " Paradise " ) . To mark its hosting of the 2016 Summer Paralympics , the Paralympic flag was passed from Boris Johnson , Mayor of London to Eduardo Paes , Mayor of Rio de Janeiro . LOCOG chief Sebastian Coe and IPC president Philip Craven both congratulated London for its successful hosting of the Paralympics ; Coe was proud that both the Olympics and Paralympics in London could be labelled " Made in Britain " , while Sir Phillip felt that the Games were the " greatest Paralympic Games ever . " Ellie Simmonds and Jonnie Peacock shared the honour of extinguishing the Paralympic cauldron , sharing its last flame on torches to others throughout the stadium to represent its eternal spirit .
= = The Games = =
= = = Participating nations = = =
London 2012 had the largest number of athletes and participating nations of any Paralympic Games . A total of 4 @,@ 302 athletes from 164 countries competed in the Games . This represented an increase of 291 athletes and 18 countries from the 2008 Games , which had 4 @,@ 011 athletes from 146 countries .
Fourteen countries made their Paralympic début : Antigua and Barbuda , Brunei , Cameroon , Comoros , the Democratic Republic of the Congo , Djibouti , the Gambia , Guinea @-@ Bissau , Liberia , Mozambique , North Korea , San Marino , the Solomon Islands and the US Virgin Islands . Trinidad and Tobago returned to the Games for the first time since 1988 .
Andorra made its début in the Summer Paralympics , having already made three appearances at the Winter Paralympics . Malawi , which would have been making its debut at the Games , and Botswana , were both due to send delegations but withdrew hours before the opening ceremony citing a lack of government funds .
The following National Paralympic Committees sent delegations to compete :
= = = Sports = = =
The programme of the 2012 Summer Paralympics featured events in 20 sports . The number of events in each sport is noted in parentheses .
= Art Houtteman =
Arthur Joseph Houtteman ( August 7 , 1927 – May 6 , 2003 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for 12 seasons in the American League with the Detroit Tigers , Cleveland Indians and Baltimore Orioles . In 325 career games , Houtteman pitched 1 @,@ 555 innings and posted a win @-@ loss record of 87 – 91 , with 78 complete games , 14 shutouts , and a 4 @.@ 14 earned run average ( ERA ) .
Known on the sandlot for his pitching motion , Houtteman was signed by scout Wish Egan in 1945 at 17 years of age . He was recruited by major league teams , and joined a Tigers pitching staff that had lost players to injuries and World War II . After moving between the major and minor leagues over the next few years , he was nearly killed in an automobile accident just before the 1949 season . Houtteman rebounded from his injuries and went on to win 15 games that season and made his only All @-@ Star appearance in the following year .
He played three more seasons with the Tigers , then was sold to Cleveland , where he pitched for the pennant @-@ winning Indians during their 1954 season . After losing his starting job , he played two more seasons with the Indians before he was bought by the Orioles , and he finished his final season in Major League Baseball with them . Houtteman ended his baseball career in the minor leagues and became a sales executive in Detroit . In 2003 , Houtteman died at the age of 75 .
= = Early life = =
Art Houtteman was born in Detroit , Michigan , on August 7 , 1927 . He was a second @-@ generation American citizen ; his grandfather Joseph had emigrated from Belgium . The only son born to the Houtteman family , Art 's father , also named Arthur , vowed that his son would become a major league player by the time he turned 17 .
Houtteman played baseball at Detroit Catholic Central High School , where his pitching caught the attention of baseball scout Wish Egan , who praised Houtteman 's " perfect pitching motion " . Houtteman was signed by the Detroit Tigers late in 1944 and began to practice with the Tigers in spring training before the 1945 season along with fellow Detroit sandlot player Billy Pierce . He spent most of the 1945 season playing for Detroit 's top minor league affiliate , the Buffalo Bisons . But injuries plagued the Tigers ' pitching staff , and the 17 @-@ year @-@ old Houtteman was called up by the parent club and began his major league career .
= = Detroit Tigers = =
= = = Hard Luck Houtteman = = =
Due to Tiger pitching injuries , and with many top players still in the military late in World War II ( Houtteman was too young for the draft ) , he made his major league debut on April 29 . At 17 years old , he was the youngest player in the American League in the 1945 season before being optioned back to Buffalo , where on June 20 he threw seven no @-@ hit innings , facing only 22 batters in the process , but lost the game 2 – 0 in extra innings . He also appeared in 13 games as a relief pitcher , and finished his minor league season with no wins , two losses and an ERA of 5 @.@ 33 in just over 25 innings pitched . He was not on the active roster , and as a result did not pitch during the Tigers ' World Series victory over the Chicago Cubs .
Houtteman was the youngest major leaguer in 1946 but played only one game for the Tigers that season , allowing eight runs and fifteen hits in eight innings . He spent most of 1946 in the minor leagues , finished at 16 – 13 and led the league in strikeouts . At the end of the season , Houtteman was named by six of the eight International League managers as the top pitching prospect in the league , leading the league in strikeouts with 150 , pitching over 200 innings , finishing second in victories with 16 , and amassing an 11 – 2 road record . Minor league third baseman Johnny Bero liked Houtteman 's fielding ability so much that he called him " a fifth infielder . "
Despite his newfound top prospect status Houtteman remained in Buffalo at the beginning of the 1947 season before being recalled to the Tigers in July . He was relegated to the bullpen for a time , and saw little action . But after Hal Newhouser , Fred Hutchinson and Dizzy Trout were used in two days , Tiger manager Steve O 'Neill decided to start Houtteman against the Washington Senators for only the second start of his career . He tossed a five @-@ hit shutout and Tiger general manager Billy Evans said , " In 40 years I 've never seen a better pitching job by a first @-@ year pitcher . We now know that Houtteman is really a big leaguer " . He followed this with another five @-@ hit victory against the Boston Red Sox , then pitched a three @-@ hit shutout in September against the St. Louis Browns . He finished the season at 7 – 2 with a 3 @.@ 42 ERA , seven complete games and two shutouts . His performance in 1947 caught the attention of New York Yankees star and future Hall of Famer Joe DiMaggio , who said of Houtteman and Bob Lemon , " They have more stuff and more pitching sense than any other young fellows I 've seen come up in a long while " .
The 1948 Detroit Tigers season began with Houtteman in the starting rotation . Things started off poorly , however , as Houtteman lost his first eight decisions . Two of the first five losses , though , were by one run , and he had little run support . The 0 – 8 start and lack of run support led to his being called " Hard Luck Houtteman " in the media . His first victory that year came against the Senators , in which he also drove in the winning run . After winning his next start , he defeated the Philadelphia Athletics allowing only five hits , and avoided another loss . But he then lost eight more games and finished the season at 2 – 16 . His teammates and the media attributed this to bad luck rather than bad pitching , and still regarded him as a prime prospect . Newhouser said , " The kid has had nothing but bad luck since the season opened " , while Fred Hutchinson said , " He shouldn 't have lost more than three or four games had he gotten an even break " . But his 4 @.@ 66 ERA was only 0 @.@ 06 higher than the major league average .
As 1949 spring training began , Houtteman was nearly killed . In Lakeland , Florida on March 10 , while driving home from Florida Southern College , he crashed into a fruit truck fracturing his skull . Originally listed in critical condition ( a priest stood by to administer the last rites in extremis ) , he recovered rapidly and was able to talk with his teammates two days after the accident , telling them , " I 'll be able to pitch sooner than you " . Within two weeks , the Tigers were optimistic that Houtteman would be able to play again by June . As a result of the injuries to Houtteman and Yankee star catcher Yogi Berra due to car accidents , Cleveland Indians playing manager Lou Boudreau banned his players from driving , forcing the soon @-@ to @-@ be world champions to ride chartered buses to exhibition games .
= = = Ace of the staff = = =
Houtteman marked his return to the Tigers ' rotation on May 21 , 1949 , but he lost his first three decisions . His performance improved , however , as he began to earn more victories in the 1949 season . These wins included a five @-@ hit 2 – 1 victory over the New York Yankees on July 23 . Over the course of the season , Houtteman beat each American League club at least once and beat the Yankees and Red Sox three times . He finished the season with a 15 – 10 record , a 3 @.@ 71 ERA , 13 complete games , and two shutouts . He was placed in most valuable player ( MVP ) voting , and received three points and finished tied for 22nd with teammate Virgil Trucks . The Philadelphia Sports Writers Association honored him as the year 's " Most Courageous Athlete " because of his injury and comeback .
As the 1950 Detroit Tigers season started , Houtteman was on a high note , pitching all of spring training without allowing a walk . He won his tenth game of the season on June 28 , 1950 , and became the first pitcher to hit the 10 @-@ win mark alongside Bob Lemon . After the game , he told an Associated Press reporter that he was just about convinced that Lady Luck had decided to give him a break after kicking him around for the past two or three years . Houtteman said , " I 've been having a pretty good year and it sure feels good after some of the things that have happened to me " . A week into July , Houtteman notched his eleventh victory , and only lost five games , in a 6 – 1 win against the St. Louis Browns . Just a few days later , Houtteman was named to the All @-@ Star roster alongside fellow Tigers including Ted Gray , George Kell and Hoot Evers . In the 1950 All @-@ Star game , Houtteman pitched three innings and batted once . He allowed one earned run , three hits , and one walk , his one earned run coming in the ninth inning on a Ralph Kiner home run that made the game go to extra innings .
Houtteman continued his successful season in the second half . On August 19 , he faced the Browns and pitched a one @-@ hitter , and faced the minimum 27 batters in the process . Houtteman ended the season just short of Ted Gray 's prediction of 20 victories , and finished the season with a 19 – 12 record . He led the league in shutouts with four and was second in games started with 34 , second in innings pitched with 274 @.@ 7 , third in wins , and third in complete games with 21 . His ERA of 3 @.@ 54 was good for fifth in the American League . He also earned six points in MVP voting , and finished tied for 24th . On October 2 , the day after the 1950 season ended , Houtteman married Shelagh Marie Kelly . They met in New York 's Catskill Mountains at Grossinger 's Resort .
= = = Military and return to Tigers = = =
Before the start of the 1951 season , Houtteman was drafted into the United States Army . He had originally been classified 4F , or medically ineligible for the draft , because of a high school knee injury , and he felt that he was drafted only because he was a prominent athlete . He served in the heavy weapons division of the Army , where the roar of the big guns sent pains throbbing through Houtteman 's head and gave him severe headaches , which doctors believed was a lingering effect of the skull fracture three years earlier . As a result , the Army reclassified Houtteman as not fully qualified for combat duty . This led to a medical discharge on September 15 , 1951 . Speaking of his time in the Army , Houtteman said , " I spent most of my time in the Army hospital . I did play a little ball at Camp Pickett " , Virginia .
When he returned to the Tigers for spring training in 1952 , Tigers ' manager Red Rolfe noted , " Artie could be our best pitcher . He 's the slump @-@ breaking type , a guy who can throw a shutout once in a while " . After a poor season without Houtteman in 1951 , Rolfe predicted , " We 'll be back in the first division this season because Art Houtteman is back . Houtteman makes us at least a dozen games better than [ last year 's Tigers ' team ] " . Houtteman worked out in Detroit with pitcher Ted Gray over the winter before the 1952 season . Before the season started , Houtteman said , " It all depends on how I get off . I 'm anxious to get into the season . My arm doesn 't feel any different than it did in ' 50 . I hope I can do even better than my last year " . Houtteman also took number 21 on his uniform , the number he had when he first arrived with the Tigers , because he felt that it had given both him and teammate George Kell , who won a batting title with the number , good luck .
It appeared that " Hard Luck Houtteman " had returned as the 1952 Detroit Tigers season began . On April 2 , 1952 , just before the season started , Art lost his seven @-@ month @-@ old daughter in an automobile accident . In an April 26 matchup against the Cleveland Indians , with two outs in the bottom of the ninth , Houtteman was one out away from a no @-@ hitter when he threw a fastball that was " supposed to sink " but did not , which Harry hit for a single . Houtteman said , " This was the only pitch I shook Ginsberg off the whole game " , and for years afterwards , catcher Joe Ginsberg repeatedly said to Houtteman , " If you 'd listened to me , I 'd have you in the Hall of Fame " . Detroit won the game by a score of 13 – 0 . After losing his tenth game on June 22 , manager Red Rolfe moved Houtteman out of the starting rotation and into the bullpen . He finished the year with an 8 – 20 record and a 4 @.@ 36 ERA . His 20th loss came on September 21 against the Indians , and he became the first Tiger to lose 20 games since Bobo Newsom in 1941 . His disappointing season led to the possibility of a trade , with general manager Charlie Gehringer acknowledging that Houtteman might be traded if the right offer came along .
Houtteman spent the offseason selling cars and making public appearances for the Detroit Tigers . During the 1953 Detroit Tigers season there were rumors of possible trades for Houtteman , with the Yankees proposing the possibility of trading Hank Bauer , an infielder , and Gil McDougald for Houtteman . Gehringer said of Houtteman 's high trading price , " Art has always had good stuff — much too good to be a 20 @-@ game loser " . That season , he was used as both a starter and reliever during the season . However , he lost six straight decisions , and by the middle of June had a 2 – 6 record and a 5 @.@ 90 ERA . This marked the end of his career as a Tiger .
= = Cleveland Indians = =
On June 15 , 1953 , Houtteman was traded by the Tigers , along with Owen Friend , Joe Ginsberg and Bill Wight , to the Cleveland Indians for Ray Boone , Al Aber , Steve Gromek and Dick Weik . In July 1953 , he returned to Detroit to pitch against the Tigers . At the time , Houtteman admitted he wanted to be traded . He said , " The fans are down on me and I 'd do everybody a lot more good by being traded " . He was not content with the Tigers and said there were times when it seemed he " couldn 't wait to peel off his uniform after a game " . As a result of Indians ' pitching coach Mel Harder doing a " complete " overhaul , Houtteman was moved into the starting rotation , to replace Bob Feller . Houtteman finished the season in Cleveland with a 7 – 7 record , six complete games , one shutout , 109 innings pitched , and a 3 @.@ 80 ERA .
At the start of the 1954 Cleveland Indians season , Houtteman 's second daughter , Hollis Ann , was born on February 22 . His pitching continued to improve under Mel Harder , who " got me to quit experimenting and to seek my natural delivery " . The Indians used him when they could , especially in extra inning affairs . In the Indians ' first six extra inning games , Houtteman was used three times . As a result , Houtteman finished the season with a career @-@ high 11 complete games . The Indians also began to use Houtteman and Feller for doubleheaders with great success , as they had a 9 – 1 record after their first five doubleheaders . Houtteman finished the season with a 15 – 7 record , a 3 @.@ 35 ERA , and 188 innings pitched . In the 1954 World Series with the Indians , he pitched two innings in Game 3 against the New York Giants , allowing one run and striking out one batter .
The 1955 Cleveland Indians season originally planned to use Houtteman as the number four pitcher on the starting rotation , as he had been the previous year . He saw himself remaining the fourth starter , and said , " Herb Score won 't beat me out of the fourth starting job with the Indians " on April 11 . However , he became a spot starter , as he lost his starting position to Score , the " most talked @-@ about rookie in all the major league training camps " . He split starting time with Bob Feller and finished the season with a 10 – 6 record , a 3 @.@ 98 ERA , and three complete games . On December 29 , 1955 , Houtteman 's first son , Jeff , was born with assistance from National Football League player Leon Hart , who was visiting Houtteman and helped deliver the baby .
Houtteman remained a reliever during the 1956 Cleveland Indians season . He continued to get trade offers in 1956 , though , as the Chicago White Sox were willing to trade outfielder Jim Rivera for him . A three @-@ team , nine @-@ player deal involving Houtteman again becoming part of the White Sox along with George Strickland was also scrapped at the last second . Houtteman finished the 1956 season having only made 22 appearances on the mound , earning a 2 – 2 record . However , he had a high ERA of 6 @.@ 56 , his highest since 1946 , when he made one appearance .
As the 1957 Cleveland Indians season neared , tension was running high . There was talk about Houtteman 's being " in the doghouse " , or out of favor with the team 's management , during the 1956 season due to his lack of starts . According to sportswriter Hal Lebovitz , this was a result of the starting five for the Indians , including spot starter Feller , pitching very well during spring training . Houtteman was again brought up in trade rumors , along with Mike Garcia , since the Indians were loaded with pitching talent . When manager Al Lopez was replaced by Kerby Farrell , Houtteman did , in fact , land in Farrell 's doghouse . Farrell called him out front of his teammates after a poor performance in spring training . Houtteman pitched only four innings in three games for the Indians in 1957 .
= = Baltimore Orioles and minor leagues = =
Houtteman was put on the trading block before the 1957 season , but he drew no serious offers because Cleveland seemed desperate to trade him . On May 20 , after playing three games for the Indians , Houtteman was sold to the Baltimore Orioles for an undisclosed amount . Hal Lebovitz called Houtteman " a pitcher of considerable promise but who somehow has yet to cash in on it " , despite the fact that he was in his 12th and final major league season . During the 1957 Baltimore Orioles season , Houtteman made four relief appearances before he was demoted to the Vancouver Mounties of the Pacific Coast League . He was brought back up to the major league roster to pitch on September 22 , the final start of his major league career . In his final game , he pitched 2 ⅓ innings , allowing three runs on seven hits and throwing two strikeouts .
Just before the 1958 season began , Houtteman was cut by the Orioles , ending his major league career . Shortly after being cut , he signed on with the Charleston Senators , a farm club of the Tigers . He had a 3 @.@ 25 ERA and a 7 – 9 record for the Senators at the end of the 1958 season . In 1959 , the Kansas City Athletics decided to give him a tryout . However , despite what was described as an " impressive " performance , they cut Houtteman as they were looking for more youthful arms . Houtteman signed with the Portland Beavers of the Pacific Coast League , and posted a 6 – 9 record with an ERA of 3 @.@ 69 for the season . After the season ended , and after a third daughter , Sharon , was born in 1959 , Houtteman announced his retirement from baseball at the age of 32 .
= = Later life = =
After retiring from professional baseball , Houtteman kept baseball a part of his life and became a sports reporter for a television station in Detroit for a time . He later became a sales executive with Paragon Steel in Detroit , where he worked until reaching the age of retirement . He was in attendance for the last game at Tiger Stadium in 1999 . Houtteman died on May 6 , 2003 , at the age of 75 , of an apparent heart attack at his home in Rochester Hills , Michigan . He was survived by his wife , three children , and six grandchildren .
= Asteroids ( video game ) =
Asteroids is an arcade space shooter released in November 1979 by Atari , Inc. and designed by Lyle Rains , Ed Logg , and Dominic Walsh . The player controls a spaceship in an asteroid field which is periodically traversed by flying saucers . The object of the game is to shoot and destroy asteroids and saucers while not colliding with either or being hit by the saucers ' counter @-@ fire . The game becomes harder as the number of asteroids increases .
Asteroids was one of the first major hits of the golden age of arcade games . The game sold over 70 @,@ 000 arcade cabinets and proved both popular with players and influential with developers . It has since been ported to multiple platforms . Asteroids was widely imitated and directly influenced Defender , Gravitar , and many other video games .
Asteroids was conceived during a meeting between Logg and Rains and used hardware developed by Howard Delman previously used for Lunar Lander . Based on an unfinished game titled Cosmos and inspired by Spacewar ! and Computer Space , both early shoot ' em up video games , Asteroids ' physics model and control scheme were derived by Logg from these earlier games and refined through trial and error . The game is rendered on a vector display in a two @-@ dimensional view that wraps around in both screen axes .
= = Gameplay = =
The objective of Asteroids is to destroy asteroids and saucers . The player controls a triangular ship that can rotate left and right , fire shots straight forward , and thrust forward . Once the ship begins moving in a direction , it will continue in that direction for a time without player intervention unless the player applies thrust in a different direction . The ship eventually comes to a stop when not thrusting . The player can also send the ship into hyperspace , causing it to disappear and reappear in a random location on the screen , at the risk of self @-@ destructing or appearing on top of an asteroid .
Each level starts with a few large asteroids drifting in various directions on the screen . Objects wrap around screen edges – for instance , an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction . As the player shoots asteroids , they break into smaller asteroids that move faster and are more difficult to hit . Smaller asteroids are also worth more points . Two flying saucers appear periodically on the screen ; the " big saucer " shoots randomly and poorly , while the " small saucer " fires frequently at the ship . After reaching a score of 40 @,@ 000 , only the small saucer appears . As the player 's score increases , the angle range of the shots from the small saucer diminishes until the saucer fires extremely accurately . Once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers , a new set of large asteroids appears , thus starting the next level . The game gets harder as the number of asteroids increases until after the score reaches a range between 40 @,@ 000 and 60 @,@ 000 . The player starts with 3 lives after a coin is inserted and gains an extra life every 10 @,@ 000 points . When the player loses all his lives , the game ends .
Asteroids contains several bugs . The game slows down as the player gains 50 @-@ 100 lives , due to a programming error in that there is no limit for the permitted number of lives . The player can " lose " the game after more than 250 lives are collected .
= = Development and design = =
Asteroids was conceived by Lyle Rains and programmed by Ed Logg with collaborations from other Atari staff . Logg was impressed with the Atari 2600 ( then known as " Atari Video Computer System " ) and joined Atari 's coin @-@ op division and worked on Dirt Bike , which was never released due to an unsuccessful field test . He developed Super Breakout after hearing that Nolan Bushnell , founder of Atari , wanted Breakout updated . Paul Mancuso joined the development team as Asteroids ' technician and engineer Howard Delman contributed to the hardware . During a meeting in April 1979 , Rains discussed Planet Grab , a multiplayer arcade game later renamed to Cosmos . Logg did not know the name of the game , thinking Computer Space as " the inspiration for the two @-@ dimensional approach . " The unfinished game featured a giant , indestructible asteroid , so Rains asked Logg : " Well , why don ’ t we have a game where you shoot the rocks and blow them up ? " In response , Logg described a similar concept where the
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@-@ class ironclads were designed as smaller and cheaper versions of the Warrior @-@ class armoured frigates . This meant that they could not fit the same powerful engines of the Warrior @-@ class ships and were therefore 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) slower and had far fewer guns . The naval architect Sir Nathaniel Barnaby , a future Constructor of the Navy , considered that in terms of combat a Defence @-@ class ship was worth one quarter of a Warrior .
HMS Defence was 280 feet ( 85 @.@ 3 m ) long between perpendiculars and 291 feet 4 inches ( 88 @.@ 80 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 54 feet 2 inches ( 16 @.@ 51 m ) and a draft of 26 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . The ship displaced 6 @,@ 070 long tons ( 6 @,@ 170 t ) and had a ram in the shape of a plough . The hull was subdivided by watertight transverse bulkheads into 92 compartments and had a double bottom underneath the engine and boiler rooms . Defence was 128 feet 8 inches ( 39 @.@ 2 m ) shorter overall and displaced over 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) less than the Warrior @-@ class ironclads .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Defence @-@ class ships had one 2 @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine made by John Penn and Sons driving a single propeller . Four rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine . It produced a total of 2 @,@ 343 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 747 kW ) . During sea trials on 10 February 1868 Defence had a maximum speed of 11 @.@ 23 knots ( 20 @.@ 80 km / h ; 12 @.@ 92 mph ) . The ship carried 450 long tons ( 460 t ) of coal , enough to steam 1 @,@ 670 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 090 km ; 1 @,@ 920 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ironclads were barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 24 @,@ 500 square feet ( 2 @,@ 276 m2 ) . The lower masts and bowsprit were made of iron to withstand the shock of ramming . Defence could make about 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) under sail and the funnel was semi @-@ retractable to reduce wind resistance while under sail alone . The ship 's propeller could be hoisted up into the stern of the ship to reduce drag while under sail . She was re @-@ rigged as a barque from September 1864 to April 1866 before returning to her original ship rig .
= = = Armament = = =
The armament of the Defence @-@ class ships was intended to be 18 smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 68 @-@ pounder guns , eight on each side on the main deck and one each fore and aft as chase guns on the upper deck , plus four rifled breech @-@ loading 40 @-@ pounder guns as saluting guns . This was modified during construction to eight rifled 110 @-@ pounder breech @-@ loading guns , ten 68 @-@ pounders and four breech @-@ loading 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns . Both breech @-@ loading guns were new designs from Armstrong and much was hoped of them . Six of the 110 @-@ pounder guns were installed on the main deck amidships and the other two became chase guns ; all of the 68 @-@ pounder guns were mounted on the main deck . Firing tests carried out in September 1861 against an armoured target , however , proved that the 110 @-@ pounder was inferior to the 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore gun in armour penetration and repeated incidents of breech explosions during the Battles for Shimonoseki and the Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 – 64 caused the navy to begin to withdraw the gun from service shortly afterwards .
The 7 @.@ 9 @-@ inch ( 201 mm ) solid shot of the 68 @-@ pounder gun weighed approximately 68 pounds ( 30 @.@ 8 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 10 @,@ 640 pounds ( 4 @,@ 826 @.@ 2 kg ) . The gun had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) and had a range of 3 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 900 m ) at an elevation of + 12 ° . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 110 @-@ pounder Armstrong breech @-@ loader weighed 107 – 110 pounds ( 48 @.@ 5 – 49 @.@ 9 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 350 m / s ) and , at an elevation of + 11 @.@ 25 ° , a maximum range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . The 110 @-@ pounder gun weighed 9 @,@ 520 pounds ( 4 @,@ 318 @.@ 2 kg ) . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
Defence was rearmed during her 1867 – 68 refit with fourteen 7 @-@ inch and two 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The new guns were heavier so fewer could be carried . The shell of the 15 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch gun weighed 175 pounds ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 9 long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 pounds ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The Defence @-@ class ships had a wrought iron armour belt , 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , that covered 140 feet ( 42 @.@ 7 m ) amidships . The armour extended from upper deck level to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below it . 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads protected the guns on the main deck . The armour was backed by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) of teak . The ends of the ship were left entirely unprotected which meant that the steering gear was very vulnerable . They were , however , sub @-@ divided into many watertight compartments to minimize any flooding .
= = Service = =
HMS Defence was laid down on 14 December 1859 by the Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company in Jarrow . She was launched on 24 April 1861 , commissioned on 4 December 1861 and completed on 12 February 1862 . After completion she served in the Channel Fleet until 1866 , when she paid off in Plymouth for refit and re @-@ armament . The ship returned to the Channel Fleet in 1868 , and in 1869 she was sent to the North America station to relieve HMS Royal Alfred . She served with the Mediterranean Fleet from 1871 to 1872 under the command of Captain Nowell Salmon , who had earned the Victoria Cross during the Indian Mutiny in 1857 . While recovering items lost when the ironclad HMS Lord Clyde grounded off Pantelleria , Defence damaged her propeller and rudder when she briefly grounded in the trough of a wave , and was nearly blown ashore herself in March 1872 . She was paid off again for a lengthy refit in Plymouth between 1872 and 1874 and became the guard ship on the Shannon until 1876 . The ship then rejoined the Channel Fleet until 1879 and was transferred with most of that fleet to the Mediterranean while the Mediterranean Fleet patrolled the Dardanelles during the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1878 . Defence replaced her sister ship HMS Resistance as guard ship in the Mersey until 1885 , after which she saw no further sea @-@ going service . On 20 July 1884 the ship collided with HMS Valiant in Lough Swilly , damaging her bow and flooding some compartments . In 1890 she was converted into a floating workshop at Devonport , and was renamed HMS Indus in 1898 . She was sold for scrap at Devonport in August 1935 .
= Inolvidable ( song ) =
" Inolvidable " ( " Unforgettable " ) is a song written by Julio Gutiérrez in 1944 . It is considered one of the most popular boleros released during the Cuban musical movement led by pianists . The song has been recorded by several performers , including Roberto Carlos , Diego El Cigala , Fania All @-@ Stars , Eydie Gormé , Danny Rivera , Tito Rodríguez and Bebo Valdés , among others .
In the song , the protagonist kisses different lips looking for new sensations , haunted by the memory of a past love . The song has experienced popular acclaim , especially with the version recorded by Mexican singer Luis Miguel on his album Romance released in 1991 . This version peaked at the top of the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart in the United States , and the album was deemed as responsible for reviving the bolero genre .
= = Background and composition = =
" Inolvidable " was written by Cuban pianist Julio Gutiérrez . Gutiérrez was born in Manzanillo , Cuba , and at age six he played piano and at 14 he directed his own orchestra . In 1940 , the Orchestra Casino de la Playa toured eastern Cuba , and on that tour Miguelito Valdés met Gutiérrez and suggested he should go to the capital ( Havana ) , where better opportunities would arise . Months later , Gutiérrez moved to the capital , and was hired as a pianist in the orchestra Casino de la Playa . " Inolvidable " , written in 1944 , was released during the Cuban musical movement led by pianists , in which Gutiérrez participated . Two songs composed by Gutiérrez , " Inolvidable " and " Llanto de Luna " ( " Crying Moon " ) , were highly successful boleros in Latin America . In 1992 , a compilation album including an instrumental version of the song performed by Gutiérrez was released .
Musically " Inolvidable " is a bolero . According to Rodrigo Bazán , in his book Y Si Vivo Cien Años ... Antología del Bolero en México , the song was not different from others that were released at the time about unhappy love , but differed from other popular genres that based their lyrics on the lack of love such as tango . With the song , Julio Gutiérrez joined the list of prominent boleristas in Cuba . Lyrically , the song presents the protagonist kissing different lips and looking for new sensations ( " He besado otras bocas buscando nuevas ansiedades " ) .
= = Performers = =
In 1963 , Tito Rodríguez recorded " Inolvidable " on his album From Tito Rodríguez with Love . The song became very successful , selling one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half million units . Musical ensemble Fania All @-@ Stars released their first studio album Tribute to Tito Rodríguez in 1976 and included a cover version of " Inolvidable " . The album was originally intended to feature the group in a supporting role for Rodríguez , but resulted in a tribute album after the singer died from leukemia in early 1973 . Brazilian singer @-@ songwriter Roberto Carlos included his version of the song on the album Quero Que Vá Tudo Pro Inferno in 1975 . Puerto @-@ Rican Danny Rivera recorded a tribute album titled Inolvidable Tito : A Mi Me Pasa lo Mismo Que a Usted , including a version of " Inolvidable " . The album received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Latin Pop Performance . In 1988 , American singer Eydie Gormé had her version of the track on the album De Corazón a Corazón . Cuban pianist Bebo Valdés and Spanish flamenco performer Diego El Cigala recorded the track for their collaborative album Lágrimas Negras . The album was produced in 2003 by Academy Award winner Fernando Trueba , sold 200 @,@ 000 units in Spain and won the Latin Grammy Award for Best Traditional Tropical Album .
= = = Luis Miguel version = = =
Mexican singer Luis Miguel released the 1991 album Romance , which was produced by Miguel and Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Armando Manzanero , and included a selection of classic boleros . The success of the album revived the interest for bolero , even though the new musical arrangements of the songs make them unrecognizable . Romance received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Latin Pop Album ( which it lost to Jon Secada 's Otro Día Más Sin Verte ) , was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and sold seven million copies worldwide . The first single taken from the album was " Inolvidable " , a version that according to Carlos Monsiváis in his book Los Rituales del Caos , guarantees " the adoption of the past , and that the romantic sensibility is not dead . "
The track debuted in the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart ( formerly Hot Latin Tracks ) at number 30 in the week of November 23 , 1991 , climbing to the top ten three weeks later . " Inolvidable " peaked at number one on January 25 , 1992 , spending five weeks at the top of the chart . The song was number three on the Billboard Top Latin Songs Year @-@ End Chart of 1992 . In Mexico , the song and the following single ( " No Sé Tú " ) remained in the top of the charts for six months altogether .
A live version of " Inolvidable " was included on the EP América & En Vivo in 1992 and as a part of a medley with the rest of the singles taken from Romance on the live album Vivo ( 2000 ) . The track was also added to the compilation album Grandes Éxitos in 2005 .
= = = = Format and track listing = = = =
Mexican Promo CD Single
" Inolvidable " – 4 : 19
= = = = Credits and personnel = = = =
Credits adapted from the " Inolvidable " liner notes .
Luis Miguel – co @-@ production , vocals
Julio Gutiérrez – songwriting
Armando Manzanero – production
Bebu Silvetti – co @-@ production , arranging
= Spanish conquest of Petén =
The Spanish conquest of Petén was the last stage of the conquest of Guatemala , a prolonged conflict during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas . A wide lowland plain covered with dense rainforest , Petén contains a central drainage basin with a series of lakes and areas of savannah . It is crossed by several ranges of low karstic hills and rises to the south as it nears the Guatemalan Highlands . The conquest of Petén , a region now incorporated into the modern republic of Guatemala , climaxed in 1697 with the capture of Nojpetén , the island capital of the Itza kingdom , by Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi . With the defeat of the Itza , the last independent and unconquered native kingdom in the Americas fell to European colonisers .
Sizeable Maya populations existed in Petén before the conquest , particularly around the central lakes and along the rivers . Petén was divided into different Maya polities engaged in a complex web of alliances and enmities . The most important groups around the central lakes were the Itza , the Yalain and the Kowoj . Other groups with territories in Petén included the Kejache , the Acala , the Lakandon Ch 'ol , the Xocmo , the Chinamita , the Icaiche and the Manche Ch 'ol .
Petén was first penetrated by Hernán Cortés with a sizeable expedition that crossed the territory from north to south in 1525 . In the first half of the 16th century , Spain established neighbouring colonies in Yucatán to the north and Guatemala to the south . Spanish missionaries laid the groundwork for the extension of colonial administration in the extreme south of Petén from 1596 onwards , but no further Spanish entry of central Petén took place until 1618 and 1619 when missionaries arrived at the Itza capital , having travelled from the Spanish town of Mérida in Yucatán .
In 1622 a military expedition set out from Yucatán led by Captain Francisco de Mirones and accompanied by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado ; this expedition was a disaster , and the Spanish were massacred by the Itza . In 1628 the Manche Ch 'ol of the south were placed under the administration of the colonial governor of Verapaz within the Captaincy General of Guatemala . The Manche Ch 'ol unsuccessfully rebelled against Spanish control in 1633 . In 1695 a military expedition tried to reach Lake Petén Itzá from Guatemala ; this was followed in 1696 by missionaries from Mérida and in 1697 by Martín de Ursúa 's expedition from Yucatán that resulted in the final defeat of the independent kingdoms of central Petén and their incorporation into the Spanish Empire .
= = Geography = =
The modern department of Petén is located in northern Guatemala . It is bordered on the west by the Mexican state of Chiapas ; this border largely follows the course of the Usumacinta River . On the north side Petén is bordered by the Mexican state of Campeche and on the northwest by the Mexican state of Tabasco ; Petén is bordered on the east by Belize and on the south side by the Guatemalan departments of Alta Verapaz and Izabal .
The Petén lowlands are formed by a densely forested low @-@ lying limestone plain featuring karstic topography . The area is crossed by low east – west oriented ridges of Cenozoic limestone and is characterised by a variety of forest and soil types ; water sources include generally small rivers and low @-@ lying seasonal swamps known as bajos . A chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central drainage basin of Petén ; during the rainy season some of these lakes become interconnected . This drainage area measures approximately 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) east – west by 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north – south . The largest lake is Lake Petén Itzá , near the centre of the drainage basin ; it measures 32 by 5 kilometres ( 19 @.@ 9 by 3 @.@ 1 mi ) . A broad savannah extends south of the central lakes ; it has an average altitude of 150 metres ( 490 ft ) above mean sea level with karstic ridges reaching an average altitude of 300 metres ( 980 ft ) . The savannah features a compact red clay soil that is too poor to support heavy cultivation , which resulted in a relatively low level of pre @-@ Columbian occupation . It is surrounded by hills with unusually steep southern slopes and gentler northern approaches ; the hills are covered with dense tropical forest . To the north of the lakes region bajos become more frequent , interspersed with forest . In the far north of Petén the Mirador Basin forms another interior drainage region . To the south Petén reaches an altitude of approximately 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) as it rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands and meets Paleozoic metamorphic rocks .
= = = Climate = = =
The climate of Petén is divided into wet and dry seasons , with the rainy season lasting from June to December , although these seasons are not clearly defined in the south . The climate varies from tropical in the south to semitropical in the north ; temperature varies between 12 and 40 ° C ( 54 and 104 ° F ) , although it does not usually drop beneath 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) . Mean temperature varies from 24 @.@ 3 ° C ( 75 @.@ 7 ° F ) in the southeast around Poptún to 26 @.@ 9 ° C ( 80 @.@ 4 ° F ) around Uaxactún in the northeast . Highest temperatures are reached from April to June , and January is the coldest month ; all Petén experiences a hot dry period in late August . Annual precipitation is high , varying from a mean of 1 @,@ 198 millimetres ( 47 @.@ 2 in ) in the northeast to 2 @,@ 007 millimetres ( 79 @.@ 0 in ) in central Petén around Flores ( Nojpetén ) . The extreme southeast of Petén experiences the largest variations in temperature and rainfall , with precipitation reaching as much as 3 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 120 in ) in a year .
= = Petén before the conquest = =
The first large Maya cities developed in Petén as far back as the Middle Preclassic ( c . 600 – 350 BC ) , and Petén formed the heartland of the ancient Maya civilization during the Classic period ( c . AD 250 – 900 ) . The great cities that dominated Petén had fallen into ruin by the beginning of the 10th century AD with the onset of the Classic Maya collapse . A significant Maya presence remained into the Postclassic period after the abandonment of the major Classic period cities ; the population was particularly concentrated near permanent water sources .
Although there is insufficient data to accurately estimate population sizes at the time of contact with the Spanish , early Spanish reports suggest that sizeable Maya populations existed in Petén , particularly around the central lakes and along the rivers . Before their defeat in 1697 the Itza controlled or influenced much of Petén and parts of Belize . The Itza were warlike , and their martial prowess impressed both neighbouring Maya kingdoms and their Spanish enemies . Their capital was Nojpetén , an island city upon Lake Petén Itzá ; it has developed into the modern town of Flores , which is the capital of the Petén department of Guatemala . The Itza spoke a variety of Yucatecan Maya .
The Kowoj were the second in importance , and they were hostile towards their Itza neighbours . The Kowoj were located to the east of the Itza , around the eastern lakes : Lake Salpetén , Lake Macanché , Lake Yaxhá and Lake Sacnab . Other groups are less well known , and their precise territorial extent and political makeup remains obscure ; among them were the Chinamita , the Kejache , the Icaiche , the Lakandon Ch 'ol , the Mopan , the Manche Ch 'ol and the Yalain .
The Yalain appear to have been one of the three dominant polities in Postclassic central Petén , alongside the Itza and the Kowoj . The Yalain territory had its maximum extension from the east shore of Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to Tipuj in Belize . In the 17th century the Yalain capital was located at the site of that name on the north shore of Lake Macanché . At the time of Spanish contact the Yalain were allied with the Itza , an alliance cemented by intermarriage between the elites of both groups . In the late 17th century Spanish colonial records document hostilities between Maya groups in the lakes region , with the incursion of the Kowoj into former Yalain sites including Zacpeten on Lake Macanché and Ixlu on Lake Salpetén .
The Kejache occupied a territory to the north of the Itza , between the lakes and what is now Campeche . To the west of them was Acalan , inhabited by a Chontal Maya @-@ speaking group with their capital in the south of what is now Campeche state . The Ch 'olan Maya @-@ speaking Lakandon ( not to be confused with the modern inhabitants of Chiapas by that name ) controlled territory along the tributaries of the Usumacinta River spanning southwestern Petén in Guatemala and eastern Chiapas . The Lakandon had a fierce reputation among the Spanish . The Xocmo were another Ch 'olan @-@ speaking group ; they occupied the remote forest somewhere to the east of the Lakandon . Never conquered , the Xocmo escaped repeated Spanish attempts to locate them and their eventual fate is unknown ; they may be ancestors of the modern Lacandon people . The Manche Ch 'ol held territory in the extreme south of what is now the Petén department . The Mopan and the Chinamita had their polities in the southeastern Petén . The Manche territory was to the southwest of the Mopan .
= = Background to the conquest = =
Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas for the Kingdom of Castile and León in 1492 . By 1580 this had unified with neighbouring kingdoms to form one Spanish kingdom . Private adventurers thereafter entered into contracts with the Spanish Crown to conquer the newly discovered lands in return for tax revenues and the power to rule . In the first decades after the discovery , the Spanish colonised the Caribbean and established a centre of operations on the island of Cuba . They heard rumours of the rich empire of the Aztecs on the mainland to the west and , in 1519 , Hernán Cortés set sail with eleven ships to explore the Mexican coast . By August 1521 the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish . Within three years of the fall of Tenochtitlan the Spanish had conquered a large part of Mexico , extending as far south as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . The newly conquered territory became New Spain , headed by a viceroy who answered to the Spanish Crown via the Council of the Indies . Cortés despatched Pedro de Alvarado with an army to conquer the Mesoamerican kingdoms of the Guatemalan Sierra Madre and neighbouring Pacific plain ; the military phase of the establishment of the Spanish colony of Guatemala lasted from 1524 to 1541 . The Captaincy General of Guatemala had its capital at Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala and covered a wide territory that also included the Mexican state of Chiapas as well as El Salvador , Honduras and Costa Rica . The Spanish imposed colonial rule over Yucatán between 1527 and 1546 , and over Verapaz from the 16th to the 17th centuries , leaving the area between – essentially Petén and much of Belize – independent long after surrounding peoples had been subjugated .
= = Impact of Old World diseases = =
A single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 was carrying smallpox and thus initiated the devastating plagues that swept through the native populations of the Americas . The European diseases that ravaged the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas also severely affected the various Maya groups of Petén . It is estimated that there were approximately 30 @,@ 000 Ch 'ol and Ch ’ olti ’ Maya in western Petén at the start of the 16th century . Between 1559 and 1721 they were devastated by a combination of disease , war and enforced relocations .
When Nojpetén fell in 1696 there were approximately 60 @,@ 000 Maya living around Lake Petén Itzá , including a considerable number of refugees from other areas . It is estimated that 88 % of the inhabitants died during the first decade of colonial rule because of disease and war . Although disease was responsible for the majority of deaths , internecine warfare between rival Maya groups and Spanish expeditions also took their toll .
= = Weaponry and armour = =
Conquistadors often wore steel armour that included chainmail and helmets . The Spanish were sufficiently impressed by the quilted cotton armour of their Maya enemies that they adopted it in preference to their own steel armour . Maya weaponry was not sufficiently powerful to justify the discomfort of wearing European armour . Quilted cotton armour , although still uncomfortably hot , was flexible and weighed much less . The Maya armour was adapted by the Spanish , who used knee @-@ length quilted cotton tunics and Spanish @-@ style caps . Horsemen wore long quilted cotton leg protectors ; their horses were also protected with padded cotton armour . After the final push to the Petén lakes in early 1697 , the Spanish recorded that they left with their garrison over 50 Dutch- and French @-@ made muskets , three 1 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) calibre light cannons ( piezas ) cast from iron and mounted on carriages , four iron and two bronze pedreros ( 2 @-@ chambered stone @-@ launchers ) and six of at least eight bronze light cannons ( known as esmiriles ) .
= = = Native weaponry = = =
The Spanish described the weapons of war of the Petén Maya as bows and arrows , fire @-@ sharpened poles , flint @-@ headed spears and two @-@ handed swords known as hadzab that were crafted from strong wood with the blade fashioned from inset obsidian ; these were similar to the Aztec macuahuitl . They had a thin , wide wooden shaft with obsidian or flint blades set into channels in the wood . The shaft was up to 80 centimetres ( 31 in ) long and was crafted from the hard , dark wood of a flowering tree ( Apoplanesia paniculata ) called chulul by the Maya . The bows used by the Maya were described as almost as high as a man and were made from the same chulul wood as the hadzab , with the bowstring fashioned from henequen fibre ; the bow was called a chuhul . Arrows were made from reeds with flint , bone or fishtooth arrowheads and flights crafted from feathers . In hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat the Maya used daggers with obsidian or flint blades set into a chulul @-@ wood handle , they were about 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) long . Maya spears were referred to as nabte ; sometimes the tip was fire @-@ hardened , sometimes they were set with a stone blade . Spears were mainly used to thrust and slash but they could also be thrown as a javelin . The Maya used several different sizes of spear with the smaller spears probably employed as a missile ; the longer spears were a similar size as those used by the Spanish .
Distinguished Maya warriors entered battle wearing armour . The upper body was covered by a short jacket that was filled with rock salt , and the forearms and legs were protected with tight bindings of cloth or leather . The salt @-@ packed cotton armour was tough enough that even arrows could not penetrate it . Armour could be decorated and was often adorned with feathers . Commoners did not wear armour in battle , usually only wearing a loincloth and warpaint . Warriors carried shields made from two right @-@ angled wooden bars with deerskin stretched across them .
= = Strategies and tactics = =
The Spanish were aware that the Itza Maya had become the centre of anti @-@ Spanish resistance and engaged in a policy of encircling their kingdom and cutting their trade routes over the course of almost two hundred years . The Itza resisted this steady encroachment by recruiting their neighbours as allies against the Spanish advance . The Spanish engaged in a strategy of concentrating native populations in newly founded colonial towns , or reducciones ( also known as congregaciones ) . Native resistance to the new nucleated settlements took the form of the flight of the indigenous inhabitants into inaccessible regions such as the forest or joining neighbouring Maya groups that had not yet submitted to the Spanish . Those that remained behind in the reducciones often fell victim to contagious diseases .
In addition to military expeditions , a contract for conquest was issued to the Dominican Order , which engaged missionaries for the peaceful pacification of native populations so they would accept Roman Catholicism and submit to Spanish rule . This tactic worked in the neighbouring mountains of Verapaz to the south , although their success there was aided by the threat of Spanish garrisons stationed within striking distance . In the lowland Petén this approach was not so successful , since the Maya could disappear easily into the rainforest leaving the Spanish with deserted settlements . Likewise , the Franciscan Order engaged in generally peaceful attempts to incorporate the Maya into the Spanish Empire via the attempted Christian conversion of native leaders . The Franciscan Order routinely embraced the practice of missionary violence , including corporal punishment and the defence of the idea of " holy war " against non @-@ Christians . In many cases the Maya remained Christian only while the missionaries were present , and they would immediately become apostate as soon as the friars left . In Guatemala in the late 17th century , the Franciscan friar Francisco de Asís Vázquez de Herrera argued that war against apostate Indians was obligatory . Missionary penetration of Petén was not risk @-@ free , and many missionaries were killed in the region .
Independent Maya frequently attacked Christianised Maya settlements and encouraged such settlements to abandon their new religion and resist the Spanish . As Spanish military expeditions were launched against the Maya with increasing frequency , independent Maya communities began to request the presence of missionaries to avoid armed conflict . The Itza attempted to use neighbouring Maya groups , such as the Yalain , as a buffer against Spanish encroachment ; they may also have instigated rebellions by neighbouring groups that were already undergoing incorporation into the Spanish Empire . With Spanish attempts to penetrate the region divided between mutually independent colonial authorities in Yucatán and Guatemala , at times the Itza would be making peaceful overtures on one front while fighting on the other .
= = Cortés in Petén = =
In 1525 , after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , Hernán Cortés led an expedition to Honduras over land , cutting across the Itza kingdom in what is now the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . His aim was to subdue the rebellious Cristóbal de Olid , whom he had sent to conquer Honduras ; Olid had set himself up independently on his arrival in that territory . Cortés had 140 Spanish soldiers , 93 of them mounted , 3 @,@ 000 Mexican warriors , 150 horses , a herd of pigs , artillery , munitions and other supplies . He also had with him 600 Chontal Maya carriers from Acalan . They arrived at the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on 13 March 1525 .
The Roman Catholic priests accompanying the expedition celebrated mass in the presence of Aj Kan Ek ' , the king of the Itza , who was said to be so impressed that he pledged to worship the cross and to destroy his idols . Cortés accepted an invitation from Kan Ek ' to visit Nojpetén ( also known as Tayasal ) , and crossed to the Maya city with 20 Spanish soldiers while the rest of his army continued around the lake to meet him on the south shore . On his departure from Nojpetén , Cortés left behind a cross and a lame horse that the Itza treated as a deity , attempting to feed it poultry , meat and flowers , but the animal soon died . The Spanish did not officially contact the Itza again until the arrival of Franciscan priests in 1618 , when Cortés ' cross was said to still be standing at Nojpetén .
From the lake , Cortés continued south along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains , a particularly arduous journey that took 12 days to cover 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) , during which he lost more than two @-@ thirds of his horses . When he came to a river swollen with the constant torrential rains that had been falling during the expedition , Cortés turned upstream to the Gracias a Dios rapids , which took two days to cross and cost him more horses .
On 15 April 1525 the expedition arrived at the Maya village of Tenciz . With local guides they headed into the hills north of Lake Izabal , where their guides abandoned them to their fate . The expedition became lost in the hills and came close to starvation before they captured a Maya boy who led them to safety . Cortés found a village on the shore of Lake Izabal , perhaps Xocolo . He crossed the Dulce River to the settlement of Nito , somewhere on the Amatique Bay , with about a dozen companions , and waited there for the rest of his army to regroup over the next week . By this time the remnants of the expedition had been reduced to a few hundred ; Cortés succeeded in contacting the Spaniards he was searching for , only to find that Cristóbal de Olid 's own officers had already put down his rebellion . Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea .
= = Prelude to conquest = =
From 1527 onwards the Spanish were increasingly active in the Yucatán Peninsula , establishing several colonies and towns by 1544 , including Campeche and Valladolid in what is now Mexico . The Spanish impact on the northern Maya , encompassing invasion , epidemic diseases and the export of up to 50 @,@ 000 Maya slaves , caused many Maya to flee southwards to join the Itza around Lake Petén Itzá , within the modern borders of Guatemala .
Dominican missionaries were active in Verapaz and the southern Petén from the late 16th century through the 17th century , attempting non @-@ violent conversion with limited success . In the 17th century , the Franciscans came to the conclusion that the pacification and Christian conversion of the Maya would not be possible as long as the Itza held out at Lake Petén Itzá . The constant flow of escapees fleeing the Spanish @-@ held territories to find refuge with the Itza was a drain on the workforce managed by the encomienda system .
= = = Missions in southern Petén = = =
The first Catholic missionaries entered southern Petén in 1596 to convert the Manche Ch 'ol and the Mopan . The Q 'eqchi ' of Verapaz long had close ties with the Manche Ch 'ol . The colonial Maya towns of Cobán and Cahabón , in Alta Verapaz , traded quetzal feathers , copal , chile , cotton , salt and Spanish @-@ produced iron tools with their lowland Lakandon and Manche Ch 'ol neighbours , receiving cacao and achiote in exchange . Many Q 'eqchi ' from Verapaz fled Spanish control to settle among the Lakandón and Manche Ch 'ol . These fugitives strengthened the existing ties between the independent Ch 'ol and the Spanish @-@ controlled Maya of Verapaz ; the constant flow of Maya between colonial Verapaz and independent Petén led to religious syncretism that the Spanish religious authorities were unable to prevent . This relationship did not hinder the Spanish from using the Q 'eqchi ' to help conquer and reduce the Manche Ch 'ol .
From the middle of the 16th century the Dominican Order had been tasked with the peaceful conversion of the Ch 'ol of Verapaz and southern Petén , and their concentration into new colonial towns . The Itza became fearful that the newly converted Manche Ch 'ol would lead the Spanish to Nojpetén . In 1628 the towns of the Manche Ch 'ol were placed under the administration of the governor of Verapaz , with Dominican friar Francisco Morán as their ecclesiastical head . Morán favoured a more robust approach to the conversion of the Manche and moved Spanish soldiers into the region to protect against raids from the Itza to the north . The new Spanish garrison in an area that had not previously seen a heavy Spanish military presence provoked the Manche to revolt , which was followed by abandonment of the indigenous settlements . The Itza , worried about the southern approaches to their territory , may have instigated a Manche rebellion that took place in Lent 1633 .
Towards the end of the 17th century Spanish priorities changed , and the failure of the peaceful efforts of the Dominicans to convert the Ch 'ol combined with the increasing British presence in the Caribbean led the colonial authorities to end the Dominican monopoly and allow the Franciscans and other orders to enter the region ; military options were also viewed more favourably . Between 1685 and 1689 , the Q 'eqchi ' of Cobán and Cahabón were forced to assist the Spanish in their armed expeditions against the Manche Ch 'ol and in forcibly relocating them to Verapaz . These actions depopulated the southern Petén and led to the breakdown of the trade routes linking colonial Guatemala with the independent Maya of Petén . From 1692 to 1694 , Franciscan friars Antonio Margil and Melchor López were active among the Manche and Lakandon Ch 'ol . They were eventually expelled by the Ch 'ol ; upon their return to Santiago de Guatemala they proposed three invasion routes into southern Petén and neighbouring Chiapas . Throughout the 17th century , Spanish missionaries encountered considerable reticence among the Manche , until the Spanish finally decided to move them to an area where they could be more easily controlled . At the time of contact there were perhaps 10 @,@ 000 Manche ; these were devastated by war and disease , with the survivors relocated to Rabinal in the modern department of Baja Verapaz . After 1700 the Manche Ch 'ol ceased to play any part in the history of Petén .
The Mopan population has been estimated at between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 people at the time of contact . In 1692 the Council of the Indies ordered that the Manche Ch 'ol and the Mopan be dealt with decisively . The population suffered the effects of war and disease , and the few survivors were moved into Spanish reducciones in southeastern Petén , before being moved to colonial settlements in other parts of Petén . In 1695 the colonial authorities decided to act upon a plan to connect the province of Guatemala with Yucatán , and soldiers commanded by Jacinto de Barrios Leal , president of the Royal Audiencia of Guatemala , conquered several Ch 'ol communities . The most important of these was Sakb 'ajlan on the Lacantún River in eastern Chiapas , now in Mexico , which was renamed as Nuestra Señora de Dolores , or Dolores del Lakandon , in April 1695 . This was one part of a three @-@ pronged attack against the independent inhabitants of Petén and neighbouring Chiapas ; a second group joined up with Barrios Leal having marched from Huehuetenango . The third group , under Juan Díaz de Velasco , marched from Verapaz against the Itza . Barrios Leal was accompanied by Franciscan friar Antonio Margil who served as an advisor as well as his personal confessor and chaplain to his troops . The Spanish built a fort and garrisoned it with 30 Spanish soldiers . Mercederian friar Diego de Rivas was based at Dolores del Lakandon , and he and his fellow Mercederians baptised several hundred Lakandon Ch 'ols in the following months and established contacts with neighbouring Ch 'ol communities .
Resistance against the Spanish continued , and hostile Ch 'ol killed several newly baptised Christian Indians . In early March 1696 such was the success of the friars that captain Jacobo de Alzayaga and the Mercederians decided to try to reach Lake Petén Itzá . They headed eastwards towards the Pasión River with 150 heavily armed soldiers plus native guides , travelling in five large canoes . They got as far as the savannah to the southeast of the lake before turning back for unknown reasons . Antonio Margil remained in Dolores del Lakandon until 1697 . The Ch 'ol of the Lacandon Jungle were resettled in Huehuetenango in the early 18th century .
= = Conquest of the central lakes = =
Nojpetén fell to a Spanish assault on 13 March 1697 , more than 150 years after the conquest of the rest of the Yucatán Peninsula and more than 160 years after the conquest of the Guatemalan Highlands . The lengthy delay in conquering the Petén region was due to a combination of its geographical remoteness and inhospitality and the fierce reputation of its Maya inhabitants . During this time the Itza used the Yalain as an eastern buffer against Spanish approach from Belize . The lengthy indirect contact between the Itza and the Spanish invaders allowed the Itza to develop an understanding of Spanish strategy and tactics that was honed over the period of almost two centuries that the Itza were surrounded by European @-@ dominated territories . This understanding distinguished the conquest of Petén from the 16th @-@ century conquests of the Aztecs , Maya and Incas . In contrast , the Spanish had a very poor understanding of the Itza and their neighbours and viewed them as ignorant savages whose kingdom was protected by Satan from the Christianising efforts of the Spanish Empire and the Roman Catholic Church . From the time that Hernán Cortés crossed Petén in the early 16th century , the Spanish mistakenly believed the king of the Itza ( the Aj Kan Ek ' ) was the overlord of the entire central Petén region .
= = = Early 17th century = = =
Following Cortés ' visit , no Spanish attempted to visit the warlike Itza inhabitants of Nojpetén for almost a hundred years . In 1618 two Franciscan friars set out from Mérida in Yucatán on a mission to attempt the peaceful conversion of the still pagan Itza in central Petén . Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita were accompanied by some Christianised Maya . Andrés Carrillo de Pernía , a Criollo who was the alcalde of Bacalar ( a colonial official ) , joined the party at Bacalar and escorted them upriver as far as Tipuj , returning to Bacalar once he was certain of the friars receiving a good welcome there . After an arduous six @-@ month journey the travellers were well received by the current Kan Ek ' . They stayed at Nojpetén for some days in an attempt to evangelise the Itza , but the Aj Kan Ek ' refused to renounce his Maya religion , although he showed interest in the masses held by the Catholic missionaries . Kan Ek ' informed them that according to ancient Itza prophecy it was not yet time for them to convert . In the time since Cortés had visited Nojpetén , the Itza had made a statue of the deified horse . Juan de Orbita was outraged when he saw the idol and he immediately smashed it into pieces . Fuensalida was able to save the lives of the visitors from the infuriated natives by means of a particularly eloquent sermon that resulted in them being forgiven . Attempts to convert the Itza failed , and the friars left Nojpetén on friendly terms with Kan Ek ' .
The friars returned in 1619 , arriving in October and staying for eighteen days . Again Kan Ek ' welcomed them in a friendly manner , but this time the Maya priesthood were hostile and jealous of the missionaries ' influence upon the king . They persuaded Kan Ek 's wife to convince him to expel the unwelcome visitors . The missionaries ' lodgings were surrounded by armed warriors , and the friars and their accompanying servants were escorted to a waiting canoe and instructed to leave and never return . Juan de Orbita attempted to resist and was rendered unconscious by an Itza warrior . The missionaries were expelled without food or water but survived the journey back to Mérida .
Before the early 17th century , the western Petén had been heavily populated by Ch 'ol and Ch 'olti ' Maya and was an important trade route for the Itza . By the mid @-@ 17th century , these populations had been devastated by war , disease and the enforced movement of the inhabitants into colonial settlements , negating the economic importance of the region for the Itza . At the same time the Kejache were becoming important intermediaries between the Itza and Yucatán . The Putun Acalan subgroup of the Kejache had previously traded directly with the Itza but had been relocated by the Spanish . The remaining Kejache , devastated by disease and subject to the intense attentions of Spanish missionaries , were no longer able to supply the Itza directly and became middlemen instead .
= = = = Spanish setbacks in the 1620s = = = =
In March 1622 , governor of Yucatán Diego de Cardenas ordered captain Francisco de Mirones Lezcano to launch an assault upon the Itza ; he set out from Yucatán with 20 Spanish soldiers and 80 Mayas from Yucatán . His expedition was later joined by Franciscan friar Diego Delgado . The expedition first camped at IxPimienta ; in May they moved to Sakalum , southwest of Bacalar , where there was a lengthy delay while they waited for reinforcements . En route to Nojpetén , Delgado believed that the soldiers ' treatment of the Maya was excessively cruel , and he left the expedition to make his own way to Nojpetén with eighty Christianised Maya from Tipuj in Belize . In the meantime the Itza had learnt of the approaching military expedition and had become hardened against further Spanish missionary attempts . When Mirones learnt of Delgado 's departure , he sent 13 soldiers to persuade him to return or continue as his escort should he refuse . The soldiers caught up with him just before Tipuj , but he was determined to reach Nojpetén . From Tipuj , Delgado sent a messenger to Kan Ek ' , asking permission to travel to Nojpetén ; the Itza king replied with a promise of safe passage for the missionary and his companions . The party was initially received in peace at the Itza capital , but as soon as the Spanish soldiers let their guard down , the Itza seized and bound the new arrivals . The soldiers were sacrificed to the Maya gods , with their hearts cut from their chests and their heads impaled on stakes around the town . After the sacrifice of the Spanish soldiers , the Itza took Delgado , cut his heart out and dismembered him ; they displayed his head on a stake with the others . The fate of the leader of Delgado 's Maya companions was no better . With no word from Delgado 's escort , Mirones sent two Spanish soldiers with Bernardino Ek , a Maya scout , to learn their fate . When they arrived upon the shore of Lake Petén Itzá , the Itza took them across to their island capital and imprisoned them . They escaped to a canoe by the lakeshore but the two Spanish , slowed by their bonds , were soon recaptured . Ek escaped and returned to Mirones with the news .
Soon afterwards , on 27 January 1624 , an Itza war party led by AjK 'in P 'ol caught Mirones and his soldiers off guard and unarmed in the church at Sakalum and slaughtered them . Spanish reinforcements led by Juan Bernardo Casanova arrived too late ; the Spanish soldiers had been sacrificed , hanged and beheaded , with their corpses burned and impaled on stakes at the entrance to the village ; Mirones and the Franciscan priest had been bound to the church posts and then sacrificed with their hearts cut out . A number of local Maya men and women had also been hanged but not decapitated , and the attackers had burned the town .
Following these massacres , Spanish garrisons were stationed in several towns in southern Yucatán , and rewards were offered for the whereabouts of AjK 'in P 'ol . The Maya governor of Oxkutzcab , Fernando Kamal , set out with 150 Maya archers to track the warleader down ; they succeeded in capturing the Itza captain and his followers , together with silverware from the looted Sakalum church and items belonging to Mirones . The prisoners were taken back to the Spanish captain Antonio Méndez de Canzo , interrogated under torture , tried , and condemned to be hanged , drawn and quartered . They were decapitated , and the heads were displayed in the plazas of towns throughout the colonial Partido de la Sierra in what is now Mexico 's Yucatán state . These events ended all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695 . In the 1640s internal strife in Spain distracted the government from attempts to conquer unknown lands ; the Spanish Crown lacked the time , money or interest in such colonial adventures for the next four decades .
= = = Late 17th century = = =
In 1692 Basque nobleman Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi proposed to the Spanish king the construction of a road from Mérida southwards to link with the Guatemalan colony , in the process " reducing " any independent native populations into colonial congregaciones ; this was part of a greater plan to subjugate the Lakandon and Manche Ch 'ol of southern Petén and the upper reaches of the Usumacinta River . The original plan was for the province of Yucatán to build the northern section and for Guatemala to build the southern portion , with both meeting somewhere in Ch 'ol territory ; the plan was later modified to pass further east , through the kingdom of the Itza .
= = = = Spanish – Itza diplomatic contacts , 1695 = = = =
In December 1695 the Spanish colonial authorities in Mérida received a diplomatic visit sent by the Aj Kan Ek ' . The diplomatic contact had been negotiated by Spanish captain Francisco Hariza y Arruyo , alcalde of Bacalar @-@ at @-@ Chunjujub ' . Hariza had sent a Christian Maya ambassador to Nojpetén from Tipuj in April 1695 , who arrived around the same time that the Itza were preparing to defend themselves against a Spanish party entering from Guatemala ; nonetheless the emissary was received in peace and despatched back to Hariza with promises of submission to Spain . In August Hariza travelled to Mérida in the company of a group of seven Tipuj natives offering submission to Spain . Four members of this party were not from Tipuj at all , but were Itza diplomats sent incognito from Yalain to discuss possible peaceful contacts with the colonial authorities . The leader of the Itza delegation was AjChan , a nephew of the Itza king . When friar Avendaño was in Mérida in September 1695 between attempts to reach Nojpetén , he met with the Itza – Yalain delegation and was able to give an account of them when he travelled through Yalain after visiting Nojpetén in January 1696 . AjChan and his companions returned to Nojpetén in November but did not stay long before leaving for Mérida again .
In December , Kan Ek ' despatched AjChan to negotiate peace with Spain , with three Itza companions . They were accompanied to Mérida by a small number of Mopans from the Tipuj region . AjChan , through family ties and marriage , had a key role as a middleman between the Itza , Yalain and Kowoj ; he also had family ties with the semi @-@ Christianised Maya at Tipuj , and his mother was from Chichen Itza in the northern Yucatán . His marriage to a Kowoj woman had been an attempt , ultimately unsuccessful , to defuse Itza – Kowoj hostility . Kan Ek ' sent AjChan to Mérida with a message of peaceful submission to the Spanish Empire in an attempt to solidify his own position as sole ruler of the Itza , even if this meant sacrificing Itza independence from Spain . The Itza king 's uncle and the Kowoj were fundamentally opposed to any negotiations with the Spanish and viewed AjChan 's embassy as treachery . The Spanish were unaware of the tensions between different Maya factions in central Petén , which by now had escalated into a state of inter @-@ Maya warfare . AjChan was baptised as Martín Francisco on 31 December 1695 , with Martín de Ursúa , governor of Yucatán , acting as his godfather .
The arrival of AjChan and his subsequent baptism was an important diplomatic coup for Ursúa , who used the visit for his own political advancement , promoting the embassy as the peaceful final submission of the Itza kingdom to the Spanish Crown . This formal submission of the Itza kingdom to Spain was a critical turning point , since from a Spanish legal viewpoint the Itza were now subjects and the royal prohibition on military conquest could be sidestepped . AjChan left Mérida with his companions and a Spanish escort in the middle of January 1696 and arrived back at Tipuj around the end of the month . After a few days at Tipuj he learnt of violent events unfolding around Lake Petén Itzá including the battle at Ch 'ich ' and the subsequent killing of two Franciscans . Fearing the response of his Spanish escort , he abandoned them and fled back to Yalain .
= = = = García de Paredes ' entry from Yucatán , March – April 1695 = = = =
The governor of Yucatán , Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi , began to build the road from Campeche south towards Petén . At the beginning of March 1695 , Ursúa ordered captain Alonso García de Paredes to explore this road ; García led a group of 50 Spanish soldiers , accompanied by native guides , muleteers and labourers . García had previous experience from military expeditions around Sajkab 'chen ( near modern Xcabacab in southern Campeche state ) The expedition advanced some way south of Sajkab 'chen into Kejache territory , which began at Chunpich , about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north of the modern border between Mexico and Guatemala . He rounded up some natives to be moved into colonial settlements , but met with armed Kejache resistance . A skirmish ensued at a Kejache village , resulting in the deaths of eight Kejache warriors . Prisoners taken during the skirmish informed García that many independent Maya lived in the area , both Kejache and others . García decided to retreat around the middle of April , probably to escort captured Kejache back to Sajkab 'chen to be put to work on García 's encomienda . Captain García reported back to Ursúa on 21 April 1695 .
= = = = Díaz de Velasco and Cano 's entry from Verapaz , March – April 1695 = = = =
In March 1695 , captain Juan Díaz de Velasco set out from Cahabón in Alta Verapaz with 70 Spanish soldiers , accompanied by a large number of Maya archers from Verapaz , and native muleteers ; four Dominican friars led by Criollo friar Agustín Cano accompanied the expedition . Theoretically the Spanish soldiers were provided solely as an escort for the Dominicans . The Guatemalan expedition , under orders of President Jacinto de Barrios Leal , were secretly trying to reach the Itzas before Martín de Ursúa could reach them from Yucatán ; the existence of the expedition was carefully concealed during all communications between Guatemala and the governor of Yucatán . It formed a part of a three @-@ pronged attack against the independent inhabitants of Petén and neighbouring Chiapas ; the other two expeditions were launched against the Lakandon .
The expedition proceeded northwards through Ch 'ol territory and into Mopan territory ; there they camped at Mopan town ( modern San Luis ) . Due to their fear of their warlike Itza neighbours , both the Ch 'ol and the Mopans claimed not to know of any paths to Lake Petén Itzá . The Spanish were held up at Mopan for several days by supply problems and desertions among their native carriers . The Dominicans took advantage of the delay to proselytise the Mopans and Cano wrote that he had converted four caciques ( native chiefs ) there , although Taxim Chan , king of the Mopans , had fled with many of the local inhabitants . Cano believed that the Mopans were ruled by the king of the Itzas .
= = = = = First skirmish = = = = =
The Spanish believed that by pressing ahead to Lake Petén Itzá they would link up with a simultaneous expedition headed by President Barrios himself , unaware that Barrios had not reached the region . Díaz de Velasco sent out a scouting party of 50 musketeers accompanied by native archers on 6 April . They soon found evidence of recent Itza camps in the area , estimated to be a month old . The scouts found a clear road heading north to the Itza kingdom , and the army set off along it . The main force camped about ten leagues ( 26 miles or 42 km ) south of the lake , while a smaller scouting party was sent off ahead ; this consisted of two Spanish soldiers , two archers and two muleteers from Verapaz , with two Ch 'ol @-@ speaking native interpreters . The scouting party advanced to the savannah just to the south of Lake Petén Itzá , where they encountered about 30 Itza hunters armed with spears , shields and bows , accompanied by hunting dogs . The hunters drew their weapons and prepared to fight , but the Mopan interpreter was instructed to explain that the Spanish party were traders who came in peace , accompanied by missionaries . The Spanish began to suspect that the interpreter was plotting against them with the Itza hunters , and one of the Verapaz archers dragged him out from among the hunters . The encounter degenerated into a scuffle , and the Itzas once again drew weapons . The Spanish fired their muskets , fatally wounding two hunters , and a Verapaz Indian charged the Itzas with a machete . The hunters fled , leaving the scouting party in possession of the food and arrows at the hunting camp .
= = = = = Second skirmish = = = = =
Five days after this skirmish , Antonio Machuca led a party of 12 musketeers , 25 archers and 13 muleteers to try to find President Barrios , to scout a river route to the lake and to capture another interpreter , the previous one no longer being trusted . The main party arrived on the savannah near the lake . The following night one of the advance party came back into camp with an Itza prisoner , captured after a fierce struggle with the scouts . Interrogation of the prisoner revealed that he was from a high @-@ ranking Itza lineage , and that he had been sent out to find the Spanish party and to see if they came as traders or invaders . The rest of Machuca 's scouting party soon returned to the main camp , reporting that they had camped four leagues ( approximately 10 @.@ 4 miles or 16 @.@ 7 km ) from the lake , where they encountered another hunting party of about " a dozen " Itzas . The Spanish tried to use their interpreter to talk to them but the Itzas responded with a volley of arrows . The Spanish musketeers tried to respond with musketfire , but found their gunpowder too wet to fire properly . The Itza warriors charged upon them with spears , axes and machetes , and the ensuing hand @-@ to @-@ hand battle lasted an hour , during which six of the Itzas were killed ; the rest finally retreated . Thanks to their padded cotton armour , the Spanish party received no injuries from the skirmish . The Spanish pursued the fleeing Itzas and another fierce skirmish ensued , lasting another hour during which most of the remaining Itzas were killed . Three Itzas escaped , and their leader was rendered unconscious with machete blows to the head ; he was taken prisoner and later made a full recovery . Machuca 's party reached the lakeshore and could see Nojpetén across the water , but saw such a large force of Itzas that they retreated south , back to the main camp .
An Itza account of this encounter reached the colonial authorities in Yucatán via Tipuj . The Itza reported that the Guatemalan party approached on horseback to within sight of Nojpetén , and about thirty curious Itzas gathered to talk to the intruders , whereupon they were attacked by the Spanish , resulting in the deaths of thirty Itzas , the capture of one and yet more wounded . A Christian Maya emissary from Bacalar @-@ at @-@ Chunjujub ' , Yucatán , was in Nojpetén around this time , and reported that the Itza gathered 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 warriors ready to repulse Díaz de Velasco 's party .
= = = = = Retreat to Guatemala = = = = =
On 24 April , the first prisoner escaped from the main camp ; the same day that the injured second prisoner was taken in by Machuca and his men . Interrogation of the new prisoner , who turned out to be an Itza nobleman , revealed that the Itza kingdom was in a state of high alert to repel the Spanish . Friar Cano met with his fellow Dominicans to discuss what should be done , having had information from both Machuca and his prisoner that the Itza were ready for war . The Dominicans were highly critical of the Spanish soldiers ' readiness to open fire on poorly armed natives who offered no real threat to them , and suspected that President Barrios was nowhere near the lake ; furthermore the Spanish were beginning to succumb to sickness , and the Verapaz Indian recruits were deserting daily . Díaz agreed with the Dominicans ; two muleteers had already died from sickness , and he recognised that the size of his expedition was not sufficient for a full confrontation with the Itza nation . The expedition almost immediately withdrew back to Cahabón . The new prisoner , AjK 'ixaw was later taken back to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , where the Dominicans questioned him in detail . In Guatemala AjK 'ixaw learnt Spanish and returned to Petén in 1696 as a guide and interpreter for another expedition , before turning on his captors . After the Spanish retreated to Guatemala , rumours ran rife among the Itza and Kowoj that they would return to engage in wholesale slaughter of the Maya population ; large tracts of territory were abandoned in response , including many towns in an area stretching from Lake Petén Itzá eastwards to Tipuj and southwards to Mopán .
= = = = García de Paredes ' entry from Yucatán , May 1695 = = = =
When captain García de Paredes unexpectedly returned to Campeche in early May 1695 , governor Martín de Ursúa was already preparing reinforcements for his expedition . With García 's arrival , he was immediately allocated the extra soldiers . On 11 May Ursúa ordered García to begin a second expedition southwards and was allotted 100 salaried Maya to accompany him . These workers were to be paid three pesos per month and received a suspension of their obligations to supply encomienda work and tribute . García paid for additional Spanish soldiers from his own funds , as did José Fernández de Estenos , a Campeche resident who was to serve as second @-@ in @-@ command . The final force numbered 115 Spanish soldiers and 150 Maya musketeers , plus Maya labourers and muleteers ; the final tally was more than 400 people , which was regarded as a considerable army in the impoverished Yucatán province . Ursúa also ordered two companies of Maya musketeers from Tek 'ax and Oxk 'utzkab ' to join the expedition at B 'olonch 'en Kawich , some 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) southeast of the city of Campeche . Bonifacio Us was captain of the Tek
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ordering . Moreover there has never been any validation of the Stanford – Binet L @-@ M on adult populations , and there is no trace of such terminology in the writings of Lewis Terman . Although two current tests attempt to provide " extended norms " that allow for classification of different levels of giftedness , those norms are not based on well validated data .
= Undisputed Attitude =
Undisputed Attitude is the seventh studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . The album consists almost entirely of punk rock / hardcore punk cover songs . Also included are two songs written by guitarist Jeff Hanneman in 1984 and 1985 for a side project called Pap Smear , and the closing track , Gemini , the only Slayer original on the record . The cover songs on the album were originally recorded by the bands Minor Threat , T.S.O.L. , D.R.I. , D.I. , Dr. Know , The Stooges and Verbal Abuse , whose work was prominently featured with the inclusion of cover versions of five of their songs . A video was also released of Slayer 's version of the song " I Hate You " by Verbal Abuse . Released on May 28 , 1996 through American Recordings , Undisputed Attitude peaked at number 34 on the Billboard 200 chart .
= = Recording = =
Undisputed Attitude was recorded at Capital Studios in Los Angeles , California with producer Dave Sardy , while Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin served as executive producer . Recorded in three to four weeks , the album was largely the brainchild of guitarist Kerry King , who stated that the songs chosen were from highly influential bands who " made Slayer what it is " . The album was initially to feature material from classic heavy metal artists such as Judas Priest , UFO , and Deep Purple . However , after several rehearsals " things didn 't pan out " according to King , so the band instead elected to cover punk songs .
Slayer considered covering 1960s psychedelic rock band The Doors as they were an influence to vocalist and bassist Tom Araya . When asked which track they considered recording , Araya responded , " Maybe ' When the Music 's Over ' , ' Five to One ' , something like that . " A cover of Black Flag 's " Rise Above " was suggested by Rubin , although was shelved after the band was not sure how to arrange it musically .
Guitarist Jeff Hanneman had written four unreleased songs in 1984 – 1985 while in the side project Pap Smear with Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo and Suicidal Tendencies guitarist Rocky George . The band chose the best two , namely " Ddamm ( Drunk Drivers Against Mad Mothers ) " and " Can 't Stand You " . " Gemini " was written by King and Araya several months before entering the recording studio . King asserts it is the only Slayer song on the album . The song begins as a sludge / doom number , before becoming a more typical Slayer song .
The band 's cover of Minor Threat 's " Guilty of Being White " raised questions about a possible message of white supremacy . The controversy involved the changing of the refrain " guilty of being white " to " guilty of being right " , at the song 's ending . This incensed Minor Threat frontman Ian MacKaye , who stated " that is so offensive to me " . King said the lyric was altered for " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " humor , saying that the band thought racism was " ridiculous " at the time .
= = Reception = =
Undisputed Attitude was released on May 28 , 1996 , and peaked at number 34 on the Billboard 200 album chart . Paul Kott of AllMusic commented that " Undisputed Attitude , while not perfect , is a fitting tribute to the bands that inspired Slayer to break from the traditional metal mold . " Sandy Masuo of Rolling Stone reasoned : " some punk purists will undoubtedly cry foul , but when the dust settles it 's hard to argue with Slayer 's mettle . " Entertainment Weekly 's Chuck Eddy dubbed Slayer 's cover interpretations " generic hardcore @-@ punk " , and observed that the group " seem to think that playing as fast and rigidly as possible makes for harder rock -- but it 's just lazy shtick . "
Reviewing 2003 Slayer box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse , Adrien Begrand of PopMatters dismissed the effort as " easily the weakest album in the Slayer catalogue " , while Westword Online 's Michael Roberts dubbed the record their " biggest mistake . " Araya has since stated that he " knew it wouldn 't do very well , people want to hear Slayer ! The real die @-@ hards picked up on it and that was expected . "
= = Track listing = =
= = = European edition = = =
Tracks 1 @-@ 9 remain the same .
= = = Japanese edition = = =
Tracks 1 @-@ 9 remain the same .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Slayer = = =
Tom Araya – lead vocals , bass
Jeff Hanneman – guitar
Kerry King – guitar
Paul Bostaph – drums
= = = Production and artwork = = =
Dave Sardy – producer , mixing
Rick Rubin – executive producer
Greg Gordon – engineer
Ralph Cacciurri ; Bryan Davis ; Jim Giddens ; Bill Smith – assistant engineers
Stephen Marcussen – mastering
Wes Benscoter – artwork , illustrations
Dennis Keeley – photography
Michael Lavine – front cover photo , photography
Dirk Walter – art direction , design
= Cindy McCain =
Cindy Lou Hensley McCain ( born May 20 , 1954 ) is an American businesswoman , philanthropist , and humanitarian , and the wife of United States Senator and 2008 Republican presidential nominee John McCain of Arizona .
She was born and raised in Phoenix , Arizona , as the daughter of wealthy beer distributor Jim Hensley . After receiving bachelor 's and master 's degrees from the University of Southern California , she became a special education teacher . She married John McCain in 1980 and they had three children together , in addition to adopting another . From 1988 to 1995 , she founded and operated a nonprofit organization , the American Voluntary Medical Team , which organized trips by medical personnel to disaster @-@ stricken or war @-@ torn third @-@ world areas . During this time , she became addicted to painkillers for several years and resorted to having a physician write illegal prescriptions on her behalf . She reached an agreement with the government in which no charges were filed against her .
Upon her father 's death in 2000 , she inherited majority control and became chair of Hensley & Co . , one of the largest Anheuser @-@ Busch beer distributors in the United States . She participated in both of her husband 's presidential campaigns and , in 2008 , drew both positive and negative scrutiny for her appearance , demeanor , wealth , spending habits , and financial obligations . She continues to be an active philanthropist and serves on the boards of Operation Smile , Eastern Congo Initiative , CARE and HALO Trust , frequently making overseas trips in conjunction with their activities . During the 2010s she has become prominent in the fight against human trafficking .
= = Early life and education = =
Cindy Lou Hensley was born in Phoenix , Arizona , to James Hensley , who founded Hensley & Co . , and Marguerite " Smitty " Hensley ( née Johnson ) . She was raised as the only child of her parents ' second marriages and grew up on Phoenix 's North Central Avenue in affluent circumstances . ( Dixie L. Burd , who is the daughter of Marguerite Smith through a prior relationship , is her half @-@ sister , as is Kathleen Hensley Portalski , daughter of Jim Hensley and his first wife , Mary Jeanne Parks . ) Cindy Hensley was named Junior Rodeo Queen of Arizona in 1968 . She went to Central High School in Phoenix , where she was named Best Dressed as a senior and graduated in 1972 .
Hensley enrolled at the University of Southern California . She joined the socially conservative Kappa Alpha Theta sorority as a freshman , and had many leadership roles in the house during her four years there . Hensley graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in education in 1976 . She continued on at USC , and received a Master of Arts in special education in 1978 . There she participated in a movement therapy pilot program that laid the way for a standard treatment for children with severe disabilities ; she published the work Movement Therapy : A Possible Approach in 1978 . Declining a role in the family business , she worked for a year as a special education teacher dealing with children with Down syndrome and other disabilities at Agua Fria High School in Avondale , Arizona .
= = Marriage and family = =
Hensley met John McCain in April 1979 at a military reception in Hawaii . He was the U.S. Navy liaison officer to the United States Senate and almost eighteen years her senior . McCain and Hensley quickly began a relationship , traveling between Arizona and Washington to see each other . John McCain then pushed to end his marriage of fourteen years ; Carol McCain and John McCain stopped cohabiting in January 1980 , and Carol accepted a divorce in February 1980 , effective in April 1980 . John and Cindy were married on May 17 , 1980 at the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in Phoenix . They signed a prenuptial agreement that kept most of her family 's assets under her name ; they have since kept their finances apart and file separate income tax returns .
Her father 's business and political contacts helped John McCain to gain a foothold in Arizona politics . She campaigned with her husband door to door during his successful first bid for U.S. Congress in 1982 , and was heavily involved in campaign strategy . Her wealth from an expired trust from her parents provided significant loans to the campaign and helped it survive a period of early debt .
Once John McCain was elected , the couple moved to Alexandria , Virginia . She spent two months in late 1983 writing handwritten notes on over 4 @,@ 000 Christmas cards to be sent to constituents and others . She was considered an outsider who was snubbed by the Washington congressional social scene , in part because Carol McCain was a popular figure in town , and she grew homesick for Arizona . She had several miscarriages .
She moved back to Arizona in early 1984 and gave birth to the couple 's daughter , Meghan , later that year . She subsequently gave birth to sons John Sidney IV ( known as " Jack " ) in 1986 and James ( known as " Jimmy " ) in 1988 . Their fourth child , Bridget , was adopted in 1991 . Cindy McCain 's parents lived across the street and helped her raise the children ; her husband was frequently in Washington and she typically only saw him on weekends . In his absence , she organized elaborate fund @-@ raisers for him and expanded their home .
In April 1986 , Cindy and her father invested $ 359 @,@ 100 in a shopping center project with Phoenix banker Charles Keating . This , combined with her role as a bookkeeper who later had difficulty finding receipts for family trips on Keating 's jet , caused complications for her husband during the Keating Five scandal , when he was being examined for his role regarding oversight of Keating 's bank .
= = American Voluntary Medical Team = =
= = = Founding and mission = = =
In 1988 , inspired by a vacation that she took four years earlier to substandard medical facilities on Truk Lagoon , Cindy McCain founded the American Voluntary Medical Team ( AVMT ) . It was a non @-@ profit organization that organized trips for doctors , nurses and other medical personnel to provide MASH @-@ like emergency medical care to disaster @-@ struck or war @-@ torn third @-@ world areas such as Micronesia , Vietnam ( before relations were normalized between them and the U.S. ) , Kuwait ( arriving five days after the conclusion of the Gulf War ) , Zaire ( to help refuges from the Rwandan genocide ) , Iraq , Nicaragua , India , Bangladesh , and El Salvador . She led 55 of these missions over the next seven years , each of which were at least two weeks in duration . AVMT also supplied treatment to poor sick children around the world . In 1993 , Cindy McCain and the AVMT were honored with an award from Food for the Hungry .
= = = Adoption = = =
In 1991 , the AVMT went to Dhaka , Bangladesh , to provide assistance following the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone . While at Mother Teresa 's Dhaka orphanage , the Sisters of Charity of Mother Teresa Children 's Home , McCain met two infant girls she felt needed to be brought to the United States for medical treatment . She decided to adopt one of the girls , later named Bridget , with her husband readily agreeing ; the adoption became final in 1993 . She helped coordinate the adoption of the other little girl for family friend Wes Gullett .
= = = Prescription drug addiction = = =
In 1989 , Cindy McCain developed an addiction to Percocet and Vicodin , opioid painkillers , which she initially took to alleviate pain following two spinal surgeries for ruptured discs and to ease emotional stress during the Keating Five affair . The addiction progressed to where she was taking upwards of twenty pills a day , and she resorted to having an AVMT physician write illegal prescriptions in the names of three AVMT employees without their knowledge . In 1992 , her parents staged an intervention to force her to get help ; she told her husband about her problem , attended a drug treatment facility , began outpatient sessions and ended her three years of addiction . Surgery in 1993 resolved her back pain .
In January 1993 , Tom Gosinski , an AVMT employee who had discovered her illegal drug use , was terminated on budgetary grounds . Subsequently , he tipped off the Drug Enforcement Administration about her prior actions and a federal investigation ensued . McCain 's defense team , led by John McCain 's Keating Five lawyer John Dowd , secured an agreement with the U.S. Attorney 's office for McCain , a first @-@ time offender , which avoided charges while requiring her to pay financial restitution , enroll in a diversion program and do community service . Meanwhile , in early 1994 , Gosinski filed a wrongful termination lawsuit against McCain , in which he alleged she ordered him to conceal " improper acts " and " misrepresent facts in a judicial proceeding " ; he told her he would settle for $ 250 @,@ 000 . In response , Dowd characterized this request as blackmail , and requested Maricopa County attorney Rick Romley to investigate Gosinski for extortion . In the end , Gosinski 's credibility was undermined by testimony in Romley 's report from other charity staffers who asserted Gosinski privately vowed to blackmail McCain were he ever fired , and both Gosinski 's lawsuit and the extortion investigation against him were dropped .
Knowing that prosecutors were about to publicly disclose her past addiction , McCain preemptively revealed the story to reporters , saying that she was doing so willingly : " Although my conduct did not result in compromising any missions of AVMT , my actions were wrong , and I regret them ... if what I say can help just one person to face the problem , it 's worthwhile . "
= = = Aftermath = = =
AVMT concluded its activities in 1995 in the wake of the McCain prescription narcotics controversy . That year , McCain founded a new organization , the Hensley Family Foundation , which donates monies towards children 's programs in Arizona and nationally . She was largely a stay @-@ at @-@ home mom during the balance of the 1990s . She also held positions as vice president , director , and vice chair of Hensley & Co . In the mid @-@ 1990s , she began suffering from severe migraine headaches , for a while keeping them secret from her husband and minimizing their effect to the rest of her family . Her attacks often resulted in trips to the emergency room , were caused by many different triggers , and she tried many different treatments .
= = Role in 2000 presidential campaign = =
Although wary of the media and still having no love for the political world , McCain was active in her husband 's eventually unsuccessful campaign for President of the United States in 2000 . She mostly provided good cheer , without discussing her opinions about national policy . She impressed Republican voters with her elegance at coffee shops and other small campaign settings , where she frequently referred to her children , carpooling and charity work .
McCain was upset by the notorious smear tactics against her husband in the South Carolina primary that year . These included allegations involving her adopted daughter Bridget that she found " despicable " , as well as insinuations that McCain herself was currently a drug addict . Though deeply wounded by the attacks for a long time , Cindy McCain eventually forgave those responsible . She was chosen as the chair of the Arizona delegation to the 2000 Republican National Convention .
= = Between presidential campaigns = =
In 2000 , she became chair of the now $ 300 million @-@ a @-@ year Hensley & Co. following her father 's death . It is one of the largest Anheuser @-@ Busch beer distributors in the United States . Cindy , her children , and one of John McCain 's children from his first marriage , together own 68 percent of the company . As chair , her role takes the form of consultations with the company CEO on major initiatives such as new products , new plants or employee welfare , rather than that of an active physical presence . She does not have operational control of Hensley , and Anheuser @-@ Busch considers her to be an absentee owner . By 2007 , she had an annual income of over $ 400 @,@ 000 from Hensley and an estimated net worth of $ 100 million . She also owned at least $ 2 @.@ 7 million worth of shares of Anheuser @-@ Busch stock . With her children , she owns a minority stake in the Arizona Diamondbacks baseball team .
McCain became actively involved with Operation Smile in 2001 , taking parts in its medical missions to Morocco , Vietnam and India . She was honored by the organization in 2005 and sits on its board of directors . McCain joined the board of directors of CARE in 2005 . She is on the board of the HALO Trust , and has visited operations to remove landmines in Cambodia , Sri Lanka , Mozambique , and Angola . She makes financial contributions to these organizations via her family trust and views her role as watching them in the field to ensure they are frugal and their money is being spent effectively . On occasion she has criticized foreign regimes on human rights grounds , such as Myanmar 's military junta .
In April 2004 , McCain suffered a near @-@ fatal stroke caused by high blood pressure , although she was still able to attend some events . After several months of physical therapy to overcome leg and arm limitations , she made a mostly full recovery , although she still suffered from some short @-@ term memory loss and difficulties in writing . She owns a home in Coronado , California , next to the Hotel del Coronado ; her family had vacationed in Coronado growing up , and she has gone there for recuperation and family get @-@ togethers . She or her family own other residential and commercial real estate in California , Arizona and Virginia and , including rental properties , McCain herself owns ten homes and part of three office complexes . She is an amateur pilot and race car driver .
= = Role in 2008 presidential campaign = =
She was active and visible in her husband 's second presidential campaign during 2007 and 2008 , despite not wanting her husband to run initially due to bad memories of their 2000 experience and worries the effect on her children , especially son Jimmy who was headed to serve in the Iraq War . She eventually supported her husband in his goals , but defined her own campaign roles ; she frequently returned to Arizona to attend to domestic duties or interrupted campaigning for her overseas charitable work . She preferred to travel with her husband and introduce him rather than act as a campaign surrogate with a separate schedule . She wore her hair in a fashionable but severe style and was sometimes seen with an unsmiling countenance in her appearances . In August 2008 , a member of the public shook her hand very vigorously , aggravating her existing carpal tunnel syndrome condition and causing her to slightly sprain her wrist . The campaign exacerbated her migraine headaches and she sometimes had to wear dark glasses to shield herself from bright lights . The pressures of the campaign also brought out a range of behaviors between her and her husband , varying from moments of great tenderness and concern to raging arguments that dismayed their staffs .
McCain stated that the American public wanted a First Lady of the United States who would tend toward a traditional role in that position . She would not attend Cabinet meetings , but would continue her involvement in overseas non @-@ profit organizations and would urge Americans to do the same globally or locally . She envisioned herself as a possible figurehead for humanitarian work , along the lines of Diana , Princess of Wales . She continued to expand her roles in such organizations , joining in April 2008 the board of Grateful Nation Montana , which provides scholarships and services to the children of Montana service personnel killed in Iraq and Afghanistan .
She made statements critical of the Bush administration for not deploying enough troops during the Iraq War . Her close examination of the financial books of the McCain campaign during the first part of 2007 convinced the candidate that its profligate spending could not go on and led to the drastic mid @-@ year reduction of the campaign 's staff and scope . In February 2008 , McCain made news by being critical of Michelle Obama , the wife of Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama , who had said , " And let me tell you something : For the first time in my adult lifetime I am really proud of my country . " McCain , who was genuinely offended by the remark , replied : " I am proud of my country . I don 't know about you — if you heard those words earlier — I am very proud of my country . " Also in February 2008 , she publicly appeared beside her husband during a press conference in response to a newspaper report regarding his connection to a lobbyist .
McCain faced media scrutiny about her wealth , spending habits , and financial obligations . At first declining to release her separate income tax returns , saying it was a privacy issue and that she would not do so even if she became First Lady , she later released the first two pages of her 2006 return , which showed $ 6 million in income for that year ( including nearly $ 570 @,@ 000 in itemized deductions and more than $ 1 @.@ 7 million paid in federal income taxes ) . The campaign said that any decisions about how to handle her role in Hensley & Co. if she became First Lady would not be made until that time . While she stood to gain a considerable profit from the agreed @-@ upon acquisition of Anheuser @-@ Busch by the Belgian company InBev , she was initially under some political pressure to help oppose the deal and keep Anheuser @-@ Busch under American ownership .
In June 2008 , a Rasmussen Reports poll found that 49 percent of voters viewed Cindy McCain favorably and 29 percent unfavorably , while an ABC News / Washington Post poll found figures of 39 percent and 25 percent respectively . Her style and fashion sense was the subject of much media scrutiny . McCain was compared to former first lady Nancy Reagan , due to both her style and wardrobe as well as her demeanor . Early in the campaign , some recipes attributed to Cindy McCain turned out to be copied from other sources ; the campaign attributed the problem to an error by an intern .
Cindy McCain spoke on both the opening and final nights of the early September 2008 Republican National Convention . On the first night , truncated due to national attention regarding Hurricane Gustav , she appeared with First Lady Laura Bush to deliver short remarks encouraging support for hurricane relief efforts along the Gulf Coast , and on the last night , she introduced the seven McCain children and spoke about how her husband 's love for his country had been passed on to them . In October 2008 , she increased the intensity of her public remarks against Obama 's candidacy , speaking with surprising vitriol in accusing the Obama campaign of being the dirtiest in history and saying of his position against a war @-@ funding bill , " The day that Senator Obama cast a vote not to fund my son when he was serving sent a cold chill through my body . " The stresses of the campaign caused the 5 @-@ foot @-@ 7 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 70 m ) McCain 's weight to fall under 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) . On November 4 , 2008 , she fought back tears in an appearance as the McCain campaign reached its final day and subsequent loss to Obama .
= = Subsequent activities = =
After the election , Cindy McCain was approached about appearing on Dancing With the Stars . She seriously considered participating , but according to John McCain , was concerned that her surgically replaced knee would not be able to withstand the rigors of the competition .
Continuing her humanitarian aid work with a January 2009 trip to Dubai , India , and Cambodia , she said that she was relieved that the campaign was over and that , while it had been " wild and nuts " at times , it had also been " a remarkable experience to be a contender for the highest office in the land . " She said the ongoing global economic crisis was adversely affecting humanitarian organizations , and she expressed hope that President Obama would be successful in dealing with it .
She expressed support for LGBT rights by appearing alongside her daughter Meghan at an April 2009 convention of the Log Cabin Republicans , and posing for the NOH8 Campaign , a gay rights project opposed to California Proposition 8 , a ballot measure banning same @-@ sex marriage . The following year she appeared in another NOH8 public service announcement against bullying , and in it appeared to break with her husband 's position and express support for repeal of the " Don 't ask , don 't tell " policy prohibiting gays from serving openly in the U.S. military . But she subsequently tweeted that " I fully support the NOH8 campaign and all it stands for and am proud to be a part of it . But I stand by my husband 's stance on DADT . "
In September 2009 , she spoke about her migraines publicly for the first time and decided to speak at the International Headache Congress about raising awareness for sufferers . During her husband 's eventually successful 2010 senatorial re @-@ election campaign , she rarely made public appearances .
McCain appeared in March 2011 alongside Eastern Congo Initiative founder Ben Affleck to testify before a panel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee on behalf of continued monetary assistance to the Democratic Republic of Congo , in an environment where the Republican @-@ controlled House was looking to make significant cuts to foreign aid . She has noted the difficulty of getting attention to some of the topics she feels most strongly about ; at a Futures Without Violence summit in 2012 , she said , " When I talk about rape in Congo , people turn their backs and run , especially the men . "
In late 2013 and early 2014 , McCain used the occasion of Super Bowl XLVIII to highlight her concerns about sex trafficking in the United States , an issue that she had begun working on in conjunction with The McCain Institute . She campaigned for legislation to address the problem at both the federal and state levels . She also served as co @-@ chair of the Arizona Governor Jan Brewer 's Task Force on Human Trafficking .
In April 2015 , during the Sedona Forum , Cindy McCain and actress Demi Moore discussed ways to end sex trafficking . Later in that year she staged appearances with Heidi Heitkamp , Democratic Senator from North Dakota , to discuss human trafficking in that state and elsewhere . She said of trafficking , " Everybody has seen it ; they just didn 't know what they were looking at . " She praised Obama and Congress for passage of the Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015 and , together with Malika Saada Saar , executive director of the Human Rights Project for Girls , started the No Such Thing Campaign to end the use of the term " child prostitute " , saying " there are only victims and survivors of child rape . "
= The X @-@ Files ( season 7 ) =
The seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing on the Fox network in the United States on November 7 , 1999 , concluded on May 21 , 2000 , and consists of twenty @-@ two episodes . Taking place after the destruction of the Syndicate , this season marks the end of various other story lines ; during this season , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) learned the true fate of his sister , Samantha . The season concludes with Mulder being abducted by aliens and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) learning that she is pregnant .
Before the broadcasting for the season began , Duchovny sued Fox and eventually announced his decision to leave the show . As a result , the season would be the last to feature Duchovny in a full @-@ time capacity , although he would return in later seasons as an intermittent main character . Due to this eventual character change , this season would be the last to feature the original opening sequence for the series , as the two later years updated the intro in an attempt to renew and revive the series .
The seventh season premiere " The Sixth Extinction " , debuted with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 and was viewed by 17 @.@ 82 million viewers , marking a noticeable drop in viewership since the sixth season . The series fell from number 12 to number 29 for the 1999 – 2000 television year . Critically , the show 's seventh season received mixed to positive reviews ; many reviewers felt that the show still produced good episodes , but that it was the weakest of the Duchovny and Anderson seasons of the show .
= = Plot overview = =
After the events of the season six finale , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) are desperately attempting to find the truth behind the so @-@ called alien object . Meanwhile , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) is still imprisoned by his own frenetic brain activity . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and Skinner are unaware of FBI Special Agent Diana Fowley 's ( Mimi Rogers ) duplicity — she is working for Cigarette Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) . Scully then travels to Africa to unravel the secrets of the alien artifacts , finding something that looks like a spaceship buried under the shoreline off the Côte d 'Ivoire coast . The object may prove that life originated elsewhere , and all religion is based on the Navajo contact with alien life . Unsuccessful , Scully returns from Africa to revisit Mulder in Washington , D.C. , but instead she finds out that he has disappeared . She contacts Kritschgau and Skinner to find her partner . Cigarette Smoking Man has taken Mulder to a place where all his problems seem to have disappeared . Fowley helps Scully locate Mulder , which leads to her death at the hands of Cigarette Smoking Man .
While investigating a bizarre disappearance of a young girl from her home , Mulder becomes obsessed with the number of children who have vanished in similar circumstances . Scully fears that he is emotionally involved due to his sister 's disappearance . At the same time it is revealed to him that his mother , Teena Mulder ( Rebecca Toolan ) , committed suicide . He then tries to prove that his mother did not take her own life , but is ultimately forced to accept that his mother 's death was by her own hand . He is led by a man whose son disappeared years earlier to another truth — that his sister may be among the souls taken by " walk @-@ ins " , saving the souls of children doomed to live unhappy lives . Together they locate evidence that proves that Samantha was abducted by Cigarette Smoking Man and was forced to live in a now @-@ abandoned US Army base . It is later revealed that Samantha had become a " walk @-@ in " spirit .
Mulder and Scully investigate a case which leads them back to Oregon , the site of their first case together . With a series of Alien abductions taking place , Mulder and Scully are contacted by Billy Miles ( Zachary Ansley ) . Scully falls ill during the investigation and returns to Washington , D.C. Cigarette Smoking Man contacts Marita Covarrubias ( Laurie Holden ) and Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , in an attempt to revive the government conspiracy . With Covarrubias unwilling to assist , and Krycek seeking revenge , they contact Mulder after he visits an alien crash site . Skinner and Mulder return to Oregon , while Scully is hospitalized in Washington , D.C. Mulder becomes trapped by an alien device , and is abducted by an Alien Bounty Hunter ( Brian Thompson ) together with Miles and several others . Skinner returns to Washington , D.C. where Scully informs him that she is pregnant .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
After five seasons in Vancouver , Canada , production of The X @-@ Files moved to Los Angeles . The X @-@ Files ' sixth season was the first season of the show to be filmed in the new location . The move was instigated by Duchovny in order to facilitate his work in films as well as to give him a chance to be nearer to his wife , Téa Leoni . Series creator Chris Carter opposed the move , but Fox network officials eventually made the decision to film in California . Although the move was unpopular with some members of the cast and crew , both series director Kim Manners and Anderson supported the move , although less vocally than Duchovny . Many fans accused the show of " Hollywood @-@ izing " by adding notable guests stars as well as making the plots simpler and more enjoyable for mass audiences . Furthermore , the move to Los Angeles also meant a drastic increase in production costs .
= = = Development = = =
Originally , the mythology for season seven was supposed to continue from and show the ramifications of the " Two Fathers " / " One Son " story arc . Frank Spotnitz , in an interview , explained that the mythology episodes for season seven would feature " characters you saw in ' One Son ' coming back " and explore " what happens now that the conspiracy has been destroyed , what are the politics of the new landscape that exists . [ … ] There are aliens from outer space , two different races that are warring with each other . " In addition , he said that the then @-@ planned series finale would feature " the big idea that Chris [ Carter ] had in the beginning . " However , these ideas never came to pass , and the season finale , " Requiem " , segued directly into the eighth season premiere " Within " . Duchovny later revealed that , had the show ended , the final three episodes would have been devoted to the myth @-@ arc .
While filming was underway for the seventh season , many members of the crew felt that the show had entered into its final season . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz later explained , " There was a pretty strong sentiment inside and outside the show that it was time to call it a day . " Because the show 's producers felt that the show was nearing its end , many story arcs were ended in the season . The fourth episode , " Millennium " was written as a way to bring closure to the recently cancelled Carter @-@ created series of the same name . The episode features Lance Henriksen reprising his role as Frank for the last time . The eleventh episode , " Closure " , features Mulder discovering what happened to his sister . The idea to close the story arc received mixed reactions from various production and crew members . However , many of the show 's producers realized that the time had come to answer one of the show 's biggest questions . Paul Rabwin noted that , " It 's been seven years . I don 't think any of us are going to miss Samantha Mulder . That device and motivation were very strong in the early years of the show . But as the years have gone by , the speculation kind of melted away . " As the season progressed , however , the idea of producing another season emerged . Paul Rabwin explained that , " we found ourselves starting to get energized again . [ ... ] As we got toward the end of the season , everyone was kind of hopeful . "
The season also saw several of the show 's cast write their own episodes . Series co @-@ star Gillian Anderson directed and wrote her first episode of the series , " all things " . Anderson originally approached Carter about writing and directing an episode of the series during the sixth season . Anderson crafted a script that would see Scully pursuing a " deeply personal X @-@ File , one which in [ she ] is taken down a spiritual path when logic fails her " . Anderson had only a rough outline of the script until one day she wrote a majority of the story in one sitting . She explained , " A certain concept began to form , [ and ] I just wrote the entire outline for ' all things ' right then and there . It all just kind of came together on the page " . The next day , Anderson pitched the script to Carter , who approved of the " personal and quiet " characteristics of the story . In addition , series regular Davis wrote his only episode , " En Ami " . Davis approached Carter with his idea about Cigarette Smoking Man trying to seduce Scully with medical knowledge , and Carter , who was intrigued , responded positively to the idea . He assigned executive producer Spotnitz to work with Davis and craft a full @-@ fledged script . The script went through many revisions . Because Cigarette Smoking Man was able to manipulate Scully , Carter later referred to the " En Ami " as " the creepiest episode of the year . "
= = = Lawsuit = = =
Before the season aired , David Duchovny filed a lawsuit against 20th Century Fox . Duchovny was upset because , he claimed , that Fox had undersold the rights to its own affiliates , thereby costing him huge sums of money . Originally , in the contract , Duchovny was eligible for an estimated five percent , but , according to him , he " had seen only a fraction " of the money . Eventually , the lawsuit was settled , and Duchovny was awarded a settlement of about $ 20 million . The lawsuit put strain on Duchovny 's professional relationships . Although his lawsuit never called Chris Carter a defendant , their friendship was notably impacted . One anonymous source noted that " the whole lawsuit thing revealed that Carter knew ( Duchovny ) was getting screwed and didn 't warn him . Carter proved where his loyalties lay with his actions . "
Neither Carter nor Duchovny were contracted to work on the series beyond the seventh season ; however , Fox entered into negotiations near the end of season in order to bring the two on board for an eighth season . After the airing of " Requiem " , Duchovny expressed his intentions to leave the series . He explained , " I was kind of a free agent after season seven , and to me , there was not much else to do in terms of the character . So it was really about me wanting to pursue other parts of my career as a writer , director , and actor . " Rumors began spreading — and were eventually confirmed — that , since Duchovny had not expressed an interest to appear as a main character in the eighth season , that another character would take Mulder 's place . Many fans on the internet believed that Mitch Pileggi , who portrayed Walter Skinner , would take the role ; Pileggi later called this guess " ridiculous . "
= = = Crew = = =
Series creator Chris Carter also served as executive producer and showrunner and wrote six episodes . Spotnitz continued as executive producer and wrote five episodes . Vince Gilligan continued as co @-@ executive producer and wrote six episodes . John Shiban was promoted to supervising producer and wrote two episodes . David Amann was promoted to co @-@ producer and wrote two episodes . Jeffrey Bell was promoted to story editor and wrote two episodes . Cyberpunk novelists William Gibson and Tom Maddox returned to write their second of two episodes for the series . Cast member Duchovny wrote two episodes in the season , while other cast members Anderson and Davis also wrote an episode each . New writers in the seventh season included Steven Maeda and Greg Walker , who wrote one episode ; and Chip Johannessen who wrote a single freelance episode . Other producers included Paul Rabwin and Bernadette Caulfield , and Michelle MacLaren who joined as co @-@ executive producer .
Producing @-@ directors for the show included producer Rob Bowman , supervising producer Manners , and co @-@ executive producer Michael Watkins , who directed the bulk of the episodes for the season . Bowman directed two episodes for his final season on the series , Manners directed seven , and Watkins directed three . Cast members David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson each directed one episode each . Series creator Chris Carter directed a single episode , while series writer Vince Gilligan made his television directorial debut . Other directors for the season included Thomas J. Wright who directed three episodes , with Robert Lieberman , Cliff Bole , and Paul Shapiro each directing one .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
David Duchovny as Special Agent Fox Mulder ( 22 episodes )
Gillian Anderson as Special Agent Dana Scully ( 22 episodes )
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = = = Also starring = = = =
Mitch Pileggi as Walter Skinner ( 11 episodes )
William B. Davis as Cigarette Smoking Man ( 4 episodes )
Nicholas Lea as Alex Krycek ( 2 episodes )
= = = = Guest starring = = = =
= = Episodes = =
Episodes marked with a double dagger ( ) are episodes in the series ' Alien Mythology arc .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The seventh season of The X @-@ Files debuted with " The Sixth Extinction " on November 7 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned into the episode . The episode was viewed by 17 @.@ 82 million people , an increase from the sixth season 's finale , " Biogenesis " , which was viewed by 15 @.@ 86 million viewers . However , the debut marked a decrease from the sixth season debut , " The Beginning " , which garnered 20 @.@ 34 million viewers . As the season continued , however , ratings began to drop . The season hit a low with the eighteenth episode , " Brand X " , which was viewed by 10 @.@ 81 million viewers . The season finale , " Requiem " , earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 9 , with a 14 share , and was viewed by 15 @.@ 26 million viewers , marking a 14 percent drop in viewers when compared to the season premiere , and a 4 percent drop in viewers when compared to the previous season finale . The series was ranked at number 29 during the 1999 – 2000 television season , finishing with an average of 14 @.@ 2 million viewers .
During 2000 , companies were paying Fox $ 225 @,@ 000 for every 30 @-@ second spot that would air between acts of The X @-@ Files . Many Information technology ( IT ) companies were buying commercials during the show , largely due to the fact that " many [ ' coders IT geeks ' ] get their weekly fix of science fiction from this prime @-@ time show . "
= = = Reviews = = =
The seventh season received moderately positive reviews from critics , although increasingly critical reviews were more common this season . While critics enjoyed many of the episodes , many also felt that , as a whole , the season was the weakest of the show 's original seven . Eric Mink of the New York Daily News praised the season , noting that it was " proof that The X @-@ Files still has more than enough creative life in it to justify an eighth season " . He called many of the stand @-@ alone episodes " wonderfully creepy " and noted that the season possessed a " terrific bunch of episodes " . Thomas Doherty from Cinefantastique gave the season a mixed review and noted that the series was hurt by the partnership between Mulder and Scully " settl [ ing ] into the comfortable groove of a modern two career marriage — supportive , professionally rewarding , and utterly sexless . " Further , he noted that " the most entertaining episode lately have been the self parodies , where killer cockroaches scurry and living dead roam , or where ( in the Duchovny written and directed episode ) Scully and Mulder are played by Téa Leoni and Garry Shandling in a motion picture only slightly more ludicrous than a 1998 motion picture called The X @-@ Files . " Doherty argued that the " self @-@ parody " style of the series caused viewers to not take it seriously anymore , explaining that , " No longer going for the big chill , Carter and company are winking at their audience , as if to say : even we can 't pretend to believe in this muddled mishmash anymore . " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files , was positive towards the first half of the season , but soon saw the episodes in more of a negative light . He wrote , " A season that began with such hope ended with a sense of sorrow given the end result of the season @-@ long backstage wheeling and dealing [ a reference to David Duchovny 's lawsuit ] . Not even the magnificent season finale [ … ] could erase the nagging doubts I had that a series that had been so amazing for so long would soon embark upon a new course wrought with pitfalls and turmoil . " The A.V. Club noted that while the first eight seasons of The X @-@ Files were " good @-@ to @-@ great " , the seventh season of the show was " flagging " and possessed " significant problems .
The episodes themselves received a variety of reviews . Some were positively received : several reviews praised the episode " X @-@ Cops " , the show 's highly promoted cross @-@ over with the police reality show COPS . One review from the New York Daily News called the outing " exceptionally clever " whereas Starpulse named the episode the funniest of the series . The Duchovny @-@ penned " Hollywood A.D. " was praised for its self @-@ reflexive comedy by several reviews . Other episodes were more harshly received . Anderson 's writing debut , " all things " was critiqued for being " dull " and " heavy @-@ handed " . " Brand X " , on the other hand , was called " a waste of an episode . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The seventh season earned the series six Primetime Emmy Award nominations , with three wins . The episode " First Person Shooter " won for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series . The episode " Theef " won for Outstanding Makeup for a Series . Other nominations included Mark Snow for Outstanding Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) for " Theef " , the episode " First Person Shooter " for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series , and " Rush " for Outstanding Special Visual Effects for a Series . The series , as well as Gillian Anderson , won a Teen.com Entertainment Award for Best Drama Series and Best Actress in a Series , respectively . Other nominations included two Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson , an Environmental Media Awards nomination for " Brand X " , and an International Monitor Award nomination for " Rush " .
= = DVD release = =
= Baleen whale =
Baleen whales ( systematic name Mysticeti ) , known earlier as whalebone whales , form a parvorder of the infraorder Cetacea ( whales , dolphins and porpoises ) . They are a widely distributed and diverse parvorder of carnivorous marine mammals . Mysticeti comprise the families Balaenidae ( right whales ) , Balaenopteridae ( rorquals ) , Cetotheriidae ( the pygmy right whale ) , and Eschrichtiidae ( the gray whale ) . There are currently 15 species of baleen whale . While cetaceans were historically thought to have descended from mesonychids , molecular evidence supports them as relatives of even @-@ toed ungulates ( Artiodactyla ) . Baleen whales split from toothed whales ( Odontoceti ) around 34 million years ago .
Baleen whales range in size from the 20 ft ( 6 m ) and 6 @,@ 600 lb ( 3 @,@ 000 kg ) pygmy right whale to the 112 ft ( 34 m ) and 190 t ( 210 short tons ) blue whale , which is also the largest creature on earth . They are sexually dimorphic . Baleen whales can have streamlined or large bodies , depending on the feeding behavior , and two limbs that are modified into flippers . Though not as flexible and agile as seals , baleen whales can swim very fast , with the fastest able to travel at 23 miles per hour ( 37 km / h ) . Baleen whales use their baleen plates to filter out food from the water by either lunge @-@ feeding or gulp @-@ feeding . Baleen whales have fused neck vertebrae , and are unable to turn their head at all . Baleen whales have two blowholes . Some species are well adapted for diving to great depths . They have a layer of fat , or blubber , under the skin to keep warm in the cold water .
Although baleen whales are widespread , most species prefer the colder waters around the Northern and Southern poles . Gray whales are specialized for feeding on bottom @-@ dwelling mollusks . Rorquals are specialized at lunge @-@ feeding , and have a streamlined body to reduce drag while accelerating . Right whales gulp @-@ feed , meaning they use their enlarged head to effectively take in a large amount of water and sieve the slow @-@ moving prey . Males typically mate with more than one female ( polygyny ) , although the degree of polygyny varies with the species . Male strategies for reproductive success vary between performing ritual displays ( whale song ) or lek mating . Calves are typically born in the spring and summer months and females bear all the responsibility for raising them . Mothers fast for a relatively long period of time over the period of migration , which varies between species . Baleen whales produce a number of vocalizations , notably
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the breaks between songs . Having stated his disappointment in a 1988 interview that the album had been allowed to go out of print , Harrison recorded a promotional interview on the 20th anniversary of the concerts , to accompany the CD release .
Harrison was working on a reissue of the album and film before his death in November 2001 . Although the project was due for release the following year , the new editions were not made available until 24 October 2005 . The album was remastered for this release , with the heavily revised packaging credited to Wherefore Art ? , and the addition of Dylan 's afternoon @-@ show performance of " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " as a bonus track . The reissue coincided with the concert film 's first international release on DVD , accompanied by the Concert for Bangladesh Revisited with George Harrison and Friends making @-@ of documentary , which was directed by Claire Ferguson and co @-@ produced by Olivia Harrison .
Sales of the album and DVD continue to benefit the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF . In 2011 , as one of the fund 's projects to mark the 40th anniversary of the concerts and the live album 's release , and in conjunction with UNICEF 's " Month of Giving " campaign , the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF raised over $ 1 @.@ 2 million in emergency relief for children in famine- and drought @-@ stricken areas of the Horn of Africa .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = On release and through the 1970s = = =
" If you buy only one LP in 1972 , make it this one , " Richard Williams wrote in Melody Maker , echoing the goodwill felt throughout the music press towards the Bangladesh relief project . Williams lavished praise on every one of the triple album 's seventeen selections : Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan 's interplay towards the end of " Bangla Dhun " made for a " marvellous opening " ( like " Charlie Parker trading licks with Johnny Hodges " , he noted ) ; Harrison 's trio of All Things Must Pass tracks were " [ u ] nbelievably ... in some ways even better " than the originals , with Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner 's drumming " just breathtaking " on " Awaiting on You All " ; Billy Preston 's " That 's the Way God Planned It " was " feverishly exciting " , the audience " absolutely wild " by the end of the song . " Can all this be happening ? " Williams asked , even before moving on to the second of the three discs .
Rolling Stone magazine continued its near @-@ deification of the event as a defining moment in the evolution of rock ' n ' roll , with Jon Landau declaring : " The Concert for Bangla Desh is rock reaching for its manhood " , and as for Harrison : " the spirit he creates through his own demeanor is inspirational . From the personal point of view , Concert for Bangla Desh was George 's moment . He put it together ; and he pulled it off , and for that he deserves the admiration of all of us . " To the Rolling Stone writer , the highpoint of the album was the closing " Bangla Desh " , whose lyrics were no longer " an expression of intent but of an accomplished mission " . Landau had praise for the pacing and professionalism of the entire show , the only " incongruous " moment being Leon Russell 's " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " / " Youngblood " segment , since it was straight from the singer 's usual repertoire .
The NME 's Roy Carr and Tony Tyler were equally generous in their appraisal of " probably the greatest indoor rock ' n ' roll event ever held " ; to them , Bob Dylan 's five @-@ song set " easily justified " the album 's price tag . As at the time of the concerts , much was made by album reviewers of the change in Dylan 's singing voice , as well as his choice of songs , which harked back to the so @-@ called " protest period " of 1962 – 64 and the subsequent creative zenith that culminated in his Blonde on Blonde album ( 1966 ) .
Having attended the concerts six months before , Ed Kelleher of Circus magazine was relieved to discover that the live album didn 't just do justice to the " magic ... the sheer joy " of the event , but rather its music " practically jumps right out into your life " . After singling out as defining moments Dylan 's " Just Like a Woman " ( " it 's enough to make you cry and smile at once " ) , Russell 's medley and Harrison 's " Here Comes the Sun " , along with the talents of Shankar – " the most masterful and accomplished of them all " – Kelleher admitted to the futility of trying to identify " individual highlights " on an album that was " one consistent high " . In fact , almost every selection on the three @-@ record set was named as a highlight by one reviewer or another : Preston 's " That 's the Way God Planned It " coming as a " sheer delight " to Landau , Harrison 's " Something " especially " delicate and moving " to Playboy 's album reviewer , Dylan 's " A Hard Rain 's A @-@ Gonna Fall " resonating most with Nicholas Schaffner , while to Richard Williams , " Just Like a Woman " was " the masterpiece " .
" While My Guitar Gently Weeps " was a track that received significant attention , thanks to the guitar " duelling " between Harrison and his ailing friend , Eric Clapton . Writing in Rolling Stone Press ' Harrison tribute , Greg Kot views the performance as " a snapshot of early @-@ Seventies rock royalty " ; yet their joint soloing was about friendship , writes musical biographer Simon Leng , rather than the " six @-@ string ego battles " or " macho showdowns " so typical of that decade . Author Tom Moon describes their interplay as two guitarists " finish [ ing ] each other 's thoughts " . In The Village Voice 's inaugural Pazz & Jop poll , critics voted The Concert for Bangladesh the eighth best album out of all releases for that year .
= = = Legacy = = =
While the technical imperfections of the concert recordings were overlooked in 1972 – or even applauded for their adding to the " honesty " of the moment , in the case of Starr forgetting the lyrics to " It Don 't Come Easy " – reviewers of the first CD @-@ format album remarked on the relatively poor sound quality . In his review for AllMusic in 2001 , Bruce Eder noted the " less @-@ than @-@ perfect sound " while still viewing the album as a " unique live document showcasing Harrison near his best " . Another point of contention , though mainly among Harrison 's biographers , concerns Leon Russell . Alan Clayson bristles at the omnipresence of the Oklahoman singer and musician – " the epitome of the self @-@ satisfied sexism of the Delaney and Bonnie super @-@ sidemen " , Clayson writes – and the fact that his turn in the spotlight so blatantly became " The Leon Russell Show " . Leng likewise bemoans Russell 's " consciously extreme hollerin ' " , and finds his delivery pales beside the " unaffected naïveté " of Billy Preston and particularly the " knife @-@ edge emotions " of Harrison and Shankar , which only Dylan can match . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 1992 ) , Paul Evans gave the record three stars and preferred the Dylan set over Harrison 's songs .
The Concert for Bangladesh is continually viewed in a highly favourable light by critics in retrospective reviews . Among reviews of the 2005 reissue , Mojo described the remastered sound as " sumptuous " while AllMusic 's Richard Ginell wrote : " Hands down , this epochal concert ... was the crowning event of George Harrison 's public life , a gesture of great goodwill that captured the moment in history and , not incidentally , produced some rousing music as a permanent legacy . " Writing in Rolling Stone that year , Anthony DeCurtis said : " The Concert for Bangladesh is rightly enshrined in rock history as the model for Band Aid , Live Aid , Live 8 and every other superstar benefit concert of the last three decades ... In emphasizing the concert 's idealism , however , it 's easy to overlook what a musical gem this two @-@ disc set is . " Dan Ouellette of Billboard considered that " The star @-@ studded package holds up well as a live greatest @-@ hits collection " , before concluding : " But the revelation is the exhilarating concert lift @-@ off , the improv @-@ laced eastern Indian classical tune ' Bangla Dhun , ' featuring sitar master Ravi Shankar . "
In his entry for the album in 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die , Tom Moon advises his readers : " Pull this out whenever your faith in the power of music begins to wane . " The Concert for Bangladesh also features in Sean Egan 's 2006 book 100 Albums That Changed Music and in The Mojo Collection : The Greatest Albums of All Time .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original release = = =
= = = 2005 remaster = = =
Disc one
The first disc contains the ten tracks from side one to side three of the original release .
Disc two
The second disc contains the nine tracks from side four to side six of the original release , together with :
= = = 2011 40th anniversary reissue = = =
A download @-@ only version of the album per the 2005 remaster , with a second bonus track exclusive to iTunes :
= = Personnel = =
Credited as " The Artists " :
George Harrison – vocals , electric and acoustic guitars , backing vocals
Ravi Shankar – sitar
Bob Dylan – vocals , acoustic guitar , harmonica
Leon Russell – piano , vocals , bass , backing vocals
Ringo Starr – drums , vocals , tambourine
Billy Preston – Hammond organ , vocals
Eric Clapton – electric guitar
Ali Akbar Khan – sarod
Alla Rakha – tabla
Kamala Chakravarty – tambura
The Band :
Jesse Ed Davis – electric guitar
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Tom Evans – twelve @-@ string acoustic guitar
Joey Molland – acoustic guitar
Mike Gibbins – tambourine , maracas
Don Preston – electric guitar , vocals ( on " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " / " Young Blood " and " Bangla Desh " only )
Carl Radle – bass ( on " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " / " Young Blood " only )
The Hollywood Horns :
Jim Horn – saxophones , horn arrangements
Chuck Findley – trumpet
Jackie Kelso – saxophones
Allan Beutler – saxophones
Lou McCreary – trombone
Ollie Mitchell – trumpet
The Backing Vocalists / Soul Choir :
Claudia Linnear , Jo Green , Jeanie Greene , Marlin Greene , Dolores Hall , Don Nix , Don Preston – backing vocals , percussion
= = Accolades = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= Lockdown ( 2005 ) =
Lockdown ( 2005 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event produced by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , which took place on April 24 , 2005 , at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . It was the first event under the Lockdown chronology and the fourth event in the 2005 TNA PPV schedule . Eight professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match were featured on the event 's card . Every match took place inside a six sided steel structure known as the Six Sides of Steel . As a result , Lockdown was the first @-@ ever all steel cage event held in professional wrestling .
The main event was for a NWA World Heavyweight Championship match at TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event between A.J. Styles and Abyss . Styles won the match , thus earning his title shot against then @-@ champion Jeff Jarrett at Hard Justice . TNA held the first @-@ ever Lethal Lockdown match during the event . It pitted Team Nash ( Diamond Dallas Page , Sean Waltman , and B.G. James ) against Team Jarrett ( Jeff Jarrett , Monty Brown , and The Outlaw ) , which Team Nash won . Kevin Nash was originally supposed to take part in the match but was removed due to sickness and was replaced with James . The TNA X Division Championship defense by Christopher Daniels against Elix Skipper was another highly promoted match for the event . Daniels won the bout and successfully retained the title . Jeff Hardy versus Raven in a Six Sides of Steel Tables match was featured on the card , which Hardy won .
This event marked the introduction of the Lethal Lockdown and Xscape matches , which became annually held matches at future Lockdown events . During the event , Chris Candido received an injury during his tag team match with Lance Hoyt against Apolo and Sonny Siaki , which later led to Candido 's death from a blood clot as a result of surgery for the injury . Jason Clevett of the professional wrestling section of the Canadian Online Explorer rated the event a 6 out of 10 , two marks lower than the 2006 event 's ranking by Chris Sokol .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
TNA announced in a January 24 , 2005 , press release that they planned to host a PPV titled Lockdown on April 24 , 2005 at the TNA Impact ! Zone in Orlando , Florida . In late @-@ February 2005 , In Demand ran a preview and stated that there would be two steel cage matches held at Lockdown . A Six Man Tag Team match that featured Sean Waltman was thrown around prior to the event . TNA created a section for the event on their official website before it started . On the April 8 , 2005 episode of TNA 's television program TNA Impact ! , Director of Authority ( DOA ) Dusty Rhodes announced that all matches at Lockdown would be held inside a six sided steel structure known as the Six Sides of Steel . TNA followed up with a press release through their website that confirmed this . TNA issued a parental advisory a few days after the announcement due to violence associated with steel cage matches . A thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show was planned before the spectacle that featured a Three Way Tag Team match between 3Live Kru ( Ron Killings and Konnan ) , David Young and Lex Lovett , and The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) .
= = = Storylines = = =
Lockdown featured eight professional wrestling matches and one pre @-@ show match that involved different wrestlers from pre @-@ existing scripted feuds and storylines . Wrestlers portrayed villains , heroes , or less distinguishable characters in the scripted events that built tension and that culminated into a wrestling match or series of matches . Every match was contested inside the Six Sides of Steel .
Before the announcement that all matches be held inside the Six Sides of Steel , TNA advertised that only two would be under such rules . These two matches later became the headlining bouts for the card . The first was announced on the March 25 episode of Impact ! as Team Nash ( Kevin Nash , Sean Waltman , and Diamond Dallas Page ) versus Team Jarrett ( Jeff Jarrett , Monty Brown , and The Outlaw ) . Abyss versus A.J. Styles for a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship match was the second announced on the April 1 episode of Impact ! , which became the main event of the gathering . The storyline behind Styles versus Abyss began at TNA 's Against All Odds PPV event on February 13 , where Abyss defeated Jeff Hardy in a Full Metal Mayhem match to earn a future NWA World Heavyweight Championship title shot . During a backstage segment on the February 18 episode of Impact ! , Abyss gave the title match contract to Traci , wanting it given to DOA Dusty Rhodes as she was trying to become Rhodes ' personal assistant at the time . On the March 25 episode of Impact ! , Abyss tried to retrieve his contract from now co @-@ assistant to Rhodes , Traci . This led to a brawl with Styles as he tried to defend Traci and co @-@ assistant Trinity as they fled in fear from Abyss . The match was then announced on the April 1 episode of Impact ! . Rhodes announced on the April 8 episode of Impact ! that the winner of the bout would get their title shot at TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event on May 15 .
Team Nash versus Team Jarrett began on the March 18 episode of Impact ! when Nash requested a six man tag team cage match at Lockdown from Rhodes . The following week , Rhodes granted the request and officially announced it for the Lockdown card . On the April 8 episode of Impact ! , Rhodes proclaimed that the encounter was now a Lethal Lockdown match , in which weapons were legal and one wrestler from each team started the match . Afterwards , members from each team entered at time intervals until all wrestlers were involved in the bout so a pinfall or submission could occur . The storyline behind this encounter revolved around Jarrett and his reign as NWA World Heavyweight Champion . At Against All Odds , Jarrett successfully defended the title against Nash , which Waltman and The Outlaw interfered with by aiding Nash and Jarrett , respectively . At TNA 's previous PPV event Destination X on March 13 , Jarrett defended the title against Page , in which Brown turned on Page by helping Jarrett retain the title .
Elix Skipper challenged Christopher Daniels for the TNA X Division Championship at Lockdown . The build to this encounter began on the March 18 episode of Impact ! , when Skipper interrupted Daniels after a match and hinted at a future encounter . On the March 25 episode of Impact ! , TNA commentator Mike Tenay announced that a four way elimination match involving Chris Sabin , Michael Shane , Skipper , and Petey Williams would be held on the April 1 episode of Impact ! to determine Daniels ' opponent for the title at Lockdown . Skipper went on to win the match the following week , earning the opportunity to challenge for the title . The main surrounding storyline was that Daniels and Skipper used to be tag team partners as part of the group Triple X , which disbanded after losing a Six Sides of Steel Cage match against America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) at TNA 's Turning Point PPV event on December 5 , 2004 . Jeff Hardy fought Raven in a Six Sides of Steel Tables match at Lockdown . On the March 25 episode of Impact ! , Raven offered Hardy an alliance , which Hardy turned down . On the April 1 episode of Impact ! , Raven attacked Hardy during an incident between Hardy and Abyss . Rhodes announced that the two would face at Lockdown in a Six Sides of Steel Tables match on the April 8 episode of Impact ! .
= = Event = =
= = = Pre @-@ Show = = =
Prior to the event 's commencement , TNA held a thirty @-@ minute pre @-@ show . It featured a Three Way Tag Team match between the 3Live Kru ( Ron Killings and Konnan ) , the team of David Young and Lex Lovett , and The Naturals ( Andy Douglas and Chase Stevens ) , who were accompanied by Chris Candido , which lasted 6 minutes and 34 seconds . 3Live Kru were the victors in the contest after Killings gained the pinfall by forcing Young 's face into the mat .
= = = On @-@ air employees = = =
The event featured employees other than the wrestlers involved in the matches . Mike Tenay and Don West were the commentators for the telecast . Jeremy Borash and David Penzer were ring announcers for the event . Andrew Thomas , Rudy Charles , and Mark " Slick " Johnson participated as referees for the encounters . Besides employees who appeared in a wrestling role , Kevin Nash , Coach D 'Amore , A @-@ 1 , Traci , Trinity , and DOA Dusty Rhodes all appeared on camera , either in backstage or in ringside segments . TNA announced via their official website a few days prior to the event that Kevin Nash would be unable to appear in the Lethal Lockdown match due to a staph infection . This was explained at the start of the telecast , and DOA Rhodes would announce Nash 's replacement later during the event .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The show opened with a Six Sides of Steel Tag Team Cage match that pitted the team of Apolo and Sonny Siaki against Chris Candido and Lance Hoyt , which lasted 6 minutes and 58 seconds . This was originally promoted as a bout between Hoyt and Apolo but was changed at the event . During the opening minutes , Candido suffered a bad fall and was helped to the backstage area . Siaki and Apolo won the contest after Siaki performed a splash from the top of a padded turnbuckle on Hoyt .
Dustin Rhodes fought Bobby Roode , who was accompanied by Coach D 'Amore and A @-@ 1 , in what was billed as a Prince of Darkness match next . The duration of the bout was 15 minutes and 20 seconds . In this contest , there would be three falls , but the third fall would be contested under blindfold match rules , in which both wrestlers wore hoods over their heads . Roode earned the first fall with a roll @-@ up pin , and Dustin earned the second one when he forced Roode face @-@ first into the mat from the top rope . During the third fall , both wrestlers wore black hoods that impaired their vision , causing Dustin to accidentally knock the referee unconscious in storyline terms . Due to this , D 'Amore opened the cage door and passed Roode a steel folding chair . Roode then attempted to bash Dustin with it but instead mistakenly struck D 'Amore . Dustin then grabbed the chair and struck Roode with it , which gave him the pinfall as the referee came to .
TNA held the first @-@ ever Xscape match between Shocker , Michael Shane ( who was accompanied Trinity ) , Sonjay Dutt , and Chris Sabin in the following bout . It lasted 15 minutes and 42 seconds . In this match , the four competitors fought until two were eliminated by pinfall or submission ; the two remaining wrestlers then fought to escape from the cage , with the first to do so the winner . Dutt was the first wrestler eliminated after Shocker slammed him into the steel cage . After this elimination , Trinity climbed up to the top of the cage and performed a backflip off the top onto the three wrestlers below . Traci then entered the arena and forced Trinity to the backstage area . The second eliminated was Shane , after Sabin forced him back @-@ first into the mat with his signature maneuver the Cradle Shock . Sabin and Shocker remained as they both fought to escape the cage , which Shocker did first to win the contest .
The fourth encounter was a Six Sides of Steel Tables match between Jeff Hardy and Raven , which lasted 11 minutes and 51 seconds . In a tables match , two opponents fight until one is forced through a table by the other . At one point during the contest , Hardy laid Raven on a table then ascended to the top of the cage . Hardy followed by jumping off and performing a front @-@ flip towards Raven , who moved out of the way and caused Hardy to crash through the table . Due to not being forced through by Raven , the match continued until Hardy laid Raven on a stack of four tables . Hardy then jumped off the top of the cage onto Raven in a seated position , forcing him through all the tables and winning the encounter .
America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) defended the NWA World Tag Team Championship against Team Canada ( Eric Young and Petey Williams ) , who were accompanied by A @-@ 1 , in a Six Sides of Steel Strap match next . It lasted 14 minutes even . In a strap match , wrestlers are attached by a strap for the duration of the match , but they mainly used it as a weapon . AMW retained the titles after forcing Williams into the mat by performing their signature maneuver , the Death Sentence .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The TNA X Division Championship was defended in a bout that lasted 15 minutes and 28 seconds between then @-@ champion Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper . During the encounter , Daniels performed his signature backflip , the Best Moonsault Ever , on Skipper , which earned him a near @-@ fall . Skipper later jumped off the top of the cage and bashed Daniels in the back of the head with his forearm . This also gained Skipper a near @-@ fall . Daniels went on to perform his signature maneuver , the Angel Wings , on Skipper , which forced him face @-@ first into the mat and allowed him to gain the pinfall and to retain the title .
Team Nash ( Diamond Dallas Page , Sean Waltman , and an unknown member ) fought Team Jarrett ( Jeff Jarrett , Monty Brown , and The Outlaw ) in the first @-@ ever three @-@ on @-@ three Lethal Lockdown match , which ran 15 minutes and 35 seconds . Waltman and Jarrett started the match by fighting through the crowd before entering the cage . After five minutes , The Outlaw joined the match and helped Jarrett attack Waltman . Diamond Dallas Page entered the match two minutes later and attacked Jarrett and The Outlaw with a cane . Following another two minutes , Brown joined the fray , finished out Team Jarrett , and threw Waltman into the cage wall . The final member of Team Nash was revealed after the final two minutes , as B.G. James was thrown into the mix that allowed a pinfall or submission to occur . Brown gained a near @-@ fall for Team Jarrett on James after forcing him into a trash can with his signature maneuver , the Pounce . Eventually , Waltman performed a move called a hurricanrana on Brown , leading to the pinfall and victory .
The main event was between A.J. Styles and Abyss , in which the winner received an NWA World Heavyweight Championship match at Hard Justice . Its duration was 18 minutes even . The match began on the outside as Styles performed a front @-@ flip onto Abyss , who was standing in the doorway of the cage . Later , as Styles was about to enter the cage , Abyss slammed the door twice into Styles , while the second door slam the second hit him in the face and caused him to crash to the floor and to bleed from the forehead . During the contest , Abyss used a steel chain as a weapon to help open up Styles ' wound more . At one point , Abyss opened a bag and poured a large number of thumbtacks onto the mat , then proceeding to try to slam Styles into them . Styles countered and slammed Abyss face @-@ first into the tacks instead with his signature maneuver , the Styles Clash . Near the end of the contest , Styles climbed the steel cage and stood on the top , but Abyss grabbed and threw the referee into the cage wall , causing Styles to fall and barely hang on . Abyss then followed by climbing the cage and by hanging Styles by the neck for a brief time with the steel chain . Then , Styles performed a sunset flip powerbomb and slammed Abyss into the tacks back @-@ first . He followed by covering for the three count , winning of the encounter and earning his future title match .
= = Reception = =
A total of 775 people attended the event . Canadian Online Explorer writer Jason Clevett rated the entire event a 6 out of 10 , which was lower than the 8 out of 10 given to the 2006 Lockdown event by Chris Sokol . A rating was not given to TNA 's previous event Destination X , but Clevett gave a rating of 7 out of 10 in his review of TNA 's Against All Odds . Compared to rival World Wrestling Entertainment 's WrestleMania 21 PPV event held on April 4 , Lockdown was rated lower , Dale Plummer and Nick Tylwalk gave WrestleMania a 7 out of 10 . Regarding the overall event , Clevett felt the all cage match format was " too much of a good thing " . He went on to state that by the end of the event he " was tired of seeing the cage " , but that Styles and Abyss " quickly brought my interest back with a brutal and fun bout that ended off the show on a positive note " . When speaking of the TNA X Division Championship match , Clevett wrote that he felt it " was technically a very good match " , but he " expected more considering the talent involved " . However , he felt that the psychological aspect was " excellent " regarding the two former Triple X partners ' counters of each other 's moves . Clevett gave the highest match rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 to the main event , while he gave the lowest rating of 2 out of 10 to the Prince of Darkness match . He gave the Lethal Lockdown match a 5 out of 10 , while he gave the X Division Title match an 8 out of 10 .
Wade Keller of the Pro Wrestling Torch rated the main event and the X Division Championship match 3 and a half stars out of 5 , while he rated the Lethal Lockdown match a 2 and three @-@ fourths out of 5 . He gave the lowest ranking to the Prince of Darkness match , at a fourth of a star . Keller commented on the main event as not being " bad at all , but not quite at a four @-@ star level " . He felt that if there had not been " any other cage matches or stunt bumps , it might have been four @-@ stars @-@ plus " . Regarding the Lethal Lockdown match , Keller believed the bout " felt rushed " . As for the X Division Championship defense , Keller stated that it was a " good match " . When speaking on Candido 's injury , Keller stated it was " absolutely brutal looking " and felt it was an " obvious full snapping of his ankle bone " . 411Mania 's Ronnie LaFianza rated Lockdown an overall 8 out of 10 . The main event was given 4 and three @-@ fourths stars out of 5 , the Lethal Lockdown match 2 and a half stars , and the X Division Championship defense 3 and a half stars . LaFianza felt the event " just seemed to get better and better as it went on " , but felt it was a " pretty average PPV leading up into the main event " . On August 19 , 2005 , the event was released on DVD by TNA Home Video . A DVD boxset called " TNA Anthology : The Epic Set " , including Lockdown , TNA 's November 2004 Victory Road PPV event , and the 2004 Turning Point event was also released on September 20 , 2005 . TNA released a DVD counting down the top 50 moments in their history in 2007 , and Lockdown was the first all steel cage PPV listed at number 23 .
= = Aftermath = =
After Lockdown on the April 29 episode of Impact ! , DOA Dusty Rhodes announced that A.J. Styles would face Jeff Jarrett for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship at Hard Justice with Tito Ortiz as the Special Guest Referee . Styles went on to Hard Justice to defeat Jarrett and win the championship . Styles held the title until TNA 's Slammiversary PPV event on June 19 , where he lost the title in a five @-@ man King of the Mountain match to Raven , which also involved Abyss , Sean Waltman , and Monty Brown . Raven continued his feud with Jeff Hardy following Lockdown . On the May 13 episode of Impact ! , it was announced that Raven would face Hardy in a Clockwork Orange House of Fun match at Hard Justice . Hardy ended up not appearing at the event ; Raven instead faced and defeated Waltman in the encounter . Raven then replaced Jarrett in the King of the Mountain match at Slammiversary , where he won the NWA World Heavyweight Championship .
TNA held a Twenty @-@ Man Gauntlet for the Gold at Hard Justice to determine the number one contender to the NWA World Heavyweight Championship . The match was announced on the April 29 episode of Impact ! . Abyss , Bobby Roode , Zach Gowen , Eric Young , Cassidy Riley , Elix Skipper , Shark Boy , A @-@ 1 , Chris Sabin , Petey Williams , Sonny Siaki , Lance Hoyt , Michael Shane , Jerrelle Clarke , Mikey Batts , The Outlaw , Trytan , Ron Killings , Apolo , and B.G. James all participated in the bout . Abyss pinned Killings to win the contest .
Following Lockdown , Shocker was named number one contender to the TNA X Division Championship . On the April 29 episode of Impact ! , Christopher Daniels ' defense of the TNA X Division Championship against Shocker was promoted for Hard Justice . Shocker failed to win the championship at the event . America 's Most Wanted lost the NWA World Tag Team Championship on the April 29 episode of Impact ! to The Naturals , who were aided by Chris Candido . On the May 6 episode of Impact ! it was announced The Naturals would defend the tag team championship against AMW at Hard Justice . The Naturals retained the titles over AMW at the PPV event .
= = = Death of Chris Candido = = =
Besides Chris Candido suffering a leg injury during his tag team match , Abyss also suffered a dislocated shoulder during the main event against A.J. Styles . Abyss ' injury was taken care of backstage after the event , but Candido was diagnosed with a dislocated ankle , broken tibia , and a broken fibula that required surgery . Candido had an operation on April 25 to have a plate , screws , and pins placed in his ankle to fix the problem . Candido was reported to be sidelined for 2 to 3 months . According to reports , Candido suffered the injury from taking a dropkick by Sonny Siaki and landing on his leg improperly . After the surgery , he hoped to be recovered in 6 to 8 weeks . On April 28 , Candido was rushed to the hospital after he collapsed where he died a short time later . Cause of death was released by his brother Johnny afterwards as a blood clot due to the surgery a few days prior . TNA released a public statement on April 29 regarding the subject . TNA paid tribute to Candido on the April 29 episode of Impact ! as well as at TNA 's Hard Justice PPV event . The April 29 episode of Impact ! opened and ended with a memorial to Candido . At Hard Justice , a ten @-@ bell salute was held while a photo of Candido , a pair of boots , and one @-@ half of the NWA World Tag Team Championship positioned on a steel chair sat in the center of the ring . In TNA 's 50 Greatest Moments DVD , Candido 's aiding The Naturals to win the NWA World Tag Team Championship was listed as number 10 . A portion of the Lockdown DVD sale profits were donated by TNA to the Chris Candido Memorial Fund . TNA originally planned to remove Candido 's match from the DVD , but were given the blessing of his family to include it on the publication . A tribute to Candido was included on the DVD by TNA .
= = Results = =
Xscape match
1 . ^
Lethal Lockdown entrances
2 . ^
= Silver Reef , Utah =
Silver Reef is a ghost town in Washington County , Utah , United States , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) northeast of St. George and 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Leeds . Silver Reef was established after John Kemple , a prospector from Nevada , discovered a vein of silver in a sandstone formation in 1866 . At first , geologists were uncertain about Kemple 's find because silver is not usually found in sandstone . In 1875 , two bankers from Salt Lake City sent William Barbee to the site to stake mining claims . He staked 21 claims , and an influx of miners came to work Barbee 's claims and to stake their own . To accommodate the miners , Barbee established a town called Bonanza City . Property values there were high , so several miners settled on a ridge to the north of it and named their settlement " Rockpile " . The town was renamed Silver Reef after silver mines in nearby Pioche closed and businessmen arrived .
By 1879 , about 2 @,@ 000 people were living in Silver Reef . The town had a mile @-@ long Main Street with many businesses , among them a Wells Fargo office , the Rice Building , and the Cosmopolitan Restaurant . Although adjacent to many settlements with a majority of Mormon residents , the town never had a meeting house for Latter @-@ day Saints , only a Catholic church . In 1879 , a fire destroyed several businesses , but the residents rebuilt them . Mines were gradually closed , most of them by 1884 , as the worldwide price of silver dropped . By 1901 , most of the buildings in town had either been demolished or moved to Leeds .
In 1916 , mining operations in Silver Reef resumed under the direction of Alex Colbath , who organized the area 's mines into the Silver Reef Consolidated Mining Company . These mines were purchased by American Smelting and Refining Company in 1928 , but the company did minimal work as a result of the Great Depression . The Western Gold & Uranium Corporation purchased Silver Reef 's mines in 1948 , and in 1951 , they began mining uranium in the area . These operations did not last long either , and the Western Gold & Uranium Corporation sold their mines to the 5M Corporation in 1979 . Today , the Wells Fargo office , the Cosmopolitan Restaurant , the Rice Building , and numerous foundations and walls remain in the town site , and a few dozen homes have been constructed in the area .
= = Geology and geography = =
The sandstone formations from which Silver Reef gets its name were formed when tectonic stresses forced long , longitudinally aligned sections of Navajo Sandstone to buckle and stand on their sides , giving them the appearance of ocean reefs . Over long periods of time silver ore , sediments , and vegetation were carried in water runoff from the Chinle Formation to the White , Buckeye , and East reefs . The ore settled as deposits and the vegetation became petrified . The Silver Reef Mining District 's geologic resources consist mainly of silver deposits , with smaller deposits of copper , gold , lead , and uranium oxide . Iron oxide deposits in the soil rocks cause a red coloration , and dinosaur tracks from the early Jurassic period have been found in the area .
Silver Reef is close to the western border of the Colorado Plateau and about 15 miles ( 24 km ) northeast of St. George and 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Leeds . Dixie National Forest , Leeds Creek , the White Reef , and the Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness lie directly west of Silver Reef . The Pine Valley Mountain Wilderness has sage steppe , mountain brush , pinyon pine , coniferous trees , and ponderosa pine . Interstate 15 and Toquerville are 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east of Silver Reef , respectively . Pintura is 9 @.@ 5 miles ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) north of Silver Reef , and Quail Creek State Park , the ghost town of Harrisburg , the Buckeye Reef , and Red Cliffs Recreation Area are south of Silver Reef . The elevation of Red Cliffs Recreation Area is between 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) and 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) .
= = Climate = =
Silver Reef is located in one of the driest and hottest parts of the state of Utah ; summer temperatures often rise above 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Temperatures of 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) or above can occur during the winter , but nighttime winter temperatures occasionally drop below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) . Silver Reef receives about 12 inches ( 30 cm ) of precipitation annually . It is not unusual to see an inch or more of snow in the winter . July has the warmest average temperature , 99 ° F ( 37 ° C ) , and December is coldest , with an average temperature of 53 ° F ( 12 ° C ) . The highest recorded temperature was 114 ° F ( 46 ° C ) , in July 2001 , and the lowest recorded temperature was − 2 ° F ( − 19 ° C ) , in January 1963 .
= = Demographics = =
Silver Reef was first settled in 1875 ; by the 1880 Census , 1 @,@ 046 people were living there , and a local census taken in 1884 gave a population of 1 @,@ 500 . By 1890 , after most of the mines had closed , the population had dropped to 177 , and by 1900 , only lessees of the mines were living there . In 1916 , Alex Colbath organized the Silver Reef Consolidated Mining Company . Several miners moved in to work for Colbath , who lived in the town with his wife , Mayme , until the 1950s . After the Colbaths ' departure , Silver Reef was completely abandoned . Subdivision of the land , planned in the 1960s , was finalized by 1980 . During the Census of 1990 , 50 people lived in Silver Reef , and today Silver Reef is considered a part of Leeds .
= = History = =
The Silver Reef area was first inhabited by Anasazi Native Americans between about 200 AD and 1300 AD . The Anasazi were nomads who followed the migration of the animals they hunted , typically deer , mountain sheep , elk , and jackrabbits . They were also farmers and gardeners , growing corn , wheat , rye , and barley . Many were potters , and pottery can be found in abandoned villages . The Anasazi usually constructed temporary dwellings out of sticks and leaves , often using bark for the roofs . Occasionally they built more permanent dwellings out of rocks , usually along the side of a mountain , often large enough to accommodate several families . Storage pits were often placed behind the rock dwellings . Settlements were typically small , as food was scarce . A group of Virgin Anasazi lived in what is now the Red Cliffs Anasazi Site in Red Cliffs Recreation Area .
Silver was discovered in the area in the 1860s . One commonly accepted story is that a prospector named John Kemple came to the area in 1866 from Montana . While staying at the home of Orson B. Adams in the settlement of Harrisburg , Kemple decided to do some prospecting , and soon located a vein of silver a few hundred yards southwest of the home . He did not find enough ore to interest him , so he left for Nevada . Five years later , Kemple returned to the Silver Reef area , staked a few mining claims , and organized them under the Union Mining District . The Union Mining District was abandoned , but in 1874 , Kemple returned with a group of miners , reorganized the claims under the Harrisburg Mining District , and began developing a mine . Kemple later became discouraged with his claims and sold them .
According to a less accepted story , a man known as " Metalliferous " Murphy , an assayer from Pioche , Nevada , was brought a piece of a grindstone made of sandstone from the Silver Reef area by miners in Pioche . After performing tests on the sample , Murphy stated that it contained over $ 200 of silver per ton . After some investigation , Murphy discovered that the samples had come from the area that was to become Silver Reef . There is no record of Murphy ever staking a claim , but he did allegedly attract the attention of miners .
Geologists and other miners refused at first to believe the news that silver had been found in sandstone . When brought an actual sample from the area , the Smithsonian Institution called it an " interesting fake " . In 1875 , news of the silver discovery reached the Walker brothers , well @-@ known bankers from Salt Lake City . They hired William T. Barbee , who had previously staked mining claims in Ophir , to stake claims on their behalf . He staked 21 claims and published an article on the claims in The Salt Lake Tribune . In the article , Barbee mentioned that the area had " an abundance of rich silver mines " . This set off a silver rush , and by late 1875 , Barbee had established a town called Bonanza City . Several businessmen then came into the area , inflating property values . Many miners and businessmen looking for inexpensive land set up a tent city north of Bonanza City and called it " Rockpile " . When the mines in nearby Pioche were closed in November 1875 , many of the miners and business owners who had worked there came into the area of " Rockpile " in what is known as the " Pioche Silver Stampede " , and the name of the settlement was changed to Silver Reef . As construction of the St. George LDS Temple ended in mid @-@ 1877 , labor opportunities for the workers became available in Silver Reef . Pine Valley Mills and Mount Trumbull in the Arizona Strip supplied most of the lumber used to construct the buildings . During its first year , Silver Reef did not have a smelter ; as a result , the silver ore mined in Silver Reef was taken to Pioche and Salt Lake City for smelting .
Immediately following the initial silver rush , a town site was platted and the town was built . The first permanent business building established in Silver Reef was a store at the intersection of the roads from the Buckeye , White , and East reefs . By 1878 , the town 's business district consisted of a hotel , boarding houses , nine stores , six saloons , five restaurants , a bank , two dance halls , a newspaper called The Silver Echo ( which later became the Silver Reef Miner ) , and eight dry goods stores . Two cemeteries , one Catholic and one Protestant , were located south of Silver Reef 's business district . Most of the businesses in Silver Reef were situated along a mile @-@ long Main Street . The mining district consisted of 37 mines and five stamp mills : the Christy , Stormont , Leeds , Buckeye and Barbee & Walker mills . Although it was surrounded by settlements with large Mormon populations , the town never had a Mormon meeting house . A Catholic church was the only church located within the town . After the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed in 1869 , many of the Chinese workers who had been hired to build it were out of work . Some returned to China , but others remained in Utah . A group of 250 of these workers set up a Chinatown in a level area just south of Silver Reef . Silver Reef 's Chinatown had a Chinese mayor and several businesses . By 1879 , Silver Reef 's population had reached 2 @,@ 000 , and the town also had a horse race track , a brewery , and a brass band . Shooting matches among members of the Silver Reef Rifle Club and sometimes residents of nearby towns took place on the horse race track .
Although most of the residents of Silver Reef were not Mormon , they had good relations with residents of the nearby Mormon settlements . A lot of the cotton and other agricultural items produced in the area were transported by wagon to Silver Reef . Many of the town 's buildings were constructed by Mormon labor workers . Reverend Lawrence Scanlan was invited to say Mass in the St. George Tabernacle of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints before the Catholic church in Silver Reef was constructed . To assist Scanlan , the Mormon choir learned Latin chants . When politics were involved , however , these good relations were forgotten . Most Mormons were members of the People 's Party , and most people in Silver Reef were members of the Liberal Party . As Silver Reef grew , the townspeople wanted to change the county seat of Washington County from St. George to Silver Reef . This alarmed the members of the People 's Party , the main figures in the territorial legislature . The legislature moved the county line eastward in 1882 ; this maintained the People 's Party majority in Washington County by transferring such Mormon farming communities as Grafton , Rockville , and Springdale from Kane County to Washington County .
Although it had good relations with other towns , Silver Reef had the usual labor disputes between mining camp wage laborers and mine owners . After a major dispute with the Stormont Mining Company , the Silver Reef Miners Union was formed to support wages . Gambling , prostitution , and shootouts were also commonplace . One shootout involved Town Marshal Johnny Diamond and mine guard Jack Truby . Tensions between Diamond and Truby temporarily shut down the Kinner mine . Truby was hired by Colonel Enos Wall , foreman and owner of the Kinner , to guard the mine until told otherwise . Diamond went to the Kinner mine to serve the closure warrant , but Truby refused to allow Diamond into the mine , and forced Diamond to leave the property immediately .
The gunfight started during court proceedings in the back room of a saloon . Diamond and Truby argued about Truby wearing his hat inside , and continued the argument outside . When Diamond asked for Truby 's gun , Truby shot at Diamond , Diamond returned fire , and both men died . An inquest on both men , held in the saloon , found that the bodies each contained bullet wounds from the .41 caliber revolvers that were used , and powder burns caused by the proximity of the shootout . Truby also had .45 caliber bullet wounds in his back , indicating that somebody else had shot him during the shootout .
Another shootout occurred between Henry Clark and Sykes Griffen on December 1 , 1878 , at Cassidy 's Silver Reef Saloon . Although it is not known exactly what happened , it is believed that Griffen , a faro dealer at the saloon , and Clark , a regular patron , had previously argued over gambling matters . The shooting began when Griffen argued with Clark about a bet they had made . After arguing for several minutes , Griffen pulled a pistol on Clark and shot him . Several witnesses said that Clark pulled a pistol on Griffen and shot him , while other witnesses said that after Clark was shot , other patrons in the saloon , including Clark 's father , beat and shot Griffen .
Another instance of murder occurred on October 3 , 1880 , when Thomas Forrest stabbed Michael Carbis . Carbis , the foreman of the California mine , had fired Forrest the day before on account of his violent nature . The murder occurred near the Buckeye boarding house . Forrest initially had a pistol , but he put it away and drew a knife instead when he got within a few feet of Carbis . Carbis died soon after the stab wound was inflicted . Silver Reef 's residents were angered by the murder and soon lynch threats were delivered . Forrest , who had been arrested soon after the murder had been committed , was transferred to the jail in St. George for his own safety . Prior to the moving of Forrest , a lynch mob gathered and followed the sheriff 's escort to the St. George jail . Once there , they overpowered the sheriff , took Forrest out of his cell , and tried to hang him on a telegraph pole . When the pole broke , they took him to a cottonwood tree and hung him there . The residents of St. George were shocked at the sight of Forrest 's hanging , and one man was reputed to have said , " I have observed that tree growing there for the last 25 years . This is the first time I have ever seen it bearing fruit . "
= = = Decline = = =
On May 30 , 1879 , fire was discovered under a restaurant . Hundreds of Silver Reef 's residents threw buckets of water from nearby Leeds Creek on the fire and put wet blankets on the adjacent business buildings , but the fire spread to the Harrison House Hotel , one of the town 's most prominent buildings . The fire destroyed several other businesses along Main Street before it was finally extinguished . The Salt Lake Tribune reported that Silver Reef had been " Chicagoed " , and that a state of panic was felt even after the fire had been extinguished .
Silver Reef 's residents rebuilt the businesses that had been destroyed , but the town soon began to decline . In 1881 , the Stormont Mining Company and the Barbee & Walker Mining Company had to decrease wages from $ 4 per day to $ 3 @.@ 50 per day in all of their mines except the Savage mine ( a Stormont property ) . In response to the decrease in wages , the Silver Reef Miners Union was formed . In February 1881 , union members began talking about striking the mines , and as word of this potential strike spread , the Stormont Mining Company discharged those of its miners who were part of the Miners Union . In response , the discharged union members escorted the company 's superintendent , Washington Allen , out of Silver Reef . Allen immediately went to the Second District Court in Beaver and filed a lawsuit against the union members . Before they went to court , the union members held a meeting and decided to shut down the Savage mine . Led by Matthew O 'Loughlin , the president of the Silver Reef Miners Union , they walked through Silver Reef in rows of two , and , upon arriving at the Savage mine , O 'Loughlin and nine other men went into the hoisting works and ordered the engineer on duty to shut down the pumps that kept water from the water table out of the mine . After the pumps were shut down , the group of ten went into the Savage mine and ordered everyone out .
A few days later , the sheriff of St. George , accompanied by a posse of 30 men , arrested 25 members of the Miners Union , including Matthew O 'Loughlin . As Silver Reef 's jail was too small to hold all 25 prisoners , most of them were jailed in the Rice Building . The Rice Building could not hold all of the prisoners , so a line was drawn around the building , and anyone who crossed the line was threatened with shooting . The Miners Union members were transferred to Beaver , where they were tried for riot , conspiracy , and false imprisonment . Thirteen of the members were sentenced to imprisonment ; three were bailed out , while ten were sent to the Utah Territorial Penitentiary . Matthew O 'Loughlin was sentenced to twenty days in prison and was charged a $ 75 fine .
A few years after the strike , the world 's silver market dropped , causing the foreclosure of many of the mines . To compensate for the drop in prices , the mines ' stockholders reduced the wages of the miners . Instead of striking again , the miners accepted this . In addition , the miners inadvertently dug below the water table , and the mine shafts began filling with water faster than it could be pumped out . By 1884 , most of the mines were idle or closed ; the last was officially closed in 1891 , although lessees of the mines continued to operate them past that year . Many merchants went bankrupt and left town . The Silver Reef mines produced about $ 8 million worth of silver ore . Between 1891 and 1901 , another $ 250 @,@ 000 worth was mined . Several people attempted to restart mining operations in 1898 , 1909 , 1916 , and 1950 , but none of these attempts were successful . After Silver Reef 's mines were closed , many of the buildings were purchased for their lumber and building stone . One buyer dismantled the building he bought and discovered $ 10 @,@ 000 in gold coins . News of the find spread quickly , and most of the buildings in Silver Reef were demolished in hopes of discovering more gold , but none was found .
The Silver Reef Consolidated Mining Company was organized in 1916 by Alex Colbath , who owned most of the area 's mines . In 1928 , American Smelting and Refining Company purchased its mines , and in 1929 they sank a three @-@ compartment shaft on the White Reef . This new mine was connected with the flooded Savage mine , and the water was pumped out . Minimal work was done after that , however , as there was not enough ore to keep the operation profitable during the Great Depression . Ownership of the mines was then passed back to Alex Colbath , but in 1948 the Western Gold and Uranium Corporation purchased the claims from Colbath , and in 1951 they mined the sandstone for uranium oxide deposits . The first shipment of uranium oxide came from the Ann 's Pride mine , and in total , 2 @,@ 500 pounds ( 1 @,@ 100 kg ) of uranium oxide was shipped out of the region . The claims were bought in 1979 by the 5M Corporation , but the company did not operate in Silver Reef for long .
= = Tourism and popular culture = =
Following the closure of the district 's mines , the Wells Fargo office was used as a residence by Alex and Mayme Colbath until the 1950s . It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on March 11 , 1971 , and currently serves as an art gallery and a museum . The Rice Building burned down , and was rebuilt in 1991 . The Cosmopolitan Restaurant was reconstructed to appear as it did in the 19th century , and it served European cuisine until it was closed in 2010 . There are many remnants of houses and other buildings , and there are also markers indicating where some buildings once stood , such as the Elk Horn Saloon . Some of the area has been preserved for its history .
Behind the Wells Fargo office is a powder house which , as of 2011 , contains models of the town , the town 's major mills , and its Catholic church . The Catholic and Protestant cemeteries were restored by the Leeds Lion 's Club in 1998 and can be visited . Several other original buildings remain , including the Clancy Market , McCormick Store , the two @-@ story Harrison House Hotel , and some of the mining buildings . Main Street , once a mile long , is now only a few hundred yards long and is surrounded by private homes .
Besides exploring the ghost town , visitors can explore the red rock country surrounding Silver Reef . Backpacking , camping , fishing , mountain biking , birdwatching , and hunting are among the activities available . Visitors to Red Cliffs Recreation Area , located south of Silver Reef , can picnic in a designated area with cottonwood trees . A half @-@ mile hiking trail leads to the Red Cliffs Anasazi Site , the remains of an Anasazi habitation . The 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) Red Reef Trail leads to the Cottonwood Wilderness Study Area . Dinosaur footprints that date back to the early Jurassic period can be found in the area , and the Orson Adams House in nearby Harrisburg allows visitors to study the pioneer history of Washington County .
Silver Reef has appeared in American films since the late 1960s . The area was scouted by corporate executives from Twentieth @-@ Century Fox for use in the 1969 film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid and served as a backdrop in the 1979 film The Electric Horseman . Silver Reef was featured in the 1998 documentary Treasure House : The Utah Mining Story .
= 2010 United Kingdom government formation =
The events surrounding the formation of the United Kingdom 's government in 2010 took place between 7 May and 12 May 2010 , following the 2010 general election , which failed to produce an overall majority for any of the country 's three main political parties . The election , held on 6 May , resulted in the first hung parliament in the UK in 36 years , sparking a series of negotiations which would form the first coalition government since the Second World War .
The governing Labour administration led by Gordon Brown was defeated in the election and lost its overall majority after 13 years in office . The opposition Conservatives led by David Cameron won the largest number of seats in the new Parliament , but fell short of the number required to secure an overall majority . Consequently , senior figures from both parties embarked on a series of make @-@ or @-@ break meetings with representatives from the Liberal Democrats led by Nick Clegg , aimed at forming a coalition government .
As leader of the third largest party , Clegg had announced that the Liberal Democrats would enter talks with whichever party held the greater number of seats . A series of meetings with the Conservatives began shortly after the hung parliament was announced , and continued over the weekend after the election . Negotiations were also held with the Labour Party . The Scottish National Party ( SNP ) signalled its willingness to join Labour and the Liberal Democrats in government as part of a rainbow coalition , but it quickly became clear that Gordon Brown 's continued presence as Prime Minister was seen as a major obstacle to formulating a Labour – Liberal Democrat deal .
Although Brown relinquished his role as Labour leader on 10 May , the party failed to reach an agreement with the Liberal Democrats ; the latter instead struck a deal with the Conservatives the following day . Brown resigned as Prime Minister on the evening of 11 May , and the Conservative – Liberal Democrat Coalition government led by David Cameron took office shortly thereafter . The Liberal Democrats emerged from a meeting of their Parliamentary party and Federal Executive to announce that the coalition deal had been " approved overwhelmingly " shortly after midnight on 12 May , and later the same day the two parties published the Conservative – Liberal Democrat coalition agreement setting out the terms of their deal . While Cameron became Prime Minister , Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg was appointed as Deputy Prime Minister .
= = Background = =
The Labour Party came into government under the leadership of Tony Blair in May 1997 after the electoral wipeout of the Conservative government , led by John Major ; this ended 18 years of Conservative rule . Having secured a landslide victory with 418 seats in the House of Commons , the Party had a working majority of 179 seats , and went on to win the 2001 and 2005 elections . During its first term in office Blair 's government introduced many popular policies , including legislation to establish a national minimum wage , reducing the length of hospital waiting lists , and devolving lawmaking powers to Scotland and Wales . Blair also played a key role in the Northern Ireland peace process . But his decision to commit British troops to the 2003 invasion of Iraq turned public opinion against him and lost him the support of some of his own MPs . When Blair stepped down as Prime Minister in June 2007 he was succeeded by his Chancellor , Gordon Brown . Blair 's decade @-@ long premiership had been a time of economic boom for the United Kingdom , but Brown 's tenure as Prime Minister was dominated by the global recession of the latter part of the 2000s . Although commentators perceived Brown to have made some good decisions during the economic crisis , such as providing financial aid to several UK banks which found themselves in difficulty , his fiscal policy of borrowing and spending led to a dramatic increase in the country 's national debt . He was also viewed by the media as someone who lacked interpersonal skills . Another major event that occurred during Brown 's time in government was the 2009 scandal involving MPs expenses , which damaged the public 's trust in politicians .
By April 2010 almost five years had passed since the previous general election ( held on 5 May 2005 ) , requiring a fresh election to take place . On 6 April 2010 Brown went to Buckingham Palace to ask the Queen to dissolve Parliament on 12 April in preparation for a general election . In a live press conference at Downing Street , Brown announced the election would be held on 6 May . The time between the announcement of the election and the dissolution of Parliament , known as wash @-@ up , was to allow for the handling of any unfinished legislative business before the Parliamentary session 's conclusion .
Labour campaigned to secure a fourth consecutive term in office and to restore support lost since 1997 , while the Conservative Party sought to gain a dominant position in British politics after losses in the 1990s , and to replace Labour as the governing party . The Liberal Democrats hoped to make gains from both sides , and possibly hold the balance of power in a hung parliament . After the televised debates between the three leaders – the first of their type during an election campaign in the United Kingdom – their poll ratings had risen to the point where many considered the possibility of a Liberal Democrat role in Government . While Cameron and Clegg were generally well received by the viewers of the three debates , Brown 's performance was considered to have been less successful . Brown 's image was further harmed when he privately described Gillian Duffy , a 65 @-@ year @-@ old pensioner , as a " bigoted woman " after she raised the issue of benefits and immigration with him during a campaign trip to Rochdale , Greater Manchester . His remarks were recorded by a Sky News microphone he was still wearing as he was driven away from the visit , and were widely broadcast .
Polls just before election day showed a slight swing from the Liberal Democrats back to Labour and the Conservatives , with most of final polls falling within one point of Conservatives 36 % , Labour 28 % , Liberal Democrats 27 % . However , record numbers of undecided voters raised uncertainty about the outcome . The SNP , encouraged by its victory in the 2007 Scottish parliament elections , set itself a target of returning 20 MPs and hoped to find itself holding a balance of power . Equally , Plaid Cymru sought gains in Wales . In Northern Ireland the Democratic Unionist Party ( DUP ) aimed to maintain or increase its number of seats , having been the fourth largest party in the House of Commons . Smaller parties which had had successes at local elections and the 2009 European elections ( UK Independence Party , Green Party , British National Party ) aimed to extend their representation to seats in the House of Commons .
= = The election = =
The general election was held on Thursday 6 May 2010 and saw an increase in voter turnout from 61 % in 2005 to 65 % in 2010 . Throughout the day GfK NOP and Ipsos MORI conducted an exit poll on behalf of the BBC , Sky and ITV news services – the results of which were announced as the polls closed at 10 : 00pm . Data gathered from individuals at 130 polling stations around the country suggested a hung parliament , with an initial estimate that the Conservative Party would achieve 307 seats – 19 seats short of a controlling majority . This
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occurred on one of the ship 's pinnaces killing seven crewmen and badly injuring the future Vizeadmiral Wilhelm Starke . Further training exercises lasted until 1 July , when the I Division began a voyage into the Atlantic Ocean . This operation had political motives ; Germany had only been able to send a small contingent of vessels — the protected cruiser Kaiserin Augusta , the coastal defense ship Hagen , and the sailing frigate Stosch — to an international naval demonstration off the Moroccan coast at the same time . The main fleet could therefore provide moral support to the demonstration by steaming to Spanish waters . Rough weather again allowed Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and her sister ships to demonstrate their excellent seakeeping . The fleet departed Vigo and stopped in Queenstown , Ireland . Wilhelm II , aboard his yacht Hohenzollern , attended the Cowes Regatta while the rest of the fleet stayed off the Isle of Wight .
On 10 August , the fleet returned to Wilhelmshaven and began preparations for the autumn maneuvers later that month . The first exercises began in the Heligoland Bight on 25 August . The fleet then steamed through the Skagerrak to the Baltic ; heavy storms caused significant damage to many of the ships and the torpedo boat S 41 capsized and sank in the storms — only three men were saved . The fleet stayed briefly in Kiel before resuming exercises , including live @-@ fire exercises , in the Kattegat and the Great Belt . The main maneuvers began on 7 September with a mock attack from Kiel toward the eastern Baltic . Subsequent maneuvers took place off the coast of Pomerania and in Danzig Bay . A fleet review for Wilhelm II off Jershöft concluded the maneuvers on 14 September . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm went into drydock for periodic maintenance on 1 October . The ironclad Baden temporarily replaced her as flagship until the work was completed on 20 October . The rest of the year was spent on individual ship training , with the exception of a short trip to Gothenburg from 5 to 9 November . Only three other ships accompanied Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm on this visit : the ironclads Sachsen and Württemberg and the aviso Pfeil . On 9 December , the squadron commander shifted his flag to Württemberg while Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm went into drydock for an overhaul .
= = = = 1896 – 1900 = = = =
The year 1896 followed much the same pattern as the previous year . On 10 March 1896 , Koester once again raised his flag aboard Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm . Individual ship training was conducted though April , followed by squadron training in the North Sea in late April and early May . This included a visit to the Dutch ports of Vlissingen and Nieuwediep . Further maneuvers , which lasted from the end of May to the end of July , took the squadron further north in the North Sea , frequently into Norwegian waters . The ships visited Bergen from 11 to 18 May . During the maneuvers , Wilhelm II and the Chinese viceroy Li Hongzhang observed a fleet review off Kiel . On 9 August , the training fleet assembled in Wilhelmshaven for the annual autumn fleet training . Following the conclusion of the maneuvers , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm again went into dock for maintenance , and while she was out of service , Koester transferred his flag to Sachsen from 16 September to 3 October . Koester again flew his flag aboard Sachsen from 15 December to 1 March 1897 .
Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and the rest of the fleet operated under the normal routine of individual and unit training in the first half of 1897 . Early in the year , the naval command considered deploying the I Division , including Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm , to another naval demonstration off Morocco to protest the murder of two German nationals there , but a smaller squadron of sailing frigates was sent instead . The typical routine was interrupted in early August when Wilhelm II and Augusta went to visit the Russian imperial court at Kronstadt ; both divisions of the I Squadron were sent to accompany the Kaiser . They had returned to Neufahrwasser in Danzig on 15 August , where the rest of the fleet joined them for the annual autumn maneuvers . These exercises reflected the tactical thinking of the new State Secretary of the Reichsmarineamt ( RMA — Imperial Navy Office ) , Konteradmiral Alfred von Tirpitz , and the new commander of the I Squadron , Vizeadmiral August von Thomsen . These new tactics stressed accurate gunnery , especially at longer ranges , though the necessities of the line @-@ ahead formation led to a great deal of rigidity in the tactics . Thomsen 's emphasis on shooting created the basis for the excellent German gunnery during World War I. The maneuvers were completed by 22 September in Wilhelmshaven .
In early December , the I Division conducted maneuvers in the Kattegat and the Skagerrak , though they were cut short due to shortages in officers and men . The fleet followed the typical routine of individual and fleet training in 1898 without incident , though a voyage to the British Isles was also included . The fleet stopped in Queenstown , Greenock , and Kirkwall . The fleet assembled in Kiel on 14 August for the annual autumn exercises . The maneuvers included a mock blockade of the coast of Mecklenburg and a pitched battle with an " Eastern Fleet " in the Danzig Bay . While steaming back to Kiel , a severe storm hit the fleet , causing significant damage to many ships and sinking the torpedo boat S 58 . The fleet then transited the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and continued the maneuvers in the North Sea . Training finished on 17 September in Wilhelmshaven . In December , the I Division conducted artillery and torpedo training in Eckernförde Bay , followed by divisional training in the Kattegat and Skagerrak . During these maneuvers , the division visited Kungsbacka , Sweden , from 9 to 13 December . After returning to Kiel , the ships of the I Division went into dock for their winter repairs .
On 5 April 1899 , the ship participated in the celebrations commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Battle of Eckernförde during the First Schleswig War . In May , the I and II Divisions , along with the Reserve Division from the Baltic , went on a major cruise into the Atlantic . On the voyage out , the I Division stopped in Dover and the II Division went into Falmouth to restock their coal supplies . The I Division then joined the II Division at Falmouth on 8 May , and the two units then departed for the Bay of Biscay , arriving at Lisbon on 12 May . There , they met the British Channel Fleet of eight battleships and four armored cruisers . The Portuguese king , Carlos I came aboard Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm to inspect the German flagship . The German fleet then departed for Germany , stopping again in Dover on 24 May . There , they participated in the naval review celebrating Queen Victoria 's 80th birthday . The fleet returned to Kiel on 31 May .
In July , the fleet conducted squadron maneuvers in the North Sea , which included coast defense exercises with soldiers from the X Corps . On 16 August , the fleet assembled in Danzig once again for the annual autumn maneuvers . The exercises started in the Baltic and on 30 August the fleet passed through the Kattegat and Skagerrak and steamed into the North Sea for further maneuvers in the German Bight , which lasted until 7 September . The third phase of the maneuvers took place in the Kattegat and the Great Belt from 8 to 26 September , when the maneuvers concluded and the fleet went into port for annual maintenance . The year 1900 began with the usual routine of individual and divisional exercises . In the second half of March , the squadrons met in Kiel , followed by torpedo and gunnery practice in April and a voyage to the eastern Baltic . From 7 to 26 May , the fleet went on a major training cruise to the northern North Sea , which included stops in the Shetlands from 12 to 15 May and in Bergen from 18 to 22 May . On 8 July , the ships of the I Division were reassigned to the II Division , and the role of fleet flagship was transferred to the recently commissioned battleship Kaiser Wilhelm II .
= = = = Boxer Rebellion = = = =
Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm saw her first major operation in 1900 , when the I Division was deployed to China during the Boxer Rebellion . Chinese nationalists laid siege to the foreign embassies in Peking and murdered the German minister . At the time , the German East Asia Squadron consisted of the protected cruisers Kaiserin Augusta , Hansa , Hertha , the small cruisers Irene , Gefion , and the gunboats Jaguar and Iltis , but the Kaiser decided that an expeditionary force was necessary to reinforce the Eight Nation Alliance that had formed to defeat the Boxers . The expeditionary force consisted of Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and her three sisters , six cruisers , 10 freighters , three torpedo boats , and six regiments of marines , under the command of Marshal Alfred von Waldersee . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm served as the flagship of Konteradmiral Richard von Geißler , who took command on 6 July .
On 7 July , Geißler reported that his ships were ready for the operation , and they left two days later . The four battleships and the aviso Hela transited the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and stopped in Wilhelmshaven to rendezvous with the rest of the expeditionary force . On 11 July , the force steamed out of the Jade Bight , bound for China . They stopped to coal at Gibraltar on 17 – 18 July and they passed through the Suez Canal on 26 – 27 July . More coal was taken on at Perim in the Red Sea , and on 2 August , the fleet entered the Indian Ocean . On 10 August , the ships reached Colombo , Ceylon , and on 14 August they passed through the Strait of Malacca . They arrived in Singapore on 18 August and departed five days later , reaching Hong Kong on 28 August . Two days later , the expeditionary force stopped in the outer roadstead at Wusong , downriver from Shanghai . From there , Wörth was detached to cover the disembarkation of the German expeditionary corps outside the Taku Forts , while Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and her other two sister ships joined the blockade of the Yangtze River , which also included a British contingent of two battleships , three cruisers , four gunboats , and one destroyer . A small Chinese fleet stationed upriver did not even clear their ships for action , owing to the strength of the Anglo @-@ German fleet .
By the time the German fleet had arrived , the siege of Peking had already been lifted by forces from other members of the Eight @-@ Nation Alliance that had formed to deal with the Boxers . In early September , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and the rest of the German fleet was moved to the Yellow Sea , where Waldersee , who had been given command of all ground forces of the Eight @-@ Nation Alliance , planned stronger actions against the harbors of northern China . On 3 – 4 September , the flagship of the East Asia Squadron , Fürst Bismarck reconnoitered the harbors of Shanhaiguan and Qinhuangdao . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm then went to Shanhaiguan and sent a landing party of 100 men ashore while her torpedo crew cleared the Chinese minefields . She then returned to the Wusong roads while the ships of the East Asia Squadron remained off both ports . Since the situation had calmed , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and her sisters were sent to Hong Kong or Nagasaki , Japan in early 1901 for overhauls ; Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm went to Nagasaki from 4 to 23 January . In March , the expeditionary fleet reassembled in Tsingtau for gunnery and tactical exercises .
On 26 May , the German high command recalled the expeditionary force to Germany . The fleet took on supplies in Shanghai and departed Chinese waters on 1 June . The fleet stopped in Singapore from 10 to 15 June and took on coal before proceeding to Colombo , where they stayed from 22 to 26 June . Steaming against the monsoons forced the fleet to stop in Mahé , Seychelles to take on more coal . The fleet then stopped for a day each to take on coal in Aden and Port Said . On 1 August they reached Cádiz , and then met with the I Division and steamed back to Germany together . They separated after reaching Heligoland , and on 11 August after reaching the Jade roadstead , the ships of the expeditionary force were visited by Admiral von Koester , who was now the Inspector General of the Navy . The following day , Geißler lowered his flag aboard Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and the expeditionary fleet was dissolved . In the end , the operation cost the German government more than 100 million marks .
= = = = 1901 – 1910 = = = =
Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm went to Kiel after returning from the expedition to China , where on 14 August Konteradmiral Fischel raised his flag aboard the ship . She was assigned to the I Squadron as the second command flagship for the annual autumn maneuvers . These exercises were interrupted by the visit from Nicholas II of Russia , who came aboard Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm . After the maneuvers , Fischel was replaced by Konteradmiral Curt von Prittwitz und Gaffron on 24 October . In late 1901 , the fleet went on a cruise to Norway , during which Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm stopped in Oslo . During the months of December , January , and February , the ship was in drydock for major repair work .
The pattern of training for 1902 remained unchanged from previous years ; I Squadron went on a major training cruise that started on 25 April . The squadron initially steamed to Norwegian waters , then rounded the northern tip of Scotland , and stopped in Irish waters . The ships returned to Kiel on 28 May . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm then participated in the annual autumn maneuvers , after which she was decommissioned , with the new battleship Wittelsbach taking her place as second command flagship . The four Brandenburg class battleships were taken out of service for a major reconstruction . The work to Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was done at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven . The work included increasing the ship 's coal storage capacity and adding a pair of 10 @.@ 5 cm guns . The plans had initially called for the center 28 cm turret to be replaced with an armored battery of medium @-@ caliber guns , but this proved to be prohibitively expensive . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was the last ship of her class to complete her reconstruction , which was finished on 14 December 1905 .
On 1 January 1906 she was assigned to the II Squadron and served as the flagship of first Konteradmiral Henning von Holtzendorff , and then during the autumn maneuvers of Konteradmiral Adolf Paschen . The fleet conducted its normal routine of individual and unit training , interrupted only by a cruise to Norway from mid @-@ July to early August . The annual autumn maneuvers occurred as usual . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm served as the second command flagship in the I Squadron of the newly created High Seas Fleet , but at the end of the 1906 training year , she was removed from active duty and her place was taken by the new battleship Pommern .
Beginning on 1 October 1907 , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was assigned to the Reserve Squadron in the North Sea , which had been created in early 1907 to train new crews . Her three sister ships joined her in this unit ; their duties typically consisted of training cruises in the North Sea . From 5 to 25 April , she operated with the Training Squadron with its flagship Vineta . In September , the Reserve Squadron contributed vessels to the autumn maneuvers ; Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm served as the Reserve Squadron flagship , with the coastal defense ships Ägir and Frithjof , the minelaying cruisers Nautilus and Albatross , and the old avisos Blitz , Pfeil , and Zieten . The Squadron was organized in Cuxhaven and joined the High Seas Fleet in the German Bight on 8 September . They participated in the main series of exercises off Heligoland , and the squadron was dissolved when the maneuvers ended on 12 September .
After completing her annual winter overhaul , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm returned to the Reserve Squadron in January 1909 . Starting on 27 March , she operated with the Training Squadron again , the flagship of which was now the armored cruiser Friedrich Carl . Between 30 March and 24 April , she cruised in the central Baltic and in the waters around Rügen . She and the rest of the Reserve Squadron joined the autumn maneuvers in August and the battleship Schwaben replaced Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm as the flagship of the Reserve Squadron . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was then transferred to the VII Division in the Reserve Squadron . She continued in this routine in early 1910 ; she operated with the Training Squadron from 4 to 29 April and cruised in the Skagerrak and the western Baltic . The battleship was scheduled to take part in the autumn maneuvers , but shortly before the fleet assembled for the exercises , both she and Weissenburg were sold to the Ottoman Empire .
= = = In Ottoman service = = =
In late 1909 , the German military attache to the Ottoman Empire began a conversation with the Ottoman Navy about the possibility of selling German warships to the Ottomans to counter Greek naval expansion . After lengthy negotiations , including Ottoman attempts to buy one or more of the new battlecruisers Von der Tann , Moltke , and Goeben , the Germans offered to sell the four ships of the Brandenburg class at a cost of 10 million marks . The Ottomans chose to buy Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg , since they were the more advanced ships of the class . The two battleships were renamed after the famous 16th @-@ century Ottoman admirals , Hayreddin Barbarossa and Turgut Reis . They were transferred on 1 September 1910 , and German crews took the ships to Constantinople , along with four new destroyers also purchased from Germany . The Ottoman navy , however , had great difficulty equipping the Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis ; the navy had to pull trained enlisted men from the rest of the fleet just to put together crews for them . Both vessels suffered from condenser troubles after they entered Ottoman service , which reduced their speed to 8 to 10 knots ( 15 to 19 km / h ; 9 to 12 mph ) .
A year later , in September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire . The two battleships and the ancient central battery ironclad Mesûdiye — which had been built in the mid @-@ 1870s — had been on a summer training cruise since July , and so were prepared for the conflict . On 1 October , shortly after the outbreak of war , Barbaros Hayreddin and the rest of the Ottoman fleet was moored at Beirut . The following day , the fleet departed for Constantinople for repairs in preparation to engage the Italian fleet . Nevertheless , the bulk of the Ottoman fleet , including Barbaros Hayreddin , remained in port for the duration of the war . By the end of the war , Barbaros Hayreddin and her sister were in very poor condition . Their rangefinders and the ammunition hoists for their main battery guns had been removed , their telephones did not work , and the pipes for their pumps were badly rusted . Most of the watertight doors could not close , and the condensers remained problematic .
= = = = Balkan Wars = = = =
The First Balkan War broke out in October 1912 , when the Balkan League attacked the Ottoman Empire . The condition of Barbaros Hayreddin , as with most ships of the Ottoman fleet , had deteriorated significantly . During the war , Barbaros Hayreddin conducted gunnery training along with the other capital ships of the Ottoman navy , escorted troop convoys , and bombarded coastal installations . On 17 October , Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis steamed to İğneada . Two days later , the two battleships bombarded Bulgarian artillery positions near Varna . On 30 October , Barbaros Hayreddin was back outside Varna to blockade the port along with the destroyer Nümune @-@ i Hamiyet . On 17 November , Barbaros Hayreddin and Mesûdiye bombarded Bulgarian positions in support of the I Corps , with the aid of artillery observers ashore . The battleships ' gunnery was poor , though it provided a morale boost for the defending Ottoman army dug in at Çatalca . From 15 to 20 November , the ship was stationed at Büyükçekmece along with her sister ship and several other warships , but they saw no action against the small Bulgarian navy .
In December 1912 , the Ottoman fleet was reorganized into an armored division , which included Barbaros Hayreddin as flagship , two destroyer divisions , and a fourth division composed of warships intended for independent operations . Over the next two months , the armored division attempted to break the Greek naval blockade of the Dardanelles , which resulted in two major naval engagements .
= = = = = Battle of Elli = = = = =
At the Battle of Elli on 16 December 1912 , the Ottomans attempted to launch an attack on Imbros . The Ottoman fleet sortied from the Dardanelles at 9 : 30 ; the smaller craft remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north , hugging the coast . The Greek flotilla , which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and three Hydra @-@ class ironclads , sailing from the island of Lemnos , altered course to the northeast to block the advance of the Ottoman battleships . The Ottoman ships opened fire on the Greeks at 9 : 40 , from a range of about 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . Five minutes later , Georgios Averof crossed over to the other side of the Ottoman fleet , placing the Ottomans in the unfavorable position of being under fire from both sides . At 9 : 50 and under heavy pressure from the Greek fleet , the Ottoman ships completed a 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed their course , and headed for the safety of the straits . The turn was poorly conducted , and the ships fell out of formation , blocking each other 's fields of fire .
By 10 : 17 , both sides had ceased firing and the Ottoman fleet withdrew into the Dardanelles . The ships reached port by 13 : 00 and transferred their casualties to the hospital ship Resit Paşa . The battle was considered a Greek victory , because the Ottoman fleet remained blockaded . During the battle , Barbaros Hayreddin was hit twice . The first shell struck the afterdeck and killed five men assigned to a damage control party . The second shell jammed the rear turret , placing it out of action . Shell fragments from this hit damaged several boilers and caused a fire in one of the coal bunkers .
On 4 January 1913 , the Ottoman Navy and Army attempted a landing at Bozca Ada ( Tenedos ) to retake the island from the Greeks . Barbaros Hayreddin and the rest of the fleet supported the operation , but the appearance of the Greek fleet forced the Ottomans to break off the operation . The Greeks also withdrew , and several Ottoman cruisers opened fire as both sides departed , but no damage was done . By 15 : 30 , Barbaros Hayreddin was back at Çanakkale inside the safety of the Dardanelles . On 10 January , the fleet conducted a patrol outside the Dardanelles . They encountered several Greek destroyers and forced them to withdraw , but inflicted no damage on the Greek ships .
= = = = = Battle of Lemnos = = = = =
The Battle of Lemnos resulted from an Ottoman plan to lure the faster Georgios Averof away from the Dardanelles . The protected cruiser Hamidiye evaded the Greek blockade and broke out into the Aegean Sea in an attempt to draw the Greek cruiser into pursuit . Despite the threat posed by the cruiser , the Greek commander refused to detach Georgios Averof . By mid @-@ January , however , the Ottomans had learned that Georgios Averof remained with the Greek fleet , and so Kalyon Kaptanı ( Captain ) Ramiz Numan Bey , the Ottoman fleet commander , decided to attack the Greeks regardless .
Barbaros Hayreddin , Turgut Reis , and other units of the Ottoman fleet departed the Dardanelles at 8 : 20 on the morning of 18 January , and sailed toward the island of Lemnos at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . Barbaros Hayreddin led the line of battleships , with a flotilla of torpedo boats on either side of the formation . Georgios Averof , with the three Hydra @-@ class ironclads and five destroyers trailing behind , intercepted the Ottoman fleet approximately 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) from Lemnos . At 10 : 55 , the Ottoman cruiser Mecidiye spotted the Greeks , and the fleet turned south to engage them .
A long range artillery duel that lasted for two hours began at around 11 : 55 , when the Ottoman fleet opened fire at a range of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) . They concentrated their fire on the Greek Georgios Averof , which returned fire at 12 : 00 . At 12 : 50 , the Greeks attempted to cross the T of the Ottoman fleet , but Barbaros Hayreddin turned north to block the Greek maneuver . The Ottoman commander detached the old battleship Mesudiye after a serious hit at 12 : 55 . At around the same time , a shell hit Barbaros Hayreddin on her amidships turret , killing the entire gun crew . She was thereafter hit several times in the superstructure ; these hits did relatively little damage , but they created significant smoke that was sucked into the boiler rooms and caused the ship 's speed to fall to 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . As a result , Turgut Reis took the lead of the formation and Bey decided to break off the engagement .
Toward the end of the engagement , Georgios Averof closed to within 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) and scored several hits on the fleeing Ottoman ships . At 14 : 00 , the Ottoman warships had come close enough to the shore to be protected by coastal batteries , forcing the Greeks to withdraw and ending the battle . During the battle , both Barbaros Hayreddin and her sister had a barbette disabled by gunfire , and both caught fire as a result . Between Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis , the ships fired some 800 rounds , mostly of their main battery 28 cm ( 11 in ) ammunition but without success .
= = = = = Subsequent operations = = = = =
On 8 February 1913 , the Ottoman navy supported an amphibious assault at Şarköy . Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis , along with several cruisers weighed anchor at 5 : 50 and arrived off the island at around 9 : 00 . The Ottoman fleet provided artillery support , from about a kilometer off shore . The ships supported the left flank of the Ottoman army once it was ashore . The Bulgarian army provided stiff resistance that ultimately forced the Ottoman army to withdraw , though the withdrawal was successful in large part due to the gunfire support from Barbaros Hayreddin and the rest of the fleet . During the battle , Barbaros Hayreddin fired 250 rounds from her 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and 180 shells from her 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns .
In March 1913 , the ship returned to the Black Sea to resume support of the Çatalca garrison , which was under renewed attacks by the Bulgarian army . On 26 March , the 28 cm ( 11 in ) and 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) shells fired by Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis helped to turn back the advance of the 2nd Brigade of the Bulgarian 1st Infantry Division . On 30 March , the left wing of the Ottoman line turned to pursue the retreating Bulgarians . Their advance was supported by both field artillery and the heavy guns of Barbaros Hayreddin ; the assault gained the Ottomans about 1 @,@ 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 yd ) by nightfall . In response , the Bulgarians brought the 1st Brigade to the front , which beat the Ottoman advance back to its starting position .
= = = = World War I = = = =
In the summer of 1914 , World War I broke out in Europe , though the Ottomans initially remained neutral . On 3 August 1914 , Barbaros Hayreddin began a refit at Constantinople — German engineers inspected her and other Ottoman warships in the dockyard and found them to be in a state of severe disrepair . Owing to the state of tension , repairs could not be effected , and only ammunition , coal , and other supplies were loaded . By early November , the actions of the German battlecruiser Goeben , which had been transferred to the Ottoman Navy , resulted in declarations of war by Russia , France , and Great Britain . Between 1914 – 15 , some of the ship 's guns were removed and employed as coastal guns to shore up the defenses protecting the Dardanelles . In the meantime , she was used as a floating artillery battery at the Nara naval base , along with her sister Turgut Reis . Early during this stint , the ships were immobilized , but as the threat from British submarines grew , steam was kept up in their boilers to allow them to move quickly .
Barbaros Hayreddin returned to Constantinople on 11 March 1915 ; the Ottoman high command had decided that both ships were not needed at all times . Over the next several months , the two ships alternated trips to Constantinople . On 25 April , the two battleships bombarded the British landings on the first day of the Gallipoli Campaign . After firing fourteen shells , the fifteenth detonated in the right gun barrel in the center turret , destroying the gun . After a shell exploded inside one of Turgut Reis 's guns in early June , both battleships were withdrawn . On 7 August , the British landed more troops at Suvla Bay , prompting the high command to send Barbaros Hayreddin to support the Ottoman defenses there . In addition , she was loaded with a large quantity of ammunition to resupply the Fifth Army fighting in the Gallipoli Campaign . The next day , while she was en route to the area with only a single torpedo boat as escort , she was intercepted by the British submarine HMS E11 off Bolayır in the Sea of Marmara . The submarine hit Barbaros Hayreddin with a single torpedo ; she capsized seven minutes later , but remained afloat for a few minutes before she slipped below the waves . The ship sank with the loss of 21 officers and 237 men . The rest of the crew were picked up by her escort and a second torpedo boat patrolling the area .
= Lisa Goes Gaga =
" Lisa Goes Gaga " is the twenty @-@ second and final episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 20 , 2012 . In the episode , American singer @-@ songwriter Lady Gaga makes a visit to Springfield , where all of its residents are in a state of depression . Main character Lisa Simpson is arguably the most depressed person in the city , prompting Gaga to go out of her way to teach Lisa the meaning of happiness .
The episode was written by Tim Long and directed by Matthew Schofield . Gaga guest @-@ starred in the episode , portraying an animated version of herself . A fan of the show , she was brought on by showrunner Al Jean , who wrote a script after James L. Brooks saw an interview of her on 60 Minutes . The design team conceived eighteen outfits to complement Gaga 's eccentric persona , which satirized several of her outfits including her meat dress . Recording sessions for " Lisa Goes Gaga " took place in Los Angeles , California over four days in August 2011 .
Critical responses to the episode were mixed ; critics praised Lady Gaga 's performance , while they looked down upon the episode 's concept and general execution . The highly negative evaluation of the episode by some Internet users attracted media attention . According to the Nielsen ratings , the installment attained 4 @.@ 79 million American viewers upon its original airing .
= = Plot = =
Lady Gaga passes through Springfield via train while on her way to a concert . Seeing how low the city 's self @-@ esteem is , she takes it upon herself to cheer up the whole city . However , no one in town is more depressed than Lisa , who was voted as the most unpopular student by her peers . Lisa tries to reverse her status as one of the least popular girls in school by ghostwriting positive things about herself on the school blog under the heading " Truth Teller " .
When Bart finds out her secret and reveals it to the school , her social ranking plummets to a new low until a psychic force tells Lady Gaga that Lisa needs her help immediately . After much soul searching and yelling at Lady Gaga for trying to help , Lisa realizes that her outburst helped her because she is finally expressing her anger instead of bottling it up inside her , in effect making Lady Gaga 's mission successful . Lisa catches Lady Gaga just before she leaves town to apologize , and after being forgiven she and Lady Gaga perform a duet together . With Lady Gaga 's assistance , Lisa and the entire town of Springfield realize that being oneself is better than being like anyone else . Just as Lady Gaga 's train begins to leave again , Moe runs up to her and asks if she can help him as well , but Lady Gaga declines , stating that she 's not that good . As Moe turns and walks across the train track , a second train hits him .
During the credits , Homer is heard singing his rendition of " Poker Face . "
= = Production = =
In August 2011 , it first was revealed that Lady Gaga would make a guest appearance on the show as herself . Producer James L. Brooks viewed Gaga 's interview with Anderson Cooper on 60 Minutes , which prompted Al Jean to write a script and send her a letter of approval to appear on the show . " She was really excited about the whole thing , " Jean recalled . " After she signed on to do it , she came in to record dialogue twice , and we showed her a rough cut the second time . " Recording sessions for the episode took place in Los Angeles during a period of four days from August 22 – 26 . Gaga was initially apprehensive while recording on set , which led her to review the satirical nature of the show to get a better understanding on how to perform . " Their characters are so awesomely convincing and sincere and wild and funny , I had to remind myself constantly of the sincerity of the humor , " she explained . " That 's what I was trying to focus on — not putting on a character too much , and really being as sincere as I could with the lines . " Despite such emotions , Gaga professed that working with the staff of the show was " one of the coolest things that [ she ] has ever done " .
Several employees of The Simpsons were impressed with Gaga 's performance , who cited that her vocal range and ad @-@ libbing skills were exceptional . Series creator Matt Groening stated : " Since the very beginning , I ’ ve always wanted to have on the most iconic personalities of our time , and she 's it . " In an interview with E ! Online , Groening further commented on Gaga 's appearance ; " The great thing about having Lady Gaga is that she came in a number of times and always with a different getup . Like she 'd leave the room and come back in after a break in a completely new getup . It was unbelievable . The only time that she ever took off her hat was when it was banging into the microphone . " Cast member Yeardley Smith said that she was shocked that Gaga had the time to make an appearance on the series .
The design team for the series conceived eighteen outfits to compliment Gaga 's outré and eccentric reputation , although they did not collaborate with any of Gaga 's stylists or creative director Nicola Formichetti . Due to the outfits ' unconventional appearances , Jean was given more freedom to animate the large array of costumes , as these rapid changes " wouldn 't be possible in real life " . " There 's a moment in the episode , " Jean resumed , " when she starts out with her hair down . Then , there 's a curtain pulled in front of her , and in seconds , she has a completely different outfit on with a cone bra and her hair is all hairsprayed up and big and frizzy . In real life , that would probably take 8 hours . " Many of the costumes were inspired from previous outfits Gaga had worn , including her meat dress and her Kermit the Frog dress . " We did a lot of research , looking back at her old outfits , and she 's really been in a million different things , had a million different looks . "
= = Cultural references = =
Many aspects of Gaga 's career are referenced in the episode . " You 're All My Little Monsters " , a musical number specifically created for the episode , is a parody of Gaga 's relationship with her devout " Little Monsters " — a phrase Gaga uses to refer to her fans . To Spin columnist Devon Maloney , the song was ultimately an overtly cartoonized version of her single " Born This Way " ( 2011 ) that embraces the " freakiness " of Springfield . Several of Gaga 's outfits and looks emulate several iconic costumes the singer had previously worn , such as the " Living Dress " and pyrotechnic leotard she wore during her endeavors on The Monster Ball Tour , as well as her wardrobe at the 53rd Grammy Awards . One in particular , a dress consisting of pork chops , is a parody of the singer 's meat dress , which she wore at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards . During the credits of " Lisa Goes Gaga " , main character Homer Simpson performs a rendition of " Poker Face " ( 2009 ) . At the end of the episode , a title card promotes the Maggie @-@ starring short film The Longest Daycare , which showed before the animated film Ice Age : Continental Drift ( 2012 ) .
= = Reception = =
" Lisa Goes Gaga " was originally broadcast on May 20 , 2012 in the United States , as part of the " Animation Domination " television line @-@ up on Fox . Upon airing , it acquired 4 @.@ 79 million viewers and a 2 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , indicating that 2 @.@ 1 percent of individuals between ages 18 and 49 who watched television viewed the episode . The ratings make it the fourth least watched Simpsons episode to date in Nielsen Rating Homes . " Lisa Goes Gaga " faced fierce competition , airing simultaneously with 60 Minutes on CBS , America 's Got Talent on NBC , and the 2012 Billboard Music Awards on ABC . Total viewership and ratings for the program evoked significant increases from the previous episode , " Ned ' n Edna 's Blend " , which attained 4 @.@ 07 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also is the lowest rated episode to date in Nielsen Rating Homes .
The episode produced varying responses from television commentators . " Lisa Goes Gaga " provoked The A.V. Club journalist Rowan Kaiser to conclude that the installment " wasn 't that painful to watch " — albeit found the concept and general execution to be irritating . In his B – review , Kaiser asserted that " Lisa Goes Gaga " used a straightforward interpretation of the singer , and felt that Lady Gaga 's appearance was superior to previous guest appearances . " So many Simpsons celebrity voices , " he stated , " show up for a few minutes at most , with Extras @-@ style ' Wow , Chris Martin of Coldplay , what are you doing here ? ' Or they voice one @-@ off characters without enough flair to be memorable . Instead , Gaga was
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6 went on tour with Disciple . In June 2011 , Project 86 headlined the XV Tour with support from Children 18 : 3 and Write This Down .
Randy Torres , who had been gradually becoming less involved in the band over the previous several albums , decided to officially leave the band in late 2010 to work for Tooth and Nail records , and later , Microsoft . Steven Dail followed suit approximately one year later , citing the need to stop touring and be home with his family . Gerken left in early 2012 .
= = = 2012 – 2013 : Wait for the Siren = = =
Project 86 launched a Kickstarter campaign in December 2011 in an effort to " Make the fans the record label " after fulfilling their most recent contract with Tooth and Nail Records . Their eighth studio album titled Wait for the Siren was recorded in January and February 2012 .
Featuring all star guest appearances by : Bruce Fitzhugh ( Living Sacrifice ) , Rocky Gray ( Living Sacrifice ) , Brian " Head " Welch ( Korn , Love and Death ) , Andrew Welch ( Disciple ) , Blake Martin ( A Plea for Purging ) and The Wedding . The new album was produced by Steve Wilson and Andrew Schwab and engineered / mixed by Steve Blackmon .
Described as Andrew Schwab 's opus the record promises to be a fresh take on the P86 sound . Schwab said , " On this record I was really able to take the reins of the creative process in a direction I was passionate about . I was able to write songs that pushed me to grow as an artist . It was also insanely fun to have so many of my friends involved in the process and at this point in the game that is what its about . I am really looking forward to people hearing this album . " With concert goers noting the new energy of the songs and new band members Scott Davis on drums , Dustinn Lowry on guitar and Mikee " Norman " Williams on bass it seems P86 has benefited from a back to basics reinvention .
Wait for the Siren was recorded and produced independently through fan support via the band 's 2011 @-@ 2012 Kickstarter campaign . On May 24 , 2012 , Project 86 released four preview tracks for the tracks " Fall , Goliath Fall " , " Sots " , " Off the Grid " , and " Take the Hill " .
The album was officially released on August 20 , 2012 .
= = = 2014 – present : Knives to the Future = = =
In late 2013 , Project 86 announced that they were about to work on their ninth album which will also be released independently . He also stated that they will also do an acoustic EP plus Andrew Schwab will also release a solo album which will also be produced independently . They started an Indiegogo funding campaign on Feb 11 and closed on April 12 , 2014 ( 11 : 59 pm PT ) . They successfully got US $ 89 @,@ 816 raised of a goal of $ 50 @,@ 000 .
Schwab announced that pre @-@ production for a new album began on June 6 followed by a month @-@ long recording session in Steelman Studios in Van Nuys , CA . Matt McClellan and the band collaborated on production and Steve Evetts mixed the album . Dan Mumford is scheduled to do the artwork . The band has spent the middle of the year in Los Angeles recording 18 new tracks including an acoustic EP . With a career spanning nearly 20 years and selling over half a million records Andrew Schwab feels this album is a special landmark for P86 . He says , " We have loved pushing the envelope of evolution on every Project 86 release and this record is no exception . The inspiration behind this record is completely different and it 's been incredible to write and record with such a talented group of guys . " . Joining Schwab in the studio is Darren King ( The Overseer ) on guitar , Cody Driggers ( The Wedding ) on bass , and Ryan Wood ( 7 Horns 7 Eyes ) on drums .
Project 86 indicated that the name of their new record will be Knives to the Future and will release on November 11 , 2014 . " Spirit of Shiloh " , the first song from the album , debuted on SoundCloud .
= = Musical style = =
Project 86 's music is characterized by heavy rock and Schwab 's " loud , eerie , and atmospheric " vocal style . Their sound has been likened to rock groups Helmet , Rage Against the Machine , and Tool . The moniker " intense " has frequently been used as a description . Rick Anderson of Allmusic called the music " dense and crunchy " , while Albuquerque Journal writer Ron Gonzales declared it a " blisteringly heavy sound . " Commenting on their musical style , Schwab stated " Our goal as a band has been to never make the same record twice . The only rule is that there are no rules . If there is a rule , it 's that we try not to over @-@ think things , that the music that comes out is honest and real , spontaneous and from our heart . "
When Project 86 released their self @-@ titled record , they were generally acknowledged to be a rapcore band . Schwab has maintained it was never intentional , " I think we got lumped in with that music because we [ had ] toured with P.O.D. and Linkin Park . " According to writer Mark Allan Powell , the music featured " cryptic , down @-@ tuned guitars " and " half @-@ spoken , half @-@ rapped " vocals . Drawing Black Lines saw their style adopt elements of traditional metal , groove metal , and hard rock . The band used their song " Pipedream " as a blueprint to build the album : " We knew that was one of the brightest spots on the album , " said Schwab , " I just wanted to take what we did in ' Pipedream ' and go further with it " . Experimentation with noise occurred in track " Twenty @-@ Three " , and would be revisited on their fourth album with " Circuitry " .
Truthless Heroes and Songs To Burn Your Bridges By generally focused on a " dark and intense musical direction " . The group strayed from the style for their fifth album ... And The Rest Will Follow , opting to flirt with melodies and harmonies . Rival Factions marked a great departure when they embraced 1980s music and utilized keyboards . The band was inspired to write experimental songs after Dail penned " Evil ( A Chorus of Resistance ) " . " [ It ] was way different than anything we 'd done before , " stated Torres , " everything after that [ had ] to be as different as possible from things we 'd done prior . " Their signature hardcore sound was reinstated for Picket Fence Cartel . " We have had a great time adding more melody along the way , " insisted Schwab , " but in our hearts , we still really enjoy playing aggressive songs " . Even so , some songs retained synthesizers while others boasted folk influences .
Project 86 is considered a Christian band and every member professes Christianity . However , they have remained uncomfortable with the assertion . " We 're not going to go in there and say ' Hey we 're the Christian band . ' " stated Schwab in a 2004 interview . " We 're going to carry ourselves like a normal band . Hopefully people will like our music and investigate into the band [ ... ] and they will learn our beliefs . " In a 2007 interview , he further opined " We always tell people that the goal has been to just write music that we love , and write music hopefully that is challenging and inspiring to people and doesn 't sound like everything else out there . "
= = = Influences = = =
Rock bands have largely influenced the band like the Deftones , Sepultura , Sick of It All , and Snapcase . Torres expressed a particular affinity for The Beatles and Led Zeppelin : " I just love to listen to their albums over and over and pick apart stuff here and there that is amazing , " he said , " It is a huge influence on me musically . " Dail has revealed The Clash , Fugazi , and Rocket from the Crypt to be personally influential . At an early age , Schwab listened to Slayer , S.O.D. , and Metallica . He later discovered East Coast hip hop . During the recording of Rival Factions , the band took heavy influence from post @-@ punk groups like Depeche Mode , Joy Division , Psychedelic Furs , and The Sisters of Mercy . Some of their favorite bands are The Cure , Portishead , Quicksand , Shiner , and Sunny Day Real Estate .
Some musicians have cited Project 86 as an influence . Jessy Ribordy , lead singer and songwriter for alternative rock band Falling Up , has been affected by Schwab 's writings . " Andrew 's lyrics have always been a source of inspiration to me , " he told CCM Magazine . " I 've tried to use more imaginative metaphors and things that are more symbolic , so that the songs can mean more things and have a bigger impact . " 38th Parallel , a short lived Christian rap rock group , also acknowledged the band 's influence .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Vocalist Andrew Schwab has remained the band 's lead lyricist . Schwab has stated most lyrics are based on his emotions . He also tries to incorporate social commentary from literature . Prominent influences include comic book artist Chris Ware and writers Chris Bachelder , Don DeLillo , Aldous Huxley , George Orwell , and T. S. Eliot . He has written lyrics around a variety of topics that include alcohol abuse ( " One @-@ Armed Man " ) , conformity ( " S.M.C. " ) , emptiness ( " Evil ( A Chorus of Resistance ) " ) , greed ( " Cold and Calculated " ) , nightlife ( " Molotov " ) , and spirituality ( " Chapter 2 " ) . Controversial issues like pornography ( " P.S. " ) and child molestation ( " Sioux Lane Spirits " ) have also been addressed .
According to John DiBiase , president of Jesus Freak Hideout , early lyrics reflected " anger , frustration , and often hopelessness . " Some journalists interpreted it as cynicism ; Sean Richardson writing for The Phoenix called it " overbearing " and hoped " positive vibes " from P.O.D. and Blindside would rub off , while Losey believed it to be a longtime " burden " being carried . " It is easy to give in to these types of [ cynical ] feelings when you have been wronged , " Schwab told CCM Magazine , " It 's a very selfish mentality that chokes you off from being proactive in your gifts and purpose . " Critics have noted that Schwab 's later material contains more optimistic perspectives .
Honesty is highly regarded by Schwab ; he has stated " I don 't want to be known or remembered as a positive band , but as a band that was sort of honest and had a quiet sense of hope . " He has sometimes used humor to convey his feelings . " Salem 's Suburbs " and " Your Heroes Are Dead " examine how society blindly accepts opinions found on television and the internet . " Caveman Jams " was directed at critics who claimed their music was too aggressive . The song tells how a fan was inspired to leave a life of self @-@ destruction . " That song was written to be funny , " stated Schwab , " [ It ] was definitely written as a response to some experiences we 've had as a band over the years , but in such a way that we 're having fun with it . I tried to approach it comically . "
= = Members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Notes
A ^ Wait for the Siren also charted at number 7 on the Hard Rock Albums Chart , number 18 on the Independent Albums Chart , and number 38 on the Top Rock Albums Chart
Live albums
2010 : 15 . Live .
EPs
2007 : The Kane Mutiny EP ( digital only )
2008 : This Time of Year EP ( Christmas )
2012 : The Midnight Clear Single ( Christmas )
Singles
= = Filmography = =
= Sam Simon =
Samuel Michael " Sam " Simon ( June 6 , 1955 – March 8 , 2015 ) was an American director , producer , writer , animal rights activist , boxing manager , tournament poker player , and philanthropist , most noted as co @-@ creator of the television series The Simpsons .
While at Stanford University , Simon worked as a newspaper cartoonist and after graduating became a storyboard artist at Filmation Studios . Simon submitted a spec script for the sitcom Taxi , which was produced , and he later became the series ' showrunner . Over the next few years , Simon wrote and produced for Cheers , It 's Garry Shandling 's Show and other programs , as well as writing the 1991 film The Super .
In 1989 , Simon developed the animated sitcom The Simpsons with Matt Groening and James L. Brooks . Simon assembled the show 's first writing team , co @-@ wrote eight episodes and has been credited with " developing [ the show 's ] sensibility " . Simon 's relationship with Groening was strained and he left the show in 1993 , negotiating a pay @-@ off which saw him receive tens of millions of dollars from the show 's revenue each year . The following year Simon co @-@ created The George Carlin Show , before later working as a director on shows such as The Drew Carey Show . Simon won nine Primetime Emmy Awards for his television work .
Simon turned to fields outside television in his later years . Simon regularly appeared on Howard Stern 's radio shows , managed boxer Lamon Brewster and helped guide Lamon to the World Boxing Organization Heavyweight Championship in 2004 and was a regular poker player and six @-@ time in the money finisher at the World Series of Poker . Simon founded the The Sam Simon Foundation , which consists of a mobile veterinary clinic that goes into low @-@ income neighborhoods offering free surgeries for cats and dogs several days per week , as well as a program that rescues and trains shelter dogs . He also funded the self @-@ christened Sea Shepherd Conservation Society vessel the MY Sam Simon . Simon was engaged at the time of his death , having been previously twice married , including to the actress Jennifer Tilly . Following a profile of Simon on 60 Minutes in 2007 , CBS writer Daniel Schorn wrote in an online article that Simon was " perhaps the Renaissance man of the baffling , uncertain age we live in . "
Simon was diagnosed with terminal colorectal cancer in 2012 and given only three to six months to live . Simon died on March 8 , 2015 . He bequeathed his $ 100M estate to various charities which he actively supported during his lifetime .
= = Early life = =
Simon was born Samuel Michael Simon on June 6 , 1955 in Los Angeles , California , United States . He grew up in Beverly Hills and Malibu . Simon 's family lived opposite Groucho Marx . Simon 's father was a cheap clothing manufacturer and was of Estonian Jewish heritage . Simon had a childhood which has been described as " comfortable " and " privileged " . Although his parents wanted Simon to become a lawyer , Simon was interested in art from a young age , appearing on televised local art programs at the age of five . He once was told by Walt Disney that he would one day work at his studio .
Simon attended Beverly Hills High School , where he was on the football team and served as a cartoonist for the school newspaper . He was awarded " Most Humorous " and " Most Talented " in his senior yearbook . He later attended Stanford University , graduating in 1977 . Simon had not wished to attend college , but Stanford persuaded him to apply due to his sufficient grades and proficiency at football ; Simon quit the football team after one day . Simon drew comics for the college newspaper , but was denied admission to a drawing class for not being talented enough . As he recalled to the Stanford alumni magazine , he was told , “ You ’ d be taking the space of a student who has talent . ” Simon majored in psychology , but did not focus on his academics .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
While still at Stanford , Simon 's first job was a newspaper sports cartoonist for The San Francisco Chronicle and The San Francisco Examiner . After graduating , he worked as a television storyboard artist , and later a writer , at Filmation Studios . There he worked on several animated shows , including The New Adventures of Mighty Mouse and Heckle & Jeckle and Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids ( 1979 ) . Simon recalls Filmation approving of his work because he was " self @-@ taught and unschooled , " but Simon felt the majority of what the studio produced was " awful " . On the suggestion of Filmation producer Lou Scheimer who was impressed by Simon 's writing ability , Simon submitted a spec script for the series Taxi which was produced and aired in 1981 during its third season . Simon was hired as a writer , quickly becoming showrunner for its fifth and final season in 1983 . Simon next worked as a writer and producer on Cheers from seasons one to three ( 1982 – 1985 ) , writing five episodes : " Endless Slumper " , " Battle of the Ex 's " , " Fairytales Can Come True " , " Cheerio Cheers " and " The Bartender 's Tale " . Simon created , wrote and produced the short @-@ lived sitcom Shaping Up in 1984 , alongside Ken Estin ; the show starred Leslie Nielsen as a gym owner and ran for five episodes on ABC . Simon also wrote and produced for Best of the West ( 1981 ) , Barney Miller ( 1982 ) and It 's Garry Shandling 's Show ( 1987 – 1988 ) , and wrote the 1991 film The Super .
= = = The Simpsons = = =
Simon co @-@ developed the animated series The Simpsons , which premiered on the Fox network in 1989 and has remained on air ever since . The show is regarded as one of the greatest television shows of all time , with Time magazine naming it the 20th century 's best series . The premise for the series originated as a series of short cartoons airing in 1987 as part of The Tracey Ullman Show , on which Simon was a writer and executive producer alongside James L. Brooks , with whom Simon had worked on Taxi . The cartoons were developed into a full series two years later . For The Simpsons , Simon served alongside Matt Groening ( who conceived the show and the five main characters ) and Brooks as executive producer and showrunner for the show 's first ( 1989 – 1990 ) and second ( 1990 – 1991 ) seasons , and was creative supervisor for the first four seasons . He assembled and led the initial team of writers , consisting of John Swartzwelder , Jon Vitti , George Meyer , Jeff Martin , Al Jean , Mike Reiss , Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky .
Simon has been credited with " developing [ the show 's ] sensibility " . Former Simpsons director Brad Bird has described him as " the unsung hero " of the show , while Vitti has stated to " leave out Sam Simon " is to tell " the managed version " of The Simpsons ' history , because " he was the guy we wrote for . " Writer Ken Levine called Simon " the real creative force behind The Simpsons ... The tone , the storytelling , the level of humor – that was all developed on Sam 's watch . " Levine says that Simon " brought a level of honesty to the characters " and made them " three @-@ dimensional " , adding that his " comedy is all about character , not just a string of gags . In The Simpsons , the characters are motivated by their emotions and their foibles . ' What are they thinking ? ' — that is Sam 's contribution . The stories come from the characters . " Simon crafted much of the world of Springfield and designed the models for many of the show 's recurring characters , including Mr. Burns , Dr. Hibbert , Chief Wiggum and Eddie and Lou , as well as many of the one @-@ time and guest star roles , such as Bleeding Gums Murphy . One of his contributions to the show 's character development was his proposal that Waylon Smithers should be gay , but that this should never have too much attention drawn to it ; Smithers ' sexuality became one of the show 's longest @-@ running gags . Simon saw The Simpsons as a chance to solve " what [ he ] didn 't like about the Saturday @-@ morning cartoon shows [ he had ] worked on ... [ he ] wanted all the actors in a room together , not reading their lines separated from each other . The Simpsons would have been a great radio show . If you just listen to the sound track , it works . "
The Simpsons utilized a process of collaborative script re @-@ writing by the show 's whole writing staff ; this meant the credited writer may not have been responsible for the majority of an episode 's content . Nevertheless , Simon was credited with co @-@ writing the season one episodes " The Telltale Head " , " The Crepes of Wrath " and the season finale " Some Enchanted Evening " . " Some Enchanted Evening " was intended to be the show 's premiere but was delayed due to poor animation . Simon adapted Edgar Allan Poe 's The Raven for the third segment of the season two episode " Treehouse of Horror " . Groening was nervous about " The Raven " because it did not have many gags , and felt it would be " the worst , most pretentious thing [ they had ] ever done " on the show . Nevertheless , the segment has often been praised as one of the best Treehouse of Horror stories in the show 's history . Ryan J. Budke of TV Squad described the segment as " one of the most refined Simpsons pop references ever " and knows " people that consider this the point that they realized The Simpsons could be both highly hilarious and highly intelligent . " Simon co @-@ wrote the episode " Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " with Swartzwelder , an episode which Tom Shales of the Washington Post has described as " a bull 's @-@ eye political satire " . The final episode he co @-@ wrote for season two was " The Way We Was " , alongside Jean and Reiss . While Reiss and Jean took over as showrunners , Simon remained on the writing staff for seasons three ( 1991 – 1992 ) and four ( 1992 – 1993 ) . For the third season he co @-@ wrote " Treehouse of Horror II " , and conceived the story for the Sideshow Bob episode " Black Widower " , together with mystery author Thomas Chastain , hoping to construct a full mystery story ; Vitti wrote the episode 's teleplay . Simon also substantially contributed to the episode " Stark Raving Dad " , pitched the episode " Homer at the Bat " , and proposed the " Land of Chocolate " sequence from " Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk " . Simon 's final writing credit was for the " Dial ' Z ' For Zombies " segment of " Treehouse of Horror III " .
Although they initially worked well together , Simon and Groening 's relationship became " very contentious " according to Groening . Simon never expected the show to be a success , often proclaiming to fellow staff members " We 're thirteen and out " — meaning that the show would be canceled after the thirteen episodes of the first season . Therefore , he also told the staff that they had creative freedom to do whatever they wanted to make The Simpsons as good a show as possible , regardless of network or public opinion , because he thought it inevitably would not be renewed ; he elaborated in 2009 that " really I was saying that to take the pressure off of everyone . I was just saying let 's just go out and make 13 episodes that are really good and really funny . " However , Groening interpreted it as meaning Simon was uncommitted and did not care whether the show was a success or not , as Simon 's career would survive , whereas his own would not . In 2001 , Groening described Simon as " brilliantly funny and one of the smartest writers I 've ever worked with , although unpleasant and mentally unbalanced . " According to John Ortved 's book The Simpsons : An Uncensored , Unauthorized History , when the show became successful Simon resented the media attention Groening received , particularly the praise for the show 's writing ; Simon felt that Groening 's involvement was limited , and that he should have been the one receiving credit for the show . Simon later spoke well of Groening 's influence , particularly on the show 's positive tone .
As well as Groening , Simon was often at odds with Brooks and production company Gracie Films . While working on The Simpsons , he and Brooks had co @-@ created the series Sibs ( 1991 ) and Phenom ( 1993 ) as part of a multi @-@ series deal for ABC . Simon did not want to work on either series , both of which were poorly received and swiftly canceled , which put a strain on the pair 's relationship .
Simon left Gracie Films and The Simpsons in 1993 . Simon commented that he " wasn 't enjoying it anymore , " wished to pursue other projects , and " that any show I 've ever worked on , it turns me into a monster . I go crazy . I hate myself . " Before leaving , he negotiated a deal that saw him receive a share of the show 's profits every year , particularly from home media , and an executive producer credit despite not having worked on the show since 1993 . The deal means he made over $ 10 million a year from The Simpsons ; he later told Stanford Magazine that " tens of millions " was a closer figure . Simon commented : " When I was there I thought I was underpaid . I thought I wasn 't getting enough credit for it . Now , I think it 's completely the opposite . I get too much credit for it . And the money is ridiculous . "
= = = Subsequent media work = = =
In January 1994 , Simon co @-@ created with comedian George Carlin the sitcom The George Carlin Show for Fox . It aired for 27 episodes before being canceled in December 1995 . Simon served as showrunner throughout its run and directed several episodes . Simon persuaded Carlin to do the show after writing it as something which would not be " typically sitcomy . " He conceived the show as what Carlin 's life would have been like had he never become a comedian ; Carlin played a heavy drinking New York taxi driver . Simon commented : " When I was doing The Simpsons , people couldn 't see how smart it was because of the low moments . There 's something about this show . People who like it say it 's classy . They don 't see how vulgar it is . " Carlin wrote negatively of his relationship with Simon . On his own website , Carlin wrote of the show : " always check mental health of creative partner beforehand . Loved the actors , loved the crew . Had a great time . Couldn 't wait to get the fuck out of there . " In his final book , the posthumously published Last Words ( 2009 ) , Carlin elaborated : " I had a great time . I never laughed so much , so often , so hard as I did with cast members Alex Rocco , Chris Rich , Tony Starke . There was a very strange , very good sense of humor on that stage ... The biggest problem , though , was that Sam Simon was a fucking horrible person to be around . Very , very funny , extremely bright and brilliant , but an unhappy person who treated other people poorly . " Simon described himself as " combative " and said that most people see him as having a " bad attitude " .
In the late 1990s , Simon primarily worked as a director . He directed on the American adaptation of the sitcom Men Behaving Badly in 1996 , the Friends season three episode " The One Without the Ski Trip " in 1997 , and several episodes of The Norm Show ( 1999 ) and The Michael Richards Show ( 2000 ) . From 1998 to 2003 , he served as a consulting producer and director for The Drew Carey Show , and directed the show 's series finale . He was also a creative consultant on Bless This House in 1996 .
After leaving The Simpsons and The George Carlin Show , Simon sought to find a " life outside television , " as working in the industry " made [ him ] crazy . " On working in television , Simon concluded : " In some ways , it 's the greatest job in the world . You make a product that 's given away , and all it does is make people smile . Nobody gets hurt , there 's no damage , and you can get crazy rich . " Simon retired from full @-@ time television work , although still worked in the media , frequently contributing , as a writer and a participant , to Howard Stern 's radio shows . He wrote and directed the one @-@ off radio sitcom " The Bitter Half " for Stern 's Howard 101 in 2006 . Simon had his own show on Radioio . Simon returned to television production work in 2012 , serving as a consultant and director on the series Anger Management for half a day a week .
= = = Other ventures = = =
Simon was a staunch advocate for animal rights . Starting in 2002 , Simon self @-@ funded , at an annual cost of several million dollars , The Sam Simon Foundation , which has a mobile clinic that provides free surgeries for cats and dogs , as well as rescuing and retraining shelter dogs who might otherwise be euthanized . An episode of 60 Minutes broadcast in March 2007 described it as " the grandest dog shelter in the country , a five star , [ 6 acres ( 0 @.@ 024 km2 ; 0 @.@ 0094 sq mi ) ] spread in Malibu , perhaps the most desirable real estate on the planet . Here , among the waterfalls and the manicured grounds , The Sam Simon Foundation gives stray and abandoned dogs a new lease on life , literally . "
As Simon explained , the foundation aims to " rescue dogs " and " train them to be service dogs , [ to help ] people with disabilities , " primarily the deaf . It also provides free veterinary surgeries to pets belonging to low @-@ income families , and trains dogs to help soldiers returning from combat in Iraq and Afghanistan deal with post @-@ traumatic stress disorder . Simon said the money he used was " well spent just for the pleasure it gives me . " The training program has a 20 % success rate , because many of the rescued dogs " have physical and psychological problems " but the dogs who cannot be trained are put up for adoption . The foundation is non @-@ profit , does not accept public donations , but does receive some federal government funding due to a bill written and passed by Senator Al Franken . In 2011 , Simon established and self @-@ funded the Sam Simon Foundation Feeding Families program , a food truck which delivers vegan food to low @-@ income families ; the program helps feed some 200 families per week . He donated an undisclosed sum to the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society in 2012 for the purpose of purchasing another vessel for their fleet , the MY Sam Simon , which was unveiled in December 2012 . Simon was also a board member for Save the Children , and hosted the largest annual fundraiser for PETA , who named him an Honorary Director and their Norfolk , Virginia headquarters building after him . Simon has stated that animal rights charities have been his main target for donations , over other causes like human disease and environmental damage , because " your money can bring success " with visible results . Simon stated in 2011 that there is " nothing [ which gives him ] more pleasure than " helping others via his charities , and gave away most of his fortune .
Simon was a long time fan of boxing , attending fights with his grandfather , but his interest increased particularly after seeing the 1990 heavyweight championship fight between Evander Holyfield and James " Buster " Douglas which he described as " the most electrifying feeling I 'd had in my life . " He began training and won six out of nine amateur fights ; he was also a reserve contestant on the Fox series Celebrity Boxing . Simon was for eight years the manager of heavyweight boxer Lamon Brewster , the now @-@ retired former World Boxing Organization heavyweight champion . He met Brewster in 1997 and began managing him , helping him rise to the top of the WBO rankings . He considers guiding Brewster to his April 2004 victory over Wladimir Klitschko to win the vacant WBO Heavyweight Championship , with Klitschko the heavy favorite , to be amongst the greatest moments of his life ; it " eclipsed everything he had achieved in a glittering 26 @-@ year showbiz career . " Before the Klitschko fight , Simon calculated he had spent several hundred thousand dollars funding Brewster , paying him a large salary on top of match fees as well as letting him stay rent @-@ free at one of his houses , and taking only a 10 % cut of the match fees ; however , he never intended boxing to be a substantial " source of revenue " . Simon retired from boxing management soon after Brewster became WBO Heavyweight Champion .
Simon was a regular poker player , and Texas hold ' em in particular . He was introduced to the game as a child through weekly family poker games and casino trips with his grandfather . Simon did not consider himself a serious player until a game at writer David Steinberg 's house with several " scholarly " players , which encouraged him to study the game and enter numerous tournaments , although he decided not to become professional . He competed at the World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) each year between 2007 and 2011 , finishing in the money in six events . In 2007 , at the 6 @,@ 358 @-@ player $ 10 @,@ 000 No @-@ Limit Texas Hold 'em Main Event , he finished 329th with $ 39 @,@ 445 . He also finished 16th winning $ 35 @,@ 493 at the $ 1 @,@ 000 1 @,@ 048 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em w / Re @-@ Buys in 2007 , 41st winning $ 10 @,@ 708 at the $ 1 @,@ 000 706 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em w / ReBuys in 2008 , 53rd winning $ 10 @,@ 692 at the $ 1 @,@ 000 879 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em w / ReBuys in 2008 , 20th winning $ 24 @,@ 066 at the $ 10 @,@ 000 275 @-@ player World Championship Pot @-@ Limit Hold 'em in 2009 , and 500th winning $ 23 @,@ 876 at the $ 10 @,@ 000 6 @,@ 865 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em Championship in 2011 . He also won the $ 300 438 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em Bounty $ 100 @,@ 000 Guarantee at the 2009 L.A. Poker Open , winning $ 22 @,@ 228 . His biggest win in terms of both field size and prize money was the $ 200 1 @,@ 082 @-@ player No @-@ Limit Hold 'em $ 150 @,@ 000 Guarantee at the 2010 Winnin O ' The Green , where he won $ 57 @,@ 308 . Simon 's private poker games between him and his celebrity friends have been described as " raucous and very entertaining " . Their reputation led Playboy TV to produce the show Sam 's Game , a televised version featuring Simon as host and master of ceremonies of a Las Vegas celebrity Texas Hold ' em match ; he produced the show . He had previously appeared on a 2009 episode of High Stakes Poker .
= = Awards = =
Simon won nine Primetime Emmy Awards and received ten further nominations for his work . For The Tracey Ullman Show he won the Emmys for Outstanding Variety , Music Or Comedy Series in 1989 and Outstanding Writing In A Variety Or Music Program in 1990 . In the former he was nominated again in 1990 , for the latter he was also nominated in 1987 , 1988 and 1989 . He received the Emmy for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) for The Simpsons in 1990 , 1991 , 1995 , 1997 , 1998 , 2000 and 2001 with further nominations in 1990 ( for " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " which was counted as a separate special ) , 1992 , 1996 , 1999 and 2002 . He was nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series for Taxi in 1983 and Cheers in 1985 , Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for It 's Garry Shandling 's Show in 1988 and Outstanding Variety , Music Or Comedy Special for The Best of Tracey Ullman Show in 1990 . He also won a Peabody Award for The Simpsons in 1996 . In 2013 , Simon was awarded the Writers Guild of America Award Animation Writers Caucus lifetime achievement award for his work in animation ; the following year the WGA awarded him the Valentine Davies Award for his humanitarian and philanthropic efforts .
= = Personal life = =
Simon was married to actress Jennifer Tilly from 1984 to 1991 and remained friends with her . He married Playboy Playmate Jami Ferrell in 2000 , and the marriage lasted three weeks . Simon was engaged to chef and caterer Jenna Stewart around 2011 . He was dating Kate Porter , a make @-@ up artist , from 2012 until his death . Simon had three dogs , supported the Democratic Party , and was vegan .
He lived in Pacific Palisades , Los Angeles , in the restored Bailey House , designed by Richard Neutra . After his home was destroyed by a fire in 2007 , Simon redesigned it to be environmentally friendly ; much of the interior is constructed from recycled materials while solar panels provide virtually its entire power needs . The building has a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold certificate . He had an extensive art collection ; he owned paintings by Thomas Hart Benton , John Singer Sargent and one of the original casts of Auguste Rodin 's The Thinker . He also had a sculpture by Robert Graham and works by Alberto Vargas , Gil Elvgren , Ed Ruscha and Richard Estes .
= = Illness and death = =
In late 2012 , Simon was diagnosed with terminal colorectal cancer which later metastasized to his other organs , including his liver and kidneys . He had been feeling ill for some time and had earlier been misdiagnosed . He was given between three and six months to live ; chemotherapy treatment reduced the size of his tumors over the following six months . He arranged for his fortune to be left to various charitable causes , stating " The truth is , I have more money than I 'm interested in spending . Everyone in my family is taken care of . And I enjoy this . " Simon died in his Los Angeles home from complications from the disease on March 8 , 2015 , aged 59 . His remains were interred at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles .
Controversy surrounds the management of his trust , and the lack of donations to groups which he generously supported in his lifetime .
= = Credits = =
= Russian frigate General Admiral =
General Admiral ( Russian : Генерал @-@ адмирал ) was a screw frigate ordered by the Imperial Russian Navy from the United States before the American Civil War . She spent the bulk of her career in the Mediterranean Sea where she evacuated insurgents and their families from Crete in 1868 during the Cretan Revolt . She was struck from the Navy List the following year and broken up in 1870 .
= = Description = =
General Admiral was a very large screw frigate designed by Captain 1st Rank Ivan Shestakov and named after General Admiral Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia , commander of the Russian Navy . She was built of live oak , but was reinforced with diagonal and longitudinal iron braces . General Admiral displaced 5 @,@ 669 long tons ( 5 @,@ 760 t ) . She was 305 feet ( 93 @.@ 0 m ) long between perpendiculars , had a beam of 54 feet 8 inches ( 16 @.@ 7 m ) and a deep draft of 23 ft 6 in ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) . She was sheathed in copper to reduce biofouling . A novel system of zinc pipes that penetrated sheathing and connected with the ventilation fan was installed in the hold to prevent the decay of her hull . Its efficacy is unknown although General Admiral 's short life suggests that it was not effective .
Two steam engines , rated at a total of 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) , and six fire @-@ tube boilers powered the single propeller when the ship was under steam . Using her engines , she had a maximum speed of 12 @.@ 25 knots ( 22 @.@ 69 km / h ; 14 @.@ 10 mph ) . General Admiral 's propeller could be hoisted out of the water and her funnel retracted to improve her sailing qualities . She was considered to be an excellent sailer and could reach 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) under sail alone . She carried 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of coal which gave her a range of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) , but it was her 75 days of provisions that were the practical limit of her endurance .
General Admiral 's armament was made and installed in Russia . Her battery deck carried thirty @-@ six 60 @-@ pounder muzzle @-@ loading guns and four long 36 @-@ pounder chase guns . The upper deck had twenty @-@ four 60 @-@ pounder guns and two long 36 @-@ pounder chase guns . Two 3 @-@ pood shell guns were mounted fore and aft on revolving platforms . In 1862 her armament was revised and two 60 @-@ pounder and the two long 36 @-@ pounder guns on her upper deck were removed . Four years later , it was rearranged with two 60 @-@ pounders moved from her upper deck to the lower deck and two long 36 @-@ pounders moved from the lower deck to the upper deck .
= = Career = =
General Admiral was laid down on 21 September 1857 at the William H. Webb Shipyard in New York City . She was launched on 3 September 1858 and was delivered to Kronstadt on 15 March 1859 by an American crew , commanded by an American captain , although Captain Shestakov accompanied her back to Russia . Her total cost , including delivery , was 1 @,@ 419 @,@ 629 @.@ 51 silver rubles . En route she only took 11 days to reach Cherbourg from New York City under steam , a record time for a warship at that time . She sailed for the Mediterranean the following year under the command of Captain Shestakov , stopping at Kiel in July 1860 . While in the Mediterranean she made port visits at Beirut , Piraeus and Nice . General Admiral departed Nice on 16 April 1863 for the Baltic Sea . She met the newly completed coast @-@ defence ship Pervenets en route and escorted her from England to the Baltic .
Three years later , on 8 June 1866 , General Admiral departed Kronstadt for the Mediterranean , making a port visit at Copenhagen on 22 June en route . In June 1867 she made another port visit at Piraeus before leaving Cadiz on 26 July bound for the Baltic . She returned to the Mediterranean the next year and evacuated Cretan insurgents and their families in 1868 during the Cretan Revolt against the Ottoman Empire . Having returned to Russia by 1869 , she was struck from the Navy List on 26 June 1869 and broken up the following year .
= SR N15X class =
The SR N15X class or Remembrance class were a design of British 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 steam locomotives converted in 1934 by Richard Maunsell of the Southern Railway from the large LB & SCR L class 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotives that had become redundant on the London – Brighton line following electrification . It was hoped that further service could be obtained from these locomotives on the Southern 's Western Section , sharing the duties of the N15 class locomotives . The locomotives were named after famous Victorian engineers except for Remembrance , which was the LBSCR 's memorial locomotive for staff members who died in the First World War .
In their new form the locomotives were similar in outline to the N15 class , though suffered from the expectation amongst crews that they were an improved version of this type . Despite this , their ability to accelerate well was put to good use on cross @-@ country trains between main lines . The class saw service into nationalisation in 1948 . All had been withdrawn by 1957 , with none preserved .
= = Background = =
With the impending electrification of the Southern Railway 's Central Section ( the former LB & SCR lines ) , the question arose as to what to do with the relatively new and powerful LB & SCR designs . Maunsell looked at the possibility of converting the LBSCR “ Remembrance ” or LB & SCR L Class 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tanks built by L. B. Billinton between 1914 and 1922 . These Baltics had proved to be capable machines on the Brighton line , although their relatively low boiler pressure ( 170 psi or 1 @.@ 17 MPa ) , the excessive difference between " first valve " and " second valve " on the regulator , and more particularly their small ( 8 in or 203 mm ) piston valves in relation to their large ( 21 in or 533 mm ) cylinders were a significant limitation , precluding their use on any other part of the Southern system . The decision was taken to rebuild them into more conventional 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender locomotives .
= = Conversion = =
All seven of the Billinton L Class locomotives entered Eastleigh works in 1934 for rebuilding , each leaving the works the same year . Conversion into the 4 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender type , entailed removing the trailing bogie , water tanks , and bunker , shortening the mainframes and fitting new cabs ; these were of the side @-@ window variety already used on the Lord Nelson class . At the same time there was a revision of the locomotives ' front end arrangement incorporating a " King Arthur " N15 type of blast pipe and chimney ; boiler pressure was increased to 180 psi ( 1 @.@ 24 MPa ) , whilst the piston diameter was marginally decreased from 22 in ( 559 mm ) to 21 inches ( 533 mm ) .
The class received 5 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 23 @,@ 000 l ; 6 @,@ 000 US gal ) bogie tenders from Robert Urie 's S15 class and Southern @-@ type smoke deflectors on either side of the smokebox . The result was classified N15X , the suffix corresponding to the old LBSCR designation for a rebuilt / modified locomotive . The conversion process created a locomotive that was similar in appearance to the N15 " King Arthur " class as modified by Maunsell in the 1920s .
= = = Naming the locomotives = = =
Two of the locomotives retained their original names : number 2333 Remembrance and 2329 Stephenson , whilst the other members of the L class , were newly new named after famous railway engineers . The new locomotive names were suggested by Maunsell 's assistant , Harry Holcroft , and were distributed as thus :
2327 Trevithick , 2328 Hackworth , 2329 Stephenson , 2330 Cudworth , 2331 Beattie , 2332 Stroudley , 2333 Remembrance
2333 Rem
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long storyline rivalry between the former partners and an eventual " Unsanctioned Street Fight " at SummerSlam , in which Michaels came out of retirement to win . Afterwards , however , Triple H attacked him with a sledgehammer and Michaels was carried out of the ring .
Before September 2 , 2002 , WWE recognized only one world champion , the Undisputed WWE Champion , for both the Raw and SmackDown ! brands . After SummerSlam , then Undisputed WWE Champion Brock Lesnar became exclusive to SmackDown ! , leaving Raw without a world champion . Raw general manager Eric Bischoff then awarded Triple H the Big Gold Belt ( which had been used for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and WCW World Heavyweight Championship ) making him the first World Heavyweight Champion . Triple H retained his title against Rob Van Dam at Unforgiven when Ric Flair hit Van Dam with a sledgehammer .
In October 2002 , Triple H would begin a controversial feud with Kane , leading to a match at No Mercy on October 20 in which both Kane 's Intercontinental Championship and Triple H 's World Heavyweight Championship were at stake . In the weeks preceding the match , Triple H claimed that , several years earlier , Kane had an unrequited relationship with a woman named Katie Vick . He went on to claim that , after Vick was killed in a car crash , Kane ( the driver ) raped her corpse . Triple H later threatened to show video footage of Kane committing the act in question ; however , the footage that finally aired showed Triple H ( dressed as Kane ) simulating necrophilia with a mannequin in a casket ; Kane 's tag team partner The Hurricane responded the following week by showing a video of Triple H ( rather , someone wearing a Triple H series of masks ) getting an enema . The angle was very unpopular with fans , and was de @-@ emphasised before the title match . Triple H went on to defeat Kane at No Mercy , unifying the two titles .
Triple H eventually lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Shawn Michaels in the first Elimination Chamber match at Survivor Series . He defeated Van Dam to earn a title shot at Armageddon with Michaels as the special guest referee . He regained the title from Michaels in a Three Stages of Hell match at Armageddon .
In January 2003 , Triple H formed a stable known as Evolution with Ric Flair , Randy Orton , and Batista . Triple H and Flair challenged Rob Van Dam and Kane for the World Tag Team Championship , but they lost the match . The group was pushed on Raw from 2003 to 2004 and the height of their dominance occurred after Armageddon , where every member of Evolution left the pay @-@ per @-@ view holding a title . Triple H held the World Heavyweight Championship for most of 2003 , defending it at a match against Booker T at WrestleMania XIX in an angle with racist undertones . He lost the title after 280 days in September 2003 at Unforgiven to Bill Goldberg , in a match with the stipulation that had Goldberg lost , he would have to retire . After a failed attempt to win back the title from Goldberg in a rematch at the Survivor Series , he finally regained the championship against Goldberg in a triple threat match at Armageddon which also involved Kane . At the 2004 Royal Rumble , Triple H and Shawn Michaels fought in a Last Man Standing match to a double countout , so Triple H retained the title as a result . Triple H dropped the title to Chris Benoit at WrestleMania XX , and he was unable to reclaim the championship from Benoit in subsequent rematches , including a rematch from WrestleMania between Triple H , Benoit , and Shawn Michaels at Backlash .
He then ended his feud with Michaels , defeating him in a Hell in a Cell match at Bad Blood , which became the longest Hell in a Cell match in history . After another failed attempt , losing to Benoit at Vengeance , he focused on Eugene , beating him at SummerSlam . Triple H then regained the title from former associate Randy Orton at Unforgiven . Following a triple threat World Heavyweight title defense against Benoit and Edge on the November 29 , 2004 episode of Raw , the World Heavyweight Championship became vacant for the first time . At New Year 's Revolution , Triple H won the Elimination Chamber to begin his tenth world title reign . At WrestleMania 21 , Triple H lost the championship to Batista , and subsequently lost two rematches at Backlash and Vengeance . After Vengeance , Triple H took a hiatus from WWE due to suffering from minor neck problems .
After four @-@ month hiatus , Triple H returned to Raw on October 3 , 2005 as part of WWE Homecoming . He teamed with fellow Evolution member Flair to defeat Chris Masters and Carlito . After the match , Triple H turned on Flair hitting Flair with a sledgehammer , sparking a feud between the duo . Flair defeated Triple H in a steel cage match at Taboo Tuesday for Flair 's Intercontinental Championship . Subsequently , Triple H defeated Flair in a non @-@ title Last Man Standing match at Survivor Series to end their feud .
= = = = D @-@ Generation X reunion ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
Although Triple H failed to win the Royal Rumble match at the Royal Rumble , another championship opportunity arose for Triple H in the Road to WrestleMania Tournament . He won the tournament , granting him a match for the WWE Championship at WrestleMania 22 , where Triple H and John Cena fought in the main event for the title , which Triple H lost via submission . Later that month at Backlash , Triple H was involved in another WWE Championship match , fighting Edge and Cena in a triple threat match , where he lost again . Angered at his loss , a bloodied Triple H used his sledgehammer to attack both Edge and Cena and then performed a number of DX crotch chops . Triple H unsuccessfully attempted to win the WWE title from Cena on numerous occasions , blaming his shortcomings on Vince McMahon , which eventually led to a feud between the McMahons and Triple H.
Shawn Michaels returned on the June 12 episode of Raw and soon reunited with Triple H to reform D @-@ Generation X , turning Triple H into a fan favorite once again for the first time since 2002 . DX defeated The Spirit Squad at Vengeance in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap match . They continued their feud with Mr. McMahon , Shane McMahon and The Spirit Squad for several weeks . They then defeated The Spirit Squad again on the July 18 , 2006 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 2 elimination match . They then again defeated the McMahons at SummerSlam , withstanding the attack of several wrestlers who assaulted them before the match aas directed by Mr. McMahon . At Unforgiven , D @-@ Generation X then defeated the McMahons and ECW World Champion Big Show in a 3 @-@ on @-@ 2 handicap Hell in a Cell match . During the match , DX embarrassed Vince by shoving his face in between Big Show 's buttocks , and DX won when Triple H broke a sledgehammer over the shoulders of Mr. McMahon after Michaels performed a Sweet Chin Music on him .
At Cyber Sunday during DX 's feud with Rated @-@ RKO , special guest referee Eric Bischoff allowed the illegal use of a weapon to give Rated @-@ RKO the win . At Survivor Series , DX got their revenge when their team defeated Edge and Orton 's team in a clean sweep during their five @-@ on @-@ five elimination match . In January 2007 , at New Year 's Revolution , DX and Rated @-@ RKO fought to a no contest after Triple H suffered a legitimate torn right quadriceps ( similar to the one he suffered in 2001 in his other leg ) 15 minutes into the match . Surgery was successfully performed on January 9 , 2007 by Dr. James Andrews .
= = = = WWE Champion ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = =
Triple H made his return at SummerSlam , where he defeated King Booker . Two months later at No Mercy , Triple H was originally scheduled to face Umaga in a singles match . However , at the start of the night , Triple H decided to challenge newly named WWE Champion Randy Orton , reigniting his rivalry with Orton that had been interrupted following his injury . Triple H won the match , winning his eleventh world championship and sixth WWE Championship , and then defended his title against Umaga in his regularly scheduled match after Mr. McMahon declared the match to be for the WWE title . After that McMahon gave Orton a rematch against Triple H in a Last Man Standing match in the main event , and Triple H lost after failing to beat the ten count when Orton hit his RKO onto the announcer 's table . Triple H 's title reign at No Mercy is the fifth shortest reign in WWE history , only lasting through the duration of the event . After winning the Raw Elimination Chamber match at No Way Out , Triple H gained a WWE Championship match by outlasting five other men , last eliminating Jeff Hardy after a Pedigree on a steel chair . However , at WrestleMania XXIV , Orton retained after punting Triple H and pinning John Cena following Triple H 's Pedigree on Cena . A month later , at Backlash , Triple H won the title in a fatal four @-@ way elimination match against Orton , Cena , and John " Bradshaw " Layfield , tying the record for most WWE Championship reigns with The Rock . Triple H then retained the title against Orton at Judgment Day in a steel cage match and again at One Night Stand in a Last Man Standing match . Orton suffered a legitimate collarbone injury during the match , thus ending the feud prematurely .
Triple H then went on to defeat cleanly John Cena to successfully defend the WWE Championship at Night of Champions . On the June 23 episode of Raw , Triple H was drafted to the SmackDown brand as a part of the 2008 WWE draft , in the process making the WWE Championship exclusive to SmackDown . He defended the championship over the summer by defeating the likes of Edge at The Great American Bash and The Great Khali at SummerSlam , and was the only champion to retain his title at Unforgiven 's Championship Scramble matches . After this , he successfully defended it against Jeff Hardy both at No Mercy and Cyber Sunday .
At Survivor Series , Triple H was scheduled to defend the championship against Vladimir Kozlov and Jeff Hardy , but Hardy was kept out of the match after a scripted attack and injury . During the match , SmackDown general manager Vickie Guerrero announced that Edge had returned and introduced him into the contest . Hardy interfered and hit Triple H with a steel chair meant for Edge , thus costing him the title after a 210 days reign and resulting in Edge winning his sixth world title . After failing to regain the title at Armageddon , Triple H entered seventh in the 2009 Royal Rumble , but was last eliminated by Randy Orton . In February at Elimination Chamber , Triple H won the WWE Championship in the SmackDown Elimination Chamber match , setting the record for most reigns at eight . That record stood until 2011 when John Cena won his ninth WWE Championship .
On the February 16 episode of Raw , Triple H made an appearance aiding Stephanie and Shane McMahon , after they were attacked by Randy Orton . On the February 20 episode of SmackDown , Triple H was interviewed by Jim Ross ; in the interview , footage was shown highlighting the events that occurred on the February 16 episode of Raw . Ross asked Triple H how he felt seeing that footage , in response , he broke character ( after 5 years of marriage ) by admitting that Vince McMahon is his father @-@ in @-@ law , that Shane is his brother @-@ in @-@ law , and that Stephanie is his wife , thus creating a rivalry between Triple H and Orton . On the February 23 episode of Raw , Triple H confronted Orton , before attacking him , Ted DiBiase , and Cody Rhodes ( a group known as The Legacy ) with a sledgehammer and chasing them from the arena . At WrestleMania XXV , Triple H defeated Orton to retain the title . He , with Shane McMahon and Batista , then faced Orton and The Legacy in a six @-@ man tag match for the WWE Championship at Backlash . He lost the title to Orton after trying to stop Batista from hitting Cody Rhodes with a chair , allowing Orton to hit the RKO and punt to the head . After six weeks off of TV , selling the injury , he lost a Three Stages of Hell title match to Orton at The Bash . At Night of Champions , he again lost a title match to Orton , this time a triple threat match , also involving John Cena .
= = = = DX 's final run and various feuds ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
On the August 10 episode of Raw , Triple H met with Michaels at an office cafeteria in Texas where Michaels was working as a chef ; throughout the show , Triple H tried to convince Michaels to return to WWE from hiatus . After several incidents ( including grease grill burgers on fire and Michaels shouting at a little girl ) , Michaels agreed to team with Triple H to face The Legacy at SummerSlam , superkicked the girl , and quit his chef job . On the August 17 episode of Raw , Triple H and Michaels officially reunited as DX , but as they were in the process of their in @-@ ring promo , The Legacy attacked them both . Their first match after reuniting was against The Legacy at SummerSlam , which they won . At Breaking Point , however , they lost to The Legacy in the first ever Submissions Count Anywhere match in WWE history .
At Hell in a Cell , DX defeated The Legacy in a Hell in a Cell match . DX unsuccessfully challenged John Cena for the WWE Championship in a triple threat match at Survivor Series , after which they remained friends and partners . On December 13 at TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs , DX defeated Jeri @-@ Show ( Chris Jericho and Big Show ) to win the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship in a Tables , Ladders , and Chairs match . This was their first tag team championship reign together .
On December 21 , Triple H announced that Hornswoggle was the new DX mascot . This came about after Hornswoggle sued DX for emotional and physical distress due to them not allowing him to join DX . After being taken to court where they were ruled guilty by a jury and judge consisting of dwarves , Michaels told Triple H that Hornswoggle could be the mascot . Triple H agreed to it only if the charges were dropped , which Hornswoggle agreed to . On January 11 , 2010 episode of Raw , Mike Tyson , who was the Raw guest host for the night , teamed with Jericho to face DX ; however , at the end of the bout , Tyson turned on Jericho and aligned himself with Triple H and Michaels . On the February 8 episode of Raw , DX lost the Unified Tag Team Championship to ShoMiz ( The Miz and Big Show ) in a triple threat elimination tag match , also involving The Straight Edge Society ( CM Punk and Luke Gallows ) . On the March 1 episode of Raw , they lost a rematch for the title . This was their last televised match before Michaels retired . Michaels and Triple H had a non @-@ wrestling reunion at the 2010 Tribute to the Troops .
On February 21 , Triple H eliminated then WWE Champion Sheamus from the Elimination Chamber match , though he did not win the title himself . Sheamus attacked him weeks later , setting up a match at WrestleMania XXVI , which Triple H won . Also at WrestleMania , Michaels lost to The Undertaker and was forced to retire . While giving a farewell speech the next night , Sheamus attacked him and set up a rematch at Extreme Rules . Sheamus attacked Triple H at the start of the show , before later winning the match . Triple H then took time off to recover from injuries , completely missing The Nexus storyline . Triple H made an untelevised appearance on October 30 at the WWE Fan Appreciation Event and also at the 2010 Tribute to the Troops .
= = = = Chief Operating Officer ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
On the February 21 , 2011 episode of Raw , Triple H returned to WWE by interrupting the return of The Undertaker and challenging him to a match at WrestleMania XXVII , which later became a No Holds Barred match . A week later , he put Sheamus through the announce table with a Pedigree , in retaliation for Sheamus giving him a ten @-@ month injury . At WrestleMania XXVII , Triple H lost , which extended Undertaker 's undefeated streak to 19 – 0 ; however , Undertaker was carried from the ring on a stretcher whereas Triple H left the ring on his feet .
At the end of the July 18 episode of Raw , Triple H returned on behalf of WWE 's board of directors to relieve his father @-@ in @-@ law Vince McMahon of his duties . This was followed by the announcement that he had been assigned to take over as Chief Operating Officer ( COO ) of the WWE . This was during a storyline where CM Punk had won the WWE Championship and left the company . Though a new champion was crowned , Triple H helped re @-@ sign Punk and upheld both championship reigns . He announced he would referee a match to unify both WWE Championships at SummerSlam . Although he counted a pinfall for CM Punk to win , John Cena 's leg was on the ropes , which would break the pin . Regardless , Triple H 's longtime friend Kevin Nash attacked Punk immediately after the match to allow Alberto Del Rio to become the new champion . Though Nash and Punk demanded a match against each other , Triple H fired Nash for insubordination and booked himself in a No Disqualification match at Night of Champions with his position of COO on the line . He won the match despite interference from John Laurinaitis , Nash , The Miz and R @-@ Truth . After repeated attacks from these wrestlers in various matches , the majority of WWE 's on @-@ screen staff gave Triple H a vote of no confidence . Mr. McMahon returned to relieve him of his duties on Raw , though he remained the COO . He was replaced as general manager of Raw by Laurinaitis , who booked him in a tag team match against Miz and R @-@ Truth at Vengeance . During the match , Nash once again attacked him and did so the following night on the October 24 episode of Raw , hospitalizing him ( kayfabe ) . WWE later announced that Triple H had sustained a fractured vertebra , and would be out of action . He returned on December 12 , as part of the Slammy Awards . On December 18 , he defeated Nash at Tables , Ladders , and Chairs in sledgehammer ladder match , after attacking him with a sledgehammer .
Triple H returned on the January 30 , 2012 episode of Raw to evaluate Laurinaitis ' performance as general manager . Before he could announce the decision , he was interrupted by the returning Undertaker . After initially refusing the rematch as he did not want to tarnish The Undertaker 's legacy , Triple H accepted the challenge after being called a coward who lives in Shawn Michaels ' shadow , on the condition their rematch be contested inside Hell in a Cell . Triple H went on to lose this match at WrestleMania XXVIII .
Triple H returned on the April 30 episode of Raw , when he refused to give in to Brock Lesnar 's unreasonable contract demands , resulting in Lesnar attacking him and storyline breaking his arm . Upon his return two weeks later , Triple H was confronted by Lesnar 's legal representative , Paul Heyman , who announced Lesnar was filing a lawsuit against WWE for breach of contract . After he accosted Heyman , Heyman threatened another lawsuit against Triple H for assault and battery . At the No Way Out in June , Triple H challenged Lesnar , who was not present , to a match at SummerSlam , which Heyman refused on Lesnar 's behalf the following night on Raw . At Raw 1000 , Stephanie McMahon managed to goad Heyman into accepting her husband 's challenge against Lesnar . To anger Triple H , Lesnar broke his best friend Shawn Michaels 's arm on the August 13 episode of Raw . Six days later at SummerSlam , Lesnar defeated Triple H via submission after once again breaking his arm in the storyline .
On the August 27 episode of Raw , Triple H was supposed to address his potential retirement , but did not make a definitive decision . On the December 17 episode of Raw , Triple H made a non @-@ wrestling appearance for the 2012 Slammy Awards debuting with his new haircut .
Triple H returned on the February 25 , 2013 episode of Raw , brawling with Brock Lesnar after he attempted to attack Mr. McMahon . The brawl resulted in Lesnar having his head split open and requiring 18 stitches . The following week , Triple H issued a challenge to Lesnar , requesting a rematch with him at WrestleMania 29 , which Lesnar accepted on the condition that he could choose the stipulation . The following week , after Triple H signed the contract and assaulted Heyman , the stipulation was revealed as No Holds Barred with Triple H 's career on the line . Triple H went on to win the match after hitting Lesnar with a Pedigree onto the steel steps . On the April 15 episode of Raw , Heyman challenged Triple H to face Lesnar in a steel cage match at Extreme Rules , which Triple H accepted the following week . Triple H ended up losing the match at the pay @-@ per @-@ view on May 19 thanks to interference from Heyman , and he also injured his jaw .
The next night on Raw , Triple H wrestled Heyman 's newest client , Curtis Axel . He suffered a storyline concussion and was deemed to have forfeited . Despite being medically cleared to wrestle before the June 3 episode of Raw , Vince and Stephanie McMahon did not allow Triple H to wrestle Axel , citing concerns for his well @-@ being and the safety of his children . In response , Triple H stormed out the arena and vowed to return to the ring the next week on Raw . On that episode , he lost to Axel when McMahon dubiously disqualified him , ordered Axel to leave the ring , then stole the bell and microphone to prevent the match from being restarted .
= = = = The Authority ( 2013 – 2015 ) = = = =
On the August 12 episode of Raw , Triple H announced that he would be the special guest referee of the SummerSlam main event : the WWE Championship match between champion John Cena and Daniel Bryan , before giving original referee Brad Maddox a Pedigree . At the event , after Bryan won the match and the title , Triple H would give Bryan a Pedigree so that Randy Orton could cash in his Money in the Bank and win the title , therefore turning heel for the first time since 2006 . Along with his wife Stephanie , they created The Authority , with The Shield as his enforcers and later Kane joining as the Director of Operations .
Over the coming weeks he set up handicap matches against any wrestlers who questioned his decisions , such as Big Show and Dolph Ziggler , even firing Cody Rhodes in retaliation for the latter 's insolence . On the October 7 episode of Raw , after " firing " Big Show , Show knocked him out in retaliation and was carried out by officials out of the arena . At the 2013 Slammy Awards , Triple H immediately performed a Pedigree on Orton after Bryan shoved him into Stephanie McMahon , despite Orton 's shock .
At WrestleMania XXX , Triple H lost to Bryan , thereby granting Bryan a part in the subsequent title match against Batista and champion Randy Orton . Triple H assaulted Bryan after the match and later attempted to prevent Bryan from winning the title by interfering and recruiting Scott Armstrong as a crooked referee , but these attempts were unsuccessful as Bryan won the title by making Batista submit . In order to end Bryan 's title reign , Triple H reformed Evolution with Orton and Batista on the April 18 episode of SmackDown , but Bryan remained champion due to The Shield turning on The Authority . At Extreme Rules , Evolution lost to The Shield and again at Payback in a No Holds Barred elimination match . On the June 2 episode of Raw , Batista would leave the group after Triple H refused to grant him his shot at the WWE World Heavyweight Championship . Triple H would then resort to " Plan B " , which would be Seth Rollins turning on The Shield and rejoining The Authority .
On the October 27 episode of Raw , Triple H would offer John Cena a chance to join forces with The Authority , which Cena refused . This led to Triple H announcing a five @-@ on @-@ five tag team elimination match for Survivor Series , with a team representing The Authority facing a team captained by Cena . On the November 3 episode of Raw , Mr. McMahon announced that if Team Authority would lose , they would be removed from power . On the November 21 episode of SmackDown , Triple H announced that if Team Cena lost , all of Team Cena , except Cena himself , would be fired . At Survivor Series , Big Show joined The Authority by betraying Cena , but Sting made his WWE debut , attacking crooked referee Scott Armstrong and Triple H , and assisted Dolph Ziggler in pinning Rollins to give Team Cena the victory , putting the Authority out of power .
After being out of power for a month , Rollins coaxed Cena into reinstating The Authority on the December 29 episode of Raw , by holding Raw guest host Edge hostage with Big Show . On the January 19 episode of Raw , Cena would defeat Rollins , Kane and Big Show in a handicap match when Sting distracted The Authority , allowing Cena to pin Rollins and win back the jobs of Ziggler , Ryback and Erick Rowan , who had been fired two weeks previously by Triple H and Stephanie . On January 26 , it was officially announced via WWE.com that Triple H challenged Sting to a " face @-@ to @-@ face " confrontation at Fastlane , which Sting accepted ; at the confrontation , Sting challenged Triple H to a match at WrestleMania 31 , which Triple H accepted . At WrestleMania , Triple H defeated Sting with interference from D @-@ Generation @-@ X , but shook hands with Sting after the match . After his match with Sting , he and Stephanie McMahon were later confronted by The Rock and Ronda Rousey during a promo regarding the record crowd at the event .
Throughout 2015 , Triple H maintained his role as the leader of The Authority , and was involved in mediating issues between Seth Rollins and Kane . Over the summer , Triple H began to test Rollins by having him defend the championship against Roman Reigns , Brock Lesnar , John Cena , and Sting . After Rollins suffered a legitimate severe knee injury at a live event , the WWE World Heavyweight Championship was vacated and it was announced that there would be a tournament to determine a new champion at Survivor Series .
On the November 9 episode of Raw , Triple H offered to give Reigns a bye to the finals of the tournament if he joined The Authority , but Reigns refused . At Survivor Series , Reigns defeated Dean Ambrose in the tournament finals to become WWE World Heavyweight Champion . Triple H came out and attempted to congratulate Reigns , but was instead speared by him . This allowed Sheamus to cash in his Money in the Bank contract and quickly defeat Reigns to win the championship , resulting in Sheamus aligning with The Authority .
= = = = WWE World Heavyweight Champion & Hiatus ( 2015 – Present ) = = = =
The Authority made a rematch between Reigns and Sheamus for the title on the November 30 episode of Raw , with the stipulation that Dean Ambrose and The Usos would lose their Intercontinental Championship and WWE Tag Team Championship title shots if Reigns failed to win the match in under 5 minutes and 15 seconds ( which was the length Reigns ' title reign at Survivor Series ) ; Reigns won by disqualification , allowing Ambrose and The Usos to keep their title shots . At the TLC : Tables , Ladders and Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view , Sheamus retained the WWE World Heavyweight Championship against Reigns due to interference from The League of Nations . After the match , Reigns " snapped " and viciously attacked Sheamus as well as Triple H , who had come to calm Reigns . Due to the injuries ( kayfabe ) suffered from Reigns , Triple H took a hiatus from television .
Triple H returned at the 2016 Royal Rumble match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship , as the unannounced 30th entrant . After eliminating the defending champion , Roman Reigns , he then eliminated Dean Ambrose to secure his second Royal Rumble win and 14th world championship overall . After breaking Reigns ' nose in storyline , Triple H was then challenged by Ambrose , whom he defeated at Roadblock to defend the title , before dropping it back to Reigns – who had become the # 1 contender for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship by pinning Dean Ambrose in a triple threat match that also involved Brock Lesnar at Fastlane – at WrestleMania 32 , ending his reign at 70 days .
= = Business career = =
In 2010 , Levesque 's role as an Executive Senior Advisor was officially formalized as he was given an office at WWE headquarters in Stamford , Connecticut . Levesque was named Executive Vice President , Talent and Live events in 2011 . In this role he oversees the talent relations and talent development departments , training of performers and management of worldwide recruitment . Levesque 's role within the company has been under much criticism since 2003 , as many fans and some wrestlers view it as a way to keep him on top on @-@ screen and to give him more television time . Levesque has spoken against this criticism and has denied all of it . Additionally , Levesque has been credited for losing in high profile matches that helped elevate the careers of younger wrestlers including John Cena , Randy Orton , Batista , Jeff Hardy , Brock Lesnar , Daniel Bryan and Roman Reigns .
As the founder of NXT since its inception in 2012 , Levesque has been widely praised for helping cultivate the brand , recruiting fresh new talent , and helping guide the brand to various levels of success including sold @-@ out shows , increased respect for women ’ s wrestling , and international expansion .
In 2013 , his title was elevated to Executive Vice @-@ president of Talent , Live Events and Creative where he also works with WWE creative direction and storylines of WWE 's programming .
In 2013 , Levesque earned a combined salary of just over $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( U.S. ) from his front office job and as a wrestler . He also owns just over $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( U.S. ) in WWE stock .
= = Personal life = =
What began as an on @-@ screen storyline marriage in 2000 blossomed into a real @-@ life romance when Levesque began dating Stephanie McMahon . They married on October 25 , 2003 . They have three daughters . He had previously been in a long @-@ term relationship with former WWF wrestler Chyna . He has a sister named Lynn .
In late 2004 , Levesque released a book titled Making the Game : Triple H 's Approach to a Better Body . Mostly devoted to bodybuilding advice , the book also includes some autobiographical information , memoirs , and opinions .
Levesque is a fan of the band Motörhead ( which has performed three different entrance themes for Triple H over his career ) , and was good friends with lead singer Lemmy . To pay homage to both Lemmy and the band , Triple H wore Lemmy @-@ inspired facial hair during a large portion of his career . After Lemmy died on December 28 , 2015 , Triple H attended his funeral on January 9 , 2016 , where he spoke about the gift of sound that Lemmy and Motörhead have given to him and the friendship they had over the years .
During an interview with ITV London in December 2015 , Levesque said that he is a supporter of the English football team West Ham United FC .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
In 2014 , Levesque along with his wife Stephanie created the " Connor 's Cure " cancer fund in honor of Connor " The Crusher " Michalek , a young WWE fan who died of cancer at the age of eight .
= = Filmography = =
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Pedigree ( Double underhook facebuster ) – 1995 – present
Pedigree Pandemonium / Pedigree Perfection ( Cutter ) – 1994 – 1995 ; adopted from Diamond Dallas Page
Reverse or inverted Indian deathlock – WCW ; rarely used as regular move in WWF / E
Signature moves
Abdominal stretch
Arm @-@ trap crossface – rarely used
Blatant choke
Chop block
Facebreaker knee smash , often used as a back body drop counter
Figure four leglock
Flowing DDT
High knee
Jumping knee drop , rarely performed from the second / third rope .
Mounted punches
Running clothesline
Running neckbreaker
Short arm clothesline
Sledgehammer shot
Sleeper hold
Spinning spinebuster , often used as a counter to an upcoming opponent
Managers
Chyna
The Court Jester
Hornswoggle
John Rodeo
Mr. Majestic
Mr. Perfect
Ric Flair
Rick Rude
Stephanie McMahon / Stephanie McMahon @-@ Helmsley
Vito Carlucci
Wrestlers managed
Seth Rollins
Snitsky
Nicknames
" The Cerebral Assassin "
" The Connecticut Blue Blood "
" The Game "
" The King of Kings "
Entrance themes
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE
" Blue Blood " by Jim Johnston ( April 28 , 1995 – December 15 , 1996 )
" Symphony No. 9 in D minor with the final chorus on Friedrich Schiller 's Ode to Joy , Op. 125 : IV . Presto . Allegro assai . Alla Marcia . Andante maestoso . Allegro energico , ... " by Paul Kletzki & Czech Philmarmonic Orchestra ( December 15 , 1996 – November 10 , 1997 )
" Break It Down " by The DX Band ( November 10 , 1997 – April 5 , 1999 ; June 19 , 2006 – April 2007 ; August 24 , 2009 – March 1 , 2010 ; July 23 , 2012 )
" Corporate Player " by Jim Johnston ( April 25 , 1999 – May 10 , 1999 )
" Higher Brain Pattern " by Jim Johnston ( May 16 , 1999 – June 21 , 1999 )
" My Time " by The DX Band ( June 27 , 1999 – December 10 , 2000 )
" The Kings " by Run @-@ D.M.C ( March 17 , 2000 – July 2000 )
" The Game " by The DX Band ( December 10 , 2000 ; used only once at Armageddon 2000 and sometimes in promos )
" The Game " by Motörhead ( January 8 , 2001 – present )
" King of Kings " by Motörhead ( 2006 , 2011 , August 18 , 2013 – April 3 , 2016 ; used as leader of The Authority )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
International Sports Hall of Fame
Class of 2015
International Wrestling Federation
IWF Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
IWF Tag Team Champions ( 1 time ) – with Perry Saturn
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year ( 2000 ) vs. Kurt Angle
Feud of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit
Feud of the Year ( 2009 ) vs. Randy Orton
Feud of the Year ( 2013 ) vs. Daniel Bryan – as a member of The Authority
Match of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels at WrestleMania XX
Match of the Year ( 2012 ) vs. The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania XXVIII
Most Hated Wrestler of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 )
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2003 – 2005 )
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2013 ) – as a member of The Authority
Most Hated Wrestler of the Year ( 2014 ) – with Stephanie McMahon
Wrestler of the Decade ( 2000 – 2009 )
Wrestler of the Year ( 2008 )
Ranked # 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2000 and 2009
Ranked # 139 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment / WWE
World Heavyweight Championship ( 5 times )
WWE Tag Team Championship1 ( 1 time ) – with Shawn Michaels
WWF / E World Heavyweight Championship2 ( 9 times )
WWF / E Intercontinental Championship ( 5 times )
WWF European Championship ( 2 times )
WWF Tag Team Championship3 ( 2 times ) – with Stone Cold Steve Austin ( 1 ) and Shawn Michaels ( 1 )
King of the Ring ( 1997 )
Royal Rumble ( 2002 , 2016 )
Road To Wrestlemania Tournament ( 2006 )
Seventh Triple Crown Champion
Second Grand Slam Champion
Slammy Awards ( 3 times )
Best Hair ( 1997 )
Match of the Year ( 2012 ) – vs. The Undertaker in a Hell in a Cell match at WrestleMania XXVIII
OMG Moment of the Year ( 2011 ) – Triple H performing a Tombstone Piledriver on The Undertaker and The Undertaker kicking out at WrestleMania XXVII
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Booker ( 2015 ) with Ryan Ward
Feud of the Year ( 2000 ) vs. Mick Foley
Feud of the Year ( 2004 ) vs. Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels
Feud of the Year ( 2005 ) vs. Batista
Wrestler of the Year ( 2000 )
Most Disgusting Promotional Tactic ( 2002 ) Accusing Kane of murder and necrophilia ( Katie Vick )
Most Overrated ( 2002 – 2004 , 2009 )
Readers ' Least Favorite Wrestler ( 2002 , 2003 )
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2002 ) vs. Kane
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2006 ) with Shawn Michaels vs. Vince McMahon and Shane McMahon
Worst Feud of the Year ( 2011 ) vs. Kevin Nash
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2003 ) vs. Scott Steiner at Royal Rumble
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 2008 ) vs. Edge and Vladimir Kozlov at Survivor Series
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 2005 )
Other awards
Metal Hammer 's Spirit of Lemmy Award ( 2016 )
1 ^ Triple H 's only reign with the WWE Tag Team Championship was when the championship was unificated with the World Tag Team Championship and it was known as the Unified WWE Tag Team Championship .
2 ^ Triple H 's fifth reign was as Undisputed WWF Champion . His next three were as simply WWE Champion , while his ninth reign was as WWE World Heavyweight Champion .
3 ^ Triple H 's reign with Shawn Michaels was when the title , then known as World Tag Team Championship , was unified with the WWE Tag Team Championship and known as Unified WWE Tag Team Championship .
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= Ascending cholangitis =
Ascending cholangitis , also known as acute cholangitis or simply cholangitis , is an infection of the bile duct ( cholangitis ) , usually caused by bacteria ascending from its junction with the duodenum ( first part of the small intestine ) . It tends to occur if the bile duct is already partially obstructed by gallstones .
Cholangitis can be life @-@ threatening , and is regarded as a medical emergency . Characteristic symptoms include yellow discoloration of the skin or whites of the eyes , fever , abdominal pain , and in severe cases , low blood pressure and confusion . Initial treatment is with intravenous fluids and antibiotics , but there is often an underlying problem ( such as gallstones or narrowing in the bile duct ) for which further tests and treatments may be necessary , usually in the form of endoscopy to relieve obstruction of the bile duct . The word is from Greek chol- , bile + ang- , vessel + -itis , inflammation .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
A person with cholangitis may complain of abdominal pain ( particularly in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen ) , fever , rigors ( uncontrollable shaking ) and a feeling of uneasiness ( malaise ) . Some may report jaundice ( yellow discoloration of the skin and the whites of the eyes ) .
Physical examination findings typically include jaundice and right upper quadrant tenderness . Charcot 's triad is a set of three common findings in cholangitis : abdominal pain , jaundice , and fever . This was assumed in the past to be present in 50 – 70 % of cases , although more recently the frequency has been reported as 15 – 20 % . Reynolds ' pentad includes the findings of Charcot 's triad with the presence of septic shock and mental confusion . This combination of symptoms indicates worsening of the condition and the development of sepsis , and is seen less commonly still .
In the elderly , the presentation may be atypical ; they may directly collapse due to sepsis without first showing typical features . Those with an indwelling stent in the bile duct ( see below ) may not develop jaundice .
= = Causes = =
Bile duct obstruction , which is usually present in acute cholangitis , is generally due to gallstones . 10 – 30 % of cases , however , are due to other causes such as benign stricturing ( narrowing of the bile duct without an underlying tumor ) , postoperative damage or an altered structure of the bile ducts such as narrowing at the site of an anastomosis ( surgical connection ) , various tumors ( cancer of the bile duct , gallbladder cancer , cancer of the ampulla of Vater , pancreatic cancer , cancer of the duodenum ) , anaerobic organisms such as Clostridium and Bacteroides ( especially in the elderly and those who have undergone previous surgery of the biliary system ) . Parasites which may infect the liver and bile ducts may cause cholangitis ; these include the roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides and the liver flukes Clonorchis sinensis , Opisthorchis viverrini and Opisthorchis felineus . In people with AIDS , a large number of opportunistic organisms has been known to cause AIDS cholangiopathy , but the risk has rapidly diminished since the introduction of effective AIDS treatment . Cholangitis may also complicate medical procedures involving the bile duct , especially ERCP . To prevent this , it is recommended that those undergoing ERCP for any indication receive prophylactic ( preventative ) antibiotics .
The presence of a permanent biliary stent ( e.g. in pancreatic cancer ) slightly increases the risk of cholangitis , but stents of this type are often needed to keep the bile duct patent under outside pressure .
= = Diagnosis = =
= = = Blood tests = = =
Routine blood tests show features of acute inflammation ( raised white blood cell count and elevated C @-@ reactive protein level ) , and usually abnormal liver function tests ( LFTs ) . In most cases the LFTs will be consistent with obstruction : raised bilirubin , alkaline phosphatase and γ @-@ glutamyl transpeptidase . In the early stages , however , pressure on the liver cells may be the main feature and the tests will resemble those in hepatitis , with elevations in alanine transaminase and aspartate transaminase .
Blood cultures are often performed in people with fever and evidence of acute infection . These yield the bacteria causing the infection in 36 % of cases , usually after 24 – 48 hours of incubation . Bile , too , may be sent for culture during ERCP ( see below ) . The most common bacteria linked to ascending cholangitis are gram @-@ negative bacilli : Escherichia coli ( 25 – 50 % ) , Klebsiella ( 15 – 20 % ) and Enterobacter ( 5 – 10 % ) . Of the gram @-@ positive cocci , Enterococcus causes 10 – 20 % .
= = = Medical imaging = = =
Given that ascending cholangitis usually occurs in the setting of bile duct obstruction , various forms of medical imaging may be employed to identify the site and nature of this obstruction . The first investigation is usually ultrasound , as this is the most easily available . Ultrasound may show dilation of the bile duct and identifies 38 % of bile duct stones ; it is relatively poor at identifying stones further down the bile duct . Ultrasound can help distinguish between cholangitis and cholecystitis ( inflammation of the gallbladder ) , which has similar symptoms to cholangitis but appears differently on ultrasound . A better test is magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography ( MRCP ) , which uses magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) ; this has a comparable sensitivity to ERCP . Smaller stones , however , can still be missed on MRCP depending on the quality of the hospital 's facilities .
The gold standard test for biliary obstruction is still endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography ( ERCP ) . This involves the use of endoscopy ( passing a tube through the mouth into the esophagus , stomach and thence to the duodenum ) to pass a small cannula into the bile duct . At that point , radiocontrast is injected to opacify the duct , and X @-@ rays are taken to get a visual impression of the biliary system . On the endoscopic image of the ampulla , one can sometimes see a protuberant ampulla from an impacted gallstone in the common bile duct , or the frank extrusion of pus from the common bile duct orifice . On the X @-@ ray images ( known as cholangiograms ) , gallstones are visible as nonopacified areas in the contour of the duct . For diagnostic purposes , ERCP has now generally been replaced by MRCP . ERCP is only used first @-@ line in critically ill patients in whom delay for diagnostic tests is not acceptable ; however , if the index of suspicion for cholangitis is high , an ERCP is typically done to achieve drainage of the obstructed common bile duct .
If other causes rather than gallstones are suspected ( such as a tumor ) , computed tomography and endoscopic ultrasound ( EUS ) may be performed to identify the nature of the obstruction . EUS may be used to obtain biopsy ( tissue sample ) of suspicious masses . EUS may also replace diagnostic ERCP for stone disease , although this depends on local availability .
= = Pathogenesis = =
Bile is produced by the liver , and serves to eliminate cholesterol and bilirubin from the body , as well as emulsifying of fats to make them more soluble in water and aid in their digestion . Bile is formed in the liver by hepatocytes ( liver cells ) and excreted into the common hepatic duct . Part of the bile is stored in the gall bladder because of back pressure ( exerted by the sphincter of Oddi ) , and may be released at time of digestion . The gall bladder also concentrates the bile by absorbing water and dissolved salts from it . All bile reaches the duodenum ( first part of the small intestine ) through the common bile duct and the ampulla of Vater . The sphincter of Oddi , located at the junction of the ampulla of Vater and the duodenum , is a circular muscle that controls the release of both bile and pancreatic secretions into the digestive tract .
The biliary tree is normally relatively free of bacteria because of certain protective mechanisms . The sphincter of Oddi acts as a mechanical barrier . The biliary system normally has low pressure ( 8 to 12 cmH2O ) and allows bile to flow freely through . The continuous forward flow of the bile in the duct flushes bacteria , if present , into the duodenum , and does not allow establishment of an infection . The constitution of bile — bile salts and immunoglobulin secreted by the epithelium of the bile duct also has a protective role .
Bacterial contamination alone in absence of obstruction does not usually result in cholangitis . However increased pressure within the biliary system ( above 20 cmH2O ) resulting from obstruction in the bile duct widens spaces between the cells lining the duct , bringing bacterially contaminated bile in contact with the blood stream . It also adversely affects the function of Kupffer cells , which are specialized macrophage cells that assist in preventing bacteria from entering the biliary system . Finally , increased biliary pressure decreases production of IgA immunoglobulins in the bile . This results in bacteremia ( bacteria in the blood stream ) and gives rise to the systemic inflammatory response syndrome ( SIRS ) comprising fever ( often with rigors ) , tachycardia , increased respiratory rate and increased white blood cell count ; SIRS in the presence of suspected or confirmed infection is called sepsis . Biliary obstruction itself disadvantages the immune system and impairs its capability to fight infection , by impairing the function of certain immune system cells ( neutrophil granulocytes ) and modifying the levels of immune hormones ( cytokines ) .
In ascending cholangitis , it is assumed that organisms migrate backwards up the bile duct as a result of partial obstruction and decreased function of the sphincter of Oddi . Other theories about the origin of the bacteria , such as through the portal vein or transmigration from the colon , are considered less likely .
= = Treatment = =
= = = Fluids and antibiotics = = =
Cholangitis requires admission to hospital . Intravenous fluids are administered , especially if the blood pressure is low , and antibiotics are commenced . Empirical treatment with broad @-@ spectrum antibiotics is usually necessary until it is known for certain which pathogen is causing the infection , and to which antibiotics it is sensitive . Combinations of penicillins and aminoglycosides are widely used , although ciprofloxacin has been shown to be effective in most cases , and may be preferred to aminoglycosides because of fewer side effects . Metronidazole is often added to specifically treat the anaerobic pathogens , especially in those who are very ill or at risk of anaerobic infections . Antibiotics are continued for 7 – 10 days . Drugs that increase the blood pressure ( vasopressors ) may also be required to counter the low blood pressure .
= = = Endoscopy = = =
The definitive treatment for cholangitis is relief of the underlying biliary obstruction . This is usually deferred until 24 – 48 hours after admission , when the patient is stable and has shown some improvement with antibiotics , but may need to happen as an emergency in case of ongoing deterioration despite adequate treatment , or if antibiotics are not effective in reducing the signs of infection ( which happens in 15 % of cases ) .
Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography ( ERCP ) is the most common approach in unblocking the bile duct . This involves endoscopy ( passing a fiberoptic tube through the stomach into the duodenum ) , identification of the ampulla of Vater and insertion of a small tube into the bile duct . A sphincterotomy ( making a cut in the sphincter of Oddi ) is typically done to ease the flow of bile from the duct and to allow insertion of instruments to extract gallstones that are obstructing the common bile duct ; alternatively or additionally , the common bile duct orifice can be dilated with a balloon . Stones may be removed either by direct suction or by using various instruments , including balloons and baskets to trawl the bile duct in order to pull stones into the duodenum . Obstructions that are caused by larger stones may require the use of an instrument known as a mechanical lithotriptor in order to crush the stone prior to removal . Obstructing stones that are too large to be removed or broken mechanically by ERCP may be managed by extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy . This technique uses acoustic shock waves administered outside the body to break down the stones . An alternative technique to remove very large obstructing stones is electrohydraulic lithotripsy , where a small endoscope known as a cholangioscope is inserted by ERCP to directly visualize the stone . A probe uses electricity to generate shock waves that break down the obstructing stone . Rarely , surgical exploration of the common bile duct ( termed choledochotomy ) , which can be performed with laparoscopy , is required to remove the stone .
Narrowed areas may be bridged by a stent , a hollow tube that keeps the duct open . Removable plastic stents are used in uncomplicated gallstone disease , while permanent self @-@ expanding metal stents with a longer lifespan are used if the obstruction is due to pressure from a tumor such as pancreatic cancer . A nasobiliary drain may be left behind ; this is a plastic tube that passes from the bile duct through the stomach and the nose and allows continuous drainage of bile into a receptible . It is similar to a nasogastric tube , but passes into the common bile duct directly , and allows for serial x @-@ ray cholangiograms to be done to identify the improvement of the obstruction . The decision on which of the aforementioned treatments to apply is generally based on the severity of the obstruction , findings on other imaging studies , and whether the patient has improved with antibiotic treatment . Certain treatments may be unsafe if blood clotting is impaired , as the risk of bleeding ( especially from sphincterotomy ) is increased in the use of medication such as clopidogrel ( which inhibits platelet aggregation ) or if the prothrombin time is significantly prolonged . For a prolonged prothrombin time , vitamin K or fresh frozen plasma may be administered to reduce bleeding risk .
It may be difficult to obtain endoscopic access to the obstruction located higher ( proximal ) up in the biliary system , or when it is due to a stricture in the priorly performed anastomosis between the bile duct ( surgically joining ) with the duodenum or jejunum . When this happens , percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography ( PTC ) may be needed to relieve pressure . This involves identifying the bile duct by ultrasound and then passing a tube through the skin ( percutaneous ) . PTC is generally performed by radiologists . PTC has potential complications , so occasionally further attempts at ERCP by more experienced doctors are preferred .
Continual contamination of bile duct by indwelling stents ( as may occur in chronic conditions like tumor of the head of pancreas ) requires monitoring by repeated radiologic tests and changing of the stents .
= = = Cholecystectomy = = =
Not all gallstones implicated in ascending cholangitis actually originate from the gallbladder , but cholecystectomy ( surgical removal of the gallbladder ) is generally recommended in people who have been treated for cholangitis due to gallstone disease . This is typically delayed until all symptoms have resolved and ERCP or MRCP have confirmed that the bile duct is clear of gallstones . Those who do not undergo cholecystectomy have an increased risk of recurrent biliary pain , jaundice , further episodes of cholangitis , and need for further ERCP or related procedures ; the risk of death is also significantly increased .
= = Prognosis = =
Acute cholangitis carries a significant risk of death , the leading cause being irreversible shock with multiple organ failure ( a possible complication of severe infections ) . Improvements in diagnosis and treatment have led to a reduction in mortality : before 1980 , the mortality rate was greater than 50 % , but after 1980 it was 10 – 30 % . Patients with signs of multiple organ failure are likely to die unless they undergo early biliary drainage and treatment with systemic antibiotics . Other causes of death following severe cholangitis include heart failure and pneumonia .
Risk factors indicating an increased risk of death include older age , female gender , a history of liver cirrhosis , biliary narrowing due to cancer , acute renal failure and the presence of liver abscesses . Complications following severe cholangitis include renal failure , respiratory failure ( inability of the respiratory system to oxygenate blood and / or eliminate carbon dioxide ) , cardiac arrhythmia , wound infection , pneumonia , gastrointestinal bleeding and myocardial ischemia ( lack of blood flow to the heart , leading to heart attacks ) .
= = Epidemiology = =
In the Western world , about 15 % of all people have gallstones in their gallbladder but the majority are unaware of this and have no symptoms . Over ten years , 15 – 26 % will suffer one or more episodes of biliary colic ( abdominal pain due to the passage of gallstones through the bile duct into the digestive tract ) , and 2 – 3 % will develop complications of obstruction : acute pancreatitis , cholecystitis or acute cholangitis . Prevalence of gallstone disease increases with age and body mass index ( a marker of obesity ) . However , risk is also increased in those who lose weight rapidly ( e.g. after weight loss surgery ) due to alterations in the composition of the bile that makes it prone to form stones . Gallstones are slightly more common in women than in men , and pregnancy increases the risk further .
= = History = =
Dr Jean @-@ Martin Charcot , working at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris , France , is credited with early reports of cholangitis , as well as his eponymous triad , in 1877 . He referred to the condition as " hepatic fever " ( fièvre hépatique ) . Dr Benedict M. Reynolds , an American surgeon , reignited interest in the condition in his 1959 report with colleague Dr Everett L. Dargan , and formulated the pentad that carries his name . It remained a condition generally treated by surgeons , with exploration of the bile duct and excision of gallstones , until the ascendancy of ERCP in 1968 . ERCP is generally performed by internal medicine or gastroenterology specialists . In 1992 it was shown that ERCP was generally safer than surgical intervention in ascending cholangitis .
= Eve Torres =
Eve Torres Gracie ( born Eve Marie Torres ; August 21 , 1984 ) is an American model , actress , and former professional wrestler . She is best known for her work with WWE as Eve Torres and has served as an ambassador for the company since April 2014 .
Torres began her career as a model and dancer . She danced for The Southern California Summer Pro League and went on to become a member of the National Basketball Association 's Los Angeles Clippers Spirit Dance Team for the 2006 – 2007 season . She has also appeared on several television shows , including Show Me The Money , Sunset Tan , and Deal or No Deal .
In 2007 , she entered the 2007 Diva Search and won , earning a contract with WWE . Torres first appeared on WWE programming as a backstage interviewer in 2008 , and also appeared in non @-@ wrestling contests such as bikini contests and dance competitions . She later became a full @-@ time wrestler in 2009 , and was involved in feuds with Michelle McCool , Layla and Natalya . She also managed the tag team of Cryme Tyme . After being traded to the Raw brand in late 2009 , she managed Chris Masters before winning the WWE Divas Championship in April 2010 . She held the championship for 69 days , before losing it in June . After acting as the valet for R @-@ Truth in late 2010 , Torres won the Divas Championship for the second time at the 2011 Royal Rumble in January . Her second reign lasted until April 2011 . The following year , she was given the fictional role of " Executive Administrator " of Raw and WWE SmackDown , and later the Assistant General Manager of SmackDown . At Night of Champions , Torres won the Divas Championship , becoming the first person to win it on three occasions , and held the title until January 2013 .
Following her Divas Championship loss , she retired from WWE to focus on her role as an instructor for the Gracie Women Empowered Self @-@ defense program . In 2014 , she appeared on the television series Matador in a recurring guest role .
= = Early life = =
Torres was born in Boston , Massachusetts , but grew up in Denver , Colorado , and has " a Latina background " . She has one younger brother , Phillip , who appeared on Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader ? in October 2008 and won $ 100 @,@ 000 , and currently hosts TechKnow on Al Jazeera America .
Torres attended the University of Southern California ( USC ) on a full tuition scholarship . During college , she was one of the founding members of the Omega Phi Beta sorority chapter on her campus and held the vice @-@ president position for several years . While in Omega Phi Beta , Torres was awarded for Academic Excellence at the Order of Omega Greek Awards . She graduated with honors and a Grade Point Average above 3 @.@ 5 in May 2006 , with a degree in Industrial and Systems Engineering .
= = Dancing and modeling career = =
While attending the USC , Torres appeared in commercials and music videos . Torres was the co @-@ captain of the USC Fly Girls dance squad and created much of their choreography . She also danced for The Southern California Summer Pro League , the only summer league for National Basketball Association ( NBA ) players , in Long Beach , California . After graduating from college , she began dancing and modeling full @-@ time . After reaching the tryout finals in previous years , Torres became a member of the NBA 's Los Angeles Clippers Spirit Dance Team for the 2006 – 07 season . She also appeared on the game show Show Me The Money .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Diva Search and Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
In May 2007 , Torres entered World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) ' s Diva Search . She was chosen by WWE officials as one of the eight finalists from a group of 50 women . On October 29 , 2007 , in Philadelphia , live on Raw , she was crowned the 2007 WWE Diva Search winner , defeating finalist Brooke Gilbertsen and becoming an official WWE Diva . Following her win , she began training for her wrestling debut in WWE 's then @-@ developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) .
= = = = Various feuds ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
Vignettes promoting Eve 's debut on SmackDown began airing on January 11 , 2008 . Eve made her official debut on the February 1 , 2008 episode of SmackDown , interviewing former World Heavyweight Champion Batista . During early 2008 , Eve participated in a contest to determine the top Diva on SmackDown , participating in a bikini contest , an obstacle course , and an arm wrestling competition before being eliminated . Eve appeared at WrestleMania XXIV as a Lumberjill in the BunnyMania match between Maria and Ashley against Beth Phoenix and Melina . Eve spent the rest of the year competing in contests , including a dance @-@ off and a bikini contest , before participating in the Halloween Costume Contest on October 26 at the Cyber Sunday pay @-@ per @-@ view , where she was dressed as Raphael from the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles . On the 800th episode of Raw on November 3 , 2008 , Eve made her televised in @-@ ring debut in a 16 @-@ Diva tag team match , which her team lost , although she never tagged into the match .
Her first main storyline began in early 2009 , when she began a scripted feud with Michelle McCool after McCool attacked her . On the February 6 episode of SmackDown , Eve made her singles match debut in a losing effort against McCool via submission . Their feud continued for the next few months , with them competing against each other in singles and tag team matches . Eve then moved into a feud with Layla in mid @-@ 2009 . After the pair competed in dance and arm wrestling competitions , Eve defeated Layla on the May 29 episode of SmackDown in a singles match . On the June 18 episode of Superstars , Eve pinned Layla once again . After the match , they both shook hands .
Around the same as her scripted rivalry with Layla , Eve became associated with Cryme Tyme ( Shad and JTG ) , appearing in several backstage segments with them . She also began accompanying them to the ring as their manager during their storyline rivalry with The Hart Dynasty ( David Hart Smith , Tyson Kidd , and Natalya ) . Eve and Cryme Tyme participated in multiple six @-@ person mixed tag team matches against The Hart Dynasty , and Eve also faced Natalya in singles matches and tag team matches involving other Divas . Her final match on SmackDown was on October 9 , when she was defeated in a singles match by McCool .
= = = = Divas Champion ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = = =
On October 12 , 2009 , Eve was traded to the Raw brand . On the November 2 episode of Raw , she competed in her first match for the brand ; a battle royal , which was won by Alicia Fox . She then began a storyline romance with Chris Masters in December 2009 , becoming his valet . In January 2010 , the WWE Divas Championship was declared vacant and a tournament was set up to determine the new champion . Eve made it to the semi @-@ finals , before being defeated by the eventual winner , Maryse . At WrestleMania XXVI , Eve was on the losing team in a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match , but the following night on Raw , she pinned Maryse in a rematch to earn the victory for her team .
On the April 5 episode of Raw , Eve won a " Dress to Impress " battle royal to become the number one contender to the Divas Championship , and the following week on Raw , she defeated Maryse to win the championship for the first time . She successfully defended the championship against Maryse at the Over the Limit pay @-@ per @-@ view in May . At the Fatal 4 @-@ Way pay @-@ per @-@ view in June , Eve lost the championship in a fatal four @-@ way match , when Alicia Fox pinned Maryse to win the championship . On the July 5 episode of Raw , Eve invoked her rematch clause against Fox but was unsuccessful after Fox feigned an ankle injury . As a result , she received another rematch at the Money in the Bank pay per @-@ view , but lost again to Fox . In mid @-@ 2010 , she began acting as the valet for R @-@ Truth .
At the Royal Rumble on January 30 , 2011 , the Raw General Manager added Eve to a two @-@ on @-@ one handicap match for the Divas Championship , turning it into a four @-@ way match . Eve pinned Layla to win the match and become a two @-@ time Divas Champion . She retained the championship against Natalya in a Lumberjill match on the February 14 episode of Raw , and against Nikki Bella on the March 7 episode . She held the championship until the April 11 episode of Raw , when she lost it to Brie Bella .
Eve then formed an alliance with Kelly Kelly , and after Kelly won the Divas Championship in June , Eve accompanied her to the ring during her matches . Eve and Kelly began feuding with The Divas of Doom ( Beth Phoenix and Natalya ) , and after Phoenix won the Divas Championship from Kelly , Eve defeated Natalya to earn a match against Phoenix for the championship . She faced Phoenix at the Vengeance pay @-@ per @-@ view , but was unsuccessful in capturing the title . On the October 31 episode of Raw , Eve won a battle royal to become the number one contender to the Divas Championship . She received her championship match at the Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view , but lost a Lumberjill match to Phoenix . She later described the match as her favorite .
= = = = Authority figure ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
Eve moved into a storyline with Zack Ryder in December 2011 , and the pair won a mixed tag team match against Natalya and Tyson Kidd on the December 26 episode of Raw . On the January 9 , 2012 , episode of Raw , Eve agreed to a date with Ryder , beginning a storyline relationship . Eve quickly became involved in the storyline between Ryder , his ally John Cena , and Kane , the latter of whom began targeting Ryder . After injuring Ryder , Kane turned his attention to Eve , and tried to attack her until he was stopped by Cena . On the February 6 episode of Raw , Eve suffered a legitimate broken nose when Beth Phoenix clotheslined her during a match . The following week , John Cena saved Eve from being kidnapped by Kane , and Eve kissed him in thanks . Ryder witnessed it , and she later told Ryder she hoped they could be friends . On the February 20 episode of Raw , Eve turned into a villainess for the first time in her career , after she confessed backstage to The Bella Twins that she had never liked Zack Ryder , and had disingenuously used him for publicity and planned to take advantage of Cena the same way
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. Cena overheard her revelation and scorned her as she begged for forgiveness . Eve justified her actions by stating she was not a " damsel in distress " and was proud of her beauty allowing her to seduce men . She wrestled her first match as a villainess on the March 2 episode of SmackDown , defeating Natalya . Ryder returned on the March 5 episoder of Raw , confronting Eve over her recent actions , but she managed to seduce him into forgiving her . At WrestleMania XXVIII , Eve and Beth Phoenix lost to Kelly Kelly and Extra correspondent Maria Menounos in a tag team match . Later that night , she accompanied Ryder to the ring for the Team Johnny vs. Team Teddy match , where she distracted Ryder , costing him and Team Teddy the match . Afterwards , Eve delivered a low blow to Ryder .
As a result of her actions during the match , John Laurinaitis appointed Eve the Executive Administrator of Raw and SmackDown . As her first order of business as Executive Administrator , on the April 30 episode of Raw , Eve fired the Bella Twins backstage . Despite her new authority figure role , she continued to participate in matches throughout mid @-@ 2012 . On the August 10 episode of SmackDown , Eve asked SmackDown General Manager Booker T if she could be his assistant , but Kaitlyn was given the job instead . Eve threatened Booker that she would tell the Board of Directors about his discriminatory hiring practices , and was given a match against Kaitlyn the following week to determine who would become his assistant , which Eve won , and got the job .
In August , she began a storyline where she acted friendly and nice , diminishing her heel characteristics . As part of this apparent personality change , she shook hands with her rival Kaitlyn following a match and teamed with her and Layla on the September 10 episode of Raw . At the Night of Champions pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kaitlyn was attacked and injured by a masked figure backstage , and as a result , Eve replaced Kaitlyn in a match against Divas Champion Layla . Eve won the match , becoming the first ever record three time Divas Champion . After Kaitlyn revealed that her attacker was blonde , Eve accused Beth Phoenix , and attacked her on the September 24 episode of Raw . The following week , Eve suspended Phoenix , pending an investigation into Kaitlyn 's attack , howerver Phoenix 's suspension was reversed by Booker T , and Eve blamed Teddy Long for telling her to suspend Phoenix . It was later revealed that Kaitlyn was attacked by Aksana , on Eve 's orders . On the October 8 episode of Raw , Eve defeated Kaitlyn via submission to retain the Divas Championship . Following the match , Eve attempted to re @-@ injure Kaitlyn , but was stopped by Layla . The following week , she defeated Layla to retain the championship . The three @-@ way feud led to a match at the Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ view , where Eve retained the Divas Championship against Layla and Kaitlyn in a triple threat match . Eve continued to feud with the duo , facing them in tag team matches with multiple partners , and defeating Kaitlyn at Survivor Series to retain the championship . At TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs , Eve stopped Kaitlyn from winning a number one contender 's match , and defeated winner Naomi to retain the title later that night . Kaitlyn won a non @-@ title match against Eve , and won the subsequent title match by disqualification on December 18 , however Eve retained the championship . A rematch occurred on the January 7 , 2013 , episode of Raw , in which Eve successfully defended the championship after losing by count @-@ out . The following week , on the special " 20th Anniversary " episode of Raw , Eve lost the Divas Championship to Kaitlyn . Following the loss , Eve immediately quit WWE in the storyline .
In reality , Torres had asked for her release from the company in December 2012 to focus on her role as an instructor for the Gracie Women Empowered Self @-@ defense program . She returned to WWE for one night only , on December 9 , 2013 , presenting the Slammy Award for Diva of the Year to The Bella Twins . Since April 2014 , she has served as an ambassador for the WWE .
= = Other media = =
In August 2008 , Torres , along with fellow WWE Divas Maria and Candice Michelle , appeared on an episode of Sunset Tan . On October 2 , 2008 , Torres and Maria appeared on a special episode of Magic 's Biggest Secrets Finally Revealed . Torres appeared on the November 3 , 2009 episode of Deal or No Deal with Maria and Dolph Ziggler . On July 1 , 2012 , Torres , Kelly Kelly , and Michelle McCool appeared on Extreme Weight Loss . In 2012 , she was part of NBC 's celebrity reality competition series called Stars Earn Stripes ; she won the competition on September 3 , earning over $ 100 @,@ 000 for her charity , the USO . On September 7 , 2012 , Torres appeared on G4 's Attack of the Show for an interview .
Torres , along with Maryse and Michelle McCool , appeared in the January 2009 issue of Muscle & Fitness magazine .
On April 30 , 2012 , it was announced that Torres would be featured in the WWE Studios and Kare Production Project " Les reines du ring " ( English : Queens of the Ring ) , alongside fellow wrestlers The Miz and CM Punk . In mid @-@ 2013 , Torres filmed a role for the film The Scorpion King 4 : Quest for Power , which was released in 2015 . She later earned a role in Matador as Reyna Flores , a journalist reporting on the leading character 's career . The show was cancelled after a single season .
= = = Television = = =
= = = Films = = =
= = Personal life = =
Torres is trained in Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu , and holds a purple belt from the Gracie Jiu @-@ Jitsu Academy based in Torrance , California . Torres also participates in kickboxing . She is a spokeswoman and head instructor for the Gracie Women Empowered Self @-@ defense program .
Torres married Rener Gracie in April 2014 . She gave birth to her first child , a boy , named Raeven Gracie , on September 28 , 2015 .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Evesault ( Moonsault )
Handspring standing moonsault
The Heart Breaker ( Snap swinging neckbreaker )
Signature moves
Cross armbreaker
Enzuigiri
Fujiwara armbar , sometimes transitioned into a triangle choke
Hangman 's choke
Schoolgirl roll @-@ up
Somersault senton
Standing moonsault , with theatrics
Straight jacket
Wrestlers managed
Cryme Tyme ( Shad Gaspard and JTG )
Chris Masters
R @-@ Truth
Zack Ryder
Nicknames
" Hoeski "
" The Hellacious Heartbreaker "
Entrance themes
" She Looks Good " by Jim Johnston
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her # 5 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2010
World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE
WWE Divas Championship ( 3 times )
WWE Diva Search ( 2007 )
= The Carpet =
" The Carpet " is the fourteenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's twentieth episode overall . It was written by Paul Lieberstein and directed by Victor Nelli , Jr . The episode first aired on January 26 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Ken Howard as Ed Truck , and David Koechner as Todd Packer .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , a disgusting " thing " – implied to be human feces – is left in Michael Scott 's ( Steve Carell ) office , and Michael tries to discover who did it . While his carpet is being replaced , he uses Jim Halpert 's desk , forcing Jim to move away from Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) into the annex .
" The Carpet " is the first and only episode to feature Howard as Truck . However , the death of the character would serve as the main plot for the third season episode " Grief Counseling " . The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics . Upon its original broadcast , " The Carpet " earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 6 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being viewed by 8 @.@ 6 million viewers . At the time of its release , it was the second most @-@ downloaded episode of a television show on the iTunes store .
= = Synopsis = =
When someone leaves a disgusting substance on the carpet in Michael Scott 's ( Steve Carell ) office , he spends the day at Jim Halpert 's ( John Krasinski ) desk , relegating Jim to the back room ( referred to as the " Annex " ) to suffer Kelly Kapoor 's ( Mindy Kaling ) constant chattering . She asks Jim to hook her up with Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) . Jim continues to yearn for Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) , but her groom @-@ to @-@ be , Roy Anderson ( David Denman ) , is in the office replacing the carpet along with Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) , and Jim is unable to speak with her .
As the day wears on , Michael becomes convinced that what happened to his office is a hate crime and an act of terrorism . Believing it to have been perpetrated by someone in the office , he begins to lose his faith in his employees , whom he considers his friends . Michael tries talking to his former boss Ed Truck ( Ken Howard ) , who tells him that he does not need to have his employees be his friends . But his mood changes drastically when he finds out the prank was carried out by his obnoxious friend Todd Packer ( David Koechner ) . Michael instantly finds the joke hilarious , and his faith in his friends is restored . At the end of the day , Jim is cheered up when he finds that all seven of his voicemail messages were left by Pam throughout the day . Jim is seen driving home , and Pam 's voicemails act as a voice @-@ over , closing out the episode .
= = Production = =
" The Carpet " was written by Paul Lieberstein , who portrays Toby Flenderson on the series , making it his third writing credit after the first season entry " Health Care " and the second season episode " The Client " . The episode was directed by Victor Nelli , Jr . The episode is the first and only to feature Howard as Ed Truck . However , the death of the character would serve as the main plot for the third season episode " Grief Counseling " . Actress Kate Flannery later revealed that , for the old 80s picture of Michael and Ed , Carell had to wear a mullet wig .
Before the episode aired , the cast and crew received news that the show would be renewed for a third season . Jenna Fischer ( Pam ) noted that " It is rare in this business to hear news of a pickup so early " , but that NBC was very pleased with how well the show was doing . It had previously , and erroneously , been advertised that the show would finish its run at the end of March 2006 . Fischer explained that while the season would end – actually in May – the show would continue .
The exact nature of the substance that is deposited on Michael 's carpet is never explicitly made clear . Fischer only described it as " soft [ ... ] smelly [ and ] brown " . In fact , the circumstance in which the substance is viewed by the camera is still ambiguous ; Television Without Pity reviewer M. Giant noted that the viewer only gets " the merest out @-@ of @-@ focus Blair Witch glimpse " of the substance . Fischer also noted that one of the more interesting aspects of the episode was the " you [ the audience ] finally see Pam and Roy getting along . " She explained that this was because Roy and Pam returned from " a romantic vacation in the Poconos . "
Deleted scenes include : Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) believing that a higher power brought Michael to his desk , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) and Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) speculating on the culprit , Jim unable to handle Kelly 's chattering , Jim eating lunch by himself in his car , Michael being unable to complete a sale , Michael stealing a crumpet from Dwight , Dwight and Angela having a secret conversation in the kitchen , and Jim asking Toby Flenderson ( Lieberstein ) how he handled Kelly 's loquaciousness .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael compares that the circumstances of the episode to the components for an audition tape for Fear Factor , an American sports dare reality game show . Michael later bothers Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) with an impression of the Popeye cartoon character J. Wellington Wimpy . Dwight makes repeated calls to WEZX Rock 107 , a Scranton radio station that plays classic rock . Michael snidely compares Darryl and Roy 's work to Extreme Makeover : Home Edition , an American reality television series providing home improvements for less fortunate families and community schools .
= = Reception = =
" The Carpet " originally aired on NBC on the January 26 , 2006 . The episode received a 4 @.@ 6 rating / 11 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 11 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . " The Carpet " was viewed by 8 @.@ 6 million viewers . The episode retained 93 percent of its lead @-@ in My Name is Earl audience .
Critical reception to the episode was largely positive . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A – " . Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it an " A – " . He called it " another solid episode " and praised the " guest appearance by Ken Howard of The White Shadow fame . " After the episode aired , several newspapers , including the Los Angeles Times and The Journal Gazette reported on the episode 's success , as well as others in the season , in building the show 's audience . Furthermore , the episode was particularly popular with fans of the series , especially college students . After the episode aired , it was made available on the iTunes online digital store , where , for a time , it was the second most @-@ downloaded episode of a television show .
= Handley Page Victor =
The Handley Page Victor is a British jet @-@ powered strategic bomber , developed and produced by the Handley Page Aircraft Company , which served during the Cold War . It was the third and final of the V @-@ bombers operated by the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , the other two V @-@ bombers being the Avro Vulcan and the Vickers Valiant . The Victor had been developed to perform as part of the United Kingdom ’ s airborne nuclear deterrent . In 1968 , the type was retired from the nuclear mission following the discovery of fatigue cracks , which had been exacerbated by the RAF 's adoption of a low @-@ altitude flight profile to avoid interception .
A number of Victors had received modifications to undertake the strategic reconnaissance role , employing a combination of radar , cameras , and other sensors . As the nuclear deterrence mission was given to the Royal Navy 's submarine @-@ launched Polaris missiles in 1969 , a large V @-@ bomber fleet was deemed surplus to requirements . Consequently , many of the surviving Victors were converted into aerial refuelling tankers . During the Falklands War , Victor tankers were notably used in the airborne logistics operation to repeatedly refuel Vulcan bombers on their way to and from the Black Buck raids .
The Victor was the last of the V @-@ bombers to be retired , the final aircraft being removed from service on 15 October 1993 . In its refuelling role , the type had been replaced by the Vickers VC10 and the Lockheed Tristar .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
The origin of the Victor and the other V bombers is heavily linked with the early British atomic weapons programme and nuclear deterrent policies that developed in the aftermath of the Second World War . The atom bomb programme formally began with Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001 issued in August 1946 , which anticipated a government decision in January 1947 to authorise research and development work on atomic weapons , the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946 ( McMahon Act ) having prohibited exporting atomic knowledge , even to countries that had collaborated on the Manhattan Project . OR.1001 envisaged a weapon not to exceed 24 ft 2 in ( 7 @.@ 37 m ) in length , 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter , 10 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) in weight , and suitable for release from 20 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) to 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) .
At the same time , the Air Ministry drew up requirements for bombers to replace the existing piston @-@ engined heavy bombers such as the Avro Lancaster and the new Avro Lincoln which equipped RAF Bomber Command . In January 1947 , the Ministry of Supply distributed Specification B.35 / 46 to aviation companies to satisfy Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229 for " a medium range bomber landplane capable of carrying one 10 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) bomb to a target 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 700 mi ; 2 @,@ 800 km ) from a base which may be anywhere in the world . " A cruising speed of 500 knots ( 580 mph ; 930 km / h ) at heights between 35 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) and 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) was specified . The maximum weight when fully loaded ought not to exceed 100 @,@ 000 lb ( 45 @,@ 000 kg ) . The weapons load was to include a 10 @,@ 000 lb " Special gravity bomb " ( i.e. a free @-@ fall nuclear weapon ) , or over shorter ranges 20 @,@ 000 lb ( 9 @,@ 100 kg ) of conventional bombs . No defensive weapons were to be carried , the aircraft relying on its speed and height to avoid opposing fighters .
The similar OR.230 required a " long range bomber " with a 2 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 300 mi ; 3 @,@ 700 km ) radius of action at a height of 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) , a cruise speed of 575 mph ( 925 km / h ) , and a maximum weight of 200 @,@ 000 lb ( 91 @,@ 000 kg ) when fully loaded . Responses to OR.230 were received from Short Brothers , Bristol , and Handley Page ; however , the Air Ministry recognised that developing an aircraft to meet these stringent requirements would have been technically demanding and so expensive that the resulting bomber could only be purchased in small numbers . As a result , realising that the majority of likely targets would not require such a long range , a less demanding specification for a medium @-@ range bomber , Air Ministry Specification B.35 / 46 was issued . This demanded the ability to carry the same 10 @,@ 000 lb bomb @-@ load to a target 1 @,@ 500 nmi ( 1 @,@ 725 mi , 2 @,@ 800 km ) away at a height of 45 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 13 @,@ 700 – 15 @,@ 200 m ) at a speed of 575 mph .
= = = HP.80 = = =
The design proposed by Handley Page in response to B.35 / 46 was given the internal designation of HP.80. To achieve the required performance , Handley Page 's aerodynamicist Dr. Gustav Lachmann and his deputy , Godfrey Lee developed a crescent @-@ shaped swept wing for the HP.80 ; the sweep and chord of the wing decreased in three distinct steps from the root to the tip , to ensure a constant limiting Mach number across the entire wing and consequently a high cruise speed . Early work on the project included tailless aircraft designs , which would have used wing @-@ tip vertical surfaces instead ; however as the proposal matured a high @-@ mounted , full tailplane was adopted instead . The profile and shaping of the crescent wing was subject to considerable fine @-@ tuning and alterations throughout the early development stages , particularly to counter unfavourable pitching behavior in flight .
The HP.80 and Avro 's Type 698 were chosen as the best two of the proposed designs to B.35 / 46 , and orders for two prototypes of each were placed . It was recognised , however , that there were many unknowns associated with both designs , and an order was also placed for Vickers ' design , which became the Valiant . Although not fully meeting the requirements of the specification , the Valiant design posed little risk of failure and could therefore reach service earlier . The HP.80 's crescent wing was tested on a ⅓ -scale glider , the HP.87 , and a heavily modified Supermarine Attacker , which was given the Handley Page HP.88 designation . The HP.88 crashed on 26 August 1951 after completing only about thirty flights and little useful data was gained during its brief two months of existence . By the time the HP.88 was ready , the HP.80 wing had changed such that the former was no longer representative . The design of the HP.80 had sufficiently advanced that the loss of the HP.88 had little effect on the programme .
Two HP.80 prototypes , WB771 and WB775 , were built . WB771 was broken down at the Handley Page factory at Radlett and transported by road to RAF Boscombe Down for its first flight ; bulldozers were used to clear the route and create paths around obstacles . Sections of the aircraft were hidden under wooden framing and tarpaulins printed with " GELEYPANDHY / SOUTHAMPTON " to make it appear as a boat hull in transit . GELEYPANDHY was an anagram of " Handley Pyge " marred by a signwriter 's error . On 24 December 1952 , piloted by Handley Page 's chief test pilot Hedley Hazelden , WB771 made its maiden flight , which lasted for a total of 17 minutes . Ten days later , the Air Ministry announced the aircraft 's official name to be Victor .
The prototypes performed well ; however , several design failings led to the loss of WB771 on 14 July 1954 , when the tailplane detached whilst making a low @-@ level pass over the runway at Cranfield , causing the aircraft to crash with the loss of the crew . Attached to the fin using three bolts , the tailplane was subject to considerably more stress than had been anticipated , and the three bolts failed due to metal fatigue . Additionally , the prototypes were considerably tail heavy due to the lack of equipment in the nose ; this was remedied by large ballast weights being fitted upon the prototypes . Production Victors had a lengthened nose that also served to move the crew escape door further from the engine intakes . The fin was shortened to eliminate the potential for flutter while the tailplane attachment was changed to a stronger four @-@ bolt fixing .
= = = Victor B.1 = = =
Production B.1 Victors were powered by the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire ASSa.7 turbojets rated at 11 @,@ 000 lbf ( 49 kN ) , and was initially equipped with the Blue Danube nuclear weapon , re @-@ equipping with the more powerful Yellow Sun weapon when it became available , although Victors also carried U.S.-owned Mark 5 nuclear bombs ( made available under the Project E programme ) and the British Red Beard tactical nuclear weapon . A total of 24 were upgraded to B.1A standard by the addition of Red Steer tail warning radar in an enlarged tailcone and a suite of radar warning receivers and electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) from 1958 to 1960 .
On 1 June 1956 , a production Victor XA917 flown by test pilot Johnny Allam inadvertently exceeded the speed of sound after Allam let the nose drop slightly at a higher power setting . Allam noticed a cockpit indication of Mach 1 @.@ 1 and ground observers from Watford to Banbury reported hearing a sonic boom . The Victor maintained stability throughout the event . Aviation author Andrew Brookes has claimed that Allam broke the sound barrier knowingly to demonstrate the Victor 's superiority to the earlier V @-@ bombers . The Victor was the largest aircraft to have broken the sound barrier at that time .
= = = Victor B.2 = = =
The RAF required a higher ceiling for its bombers , and a number of proposals were considered for improved Victors to meet this demand . At first , Handley Page proposed use of the 14 @,@ 000 lbf ( 62 @.@ 4 kN ) Sapphire 9 engines to produce a " Phase 2 " bomber , to be followed by " Phase 3 " Victors with much greater wingspan ( 137 ft ( 42 m ) ) and powered by Bristol Siddeley Olympus turbojets or Rolls @-@ Royce Conway turbofans . The Sapphire 9 was cancelled , however , and the heavily modified Phase 3 aircraft would have delayed production , so an interim " Phase 2A " Victor was proposed and accepted , to be powered by the Conway and having minimal modifications .
The " Phase 2A " proposal was accepted by the Air Staff as the Victor B.2 , with Conway RCo.11 engines providing 17 @,@ 250 lbf ( 76 @.@ 7 kN ) . The new Conway engines required redesigned enlarged intakes to provide the greater airflow required . The wingtips were extended , increasing the wingspan to 120 ft ( 36 @.@ 6 m ) . The B.2 featured distinctive retractable " elephant ear " intakes not found on the B.1 , located on the rear fuselage forward of the tail fin . These scoops fed ram air to Ram Air Turbines ( RAT ) which could provide electrical power during emergency situations , such as engine failure , during flight .
The first prototype Victor B.2 , serial number XH668 made its maiden flight on 20 February 1959 . It had flown 100 hours by 20 August 1959 , when , while high @-@ altitude engine tests were being carried out by the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment ( A & AEE ) , it disappeared from radar screens , crashing into the sea off the coast of Pembrokeshire . An extensive search operation was initiated to locate and salvage the wreckage of XH668 to determine the cause of the crash . It took until November 1960 to recover most of the aircraft ; the accident investigation concluded that the starboard pitot head had failed inflight , causing the flight control system to force the aircraft into an unrecoverable dive . Only minor changes were needed to resolve this problem , allowing the Victor B.2 to enter service in February 1962 .
= = = Further development = = =
A total of 21 B.2 aircraft were upgraded to the B.2R standard with Conway RCo.17 engines ( 20 @,@ 600 lbf or 92 kN thrust ) and facilities to carry a Blue Steel stand @-@ off nuclear missile . Their wings were modified to incorporate two " speed pods " or " Küchemann carrots " . These were anti @-@ shock bodies ; bulged fairings that reduced wave drag at transonic speeds ( see area rule ) , which were also used as a convenient place to house chaff dispensers . Handley Page proposed to build a further refined " Phase 6 " Victor , with more fuel and capable of carrying up to four Skybolt ( AGM @-@ 48 ) ballistic missiles on standing airborne patrols , but this proposal was rejected although it was agreed that some of the Victor B.2s on order would be fitted to carry two Skybolts . This plan was abandoned when the U.S. cancelled the whole Skybolt programme in 1963 . With the move to low @-@ level penetration missions , the Victors were fitted with air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling probes above the cockpit and received large underwing fuel tanks .
Nine B.2 aircraft were converted for strategic reconnaissance purposes to replace Valiants which had been withdrawn due to wing fatigue , with delivery beginning in July 1965 . These aircraft received a variety of cameras , a bomb bay @-@ mounted radar mapping system and wing top sniffers to detect particles released from nuclear testing . Designated Victor SR.2 , a single aircraft could photograph the whole of the United Kingdom in a single two @-@ hour sortie . Different camera configurations could be installed in the bomb bay , including up to four F49 survey cameras and up to eight F96 cameras could be fitted to take vertical or oblique daylight photography ; nighttime photography required the fitting of F89 cameras .
= = = Aerial refuelling conversion = = =
The withdrawal of the Valiant fleet because of metal fatigue in December 1964 meant that the RAF had no front line tanker aircraft , so the B.1 / 1A aircraft , now judged to be surplus in the strategic bomber role , were refitted for this duty . To get some tankers into service as quickly as possible , six B.1A aircraft were converted to B ( K ) .1A standard ( later redesignated B.1A ( K2P ) ) , receiving a two @-@ point system with a hose and drogue carried under each wing , while the bomb bay remained available for weapons . Handley Page worked day and night to convert these six aircraft , with the first being delivered on 28 April 1965 , and 55 Squadron becoming operational in the tanker role in August 1965 .
While these six aircraft provided a limited tanker capability suitable for refuelling fighters , the Mk 20A wing hosereels could only deliver fuel at a limited rate , and were not suitable for refuelling bombers . Work therefore continued to produce a definitive three @-@ point tanker conversion of the Victor Mk.1. Fourteen further B.1A and 11 B.1 were fitted with two permanently fitted fuel tanks in the bomb bay , and a high @-@ capacity Mk 17 centreline hose dispenser unit with three times the fuel flow rate as the wing reels , and were designated K.1A and K.1 respectively .
The remaining B.2 aircraft were not as suited to the low @-@ level mission profile that the RAF had adopted for carrying out strategic bombing missions as the Vulcan with its strong delta wing . This , combined with the switch of the nuclear deterrent from the RAF to the Royal Navy ( with the Polaris missile ) meant that the Victors were considered to be surplus to requirements . Hence , 24 B.2 were modified to K.2 standard . Similar to the K.1 / 1A conversions , the wing was trimmed to reduce stress and the bomb aimer 's nose glazing was plated over . During 1982 , the glazing was reintroduced on some aircraft , the former nose bomb aimer 's position having been used to mount F95 cameras in order to perform reconnaissance missions during the Falklands War . The K.2 could carry 91 @,@ 000 lb ( 41 @,@ 000 kg ) of fuel . It served in the tanker role until withdrawn in October 1993 .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Victor was a futuristic @-@ looking , streamlined aircraft , with four turbojet engines buried in the thick wing roots . Distinguishing features of the Victor were its highly swept T @-@ tail with considerable dihedral on the tail planes , and a prominent chin bulge that contained the targeting radar , cockpit , nose landing gear unit and an auxiliary bomb aimer 's position . It was originally required by the specification that the whole nose section could be detached at high altitudes to act as an escape pod , but the Air Ministry abandoned this demand in 1950 .
The Victor had a five @-@ man crew , comprising the two pilots seated side @-@ by @-@ side and three rearward @-@ facing crew , these being the navigator / plotter , the navigator / radar operator , and the air electronics officer ( AEO ) . Unlike the Vulcan and Valiant , the Victor 's pilots sat at the same level as the rest of the crew , thanks to a larger pressurised compartment that extended all the way to the nose . As with the other V @-@ bombers , only the pilots were provided with ejection seats ; the three systems operators relying on " explosive cushions " inflated by a CO2 bottle that would help them from their seats and towards a traditional bail out in the event of high g @-@ loading , but despite this , escape for the three backseaters was extremely difficult .
While assigned to the nuclear delivery role , the Victor was finished in an all @-@ over anti @-@ flash white colour scheme , designed to protect the aircraft against the damaging effects of a nuclear detonation . The white colour scheme was intended to reflect heat away from the aircraft ; paler variations of RAF 's roundels were also applied for this same reason . When the V @-@ bombers were assigned to the low @-@ level approach profile in the 1960s , the Victors were soon repainted in green / grey tactical camouflage to reduce visibility to ground observation ; the same scheme was applied to subsequently converted tanker aircraft .
= = = Armaments and equipment = = =
The Victor 's bomb bay was much larger than that of the Valiant and Vulcan , which allowed heavier weapon loads to be carried at the cost of range . As an alternative to the single " 10 @,@ 000 lb " nuclear bomb as required by the specification , the bomb bay was designed to carry several conventional armaments , including a single 22 @,@ 000 lb ( 10 @,@ 000 kg ) Grand Slam or two 12 @,@ 000 lb ( 5 @,@ 500 kg ) Tallboy earthquake bombs , up to forty @-@ eight 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs or thirty @-@ nine 2 @,@ 000 lb ( 900 kg ) sea mines . One proposed addition to the Victor were underwing panniers capable of carrying a further 28 1 @,@ 000 lb bombs to supplement the main bomb bay , but this option was not pursued .
In addition to a range of free @-@ fall nuclear bombs , later Victor B.2s operated as missile carriers for standoff nuclear missiles such as Blue Steel ; it had been intended for the American Skybolt missile to be introduced ; however , development of Skybolt was cancelled . Target information for Blue Steel could be input during flight , as well in advance of the mission . It was reported that , with intensive work , a B.2 missile carrier could revert to carrying free @-@ fall nuclear weapons or conventional munitions within 30 hours .
Like its sibling V @-@ Bombers , the Victor made use of the Navigational and Bombing System ( NBS ) ; a little @-@ used optical sight had also been installed upon early aircraft . For navigation and bomb @-@ aiming purposes , the Victor employed numerous radar systems . These included the H2S radar , the first airborne ground @-@ scanning radar , and the Green Satin radar . Radar information was inputted into the onboard electromechanical analogue bomb @-@ aiming apparatus . Some of the navigation and targeting equipment was either directly descended from , or shared concepts with , those used on Handley Page 's preceding Halifax bomber . Operationally , the accuracy of the bomb @-@ aiming system proved to be limited to roughly 400 yards , which was deemed sufficient for high @-@ level nuclear strike operations .
= = = Avionics and systems = = =
The Victor had fully duplicated powered controls ; many of the flight controls and flight surfaces were designed with redundancies . Pilot control movements were transmitted via a low @-@ friction mechanical system . This setup was developed to provide , amongst other capabilities , a level of artificial feel to the pilot . Eight separated hydraulic circuits were present on the aircraft , which comprised the alighting gear , flaps , nose flaps , air brakes , bomb doors , wheel brakes , nose @-@ wheel steering , and the ram @-@ air turbine scoops . An AC electrical system and auxiliary power unit were significant additions upon the later Victor B.2 , electrical reliability being noticeably improved .
To evade enemy detection and interception efforts , the Victor was outfitted with an extensive electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) suite which were operated by the air electronics officer ( AEO ) , who had primary responsibility for the aircraft 's electronics and communication systems . The ECM equipment could be employed to disrupt effective use of both active and passive radar in the vicinity of the aircraft , and to provide situational awareness for the crew . Enemy communications could also be jammed , and radar guided missiles of the era were also reportedly rendered ineffective . The Victor B.2 featured an extended area located around the base of the tail fin which contained cooling systems and some of the ECM equipment .
Some of the ECM equipment which initially saw use on the Victor , such as the original chaff dispenser and Orange Putter tail warning radar , had been developed for the earlier English Electric Canberra bomber and were already considered to be near @-@ obsolete by the time the Victor had entered service . Significant improvements and alterations would be made to the avionics and ECM suites , as effective ECMs had been deemed critical to the Victor 's role ; for example , the introduction of the more capable Red Steer tail warning radar . The introduction of the Victor B.2 was accompanied by several new ECM systems , including a passive radar warning receiver , a metric radar jammer and communications jamming equipment . Streamlined fairings on the trailing edges of the wings that could house large quantities of defensive chaff / flares were also new additions . While trials were conducted with terrain @-@ following radar and a side scan mode for the bombing and navigation radar , neither of these functions were integrated into the operational fleet .
= = = Engines = = =
The Victor B.1 was powered by an arrangement of four Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire turbojet engines . The engines were embedded in pairs into the aircraft 's wing root ; because of the high mounted position of the wing , the tail had to adopt a high mounting to maintain clearance of the jet turbulence , however the airbrakes were ideally situated to take advantage of this phenomenon . Difficulties were encountered with the Sapphires when stationed in tropical environments ; several engines were destroyed by the turbine blades striking the outer engine casing . The Victor B.2 adopted the newer Rolls @-@ Royce Conway turbofan ; the Conway at one point held the distinction of being the most powerful non @-@ afterburning engine outside of the Soviet Union , and were significantly more powerful than the preceding Sapphire engines employed upon on the B.1.
The Victor B.2 featured a distinct change in the aircraft 's engine arrangements ; incorporated into the right wing root was a Blackburn Artouste airborne auxiliary power unit ( AAPU ) , effectively a small fifth engine . The AAPU was capable of providing high @-@ pressure air for starting the main engines , and also providing electrical power on the ground or alternatively in the air as an emergency back @-@ up in the event of main engine failures . The AAPU also acted to reduce the need for external specialist support equipment . Turbine @-@ driven alternators , otherwise known as ram air turbines ( RATs ) , had been introduced on the B.2 to provide emergency power in the event of electrical or hydraulic power being lost . Retractable scoops in the rear fuselage would open to feed ram air into the RATs , which would provide sufficient electrical power to operate the flight controls . In the event of engine flameout RATs would assist the crew in maintaining control of the aircraft until the main engines could be relit .
= = = Flight profile = = =
The Victor was commonly described as having good handling and excellent performance , along with favourable low speed flight characteristics . During the flight tests of the first prototype , the Victor proved its aerodynamic performance , flying up to Mach 0 @.@ 98 without handling or buffeting problems ; there were next to no aerodynamic changes between prototype and production aircraft . Production aircraft featured an automated nose @-@ flap operation to counteract a tendency for the aircraft to pitch upwards during low @-@ to @-@ moderate Mach numbers . At low altitude , the Victor typically flew in a smooth and comfortable manner , in part due to its narrowness and flexibility of the crescent wing . One unusual flight characteristic of the early Victor was its self @-@ landing capability ; once lined up with the runway , the aircraft would naturally flare as the wing entered into ground effect while the tail continued to sink , giving a cushioned landing without any command or intervention by the pilot .
The Victor has been described as an agile aircraft , atypical for a large bomber aircraft ; in 1958 , a Victor had performed several loops and a barrel roll during practices for a display flight at Farnborough Airshow . Manoeuverability was greatly enabled by the light controls , quick response of the aircraft , and the design of certain flight surfaces such as the infinitely @-@ variable tail @-@ mounted airbrake . The Victor was designed for flight at high subsonic speeds , although multiple instances have occurred in which the sound barrier was broken . During development of the Victor B.2 , the RAF had stressed the concept of tactical manoeuverability , which led to much effort in development being given to increasing the aircraft 's height and range performance .
= = Operational history = =
The Victor was the last of the V bombers to enter service , with deliveries of B.1s to No. 232 Operational Conversion Unit RAF based at RAF Gaydon , Warwickshire before the end of 1957 . The first operational bomber squadron , 10 Squadron , formed at RAF Cottesmore in April 1958 , with a second squadron , 15 Squadron forming before the end of the year . Four Victors , fitted with Yellow Astor reconnaissance radar , together with a number of passive sensors , were used to equip a secretive unit , the Radar Reconnaissance Flight at RAF Wyton . The Victor bomber force continued to build up , with 57 Squadron forming in March 1959 and 55 Squadron in October 1960 . At its height , the Victor was simultaneously operating with six squadrons of RAF Bomber Command .
According to the operational doctrine developed by the RAF , in the circumstance of deploying a large scale nuclear strike , each Victor would have operated entirely independently ; the crews would conduct their mission without external guidance and be reliant upon the effectiveness of their individual tactics to reach and successfully attack their assigned target ; thus great emphasis was placed on continuous crew training during peacetime . Developing a sense of a crew unity was considered highly important ; Victor crews would typically serve together for at least five years , and a similar approach was adopted with ground personnel . In order to maximize the operational lifespan of each aircraft , Victor crews typically flew a single five @-@ hour training mission per week . Each crew member was required to qualify for servicing certificates to independently undertake inspection , refuelling and turnaround operations .
In times of high international tension , the V @-@ bombers would be dispersed and have been maintained at a high state of readiness ; if the order was given to deploy a nuclear strike , Victors at high readiness would have been airborne in under four minutes from the point the order had been issued . British intelligence had estimated that the Soviet 's radar network was capable of detecting the Victor at up to 200 miles away , so to avoid interception , the Victor would follow carefully planned routes to exploit weaknesses in the Soviet detection network . This tactic was employed in conjunction with the Victor 's extensive onboard electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) to increase the chances of evasion . Whilst originally the Victor would have maintained high altitude flight throughout a nuclear strike mission , rapid advances of the Soviet anti @-@ aircraft warfare capabilities ( exemplified by the downing of a U2 from 70 @,@ 000 ft in 1960 ) led to this tactic being abandoned : a low @-@ level high @-@ speed approach supported by increasingly sophisticated ECMs was adopted in its place .
The improved Victor B.2 started to be delivered in 1961 , with the first B.2 Squadron , 139 Squadron forming in February 1962 , and a second , 100 Squadron in May 1962 . These were the only two bomber squadrons to form on the B.2 , as the last 28 Victors on order were cancelled . The prospect of Skybolt ballistic missiles , with which each V @-@ bomber could strike at two separate targets , meant that fewer bombers would be needed , while the government were unhappy with Sir Frederick Handley Page 's resistance to their pressure to merge his company with competitors . While Skybolt 's development would be terminated , Victor B.2s were retrofitted as carrier aircraft for the Blue Steel standoff nuclear missile . The introduction of standoff weapons and the switch to low @-@ level flight in order to evade radar detection was said to be decisive factors in the successful penetration of enemy territory .
In 1964 – 1965 , a series of detachments of Victor B.1As was deployed to RAF Tengah , Singapore as a deterrent against Indonesia during the Borneo conflict , the detachments fulfilling a strategic deterrent role as part of Far East Air Force , while also giving valuable training in low @-@ level flight and visual bombing . In September 1964 , with the confrontation with Indonesia reaching a peak , the detachment of four Victors was prepared for rapid dispersal , with two aircraft loaded with live conventional bombs and held on one @-@ hour readiness , ready to fly operational sorties . However , they were never required to fly combat missions and the high readiness alert finished at the end of the month .
Following the discovery of fatigue cracks , developing due to their low @-@ altitude usage , the B.2R strategic bombers were retired and placed in storage by the end of 1968 . The RAF had experienced intense demand upon its existing aerial refuelling tanker fleet , and its existing fleet of Victor B.1 tankers that had been converted earlier were due to be retired in the 1970s , thus it was decided that the stored Victor B.2Rs would be converted to tankers also . Handley Page prepared a modification scheme that would see the Victors fitted with tip tanks , the structure modified to limit further fatigue cracking in the wings , and ejection seats provided for all six crewmembers . The Ministry of Defence delayed signing the order for conversion of the B2s until after Handley Page went into liquidation . The contract for conversion was instead awarded to Hawker Siddeley , who produced a much simpler conversion than that planned by Handley Page , with the wingspan shortened to reduce wing bending stress and hence extend airframe life .
While the Victor was never permanently based with any units stationed overseas , temporary deployments were frequently conducted , often in a ceremonial capacity or to participate in training exercises and competitions . Victor squadrons were dispatched on several extended deployments to the Far East , and short term deployments to Canada were also conducted for training purposes . At one point during the early 1960s , South Africa showed considerable interest in the acquisition of several bomber @-@ configured Victors ; in the end , the Victor would not serve with any other operator other than the RAF .
Several of the Victor B.2s had been converted for Strategic Reconnaissance mission following the retirement of the Valiant in this capacity . In service , this type was primarily used in surveillance of the Atlantic and Mediterranean Seas , capable of surveying 400 @,@ 000 square miles in an eight @-@ hour mission ; they were also used to sample the fallout from French nuclear tests conducted in the South Pacific . Originally reconnaissance Victors were equipped for visual reconnaissance ; however , it was found to be cheaper to assign Canberra light bombers to this duty and as such the cameras were removed in 1970 . Subsequently , radar @-@ based reconnaissance was emphasised in the type 's role . The reconnaissance Victors remained in use until 1974 when they followed the standard bombers into the tanker conversion line ; a handful of modified Avro Vulcans assumed the maritime radar reconnaissance role in their place .
Two of the V @-@ bombers , the Victor and the Vulcan , played a high @-@ profile role during the 1982 Falklands War . In order to cross the vast distance of the Atlantic Ocean , a single Vulcan required refuelling several times from Victor tankers . A total of three bombing missions were flown against Argentine forces deployed to the Falklands , with approximately 1 @.@ 1 million gal ( 5 million L ) of fuel consumed in each mission . At the time , these missions held the record for the world 's longest @-@ distance bombing raids . The deployment of other assets to the theatre , such as the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod and Lockheed Hercules , required the support of the Victor tanker fleet , which had been temporarily relocated to RAF Ascension Island for the campaign . The Victor also undertook several reconnaissance missions over the South Atlantic . These missions provided valuable intelligence for the retaking of South Georgia by British forces .
Following the invasion of Kuwait by neighbouring Iraq in 1991 , a total of eight Victor K.2s were deployed to Bahrain to provide in @-@ flight refuelling support to RAF and other coalition aircraft during the subsequent 1991 Gulf War . RAF strike aircraft such as the Panavia Tornado would frequently make use of the tanker to refuel prior to launching cross @-@ border strikes inside of Iraq . Shortly after the Gulf War , the remaining Victor fleet was quickly retired in 1993 , at which point it had been the last of the three V @-@ bombers in operational service ; retiring nine years after the last Vulcan , although the Vulcan had survived longer in its original role as a bomber .
= = Variants = =
HP.80
Prototype , two aircraft built .
Victor B.1
Strategic bomber aircraft , 50 built .
Victor B.1A
Strategic bomber aircraft , B.1 updated with Red Steer tail warning radar and ECM suite , 24 converted .
Victor B.1A ( K.2P )
2 point in @-@ flight refuelling tanker retaining bomber capability , six converted .
Victor BK.1
3 point in @-@ flight refuelling tanker ( renamed K.1 after bombing capability removed ) , 11 converted .
Victor BK.1A
3 point in @-@ flight refuelling tanker ( renamed K.1A as for K.1 ) , 14 converted .
Victor B.2
Strategic bomber aircraft , 34 built .
Victor B.2RS
Blue Steel @-@ capable aircraft with RCo.17 Conway 201 engines , 21 converted .
Victor B ( SR ) .2
Strategic reconnaissance aircraft , nine converted .
Victor K.2
In @-@ flight refuelling tanker . 24 converted from B.2 and B ( SR ) .2 .
HP.96
Proposed military transport of 1950 with new fuselage carrying 85 troops . Unbuilt .
HP.97
1950 civil airliner project . Not built .
HP.98
Proposed pathfinder version with remotely operated tail guns and powered by Conway engines . Rejected in favour of Valiant B.2.
HP.101
Proposed military transport version of HP.97. Not built .
HP.104
Proposed " Phase 3 " bomber of 1955 powered by Bristol Olympus or Sapphire engines . Not built .
HP.111
1958 project for military or civil transport , powered by four Conway engines . Capacity for 200 troops in military version or 145 passengers in airliner in a double @-@ decker fuselage .
HP.114
Proposed " Phase 6 " bomber designed for standing patrols carrying two or four GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt ballistic missiles .
HP.123
Proposed military tactical transport based on HP.111 and fitted with blown flaps . Rejected in favour of Armstrong Whitworth AW.681.
= = Operators = =
Royal Air Force
No. 10 Squadron RAF operated B.1 from April 1958 to March 1964 at RAF Cottesmore .
No. 15 Squadron RAF operated B.1 from September 1958 to October 1964 at RAF Cottesmore .
No. 55 Squadron RAF operated B.1 and B.1As from RAF Honington from October 1960 , moving to RAF Marham and receiving B.1 ( K ) A tankers in May 1965 . These were replaced by K.2 in July 1975 , with the squadron continuing to operate Victors in the tanker role until disbanding in October 1993 .
No. 57 Squadron RAF operated B.1As , K.1 & K.2s from March 1959 to 1992 .
No. 100 Squadron RAF operated B.2s at RAF Wittering from May 1962 to September 1968 .
No. 139 ( Jamaica ) Squadron RAF operated B.2s from February 1962 to December 1968 .
No. 214 Squadron RAF operated K.1 tankers from July 1966 to January 1977 .
No. 543 Squadron RAF operated B ( SR ) .2s from December 195 to May 1974 .
No. 232 Operational Conversion Unit RAF .
Radar Reconnaissance Flight RAF Wyton .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
14 July 1954 : WB771 the prototype HP.80 crashed during a test flight at Cranfield , England . All four crewmen died . Witnesses reported the entire tail assembly had " ripped away " at a height of about 100 feet .
16 April 1958 : XA921 a B.1 undertaking Ministry of Supply trials experienced a collapse of the rear bomb bay bulkhead while cycling the bomb bay doors , damaging hydraulic and electrical systems ; the aircraft successfully returned to base . Following the incident , in @-@ service Victors had restrictions put in place on the opening of the bomb doors until Modification 943 was applied to all aircraft .
20 August 1959 : XH668 a B2 of the A & AEE lost a pitot head and dived into the sea off Milford Haven , Pembrokeshire .
19 June 1960 : XH617 a B1A of 57 Squadron caught fire in the air and was abandoned near Diss , Norfolk .
23 March 1962 : XL159 a B2 of the A & AEE stalled and dived into a house at Stubton , Lincolnshire .
14 June 1962 : XH613 a B1A of 15 Squadron lost power on all engines and was abandoned on approach to RAF Cottesmore .
16 June 1962 : XA929 a B1 of 10 Squadron overshot the runway and broke up at RAF Akrotiri following an aborted takeoff .
2 October 1962 : XA934 a B1 of ' A ' Squadron , 232 OCU had an engine fail on takeoff from RAF Gaydon after which two engines failed on approach . The aircraft crashed into a copse several miles from RAF Gaydon . Of the four crew on board only the co @-@ pilot survived .
20 March 1963 : XM714 a B2 of 100 Squadron stalled after takeoff from RAF Wittering .
29 June 1966 : XM716 a SR2 of 543 Squadron was giving a demonstration flight for the press and television at RAF Wyton . The aircraft had made one high @-@ speed circuit and was flying low in a wide arc to return over the airfield when the starboard wing was seen to break away and both it and the rest of the aircraft burst into flames . All four crew were killed . The aircraft was the first SR2 to enter service with the squadron , and released evidence suggests that it was overstressed .
19 August 1968 : Victor K1 XH646 of 214 Squadron collided in midair near Holt , Norfolk in bad weather with a 213 Squadron English Electric Canberra WT325 ; all four crew members of the Victor died
10 May 1973 : XL230 a SR2 of 543 Squadron bounced during landing at RAF Wyton and exploded .
24 March 1975 : Victor K1A XH618 of 57 Squadron was involved in a midair collision with Hawker Siddeley Buccaneer XV156 during a simulated refuelling . The Buccaneer hit the Victor 's tailplane causing the Victor to crash into the sea 95 mi ( 153 km ) east of Sunderland , Tyne and Wear , four crew killed .
29 Sept 1976 : XL513 a K2 of No 55 Squadron aborted take off and overshot the runway at RAF Marham after a bird strike . The crew escaped with no serious injuries . The aircraft caught fire and was damaged beyond repair .
15 October 1982 : XL232 a K2 of No 55 Squadron suffered an uncontained turbine failure early in the take off run . The aircraft was stopped and the crew evacuated the aircraft with no injuries . Debris from the turbine penetrated a fuselage fuel tank , starting an uncontrolled fire , destroying the aircraft and damaging the runway .
19 June 1986 : XL191 a K2 of 57 Squadron undershot approach in bad weather at Hamilton , Ontario .
3 May 2009 : During a " fast taxi " run at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome , XM715 made an unplanned brief flight , reaching a height of about 30 ft ( 9 m ) at maximum . The aircraft did not have a permit to fly ; however , the Civil Aviation Authority ( CAA ) stated that they would not be conducting an investigation . The co @-@ pilot had failed to reply to the command " throttles back " ; the pilot then had to control the throttles himself , the confusion temporarily disrupting firm control of the aircraft .
= = Survivors = =
A total of five Victors have survived and are on display in museums . None are flightworthy as of 2013 .
Victor B.1A
XH648 : a B.1A ( K.2P ) at the Imperial War Museum Duxford , Cambridgeshire . This is the sole B.1 to survive .
Victor K.2
XH672 : Maid Marian , at the Royal Air Force Museum , Cosford , Shropshire , in the National Cold War Exhibition .
XH673 : Gate guardian at RAF Marham , Norfolk , the Victor 's last home .
XL231 : Lusty Lindy , at the Yorkshire Air Museum , York . The prototype for the B.2 to K.2 conversion . XL231 is one of two Victors currently in taxiable condition .
XM715 : Teasin ' Tina / Victor Meldrew , at the British Aviation Heritage Centre , Bruntingthorpe , Leicestershire . XM715 is also one of two Victors currently in taxiable condition .
= = Specifications ( Handley Page Victor B.1 ) = =
Data from Handley Page Aircraft since 1907
General characteristics
Crew : 5
Length : 114 ft 11 in ( 35 @.@ 05 m )
Wingspan : 110 ft 0 in ( 33 @.@ 53 m )
Height : 28 ft 1 ½ in ( 8 @.@ 57 m )
Wing area : 2 @,@ 406 sq ft ( 223 @.@ 5 m ² )
Empty weight : 89 @,@ 030 lb ( 40 @,@ 468 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 205 @,@ 000 lb ( 93 @,@ 182 kg )
Powerplant : 4 × Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire A.S.Sa.7 turbojets , 11 @,@ 050 lbf ( 49 @.@ 27 kN ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 627 mph ( 545 knots , 1 @,@ 009 km / h ) at 36 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m )
Range : 6 @,@ 000 mi ( 5 @,@ 217 nmi , 9 @,@ 660 km )
Service ceiling : 56 @,@ 000 ft ( 17 @,@ 000 m )
Armament
Up to 35 × 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs or
1 × Yellow Sun free @-@ fall nuclear bomb
= = Notable appearances in media = =
A 1964 Gerhard Richter painting titled XL 513 depicts Victor K.2 , which was lost in a 1976 accident at RAF Marham .
= Bart vs. Thanksgiving =
" Bart vs. Thanksgiving " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 22 , 1990 . In the episode , Lisa makes a table centerpiece for the Thanksgiving dinner , which Bart accidentally destroys . After he is sent to his room by his parents , Bart runs away from home and stays at a soup kitchen for homeless people . Bart returns home eventually and climbs to the roof of the Simpson family 's house , where he hears Lisa sobbing . He apolog
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izes to her , and the family happily enjoys a meal of leftovers .
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by David Silverman . Voice actor Greg Berg guest starred as Rory , one of the homeless people at the soup kitchen . The episode features cultural references to Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade , and the three poets Allen Ginsberg , Jack Kerouac , and Edgar Allan Poe . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 9 , and was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
It is Thanksgiving and Lisa assembles a decorative centerpiece for the dinner table . The Simpson family sits down to give thanks along with Grampa , Patty , Selma , and Mrs. Bouvier . When Lisa places the centerpiece on the table , she argues with Bart about where it should go since there is no room left for the turkey . In the ensuing fight , Bart accidentally throws the centerpiece into the fireplace and it burns up . Devastated , Lisa runs to her room crying , while Bart is sent to his room by his parents for the incident .
Convinced he has not done anything wrong , Bart decides to run away from home , taking Santa 's Little Helper with him . Walking the streets alone , he visits a breadline that is serving Thanksgiving dinner for homeless people . A television crew led by Kent Brockman is covering the event , and they interview Bart on live television . The family sees the report and calls the police . Homer and Marge start to regret the bad things they said to Bart , who eventually returns home feeling remorseful . However , the situation is worsened when he imagines his family blaming him for everything if he apologized for " ruining " Thanksgiving . Back to the present , he realizes that it was all his own imagination . He climbs up onto the roof of the house to think things out . Hearing Lisa cry because she misses him , Bart calls for her to come onto the roof . He realizes that what he did was wrong and apologizes to her and she accepts and kisses him . Bart rejoins the family to enjoy a meal of Thanksgiving leftovers later .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by George Meyer and directed by David Silverman . It was the first script Meyer wrote on the show , and he thought he made " quite a few mistakes , but it turned out really well overall . " The staff decided to do a Thanksgiving episode after they found out that an episode would air on Thursday , November 22 , 1990 , the date of Thanksgiving that year . The Simpsons had previously aired at 8 : 00 p.m. EST on Sunday night but the Fox network switched its timeslot to the same time on Thursdays at the beginning of the second season . The idea of Bart going up on the roof was suggested by Meyer who used to go up on the roof himself when he had fights with his family .
Voice actor Greg Berg guest starred as Rory , one of the homeless people at the soup kitchen . Marge 's mother , Jackie Bouvier , voiced by Julie Kavner , makes her first physical appearance on The Simpsons in the episode , though she was first referenced in a flashback in the season one episode " Moaning Lisa " . Bill and Marty , voiced by Harry Shearer and Dan Castellaneta , also make their first visual appearances , although they were heard on the radio in previous episodes , including " Bart Gets an " F " " . They are two radio show hosts and DJs on Springfield 's own radio station KBBL . Homer listens to their radio show when he drives to pick up Grampa at the retirement home for the Thanksgiving dinner .
= = Cultural references = =
At the beginning of the episode , Homer and Bart watch Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade , an annual United States parade that includes floating helium balloons modeled after famous fictional characters . When Homer and Bart talk about the balloons modeled after Bullwinkle and Underdog , The Simpsons is self @-@ referenced as Homer tells Bart that if the parade " turned every flash @-@ in @-@ pan cartoon character into a balloon , it would be a farce " , after which a giant balloon of Bart can be seen on the television in the background . Not coincidentally , 1990 was the year that Bart was turned into a balloon for the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade . While watching the Thanksgiving football game , Homer says he is cheering for the Dallas Cowboys . Two of the fictional Dallas Cowboys players are named Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky after two writers on The Simpsons .
The song that plays on the radio during the break in the Thanksgiving football game is " Get Dancing " by Disco @-@ Tex and the Sex @-@ O @-@ Lettes . The game is played at the Pontiac Silverdome , then home to the Detroit Lions , who also play on Thanksgiving . Lisa says the following about her centerpiece : " It 's a tribute to the trailblazing women who made our country great . See , there 's Georgia O 'Keeffe , Susan B. Anthony , and this is Marjory Stoneman Douglas . I 'm sure you haven 't heard of her , but she worked her whole life to preserve the Florida Everglades . " The poem Lisa is seen writing in her room after her centerpiece is destroyed is a reference to Allen Ginsberg 's poem " Howl " . Lisa also keeps a book of Ginsberg 's work on a bookshelf next to Jack Kerouac 's novel On the Road , and a collection of poems by Edgar Allan Poe . Feeling hungry , Bart decides to steal food from the old , rich Mr. Burns , who lives on the corner of Croesus and Mammon , two mythological figures of greed . A member of Burns ' security staff reads the novel Les Misérables .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Bart vs. Thanksgiving " finished thirty @-@ seventh in the ratings for the week of November 19 – 25 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately eleven million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children and In Living Color .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " Marge 's mother Jackie is particularly nightmarish in her first real appearance . The final sequence on the rooftop with Lisa and Bart is lovely , and Homer 's comment to Marge is a magical wrap @-@ up to a good episode . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said the episode " maintained a nicely irreverent tone most of the time — irreverent enough to make it amusing , at least , " and added : " The interaction of the Simpson and Bouvier families at dinner was terrific , and Bart ’ s experiences on skid row made their point while they still managed to be pointed and clever . ' Bart vs. Thanksgiving ' was another winner . " Bryce Wilson of Cinema Blend said " Bart vs. Thanksgiving " and " Lisa 's Substitute " , another season two episode , were the first episodes that " asked [ the audience ] to truly care about the characters , and they work beautifully . " Both Dawn Taylor of The DVD Journal and Jacobson thought the most memorable line of the episode was Jackie 's line to Marge : " I have laryngitis and it hurts to talk , so I 'll just say one thing — you never do anything right . " A reviewer for DVD.net , on the other hand , thought the best line was Homer 's " Oh Lord , be honest – are we the most pathetic family in the universe , or what ? " .
= Angela James =
Angela James ( born December 22 , 1964 ) is a Canadian former ice hockey player who played at the highest levels of senior hockey between 1980 and 2000 . She was a member of numerous teams in the Central Ontario Women 's Hockey League ( COWHL ) from its founding in 1980 until 1998 and finished her career in the National Women 's Hockey League ( NWHL ) . She was named her league 's most valuable player six times . James is also a certified referee in Canada , and a coach . She is currently the Senior Sports Coordinator at Seneca College in Toronto .
Internationally , James played in the first women 's world championship , a 1987 tournament that was unsanctioned . She played with Team Canada in the first IIHF World Women 's Championship in 1990 , setting a scoring record of 11 goals and leading Canada to the gold medal . She played in three additional world championships , winning gold medals in 1992 , 1994 and 1997 . Controversially , she was left off the team for the first women 's Olympic hockey tournament in 1998 . She played her final international tournament in 1999 .
Considered the first superstar of modern women 's hockey , James has been honoured by numerous halls of fame . She was one of the first three women inducted into the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) Hockey Hall of Fame in 2008 and one of the first two inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2010 . She was inducted into Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
James was born on December 22 , 1964 , in Toronto , Ontario . She is the daughter of Donna Barrato , a white Canadian from Toronto , and Leo James , a black American from Mississippi who came to Canada to escape racial segregation . She has two half @-@ brothers and two half @-@ sisters on her mother 's side . Her father , who was involved with a Toronto nightclub , estimates she has at least nine half @-@ siblings by him , though James believes the number closer to 15 . Among them is National Hockey League ( NHL ) player Theo Peckham .
A single mother , Donna raised Angela and her two half @-@ sisters with the help of government assistance . They lived in a subsidized townhouse in the Flemingdon Park neighbourhood of Toronto . Donna worked as a bookkeeper and at the concession stand of the local arena . She battled depression and mental illness and her eldest daughter , Cindy , worked two part @-@ time jobs at the age of 16 to help the family meet financial obligations . Angela was closest to her sister Kym , though the two also often fought as children . Her father never had a consistent place in her life growing up and did not provide financial support to the family , but was available if she needed him . As one of few black children in Flemingdon Park , Angela often faced insults , particularly over the fact that she was a mixed @-@ race child with a white mother and sisters . She often got into fights over the slurs , forming a combative attitude she carried into the game of hockey . Her maternal grandparents never accepted Angela as a child , though they treated her sisters well .
Always a tomboy , James quickly developed an interest in sports . Her godfather gave her a baseball bat and glove to celebrate her first holy communion . She excelled at hockey , baseball and synchronized swimming as a young child . Her mother wanted her to focus on swimming due to the lack of opportunities for girls in hockey in the 1970s . Her passion was for hockey , however , and she was constantly playing ball hockey with the neighbourhood boys from the time she was in kindergarten . James first played organized hockey in a Flemingdon Park boys house league at the age of eight , and then only after her mother threatened legal action as officials opposed her inclusion .
James dominated the Flemingdon Park league . She started in the novice ( 7 – 8 year old ) age group , but her skill level was so much higher than her peers that she was moved up to atom and then peewee ( 11 and 12 year olds ) . She led the league in scoring , was named an all @-@ star and was invited to play with the league team at a peewee tournament in Montreal . James ' participation in the Flemingdon Park league ended partway through her second year due to jealousy from the parents of the boys in the league . The president 's son was on James ' team , and was particularly offended that his boy was being overshadowed by a girl . He ordered a change in the league 's policy to forbid girls from playing .
The only feasible option James had for a girls league was at Annunciation , a Catholic organization in Don Mills . Lacking a vehicle to drive to the games , her mother would take her to and from games at various rinks via the bus . The girls ' hockey program was small , requiring that teams be made up of players from all age groups in order to field complete rosters . Skipping the bantam age group entirely , James first played senior hockey with the Newtonbrook Saints . She was 13 at the time , playing against women 16 and older . The Saints were a Senior C team , the fourth highest level of women 's hockey in the Toronto area at the time .
= = Playing career = =
= = = College = = =
Focused on hockey , exposed to drugs and alcohol and frequently getting into fights , James paid little attention to her education and nearly dropped out of school . A vice @-@ principal at Valley Park Middle School , Ross Dixon , encouraged her to pay greater attention to her studies , allowing her to graduate from Overlea High School , now named Marc Garneau Collegiate Institute , and move onto Seneca College in Toronto . James struggled academically in her first year at Seneca , partially because she had rarely been held accountable for failing in her studies in the past , and partly because she was playing two sports at both the college and community level while working part @-@ time jobs to help pay the family 's bills . Seneca 's hockey coach Lee Trempe had several arguments with James before she began to take her studies seriously .
James was a two @-@ sport star for the Seneca Scouts . She joined the softball team in 1983 , playing the outfield and batting cleanup . She was an Ontario Colleges Athletic Association ( OCAA ) all @-@ star and led her school the inaugural OCAA women 's softball championship . She was named an OCAA all @-@ star again 1984 and 1985 , leading Seneca to another provincial championship and a silver medal finish .
Though James always played forward in her community hockey leagues , Trempe converted her to defence so that she could set up the plays and incorporate her teammates into the offensive systems the team used . Despite the change in position , James still led the league in scoring in 1982 – 83 , recording 15 goals and 10 assists in an 8 game season . She was named the OCAA 's most valuable player , but Seneca settled for the silver medal after losing the OCAA finals . Leading the OCAA with 30 points in 10 games in 1983 – 84 , James carried Seneca College to its first championship . She was named an all @-@ star on defence , and again voted the most valuable player . James won both awards again the following season . Seneca repeated as champions in 1984 – 85 while James dominated the OCAA . She again led the league in scoring , setting school and association records with 50 goals and 73 points in just 14 games . Her scoring exploits led a Toronto reporter to call James " the Wayne Gretzky of women 's hockey " .
The OCAA named James its athlete of the year in both 1984 and 1985 for her exploits in hockey and softball . She set OCAA career hockey records of 80 goals and 128 points , which stood through to 1989 when the OCAA disbanded its women 's hockey program due to a lack of competing teams . Seneca College retired her jersey number 8 in 2001 , she was inducted into Seneca Varsity Hall of Fame in 1985 and in 2004 , received the Seneca College Distinguished Alumni Award .
= = = Senior = = =
After one year of Senior C hockey , James moved up to the Toronto Islanders in 1980 , a Senior AA team in the newly founded Central Ontario Women 's Hockey League ( COWHL ) . The league was at the highest level of women 's hockey in southern Ontario at the time , and James established herself as one of the league 's stars within a year . She played the first women 's national championship in 1982 , scoring the tying goal in the third period en route to a 3 – 2 overtime victory over Team Alberta to win the McTeer Cup .
When the Islanders folded in 1982 , James moved to a team in Burlington , where she stayed for three seasons . In 1983 , she led her new team to the national title as Burlington captured the inaugural Abby Hoffman Cup . For James , appearances in the women 's nationals were nearly an annual event , as she played in 12 national championship tournaments .
James changed teams frequently , moving for a variety of reasons . She often changed teams to follow friends or if she did not agree with the coach 's philosophy . Sometimes she moved out of necessity , such as if a team ceased operations . She left Burlington in 1984 – 85 to join Lee Trempe with the Agincourt Canadians for one season , then played with the Brampton Canadettes for another . In 1986 – 87 she again followed Trempe to the Mississauga Warriors , where she stayed for three seasons . James won her first of seven consecutive COWHL scoring titles that season , then was loaned to the Hamilton Golden Hawks for the 1987 Women 's Nationals and helped lead that team to victory .
Changing teams again , James joined the Toronto Aeros in 1989 . The Aeros had formed in 1974 as an outgrowth of the Annunciation team she played with as a child . She led the team to two national championships , in 1991 and 1993 . In the first , she scored the only goal , against future national team teammate Manon Rheaume , in a 1 – 0 victory over Team Quebec . The 1993 – 94 season was a season in which James scored 40 goals and 70 points in 28 games . She continued to switch teams , joining the Toronto Red Wings / Newtonbrook Panthers franchise for a couple seasons before rejoining the Aeros in 1997 . She remained with the team when it was rebranded the Beatrice Aeros in 1998 and joined the newly formed National Women 's Hockey League ( NWHL ) . James scored 38 goals and 55 points in the inaugural NWHL season of 1998 – 99 and was named the league 's most valuable player . The following season , she was named the Western Division 's best forward and on its First All @-@ Star team . The Aeros won their first NWHL title dominating the Sainte @-@ Julie Pantheres in the finals . Also OWHA champions , the Aeros catptured the women 's nationals against Team Quebec . Once the season over , James retired from competitive hockey in 2000 .
= = = International = = =
The Ontario Women 's Hockey Association ( OWHA ) hosted the first women 's world championship in 1987 . The event , which was not sanctioned by the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , featured six participating teams while several nations sent observers . Team Canada was represented by the national champion Hamilton Golden Hawks , with whom James had played with in the national tournament , while " Team Ontario " was represented by her usual club team in Mississauga . While she was eligible to play with either team in the tournament , James suited up for her usual Mississauga team . She led Team Ontario throughout , and after a 5 – 2 semi @-@ final win over the United States , played for the title against Team Canada . Team Canada defeated James ' Team Ontario , 4 – 0 in the final .
The IIHF sanctioned the first official Women 's World Championship , held in 1990 and played in Ottawa . Canada and the United States easily dispatched their European rivals to reach the gold medal final , which Canada won by a 5 – 2 score . James scored the first goal in the tournament 's history , and 11 overall . She tied American Cindy Curley for the tournament lead which , along with The USA 's Krissy Wendell in 2000 , stands as the record for most goals by one player in one tournament , through 2012 .
James appeared in three additional Women 's World Championships , all three of which were won by Canada over the United States . She was named an all @-@ star at forward in the 1992 tournament in Tampere , Finland , where Canada won the gold medal with an 8 – 0 victory . The Americans provided a stronger challenge at the 1994 tournament in Lake Placid , New York . James scored two goals and was named the game 's most valuable player in the final , a 6 – 3 victory . She won her fourth , and final , world championship in 1997 , a 4 – 3 overtime victory .
Reflecting the growth of the game , the 1998 Nagano Games featured the first women 's Olympic hockey tournament . The announcement of Canada 's first Olympic team on December 9 , 1997 , brought a storm of controversy . Head coach Shannon Miller left James off the roster , telling the press that the 32 @-@ year @-@ old James was a " defensive liability " and suggesting she was not a team player . James was devastated at being cut and enraged by Miller 's explanations . Stating she had been " treated like a dog " and " set up and cheated " by Miller , she appealed the decision to Hockey Canada . James also argued Miller 's criticisms were unjustified and that the coach had previously maintained she was playing well . She was the national team 's leading goal scorer in preliminary games that led up to the national team camp .
At the time of the appeal , rumours surfaced that Miller was having an affair with one of her players . While the allegations were unfounded , their timing resulted in James being falsely accused of being their source . Hockey Canada officials determined that the rumours were started by a third party attempting to create controversy . They also rejected James ' appeal , ending her Olympic dream . Neither her teammates nor her opponents could understand how she was left off the team . Canada and the United States met in the final , as expected , but it was the Americans who emerged victorious . Having already defeated Canada 7 – 4 in the preliminary round , the Americans won the gold medal with a 3 – 1 victory . Former teammates argued that James could have made a difference for Canada had she been included .
At the time , James was suffering from the effects of undiagnosed Graves ' disease , a thyroid condition that resulted suffering weight loss and fatigue throughout that camp . She learned of and was treated for her condition following the Olympics , recovering lost weight and strength . The national team , under a new coach , added James back to its roster for the 1999 3 Nations Cup . She was used sparingly , but accepted her diminished role with the team . During the tournament , James made the decision that it would be her last . James ' international career ended in storybook fashion as the championship game , against the United States , went to a shootout . Selected as the first shooter , she scored the winning goal to lead Canada to a 3 – 2 victory . James played in 50 games for Team Canada , scoring 33 goals and 21 assists .
= = Playing style = =
James was a dominant player in the OWHA . Women 's hockey historian Elizabeth Etue attributed James ' success to her skating strength and " dynamic , bullet @-@ like shot " . She was a physical player who helped the women 's game overcome a reputation that it was not a sport where the players were willing to play a " gritty " , tough style . Opponents claimed running into James was like " hitting steel " . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation commentator Robin Brown , who played against James in the OWHA , said of her : " She could do it all . She had end @-@ to @-@ end speed , she had finesse as a stick handler and her slap shot was harder and more accurate than any female player I have ever seen . She was a pure goal scorer like Mike Bossy and aggressive like Mark Messier . In her prime , she was referred to as the ' Wayne Gretzky of women 's hockey ' . " Capable of playing any position , James was primarily a centre during her senior career , but excelled on defence . In one game where her team was without a goaltender , she played the position and recorded a shutout .
= = Coaching and officiating = =
James has been active in many areas of the sport . She gained accreditation as a referee in Canada in 1980 , and has been an active official since . As a referee in a Senior D women 's game in 1986 , James was involved in an altercation with a player that resulted in the player becoming the first woman banned for life from the OWHA . The player became upset at a penalty James assessed , shoved a linesman and punched her . James ultimately gained level IV certification through Hockey Canada and has served as the OWHA 's Referee @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Upon her graduation from Seneca College , James took up coaching . Serving first as an assistant coach , she helped Seneca win the Ontario college championship , its third consecutive title . The school again repeated as champions in 1987 with James as its head coach . She has coached at all age levels of the game , including the national championship . She was an assistant with the gold medal winning Team Ontario at the 1999 Canada Winter Games , and led Ontario to a gold medal at the 2001 under @-@ 18 national championship . Prior to the 2010 @-@ 11 CWHL season , she was named Brampton Thunder head coach but , finding the responsibilities too time consuming , she stepped down in December , 2010 . She believes she can offer the most at the grassroots level of the sport , and has operated both her own hockey school and directed one organized through Seneca College .
= = Honours and legacy = =
James has been called " the first superstar of modern women 's hockey " , and has been hailed as a pioneer who brought the women 's game into the mainstream . Longtime women 's hockey administrator Fran Rider stated that James brought credibility , without which the women 's game would never have gained recognition as an Olympic sport .
An eight @-@ time scoring champion and six @-@ time most valuable player during her senior career , James has been honoured by several organizations . She was named Toronto 's Youth of the Year in 1985 and was presented the city 's Women in Sport Enhancement Award in 1992 . Hockey Canada named her the 2005 recipient of its Female Hockey Breakthrough Award . The Flemingdon Park arena was renamed the Angela James Arena in 2009 , and the Canadian Women 's Hockey League presents the Angela James Bowl to its leading scorer each sseason . She has been inducted into several Halls of Fame , including the Ontario Colleges Athletic Association Hall of Fame in 2005 , and the Black Hockey and Sports Hall of Fame in 2006 .
Reflecting her role as a pioneer of the sport , James was one of the first three women , along with Geraldine Heaney and Cammi Granato , to be inducted into the IIHF Hall of Fame . They were enshrined in 2008 as part of the IIHF 's 100th anniversary celebrations . Canada 's Sports Hall of Fame hailed James as a role model upon inducting her in 2009 . One year later , she joined Granato as the first two women inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . James described being informed of her election as a day she never thought would happen , adding : " I 'm really honoured to represent the female hockey players from all over the world " .
= = Personal life = =
After earning a diploma in Recreation Facilities Management from Seneca College , James was hired by the school as a sports programmer in 1985 . She continues to work for Seneca and is now a senior sports coordinator at its King campus .
James realized as a teen that she is lesbian . She met her partner , Ange , in 1994 , and the couple formalized their relationship in a commitment ceremony two years later . They have three children . Ange carried their first child in 1999 , Christian , while Angela gave birth to fraternal twins , son Michael and daughter Toni , in 2004 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Note : Complete statistics unavailable
= = = International = = =
= Operation Copperhead =
Operation Copperhead was a small military deception operation run by the British during the Second World War . It formed part of Operation Bodyguard , the cover plan for the invasion of Normandy in 1944 , and was intended to mislead German intelligence as to the location of General Bernard Montgomery . The operation was conceived by Dudley Clarke in early 1944 after he watched the film Five Graves to Cairo . Following the war M. E. Clifton James wrote a book about the operation , I Was Monty 's Double . It was later adapted into a film , with James in the lead role .
The German high command expected Montgomery ( one of the best @-@ known Allied commanders ) to play a key role in any cross @-@ channel bridgehead . Clarke and the other deception planners reasoned that a high @-@ profile appearance outside the United Kingdom would suggest that an Allied invasion was not imminent . An appropriate look @-@ alike was found , M. E. Clifton James , who spent a short time with Montgomery to familiarise himself with the general 's mannerisms . On 26 May 1944 , James flew first to Gibraltar and then to Algiers , making appearances where the Allies knew German intelligence agents would spot him . He then flew secretly to Cairo and remained in hiding until Montgomery 's public appearance in Normandy following the invasion .
The operation did not appear to have any significant impact on German plans and was not reported high up the chain of command . It was executed some time before D @-@ Day , and in the midst of several other Allied deceptions . German intelligence might have suspected a trick , or not attributed much importance to the visit .
= = Background = =
In preparation for the 1944 invasion of Normandy , the Allied nations conducted a complex series of deceptions under the codename Bodyguard . The overall aim of the plan was to confuse the German high command as to the exact location and timing of the invasion . Significant time was spent constructing the First United States Army Group , a notional army to threaten Pas de Calais , along with political and visual deceptions to communicate a fictional Allied battle plan . Copperhead was a small portion of Bodyguard conceived by Dudley Clarke . Earlier in the war Clarke had pioneered the idea of strategic deception , forming a deception department in Cairo named ' A ' Force . Clarke and ' A ' Force were not officially in charge of Bodyguard planning ( a role that fell to the London Controlling Section ) , but because of the location of the deception the Cairo planners organised much of the operation .
On a visit to Naples in January 1944 Clarke had seen the film Five Graves to Cairo , in which actor Miles Mander makes a brief appearance as Bernard Montgomery . The film involves one character impersonating another and Clarke suggested attempting the same trick in real life . He proposed an operation to mislead German commanders as to Montgomery 's location in the days immediately before the Normandy landings ( codenamed Operation Neptune ) .
Montgomery was one of the most prominent Allied commanders and the German high command expected him to be present for any invasion of France . Clarke hoped Montgomery 's apparent presence in Gibraltar and Africa would lend support to the idea that the Allies might be planning landings in Southern France , as part of Operation Vendetta , rather than across the Channel . While in London , in February 1944 , Clarke , the London Controlling Section and Ops ( B ) drafted Copperhead in support of Vendetta .
= = Operation = =
Mander , the actor from Five Graves to Cairo , was located in Hollywood but found to be too tall in real life . Another look @-@ alike was identified but before he could be drafted into the operation he broke a leg in a motorbike accident . Eventually , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel J. V. B. Jervis @-@ Reid , head of Ops ( B ) , spotted a photograph of Meyrick Clifton James in the News Chronicle . James , an Australian , had spent 25 years as an actor before the war , and at the time was assigned to the Royal Army Pay Corps . Colonel David Niven , a well @-@ known British actor , was asked to contact James and offer him a screen test for future army films . When he arrived at the meeting , James was told his true role .
James was not a perfect stand @-@ in for Montgomery . He had lost a finger during the First World War , so a prosthetic had to be made . He had also never flown before , so the London Controlling Section 's Dennis Wheatley took James up for a test flight to make sure he did not suffer from air sickness . Finally , James both drank heavily and smoked cigars , while Montgomery was a teetotaler and disliked smoking . The deception planners were worried that James might be spotted drinking , spoiling the performance . Despite these hitches , and with Montgomery 's approval , the plan went forward . To get into character , James spent some time with the general , posing as a journalist , to study his mannerisms .
Allied deceivers used their double agent network to circulate the idea that Montgomery would command ground forces during the invasion . Then , on 26 May 1944 , James flew overnight from RAF Northolt to Gibraltar , where the Germans maintained an observation post overlooking the airport from across the Spanish border . The plane had to circle for an hour before landing to allow James , who had smuggled a bottle of gin onto the flight , to sober up . He then attended breakfast with the British governor , Sir Ralph Eastwood , before departing again for the airfield . The Allies had arranged for Ignacio Molina Pérez , a Spanish envoy known to be a German spy , to visit Government House . After observing James 's departure , Pérez hurriedly crossed the border to place a call to his German handler .
James then flew to Algiers , where he was publicly paraded through the airport and driven to meet General Maitland Wilson , ostensibly for a meeting to discuss operations against the south of France . Instead , he was moved quietly to a remote villa by ' A ' Force 's Rex Hamer . Rumours suggest this was because James had been spotted smoking and staggering around Algiers , so the deceivers decided to cut his appearances short . Whatever the reason , the next day , out of character , James was flown to Cairo . He was to remain hidden there until the public disclosure of Montgomery 's presence in France . Meanwhile , double agents in North Africa were used to extend the masquerade for a few more days , by hinting Montgomery was still in the region .
= = Impact = =
The impact of Copperhead is unclear . The visit was reported up the German chain of command , and some double agents later received requests for information about Montgomery 's movements . There is no indication that Montgomery 's appearance affected German views of the imminent invasion threat . Writing in 2011 , historian Joshua Levine attributes this to the fact that the deception was carried out ten days before D @-@ Day , arguing that there would be no reason for a flying visit to North Africa to preclude an imminent invasion .
Another factor was that , in early May 1944 , an uncontrolled agent based in Spain ( who sold fictional intelligence to the Germans ) had passed on details of a meeting in Gibraltar between several high @-@ ranking Allied officers . Documents found after the war indicate that the Germans found this information suspect , and may have treated Montgomery 's appearance as equally so . Although double agents received several urgent requests from the Abwehr about his whereabouts it does not appear that this information was passed on to the German command in France . According to captured enemy generals , German intelligence believed that it was Montgomery , though they still guessed that it was a feint . The Bodyguard deception had confused the German command as to Allied intentions and the apparent arrival of Montgomery in Gibraltar added little to the picture .
James did not enjoy the experience . Although he received equivalent pay ( £ 10 per day ) to Montgomery during the operation , it had been a stressful assignment . Following Montgomery 's public appearance on the Normandy beachhead , James flew back to England and resumed his role within the Pay Corps and was warned not to discuss the operation . Dennis Wheatley , in his memoirs , commented that he felt James had been treated " shabbily " for his efforts .
= = Later depictions = =
In 1954 James wrote an account of the operation , entitled I Was Monty 's Double ( published in the United States as The Counterfeit General ) . The British government made no attempt to stop publication , and in 1958 the book was adapted into a film of the same name . James starred , both as himself and Montgomery , alongside John Mills as an intelligence agent .
= Jurassic Park III =
Jurassic Park III is a 2001 American science fiction adventure film and the third installment in the Jurassic Park film series . The film stars Sam Neill , William H. Macy , Téa Leoni , Alessandro Nivola , Trevor Morgan , and Michael Jeter . It is the first film in the series not to have been directed by Steven Spielberg , nor based on a book by Michael Crichton ( though numerous scenes in the film were ultimately taken from Crichton 's novels Jurassic Park and The Lost World ) . The film takes place on Isla Sorna , off Central America 's Pacific coast , the island featured in the second film , where a divorced couple has tricked Dr. Alan Grant into going in order to help them find their son .
After the success of Spielberg 's Jurassic Park , Joe Johnston expressed interest in directing a sequel . Spielberg instead gave Johnston permission to direct the third film in the series , if there were to be one . Production of Jurassic Park III began on August 30 , 2000 . Despite mixed to negative reviews from critics , the film was successful at the box office , grossing $ 368 million worldwide . A sequel was released in June 2015 .
= = Plot = =
Ben Hildebrand and 12 @-@ year @-@ old Eric Kirby go parasailing around the waters of Isla Sorna . A creature of unknown species attacks and kills the boat crew as it passes through a fog bank . Ben detaches the line ; he and Eric drift towards the island .
Dr. Alan Grant has become famous after his involvement at Jurassic Park . Ellie Sattler is married and has two children . Grant discusses with Sattler how raptors are far more intelligent than they had previously believed . At a dig site , Grant 's assistant , Billy Brennan , demonstrates how he can use a 3D printer to replicate a Velociraptor larynx .
Paul and Amanda Kirby , a wealthy couple , offer Grant funding for his research if he will give them an aerial tour of Isla Sorna . Desperate for research support , Grant reluctantly agrees . He flies there along with Paul , Amanda , Billy , and the Kirbys ' mercenary associates , Udesky , Cooper , and their pilot Nash . On the plane , Grant learns that the Kirbys actually plan to land on the island . When Grant opposes , he is knocked out by Cooper and wakes to the sound of Amanda using a megaphone . This attracts a Spinosaurus , which devours Cooper and causes the plane to crash into the forest . The Spinosaurus devours Nash and destroys the plane . Fleeing , the survivors briefly lose the Spinosaurus , only to encounter a Tyrannosaurus rex . The Spinosaurus returns , but the group escapes while the two carnivores fight each other . The Spinosaurus overpowers the T. rex and kills it .
Grant learns the Kirbys are actually a middle @-@ class divorced couple , who are looking for their son Eric , and Amanda 's boyfriend Ben , who have been missing on the island for eight weeks . Later , the group finds the parasail with Ben 's corpse attached . The group takes the parasail , and then encounter raptor nests . They find an abandoned InGen compound , where Amanda is ambushed by a raptor . The group manages to trap it , but it escapes and contacts the rest of its pack . The group flees into a herd of Corythosaurus and Parasaurolophus , causing a stampede , separating Grant and Udesky from the others . Grant retrieves Billy 's satchel , while Udesky is killed by the raptors .
Grant suspects the raptors are searching for something , while observing two of them communicating . He is then ambushed and cornered by the raptors , but is rescued by Eric , who managed to survive in an overturned water truck . The next day , Grant and Eric hear Paul 's satellite phone ringing and are reunited with the Kirbys and Billy . Paul explains that he gave the phone to Nash before he was devoured , and the group sees the Spinosaurus once again , with the phone ringing from inside the dinosaur . After barely escaping , Grant discovers that Billy took two eggs from the raptor nests and hid them in his satchel to use for funding , which provoked the raptor attacks . He decides to keep the eggs to ensure the group 's survival . The group unknowingly enters a large aviary used to house Pteranodons , which attack the group and fly away with Eric . Billy rescues Eric by using Ben 's parasail , but is then attacked and seemingly killed by the Pteranodons . The rest of the group escapes the aviary , unintentionally leaving the door unlocked . They make their way downriver using a boat .
That night , the group hears the phone ringing buried in feces of the Spinosaurus and retrieve it . As rain falls , Grant tries to contact Sattler , but the Spinosaurus attacks the boat . Grant and Paul scare it off by setting the boat 's fuel on fire
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front line infantry within the British Army in France had decreased , leading to a manpower crisis . In an attempt to consolidate manpower and to increase the number of machine guns and artillery support available to the infantry , the decision was made to reduce the number of battalions in a division from twelve to nine . This had the effect of reducing the establishment of a division from 18 @,@ 825 men to 16 @,@ 035 . In addition , to ease reinforcement , an attempt was made to consolidate as many battalions from the same regiment within the same brigade . These changes impacted the division , resulting in the 15th RWF , 11th SWB and 10th and 16th Welsh being disbanded and the 2nd RWF joining from the 33rd Division . These changes to the division also saw the machine gun companies consolidated into a single battalion , one medium mortar battery broken up and absorbed by the remaining two batteries and the heavy mortar battery leaving the division to become a Corps asset .
Following a short break to train and rest , the division returned to the front line in mid @-@ February and recommenced raiding the German lines . On 15 March , the 16 RWF conducted a raid on a similar scale , and with similar success , to the one conducted by the 10 SWB in November . During the same period , the Germans raided the British lines but not with the same level of success and managed to capture only two men . In addition , the division 's snipers were able to gain the upper hand over their German rivals . The divisional history notes that its patrols had gained " control of No Man 's Land " . Using what had been learned " thorough previous reconnaissance " , in addition to sniping , it was " possible to move about unmolested in exposed trenches or even in the open " in front of the German lines .
= = = German Spring Offensive = = =
On 21 March , Germany launched Operation Michael . This attack , which became the opening salvo of their Spring Offensive , aimed to deliver a single , decisive , war winning blow . The Germans intended to strike the southern British flank , to separate the British and French armies and then move north to engage the bulk of the British forces in France in a vernichtungsschlacht ( battle of annihilation ) . The aim was to inflict such a defeat upon the British armies that the country would abandon the war , which in turn would force the French to sue for peace . After the first ten days of the German offensive , the casualties suffered by the 2nd and the 47th ( London ) Divisions were such that the 38th was ordered south to take up positions near Albert to relieve the two formations . While the infantry moved south , the divisional artillery remained at Armentières to support the 34th Division and subsequently took part in the Battle of the Lys . During this battle , the artillery went on to aid French forces before being transferred temporarily to the British 25th Division and conducting a fighting withdrawal . Its actions with both divisions earned the men of the divisional artillery plaudits from both divisional commanders .
Near Albert , the division had been kept in reserve until the night 11 / 12 April , when the division relieved the 12th ( Eastern ) Division . The Germans had captured high ground near Bouzincourt and Aveluy , overlooking the British lines . The division was ordered to retake this to deny the Germans the ability to observe the British positions and to gain observation positions overlooking the German lines in the Ancre valley . At 19 : 30 on 22 April , elements of the 113th and 115th Brigades attacked with support from Australian artillery . The German infantry , supported by a large number of machine guns and much artillery support , resisted the attack . Unable to drive the German infantry off all of the high ground , the division gained 250 yards ( 230 m ) on a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 910 m ) front , which achieved the objective . The 13th RWF managed to push further ahead and secured a section of high ground overlooking the German lines , fought off several German counter @-@ attacks and took 85 Germans and six machine guns . Despite these successes , the attack was costly , with the 13th RWF suffering over 400 wounded . The Germans made repeated attempts to push back the British and a big attack was repulsed on 9 May . Over the following days , the division attempted an abortive attack on another German @-@ held ridge and conducted several raids on the German lines , before being withdrawn for a short break on 20 May .
At this point , Major @-@ General Charles Blackader left the division on medical grounds and was replaced by Major @-@ General Thomas Cubitt . The division received replacements for casualties , disbanded the sniper company and engaged in rifle training . Once back on the line , the division return to its previous routine of static warfare : conducting patrols and raids , as well as being subjected to raids and artillery bombardments .
= = = Final battles = = =
On 5 August , the division returned to the front and took up position at Aveluy Wood . Shortly after , the Allied armies launched the Battle of Amiens , which led to the start of the Hundred Days Offensive , the culminating offensive of the war . In the 38th Division sector , the Fourth Army pushed the Germans back from their gains and onto the eastern bank of the Ancre . The 38th Division was assigned to cross the river and clear the German @-@ held Thiepval ridge north of Albert .
On 21 / 22 August , elements of the 114th Brigade crossed the Ancre near Beaumont @-@ Hamel , established a bridgehead , constructed a bridge and fought off German counter @-@ attacks . The following day , additional elements of the brigade crossed , securing a further bridgehead and repulsed more German attacks . The 113th Brigade crossed the river via bridges in Albert and assaulted Unsa Hill 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the north @-@ east , taking 194 prisoners , three artillery pieces and seven machine guns . On 23 August , the 115th Brigade crossed the river and cleared several German positions facing them , took at least 30 prisoners and captured 15 machine guns . The rest of the division crossed the following day , either wading or using the new bridges . During the early hours , the 114th Brigade launched an attack on Thiepval ridge while the other two brigades attacked Ovillers @-@ la @-@ Boisselle . By the end of the day , despite heavy fighting , the division had seized the ridge , pushed the Germans back around Ovillers and taken 634 prisoners . The division history also records the capture of " 143 machine guns " .
On 25 August , the division advanced across the old Somme battlefield in the Second Battle of the Somme ( 1918 ) . The 113th Brigade cleared Mametz Wood , while the 115th seized Bazentin le Petit . The following day , the 113th Brigade reached the outskirts of Longueval and fought off numerous counter @-@ attacks , while the 115th Brigade surrounded and cleared High Wood ( near Bazentin le Petit ) . Casualties amounted to around 800 and at least 100 prisoners were taken and 15 machine guns captured . The next day saw heavy fighting outside Longueval as the 113th and 114th Brigades attempted to advance , but they were halted by determined German resistance and repeated counter @-@ attacks . The following days saw an exchange of artillery fire and further German counter @-@ attacks repulsed . Longueval was seized late on 28 August following a partial German withdrawal . The division continued its advance , overcame German resistance and counter @-@ attacks to capture Ginchy , Deville Wood and Lesbœufs but were held up by determined resistance at Morval . Following a day @-@ long barrage , Morval was captured on 1 September after heavy fighting and the division pushed on to take Sailly @-@ Saillisel and Étricourt @-@ Manancourt . In an effort to halt the British advance , the Germans had dug in on the far side of the Canal du Nord and , in the words of the divisional history , " smothered the Canal valley with gas shells " . On 3 September , having noticed a weakness in the German positions , elements of the 13th and 14th Welsh stormed across the canal and cleared the eastern bank allowing the rest of the 114th Brigade to cross . On 5 September , the division was relieved and placed in reserve . During August and the beginning of September , the artillery had fired over 300 @,@ 000 rounds in support of the fighting , 3 @,@ 614 casualties had been suffered and 1 @,@ 915 German prisoners taken .
On 11 September , the division returned to the line near Gouzeaucourt ; the Germans had dug in along a ridge line from Épehy to Trescault intending to delay the British from reaching the Hindenberg Line . The Fourth Army was tasked with clearing these positions . On 18 September , the Battle of Épehy was fought . The division attacked at 05 : 40 with the 113th and 114th Brigades . Both brigades were able to reach their objectives despite flanking fire , and fought off numerous counter @-@ attacks . Despite this success , the Germans were able to cling on to Gouzeaucourt . The battle cleared the German outposts in front of the Hindenburg Line preparing the way for future operations . On 20 September , the division was pulled off the line for a period of rest .
Eight days later , the division returned in preparation for assaulting the Hindenburg Line . The division advanced , along with the Fourth Army , pressing the retreating Germans before halting at the Hindenburg support line , also known as the Le Catelet @-@ Nauroy Line , due to determined German resistance . On 5 October the line was breached by the division after the Germans evacuated it for their main position ( Siegfried II Stellung , otherwise known as the Masnières @-@ Beaurevoir line ) near Villers @-@ Outréaux . The German positions lay behind dense lines of barbed wire , supported by concrete pillboxes and machine gun positions hidden in small woods providing excellent fields of fire over otherwise open countryside . Faced with this level of defence , the division was halted and spent the following days reconnoitring the German positions preparing for an assault .
The division 's plan of attack was for the 115th Brigade to envelop Villers @-@ Outréaux during dark and assault the village during daylight with tank support , while the 113th Brigade would clear the nearby Mortho Wood . The 114th Brigade would be held in reserve initially but brought up to exploit the success and push deeper into the German defensive belt . At 01 : 00 on 8 October , the attack began . The initial attack by the 115th Brigade failed , in turn impeding the 113th Brigade who were unable to approach Mortho Wood due to concentrated German machine gun fire . The 115th rallied and achieved their initial objective while the 113th were able to gain a foothold near theirs . At 05 : 00 , the 2nd RWF – following a friendly fire incident – assaulted Villers @-@ Outréaux and cleared the village with tank support . At 08 : 00 , the 114th Brigade was committed to the battle as orders to delay the advance arrived late . The troops were held up by undetected barbed wire and heavy German fire until 11 : 30 , when they disengaged and pressed forward exploiting the success of the 115th Brigade . The divisional history comments that the attack " progressed rapidly and resulted in a complete rout of the enemy " and that the brigade was able to achieve its final objective on the Prémont – Esnes road . Meanwhile , the 113th Brigade engaged in heavy fighting to clear the German trenches around Mortho Wood . During this action , the division suffered 1 @,@ 290 casualties and took 380 prisoners . The divisional history noted that 8 October was " perhaps ... the stiffest fighting of the whole advance " .
Following the assault , the 33rd Division pursued the retreating German forces , while the 38th stayed close behind ready to take over the advance or assault strongly @-@ held German positions as needed . On 9 October , Clary was liberated and the following day the divisional artillery was firing in support of the 33rd which had made contact with German forces . Over the next few days , the 33rd Division pursued the Germans to the River Selle and launched a bloody assault on the defended eastern bank during the opening stages of the Battle of the Selle . While a bridgehead was secured , it was abandoned due to losses and the decision was made to move the division forward . On the night of 13 / 14 October , the division took over the line near Troisvilles and Bertry . Over the next six days , the division prepared itself : conducting reconnaissance , constructing bridges and moving up heavy artillery . During these preparations , the Germans bombarded elements of the division 's artillery with gas shells .
On the night of 19 / 20 October , the division attacked . The footbridges were brought forward and the river crossed with ease . However , the divisional history comments , the " railway embankment on the far side was a much greater natural obstacle " due to heavy rain and was " heavily wired " and defended . The 113th and 114th Brigades crossed the river , each supported by a tank , while the 115th was held in reserve to deal with German counter @-@ attacks . Despite heavy German resistance and the tanks becoming bogged down in mud , the troops were able to seize the rail line by 02 : 30 . The divisional history commended the 14th Welsh for their efforts during this action , being the first to secure a bridgehead and then rolling up the German line to secure the right flank of the attack . In commending the efforts of his men , Major @-@ General Cubitt described the attack : having " formed up in boggy ground , [ the men ] crossed a difficult river ( for the fourth time since 21st August ) , attacked up a glacis swept by machine gun fire , stormed a precipitous railway embankment 40 to 50 feet high and in pouring rain , very slippery and deep going , in the hours of darkness , established [ themselves ] on the final objective " . Elements of the division 's pioneers joined in the final assault on the heights beyond the river and aided in the capture of the position . Despite several counter @-@ attacks , the division held the high ground . The attack inflicted at least 225 casualties and resulted in the capture of 212 prisoners , a battery of artillery pieces and mortars .
With a bridgehead across the Selle secured , the 33rd Division ( again supported by the 38th 's artillery ) continued the advance with the 38th following close behind . During this time , elements of the division supply train were stricken by an outbreak of Spanish flu . Following the 33rd , the division passed through the village of Forest , Croix @-@ Caluyau and Englefontaine , before halting in front of the Forêt de Mormal . Here the division paused until 4 November and was subjected to artillery and aerial bombardments as well as minor skirmishes with German infantry . At 06 : 15 on 4 November , over a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) front , the 115th Brigade pushed forward subjected to a heavy German artillery bombardment . The brigade cleared fenced @-@ off orchards before pushing 500 yards ( 460 m ) into the forest against stiff resistance . They were followed by the 113th Brigade , who then leapfrogged ahead to achieve the division 's second objective inside the forest . A lull in the fighting followed as the artillery was moved forward . Afterwards , the 114th Brigade attacked reaching the division 's final objective , a road running through the forest , before nightfall . In heavy rain and complete darkness , the 13th Welsh carried on the advance . They surrounded the hamlets of Sarbaras and Tete Noir , capturing a garrison of 65 men , before pushing on towards Berliamont and taking an additional 60 prisoners . The division had breached the forest , allowing the 33rd Division to continue again advancing eastwards – this time to cross the Sambre . During this 24 @-@ hour period , the division had advanced 11 @.@ 5 miles ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) further than the flanking divisions , taken 522 prisoners , captured 23 artillery pieces and suffered at least 411 casualties .
On 7 November , the division relieved the 33rd in the pursuit of the Germans . Taking over the line near Dourlers , the division pushed east . By 11 : 00 on 11 November , the leading brigade was east of Dimechaux with advanced patrols in contact with German forces at Hestrud on the Belgian border . From the start of the Hundred Day Offensive until the signing of the armistice on 11 November , the division had advanced 60 miles ( 97 km ) , taken 3 @,@ 102 prisoners , seized 520 machine guns and captured fifty mortars and 43 artillery pieces . The division 's own losses during this period amounted to 8 @,@ 681 men .
Historian Gary Sheffield commented that , since the division was " employed on trench @-@ holding duties from September 1917 to July 1918 " , it likely " was not regarded by GHQ as an elite ' storm ' formation " . However , he noted , " judged by the results of their attacks during the Hundred Days " the division " was in a select band of elite divisions " akin to the Australian , Canadian and a limited number of other British formations . Sheffield credited Cubitt , " a hard @-@ bitten , ruthless ' fire @-@ eater ' " , for the improved performance of the division during this period , along with the various breaks the division had away from the line when they were able to train and assimilate new knowledge that resulted in " devolution of command " which allowed command flexibility among lower ranks . In addition , Sheffield cited improved staff work and tactical doctrine and high morale , which had led to the ability of the division to carry out effective combined arms operations .
= = = Epilogue = = =
Following the conclusion of fighting , the division was based around Aulnoye @-@ Aymeries in France . The division was not chosen to be part of the British Army of the Rhine , the British occupation force to be based in the Rhineland . Instead , it was demobilised over a period of months . The first 3 @,@ 000 soldiers were sent home during December and the division ceased to exist by March 1919 . Prior to the division 's disbandment the remaining men were visited by Edward Prince of Wales ( later Edward VIII ) .
During the course of the war 4 @,@ 419 of the division 's men were killed , 23 @,@ 268 were wounded and 1 @,@ 693 reported missing . For acts of valour , five soldiers were ( in some instances posthumously ) awarded the Victoria Cross : James Llewellyn Davies , Ivor Rees , Henry Weale , William Allison White and Jack Williams . In addition , the following awards ( in several cases , multiple times ) were bestowed : 86 Distinguished Service Orders , 447 Military Crosses , 254 Distinguished Conduct Medals , and 1 @,@ 150 Military Medals ; 453 men were mentioned in dispatches .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Background = = =
Throughout the 1930s tensions built between Nazi Germany and the United Kingdom as well as its allies . During late 1937 and throughout 1938 , German demands for the annexation of Czechoslovakia 's Sudetenland led to an international crisis . In an attempt to avoid war , British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met with German Chancellor Adolf Hitler in September and brokered the Munich Agreement . The agreement averted immediate war and allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland . While Chamberlain had intended the agreement to lead to further peaceful resolution of issues , relations between both countries soon deteriorated . On 15 March 1939 , Germany breached the terms of the agreement by invading and occupying the remnants of the Czech state .
In response , on 29 March , the British Secretary of State for War Leslie Hore @-@ Belisha announced plans to increase the Territorial Army from 130 @,@ 000 men to 340 @,@ 000 and in so doing double the number of territorial divisions . The intended plan of action was for the existing units to recruit over their allowed establishments ( aided by an increase in pay for territorials , the removal of restrictions on promotion that had been a major hindrance to recruiting during the preceding years , the construction of better quality barracks and an increase in supper @-@ time rations ) and then form Second Line divisions from small cadres that could be built upon . As a result , the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division was to be created as a Second Line unit , a duplicate of the First Line 53rd ( Welsh ) Infantry Division . In April , limited conscription was introduced . At that time 34 @,@ 500 militiamen , all of the age of 20 , were conscripted into the regular army , initially to be trained for six months before being deployed to the forming second line units . However , despite the intention for the army to grow in size , the programme was complicated by a lack of central guidance on the expansion and duplication process and issues regarding the lack of facilities , equipment and instructors .
= = = Formation and home defence = = =
Despite the ongoing efforts and some regiments being able to recruit the required numbers to form new battalions , the whole process had – in the words of historian James P. Levy – " not progressed beyond the paper stage when [ the Second World War ] began in September " . The 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division finally became active on 18 September 1939 , although its constituent units had already formed and had been administered by the 53rd ( Welsh ) Infantry Division . The 38th was again composed of the 113th , 114th and 115th Infantry Brigades .
The division was initially assigned to Western Command and by early 1940 was spread out along the River Severn in England and Wales . By summer , the division was under the command of III Corps and was based in the North West , around Liverpool , to conduct manoeuvres and training . The war @-@ time deployment of the Territorial Army envisioned it being deployed piecemeal , to reinforce the regular army that had already been deployed to the European mainland , as equipment became available . The plan envisioned the deployment of the whole force in waves , as divisions completed their training , with the final divisions not being deployed until a year had elapsed from the outbreak of war . As a result , the division did not leave the United Kingdom as the British Expeditionary Force was evacuated from France during May and June 1940 .
In April 1941 , the division was assigned to IV Corps and had moved to Sussex , the 18th Infantry Division having replaced them around Liverpool . In Sussex , the division was held in reserve and placed behind the 47th ( London ) Infantry Division and the 55th ( West Lancashire ) Infantry Division which were defending the coast between Bognor Regis – in the west – to Beachy Head in the east . Despite being in reserve , historians Michael Glover and Jonathan Riley note that the Royal Welch Fusiliers battalions of the 115th Brigade all took part in coastal defence duties .
On 1 December 1941 , the division was placed on the Lower Establishment , having been earmarked for a static home defence role . During 1942 , the division was assigned to V Corps and had shifted west to defend the Dorset coastline . Notably , on 27 and 28 February , the anti @-@ aircraft platoon of the 4th Battalion , Monmouthshire Regiment , supported Operation Biting , the commando raid on Bruneval , France . In July , the division lost the 10th Royal Welch Fusiliers to the Parachute Regiment . The division spent 1943 and early 1944 moving around the country spending time in Kent , Hertfordshire and Northumberland , as well being assigned to II and XII Corps . By March , the 115th Infantry Brigade had formed " ' B ' Marshalling Area " and was aiding the movement of troops in preparation for Operation Overlord .
By 1944 , there were five Lower Establishment divisions allocated to home defence duties : the 38th , the 45th , the 47th ( London ) , the 55th ( West Lancashire ) and the 61st Infantry divisions . These five divisions had a combined total of 17 @,@ 845 men . Of this number , around 13 @,@ 000 were available as replacements for the 21st Army Group fighting in France . The remaining 4 @,@ 800 men were considered ineligible for service abroad at that time for a variety of reasons , including a lack of training , or being medically unfit . Over the following six months , up to 75 per cent of these men would be deployed to reinforce 21st Army Group following the completion of their training and certification of fitness . Specifically , the vast majority of the 1st Brecknockshire Battalion , South Wales Borderers were deployed to Normandy at the end of June as replacements to reinforce 21st Army Group , and by mid @-@ July so had the 2nd Battalion , Herefordshire Light Infantry , resulting in that battalion being disbanded . Stephen Hart comments that , by September , the 21st Army Group " had bled Home Forces dry of draftable riflemen " after the losses suffered during the Battle of Normandy , leaving the army in Britain , with the exception of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division , with just " young lads , old men and the unfit " .
Compounding the loss of men to reinforce 21st Army Group , on 3 July the 115th Infantry Brigade was withdrawn from the division . The brigade was earmarked for an operation to liberate the Channel Islands and was re @-@ designated Force 135 . Ultimately such an operation did not take place and the brigade was deployed to Europe . During August , the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division began to disperse . On 15 August , the divisional headquarters ceased commanding any subordinate units and by the end of the month the division was disbanded .
= = = Training = = =
During 1944 , the British Army was suffering from a severe shortage of manpower . In an effort to downsize the army and consolidate as many men within as few formations as possible to maintain fighting strength and efficiency , the War Office began disbanding divisions , including the 80th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division . As part of this restructure , the decision was made to retain division numbers familiar to the British public . On 1 September 1944 , the 38th Division was recreated as the 38th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division to replace the 80th as Western Command 's training formation . The new 38th Division was commanded by Major @-@ General Lionel Howard Cox , who had previously commanded the 80th Division . At this point , the divisional insignia was worn only by the permanent members of the division .
The 38th , along with the 45th Holding , the 47th Infantry ( Reserve ) and the 48th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , were used to complete the training of new army recruits . At the division , the soldiers were given five weeks of additional training at the section , platoon and company level , before undertaking a final three @-@ day exercise . Troops would then be ready to be sent overseas to join other formations .
Undertaking this role , for example , the 5th Battalion , King 's Shropshire Light Infantry – between 1944 and 1945 – trained over 4 @,@ 000 replacements for other battalions within the regiment as well as the North Staffordshire Regiment . Having fulfilled its purpose , the division was disbanded at the end of the war .
= = General officer commanding = =
The division had the following commanders during the First World War :
The division had the following commanders during the Second World War :
= = Orders of Battle = =
= Henry Gardner =
Henry Joseph Gardner ( June 14 , 1819 – July 21 , 1892 ) was the 23rd Governor of Massachusetts , serving from 1855 to 1858 . Gardner , a Know Nothing , and was elected governor as part of the sweeping victory of Know Nothing candidates in the Massachusetts elections of 1854 .
Born in Dorchester , Gardner was a dry goods merchant from Boston active in the local Whig Party in the early 1850s . With the sudden and secretive rise of the nativist Know Nothings in 1854 , Gardner opportunistically repudiated previously @-@ held positions , and joined the movement , winning a landslide victory over Whig Emory Washburn . During his three terms in office the Know Nothing legislatures enacted legislation on a wide @-@ ranging reform agenda , and made several significant changes to the state constitution , including important electoral reforms such as the replacement of majority voting with plurality voting .
The Know Nothing movement began to disintegrate not long after its 1854 victory , dividing over slavery . Gardner won reelection in 1856 only with Republican support , given in exchange for Know Nothing support for the Republican presidential candidate , John Frémont . Republican Nathaniel Prentice Banks easily defeated Gardner in 1857 , and the Know Nothing movement effectively dissolved . By 1860 Gardner had left politics and returned to his business interests ; he died in relative obscurity .
= = Early life = =
Henry Joseph Gardner was born in Dorchester , Massachusetts ( then a community separate from Boston ) on June 14 , 1819 , to Henry Gardner and Clarissa Holbrook Gardner . His grandfather , also named Henry Gardner , was a well @-@ respected Harvard graduate , was politically active during the American Revolution and served as the state 's treasurer 1774 – 82 . The younger Henry was first educated in private schools in the Boston area , and then attended Phillips Exeter Academy , from which he graduated in 1831 . He then attended Bowdoin College , and embarked on a career as a dry goods merchant in Boston , a business in which he remained until 1876 . In 1844 he married Helen Cobb of Portland , Maine ; they had seven children .
= = Entry into politics = =
In 1850 Gardner , politically a Whig , was elected to the Boston City Council , serving until 1853 . He was a moderately conservative Websterite Whig who was involved in the state party organization , serving on its central organizing committee . In 1854 he broke with the Whigs over their support of the pro @-@ slavery Kansas @-@ Nebraska Act , and became involved in the nativist Know Nothing movement . This shift in position was fairly radical on Gardner 's part , and was viewed by contemporaries and recent historians as politically opportunist . Prior to joining the Know Nothings he had not displayed any nativist sentiments , and had even supported an Irish American in a bid to become justice of the peace . He also switched from a moderate Websterite position on slavery to an abolitionist stance , and supported positions on prohibition of alcohol that he had previously opposed . The Whig statesman Edward Everett described Gardner as " a man of some cleverness , but no solidity of character . "
The Know Nothing convention in October 1854 chose Gardner as its gubernatorial candidate , in part because his stand on slavery was not as radical as that of Republican candidate Henry Wilson , who was also seeking Know Nothing support . Wilson eventually made a deal with the Know Nothings , withdrawing from the race at the last moment in exchange for Know Nothing support in a United States Senate bid . The campaign was relatively sedate , because both the Whigs and Democrats did not organize large @-@ scale events . The larger parties may have been concerned that rallies would be poorly attended due to defections to the Know Nothings . The aristocratic Whigs fielded incumbent governor Emory Washburn to stand for reelection . They were particularly dismissive of the Know Nothings : one commentator described the Know Nothing ticket as " spavined ministers , lying toothpullers , and buggering priests " who were led by " that rickety vermin of a Henry J. Gardner . " Gardner was , however , optimistic , warning one journalist that he would win by a large majority . The election was a landslide : Gardner won 79 % of the vote , and the state legislature and Congressional delegation were almost entirely populated by Know Nothings .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
The legislature elected in the Know Nothing sweep was unlike any that preceded it : almost all of its members were new to elected office . The 1855 session was one of the most productive in the state 's history , with about 600 bills and resolutions passed . In his inaugural address , Gardner set what he hoped was a tone that would solidify his position has the party leader . The speech focused almost to exclusion on nativist issues , and included hyperbolic claims that the level of immigration was reaching crisis proportions . Gardner notably omitted popular substantive reform issues such as the ten @-@ hour workday , and also avoided the contentious subject of slavery .
= = = Reforms = = =
The 1855 legislature passed a wide variety of reform legislation , most of which Gardner signed . A board of insurance with broad powers of inspection was created ; bankruptcy laws were changed to benefit lower @-@ class individuals ; imprisonment for debt was abolished . Vaccinations were mandated for all school children , women were given the right to own property on their own , and exempted from responsibility for their husbands ' debts ; and restrictions were placed on child labor . Schools were desegregated , a reform school for girls was established , and state funding was withdrawn from parochial schools . Cities and towns were authorized to engage in a wide variety of civic improvements , including the building of highways , gas , water , and sewer lines , and public transport facilities such as docks and wharves . One of the major reforms that was not enacted , despite vigorous debate , was legislation calling for a ten @-@ hour workday .
Several amendments to the state constitution were enacted during Gardner 's term . All of them originated in the 1853 constitutional convention , whose proposals , although popular , were poorly organized and defeated in a popular referendum . Plurality voting , which had previously been enacted legislatively to apply to federal elections , was extended to state elections . More state executive offices were made elective , including the Governor 's Council , Attorney General , Secretary of State , Auditor , and Treasurer . The state 's rules for districting were reformed so that they were based on districts drawn by population instead of by towns .
One reform that was immediately a subject of controversy was a harsh prohibition law , which criminalized the service of a glass of grog with a six @-@ month jail sentence . The bill , signed into law by Gardner , was immediately protested , and legislators who passed it were later criticized for charging bar tabs to the state when they traveled .
= = = Nativist issues = = =
Some legislation and executive action was squarely aimed at addressing nativist concerns . So @-@ called " foreign " militia , composed of Irish immigrants , were disbanded , and foreigners were not allowed in police forces or state government jobs . The state deported more than 1 @,@ 000 allegedly indigent aliens , inciting protest over abuses . One notable case involved the deportation to Liverpool of a woman with an American @-@ born infant without any means of support . Gardner reported that the state saved $ 100 @,@ 000 by this process .
The most scandalous aspect of the nativist agenda was the legislature 's investigation of alleged abuses in Roman Catholic boarding houses . Joseph Hiss , one of the principal investigators , was reported to have made lewd remarks to nuns in these establishments , and was later found to engage in drinking and the hiring of prostitutes . The scandal received a great deal of press and badly tarnished the Know Nothings .
= = = Slavery = = =
Before Gardner 's election , on May 24 , 1854 , Anthony Burns was arrested in Boston as a fugitive under the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 . Edward G. Loring , a Suffolk County probate judge who also served as U.S. commissioner of the Circuit Court in Massachusetts , ordered that Burns be forced back into slavery in Virginia , outraging abolitionists and the increasingly antislavery public in Massachusetts . Under the pressure of a public petition campaign spearheaded by William Lloyd Garrison , the legislature passed two Bills of Address , in 1855 and 1856 , calling for Judge Loring to be removed from his state office , but in both cases Gardner declined to remove Loring . A third Bill of Address to remove Loring from office was later approved by Gardner 's Republican successor , Nathaniel Prentice Banks .
The Know @-@ Nothing legislature also passed , over Gardner 's veto , one of the most stringent personal liberty laws , designed to make enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 as difficult for slave claimants as possible . Gardner said that the law would exacerbate relations between North and South , and called for its repeal . Minority parties in the legislature sought to weaken the bill , but its major provisions , including rights of habeas corpus , jury trial , and state @-@ funded defense , survived .
= = = Later elections = = =
In 1855 the national Know Nothing convention split on the subject of slavery . Prominent antislavery Know Nothing supporters in Massachusetts , including Henry Wilson , began another attempt ( after having failed in 1854 ) to form a party with abolition as a major focus . This effort resulted in the formation of the Republican Party , which sought to negotiate with the Know Nothings for a fusion of the two parties . However , Massachusetts Know Nothing leadership refused fusion and Republican leadership refused coalition , with many Republicans skeptical of Gardner 's fidelity to the antislavery cause despite his support for fusion . The parties ended up fielding separate slates of candidates , and many Know Nothing politicians and supporters switched allegiance . In the fall election Gardner , running on a strictly nativist platform , garnered 38 % of the vote , to the 27 % of Republican Julius Rockwell . With the new plurality voting rule in effect , Gardner won the election , but the split ( and disaffection in some circles with the Know Nothing agenda ) cost him support from former Free Soilers and Democrats . In the 1856 election Gardner benefited from a deal with the Republicans , who refused to run a candidate for governor in exchange for Know Nothing support for their presidential candidate , John C. Frémont . He easily won reelection , although many Republicans voted for a protest candidate instead of supporting him . He attempted to parlay the Republican support into an election to the United States Senate ( a matter then decided by the state senate early in its session ) replacing Charles Sumner . However , Republican operatives maneuvered the Senate into voting before Gardner 's speech opening the 1857 session , and Sumner was easily reelected .
Although the nation was wracked by the Panic of 1857 and Bleeding Kansas , the election in Massachusetts that year hinged on other factors . Gardner was opposed by Republican ( and former Know Nothing ) Nathaniel Prentice Banks and Democrat Erasmus Beach . Gardner was accused of having become little more than a tool of the formerly Whig industrial interests , and Banks was adept at bringing many former Know Nothings into his camp , most importantly John Z. Goodrich who attested to Banks ' strong antislavery credentials . Gardner sought to focus the contests on local issues , but slavery predominated as an issue , and Banks won a comfortable victory .
In 1858 Gardner sought to bring what remained of the Know Nothings into a coalition with the Democrats , but his attempts to find a suitable candidate were unsuccessful . That year 's Know Nothing candidate , Amos A. Lawrence , trailed well behind Banks .
= = Later life = =
Gardner continued in his dry goods business until 1876 , and became an agent for the Massachusetts Life Insurance Company in 1887 . He died in Milton , Massachusetts on July 21 , 1892 . In the 1850s he was recognized by Harvard University with honorary degrees , and he was made a member of the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company in 1855 .
= EastEnders : E20 =
EastEnders : E20 ( sometimes just E20 ) is a British Internet soap opera , which began airing on 8 January 2010 . A spin @-@ off from the established BBC soap EastEnders , it is set in EastEnders ' regular setting of Albert Square , a Victorian square in the fictional borough of Walford , in the East End of London . Each series follows a group of teenage characters : Zsa Zsa Carter ( Emer Kenny ) , Leon Small ( Sam Attwater ) , Fatboy ( Ricky Norwood ) and Mercy Olubunmi ( Bunmi Mojekwu ) in series 1 ; Asher Levi ( Heshima Thompson ) and his brother Sol ( Tosin Cole ) , Naz Mehmet ( Emaa Hussen ) , and Stevie Dickinson ( Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes ) in series 2 ; and Ava Bourne ( Sophie Colquhoun ) , Donnie Lester ( Samuell Benta ) and Faith Olubunmi ( Modupe Adeyeye ) in series 3 . The show 's title comes from Walford 's fictional London postcode district , E20 . The four characters from series 1 also appear in EastEnders , as well as Faith from series 3 .
EastEnders : E20 originally aired as part of the main show 's 25th anniversary celebrations . It was devised in a bid to develop and nurture new talent , including writers , actors , composers and remixers , and target a younger audience , as well as to attempt to drive more people onto the Internet . The series was the idea of executive producers Diederick Santer , who wanted a show where regular EastEnders characters would be in the background , and John Yorke , who wanted to improve the portrayal of teenagers in EastEnders and to get younger people writing for it .
The show 's writers , all newcomers aged between 17 and 22 , were selected through a writing competition , and created the series at a BBC summer school . The theme tune was also selected through a competition , promoted on BBC Radio 1 . The show primarily operates as a standalone series but also cross @-@ references storylines of the main soap , and features cameo appearances from several of the regular characters from EastEnders . The episodes are between three and 16 minutes each in length and are available via EastEnders ' official website . Omnibus editions were also available on BBC iPlayer , BBC Red Button and , from April 2010 , BBC Three .
= = Conception and development = =
EastEnders : E20 was conceived by executive producer Diederick Santer as part of EastEnders ' 25th anniversary celebrations . Described as the " naughty little brother or sister to the main show " , it was devised in a bid to target younger viewers and to develop and nurture new talent . Executive producer John Yorke , who oversaw the show , and is also controller of BBC drama production and new talent , said " Fundamentally the whole idea of the show is it 's a training ground for new talent , be that acting , writing , composing , remixing , everything . The fact is because it 's online , we can take risks . " Nevertheless , the makers said they knew they had to get it right because " the eyes of the World Wide Web would be watching . "
Santer conceived the idea of a " parallel universe show " with new characters , where the regular characters are in the background . Yorke sought to improve the portrayal of teenagers in EastEnders and to get
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younger people writing for it . The ideas came together and EastEnders : E20 was created in what Yorke described as " one of the quickest periods from idea to screen I 've ever known . " Regarding the decision to create an online drama , Yorke said , " People don 't watch television at fixed times anymore , they use iPlayer [ to ] get it at their convenience and so it made sense to make a programme that [ viewers ] can specifically get at their convenience . " The show 's producer , Deborah Sathe , added , " Technology is changing and it 's changing really quickly and I think it 's really appropriate that the BBC is leading the way in offering online content . " The first series was commissioned by multi @-@ platform commissioning executive Rosie Allimonos .
Another incentive for the show was to get more people to use the Internet . Sathe stated that it was an opportunity for younger people to bring the older members of their families onto the internet , and Yorke hoped that it would bring people onto the internet who had not used it before . Simon Nelson , BBC Vision controller of multiplatform and portfolio , said that this was an opportunity for the BBC to develop its expertise in drama production by exploiting the creative potential of the Internet to create a new online drama where few have succeeded . EastEnders : E20 primarily operates as a standalone series but also cross @-@ references storylines of the main soap . According to Santer , the series also explores the stories of the soap 's anonymous bystanders . He said , " There are always other people [ in EastEnders ] milling round the market and houses that we never go into . There are four or five parallels you could do . It will be nice to see well @-@ known characters through strangers ' eyes . Ian Beale may show up and he is just a strange , irritating man . Or they might ask : ' Who is that moody girl in the market ? ' And it will be Stacey Slater . "
= = = Series 2 = = =
The second series was announced on 8 April 2010 , brought back by Santer 's successor , Bryan Kirkwood and commissioned by Sarah Clay . Nelson explained " We had no hesitation in commissioning another series , something which will delight the 17 @,@ 000 fans who 've been calling for more episodes on the E20 Facebook page . " Script producer Peter Mattessi promised that the second series would take the characters to darker , scarier and more unattractive parts of their personalities , writer Muge Ahmet said it would be sexier , and Sathe stated there would be big secrets , while writer Alex Oates said that the show and the writers had grown up a lot since the first series . The Daily Star newspaper reported that the second series would be more controversial than the first , including scenes of drug dealing and violence .
With the return of the series , Sathe explained that some of the show 's writers had already worked with the EastEnders team on storylines for the characters they had created , and hoped this would continue as the E20 brand develops , and that the show would become a " junior version " of the BBC Writers Academy . Series 2 sees the introduction of street dance to the series to give it an " authentic East End flavour of youth " . The episodes were made all the same length following complaints about the length of episodes in the first series and the decision to show the series on BBC Three . Social networking site Twitter was also used to introduce teasers , with four of the characters having their own profiles .
= = = Series 3 = = =
A third series was announced on 27 September 2010 , commissioned by BBC Learning , as part of a new BBC strategy to provide learning opportunities for all audiences . Saul Nassé , Controller of Learning , said , " I want to use BBC programmes that are known and loved by audiences that can serve as springboards for learning . [ ... ] We 'll be enlisting the help of the BBC 's best talent to maximise the reach of our output , " and Sathe commented , " We are thrilled with the success of the first two series and have already started to storyline the third . Be prepared for a few familiar faces , a couple of new ones and a lot of fireworks . " It was confirmed that Learning would fund the third series and work with young people to develop storylines " that bring to life subjects in the Personal , Social , Health Education ( PSHE ) curriculum such as bullying or peer pressure . " A regional schools tour was organised to tie in with the launch of the series , with pupils writing short scenes based on scenarios tying in with the PSHE curriculum , which were performed , filmed and edited . Sarah Miller , BBC Learning commissioner and executive producer of series 3 , explained : " The schools tour was a terrific opportunity to deliver powerful face @-@ to @-@ face workshops , giving students and teachers the opportunity to develop key media production skills and to get behind the scenes of a top BBC drama . "
= = Production = =
The show is produced by television newcomer Deborah Sathe . The production process for series 1 took about six months , from commissioning to the final cut . Yorke stated that , " Television takes a notoriously long time to make and one of the joys of doing this online is that it 's been incredibly quick , about a quarter of the time it would take a normal show to get off the ground . It 's smaller , it 's easier to do and also there 's a collective will for it to succeed . "
= = = Writing = = =
The first series was written by a team of 13 writers from London aged between 17 and 22 who responded to a writing competition and attended a summer school in August 2009 as part of the BBC 's new talent initiative , where they created the entire series . The summer school took place over four weeks , with the first two weeks in Theatre Royal Stratford East and the last two at the BBC centre at Elstree Studios . The writers did not know they would be writing a spin @-@ off to EastEnders until they arrived . The writers , including Florence Vincent , Alex Oates , Kashman Harris and Emer Kenny , also wrote the ten episodes of series 2 . They are from various parts of London , which Sathe said was " brilliant " as they represent different parts of life in London , and they have grown up with the Internet as a native medium . Santer stated that the writers created a new Walford , calling it a " fresh perspective on a British classic . " The writers were given a day to travel around East London to listen to people talking to get ideas . Sathe commented : " We created some brilliant scenes from the eavesdropping stuff . " After the summer school , the writers were commissioned to write the 12 episodes of series 1 . Some of the scripts were allowed by be changed by the actors if they thought lines were not authentic , such as the use of London street slang . Sathe considered the use of slang to be a highlight of the series , calling it her proudest moment . Storylining and character creation for series 2 started in January 2010 . The third series used mostly different writers to the first two . Each potential writer had to send in a monologue for a character they would like to see on television and the production team chose their favourites . The writers were then asked to write a scene between their character and one of the established EastEnders characters . Following this , the writers were interviewed and the most promising fifteen were selected . Kenny returned as a writer for series 3 and was joined by several of the young EastEnders cast members : Arinze Kene ( Connor Stanley ) , Himesh Patel ( Tamwar Masood ) and Charlie G Hawkins ( Darren Miller ) .
= = = Filming = = =
EastEnders : E20 is filmed on the same set as EastEnders , using three handheld cameras to give it a more " edgy " feel compared to EastEnders , which is filmed with cameras on tripods . Director Michael Keillor stated that although using handheld cameras is normally easier , the fact it was shot with a multiple @-@ camera setup made it more challenging and created problems for the lighting and props teams as nobody knew exactly where the camera would be . Keillor said it was a " particularly tough day " when filming a party scene in a flat , as normally walls of the set would be removed but all the walls were left in to make it look more realistic , meaning the crew overheated . Series 1 was filmed over ten days with approximately 120 minutes of television being shot . Each of the first series ' 12 episodes are between three and 16 minutes in length . The second series features 10 episodes averaging 14 minutes each , which was due to complaints from viewers about the length of some of the episodes in series 1 . Series 3 was scheduled to begin filming on 8 May 2011 , lasting for four weeks .
= = = Music = = =
Unlike EastEnders , E20 uses incidental music , which Scott Matthewman of The Stage said makes it feel like an episode of Hollyoaks , a Channel 4 soap opera targeted at a teen audience . A remix of the EastEnders theme tune was created for the series , with members of the public submitting remixes in a competition held on the BBC website . The competition opened on 11 November 2009 and was officially launched on 13 November by Annie Mac on her BBC Radio 1 show . More than 250 entries were submitted . They were reduced to four and judged by Sathe , Santer , Keillor , original theme tune composer Simon May , and BBC Radio 1Xtra 's DJ Ace . The winner , 21 @-@ year @-@ old Carl Darling , was announced on 4 December 2009 . He said " I was very excited to hear that my track was chosen by such an eclectic judging panel . And to spend time in the BBC studios and walking around the Square was phenomenal . I have grown up hearing Simon May 's original theme tune and watching Albert Square and the iconic Queen Vic , so I feel very privileged to be a part of EastEnders : E20 history ! " Darling explained that he wanted to keep all the " essential features " of the original theme , but to make a grimy drum and bass version .
Additionally producers worked with BBC Introducing to give unsigned bands and musicians the chance to have their music used on the series 2 soundtrack , and grime music producer Aiden " S.K.I.T.Z Beatz " Hogarth was appointed music director and composer , having been unable to take the role for series 1 . He said " For E20 I will be providing all the best and what 's current from the underground and mainstream music scene and instead of having the music playing out of stereos and stalls , we 've taken the step to compose and source music as a soundtrack . Something seasoned EastEnders fans may not be familiar with . I honestly think that the viewers are ready for a refreshing and brand new take on how music direction for this show and others like it should be done . "
= = Casting = =
Casting of the new characters for series 1 was announced on 25 November 2009 . Open auditions were held at Theatre Royal Stratford East , followed by recalls until the possible actors were reduced to eight and then four . Yorke described it as a " painful process " and they had difficulty finding someone to play Zsa Zsa Carter . Emer Kenny was cast in the role whilst writing the second episode . Yorke said " She was so good that we suddenly went , ' It 's her ! ' " Kenny said , " I 'm really thrilled to have been given the opportunity to both write for and act in a show connected with such an iconic drama as EastEnders . Kids these days use their laptops more than their televisions , so it 's really exciting to be a part of a project that 's taking drama online and connecting with these viewers . " To prepare for the role , Kenny had to disguise her " posh " accent , saying that when the director asked her what she would do about her voice , she travelled around the East End to listen to the way people spoke .
On his casting in the role of Fatboy , television newcomer Ricky Norwood said , " It 's an honour to now be a part of [ the ] show . I am born and bred in the East End [ so ] it feels like a homecoming . " Norwood adapted his own use of slang into the character to " try and bring it and from a true place . " Bunmi Mojekwu , who plays Mercy Olubunmi , commented " I feel so blessed to be part of EastEnders : E20 . My first day on set was just crazy . I was on Albert Square – a dream come true – I 'm enjoying every second . " Sam Attwater , who previously appeared in five episodes of Hollyoaks , was cast as boxer Leon Small . On his casting , he commented , " It 's a great privilege to be working with such great actors and on such an established show . It 's an amazing opportunity and I 'm really enjoying tackling a character like Leon who has so much going on , " He prepared for the role by attending a gym , as the character has a lot of topless scenes . He said : " As soon as I heard that I was straight down the gym . Lots of crunches . Everyone said don 't worry about it , but every time I did one of those scenes I had to watch it back and see how it looked because there will be 10 million people watching it . I want to be on the best form . "
The cast for series 2 were announced on 29 July 2010 . Heshima Thompson and Tosin Cole were cast as brothers Asher and Sol Levi . Cole , who has previously starred in a modern adaptation of Shakespeare 's Julius Caesar , said , " It 's a privilege to work on something so big but so different . Everyone is fantastic to work with . I 'm really excited . " Thompson , who has appeared in The Bill and Spooks , stated " It 's a great project to be a part of and I get to dance so this is going to be fun . " Emaa Hussen was cast as Naz Mehmet , her first professional acting role , on which she commented : " it 's a really exciting place to start my career . I 'm from East London and a big fan of EastEnders , which is one of the reasons I wanted to do the show . " Finally , Amanda Fairbank @-@ Hynes , who appeared in An Education , said of her casting as Stevie Dickinson , " It all happened so quickly but I 'm really excited to be working on EastEnders . It 's an amazing group of people and they are great to work with . " Additionally , Hollyoaks actress Roxanne McKee , and dance acts Flawless and Avant Garde also make appearances . Flawless were asked to appear in the show by Sathe , who has previously worked with Marlon Wallen from the troupe .
= = Broadcasting = =
Each of the first series ' episodes were made available on varying days of the week at 8.30pm via EastEnders ' official website , starting on 8 January 2010 and ending on 25 January 2010 . The series was also available in three omnibus shows on BBC iPlayer and via BBC Red Button after the EastEnders omnibus aired on BBC One . The first omnibus , comprising episodes 1 – 4 , was available for one week from 17 January . The second omnibus was available for one week from 24 January , containing episodes 5 – 8 . Episodes 9 – 12 were available as an omnibus from 31 January 2010 . Additionally , the series was re @-@ edited into three 30 @-@ minute editions and shown weekly on BBC Three from 23 April 2010 .
The second series began on 7 September 2010 , with two episodes being made available weekly on Tuesdays and Thursdays , excluding episode 2 , which was available on a Wednesday . The series comprises 10 episodes in total of around 14 minutes each , and was also screened in five omnibus editions on BBC Three on Monday nights . Series 3 comprises 15 episodes of around 10 minutes each . Extra footage , such as video blogs and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes clips , is also available online . All episodes from all three series remain available to view on the BBC website .
= = Characters = =
Each series features new teenage characters who move to Walford , as well as cameos from existing characters from the main show . The characters are described as sixth form students trying to escape from " family problems and crises of their own making " . Series 1 follows Zsa Zsa , Fatboy , Mercy and Leon , who move into 89b George Street in Walford . Leon , Fatboy and Zsa Zsa also appeared briefly in EastEnders in January 2010 before EastEnders : E20 started , and returned as regular characters when EastEnders : E20 ended . It was later announced that due to positive reaction to the character , Mercy would also join EastEnders later in 2010 . Series 2 follows brothers Sol and Asher , plus Naz and Stevie . Sathe said there was a " good chance " that they would also appear in EastEnders at some point . Zsa Zsa , Mercy and Leon also have cameo appearances in series 2 , and Fatboy has a recurring role . Series 3 follows newcomers Ava , Donnie and Faith , Mercy 's sister . Donnie 's younger sister , Riley , also appears along with Richard , a care worker . Naz and Sol also make a cameo appearance . Fatboy continues his recurring role , along with Mercy and Faith 's grandmother Grace Olubunmi , and regular EastEnders character Zainab Masood .
= = Reception = =
= = = Viewership and critical reception = = =
Between 8 and 21 January 2010 , EastEnders : E20 material available via the EastEnders website and BBC iPlayer , including episodes , behind the scenes videos and extra content , received 1 @.@ 7 million views . By 19 February 2010 , the episodes had 2 @.@ 8 million views with additional content pushing the total to 3 @.@ 3 million . Santer was reported to be " knocked out " by the figures , saying : " For our little side project , something that started life as an experiment , to go so big is very exciting . I 'm delighted in particular that the 13 young London writers who wrote the series have reached such an audience with their first professional work . " EastEnders : E20 's official Facebook fan page grew in membership from 100 to 5000 in a matter of hours after the spin @-@ off started , and as of 19 February 2010 , had over 16 @,@ 000 fans . Yorke said that due to the popularity of the first series , they hoped to make further spin @-@ offs . The first BBC Three omnibus edition on 23 April 2010 received 302 @,@ 000 viewers and a 1 @.@ 4 % audience share according to overnight figures. by 13 October 2011 , series 3 had gained viewing figures across both BBC Online and BBC Three of 1 @.@ 2 million viewers , and a 50 % increase in its online audience since it launched on 20 September 2011 . Sathe commented : " I am thrilled to see E20 has sustained its position as a front @-@ runner in online drama . " Grace Dent of The Guardian described the series as " rather brilliant " , while Patrick Smith of The Daily Telegraph called it " vibrant " and Tony Stewart of the Daily Mirror called Zsa Zsa an " impressive " character . However , website Watch With Mothers gave a negative review of the show , saying " there ’ s no need for it . " After the first episode of series 2 was available , Scott Matthewman from The Stage said " while it 's good to have more black and minority ethnic characters in the Square , by concentrating on a very narrow age range of characters it 'll make it all the harder for any new blood to effectively mesh into the full show . "
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
In 2010 , EastEnders : E20 was shorlisted for a Banff World Television Festival award in the Original Online Programs category . In April 2011 , the show was nominated for a Webby Award in the Drama category . Sathe commented on this : " I am so proud of what we have achieved with EastEnders : E20 , and to be nominated for a Webby proves how far the series has come . " The show went on to win the award , on which Yorke stated , " To win such a prestigious award is a huge honour for all the team — and proof that the EastEnders brand is as brave and innovatory as it was when it first started , a quarter of a century ago . " In December 2011 , Sathe won the Creative Innovation Award at the Women in TV & Film Awards for her work on E20 .
In 2012 , Benta received a Screen Nation Awards nomination in the Emerging Talent category for his role as Donnie , while Adeyeye received a special mention for her role as Faith . The same year , the series was nominated in the Best Soap category at the Virgin Media TV Awards .
= Jim Henson =
James Maury " Jim " Henson ( September 24 , 1936 – May 16 , 1990 ) was an American puppeteer , artist , cartoonist , inventor , screenwriter , songwriter , musician , actor , film director , and producer who achieved international fame as the creator of the Muppets . Born in Greenville , Mississippi , and raised in Leland , Mississippi , and Hyattsville , Maryland , Henson began developing puppets while attending high school . While he was a freshman at the University of Maryland , College Park , he created Sam and Friends , a five @-@ minute sketch @-@ comedy puppet show that appeared on television . After graduating from the University of Maryland with a degree in home economics , he produced coffee advertisements and developed some experimental films . Feeling the need for more creative output , Henson founded Muppets Inc. in 1958 ( which would later become the Jim Henson Company ) .
Henson became famous in the 1960s when he joined the children 's educational television program Sesame Street , and there helped develop characters for the series . He also appeared in the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . In 1976 , after scrapping plans for a Broadway show , he produced The Muppet Show . He won fame for his creations , particularly Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , and Ernie , and he was involved with Sesame Street for over 20 years . He also had frequent roles in Muppets films such as The Muppet Movie , The Great Muppet Caper and The Muppets Take Manhattan , and created advanced puppets for projects like Fraggle Rock , The Dark Crystal , and Labyrinth . During the later years of his life , he also founded the Jim Henson Foundation , and Jim Henson 's Creature Shop . His involvement in two television programs — The Storyteller and The Jim Henson Hour — led to Emmy Awards wins .
Henson died suddenly in May 1990 , aged 53 , from streptococcal toxic shock syndromes – an unexpected event that was widely lamented in the film and television industries . In the weeks after his death , he was celebrated in a wave of tributes . He was posthumously inducted into Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1991 , and as a Disney Legend in 2011 .
= = Early life : 1936 – 61 = =
Born in Greenville , Mississippi on September 24 , 1936 , Henson was the younger of two children of Paul Ransom Henson ( 1904 – 1994 ) , an agronomist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture , and his wife , Betty Marcella ( née Brown ; 1904 – 1972 ) . He was raised as a Christian Scientist and spent his early childhood in Leland , Mississippi , before moving with his family to Hyattsville , Maryland , near Washington , D.C. , in the late 1940s . He later remembered the arrival of the family 's first television as " the biggest event of his adolescence , " having been heavily influenced by radio ventriloquist Edgar Bergen and the early television puppets of Burr Tillstrom ( on Kukla , Fran , and Ollie ) and Bil and Cora Baird .
He remained a Christian Scientist at least into his twenties when he would teach Sunday School but fifteen years before he died he wrote to a Christian Science church to inform them he was no longer a practicing member .
In 1954 , while attending Northwestern High School , he began working for WTOP @-@ TV ( now WUSA @-@ TV ) , creating puppets for a Saturday morning children 's show called The Junior Morning Show . After graduating from high school , Henson enrolled at the University of Maryland , College Park , as a studio arts major , thinking he might become a commercial artist . A puppetry class offered in the applied arts department introduced him to the craft and textiles courses in the College of Home Economics , and he graduated in 1960 with a BS in home economics . As a freshman , he had been asked to create Sam and Friends , a five @-@ minute puppet show for WRC @-@ TV . The characters on Sam and Friends were forerunners of Muppets , and the show included a prototype of Henson 's most famous character : Kermit the Frog . Henson would remain at WRC for seven years from 1954 to 1961 . Among the first of his assignments at WRC was Afternoon , a magazine show aimed at housewives . This marked his first collaboration with Jane Nebel — the woman who later became his wife .
In the show , he began experimenting with techniques that would change the way puppetry had been used on television , including using the frame defined by the camera shot to allow the puppet performer to work from off @-@ camera . Believing that television puppets needed to have " life and sensitivity , " Henson began making characters from flexible , fabric @-@ covered foam rubber , allowing them to express a wider array of emotions at a time when many puppets were made of carved wood . A marionette 's arms are manipulated by strings , but Henson used rods to move his Muppets ' arms , allowing greater control of expression . Additionally , Henson wanted the Muppet characters to " speak " more creatively than was possible for previous puppets — which had seemed to have random mouth movements — so he used precise mouth movements to match the dialogue .
When Henson began work on Sam and Friends , he asked fellow University of Maryland sophomore Jane Nebel to assist him . The show was a financial success , but after graduating from college , Henson began to have doubts about going into a career performing with puppets . He wandered off to Europe for several months , where he was inspired by European puppet performances which look on their work as an art form . Upon Henson 's return to the United States , he and Jane began dating . They were married in 1959 and had five children , Lisa ( b . 1960 ) , Cheryl ( b . 1961 ) , Brian ( b . 1963 ) , John ( b . 1965 , d . 2014 ) , and Heather ( b . 1970 ) .
= = Television and Muppets : 1961 – 69 = =
Despite the success of Sam and Friends , Henson spent much of the next two decades working in commercials , talk shows , and children 's projects before being able to realize his dream of the Muppets as " entertainment for everybody " . The popularity of his work on Sam and Friends in the late fifties led to a series of guest appearances on network talk and variety shows . Henson himself appeared as a guest on many shows , including The Steve Allen Show , The Jack Paar Program and The Ed Sullivan Show ( although on his appearance on the Sept 11 , 1966 , episode of the show — released to DVD on 2011 as part of a collection of episodes featuring the Rolling Stones — Sullivan mis @-@ introduced Henson as " Jim Newsom and his Puppets " ) . This first national television broadcast greatly increased exposure , which led to hundreds of commercial appearances by Henson characters throughout the sixties . During some downtime during a 1964 appearance on the Jack Paar Program , Henson , Frank Oz , Jerry Juhl , and Don Sahlin found a closet door in their dressing room , behind which there were some exposed pipes . They decided to decorate the pipes , adding paint and fake fur to the pipes to give them goofy and monstrous faces . Everyone in the studio was highly entertained by the pipes , but the door was closed and the pipes were largely forgotten . They were rediscovered in 1980 , when some construction workers were knocking down walls for a remodel and found the pipes . The pipes were left alone , but when Jimmy Fallon took over as Late Night host in 2009 , he encouraged NBC to add the pipes to the studio tour . In 2010 , the pipes were placed in a permanent display as a stop on the tour .
Among the most popular of Henson 's commercials was a series for the local Wilkins Coffee company in Washington , D.C. , in which his Muppets were able to get away with a greater level of slapstick violence than might have been acceptable with human actors and would later find its way into many acts on The Muppet Show . In the first Wilkins ad , a Muppet named Wilkins is poised behind a cannon seen in profile . Another Muppet named Wontkins ( with Rowlf 's voice ) is in front of its barrel . Wilkins asks , " What do you think of Wilkins Coffee ? " and Wontkins responds gruffly , " Never tasted it ! " Wilkins fires the cannon and blows Wontkins away , then turns the cannon directly toward the viewer and ends the ad with , " Now , what do you think of Wilkins ? " Henson later explained , " Till then , advertising agencies believed that the hard sell was the only way to get their message over on television . We took a very different approach . We tried to sell things by making people laugh . " The first seven @-@ second commercial for Wilkins was an immediate hit and was syndicated and re @-@ shot by Henson for local coffee companies across the United States ; he ultimately produced more than 300 coffee ads . The same setup was used to pitch Kraml Milk in the Chicago area , Red Diamond coffee , several bread products , and even Faygo .
In 1963 , Henson and his wife moved to New York City , where the newly formed Muppets , Inc . , would reside for some time . Jane quit performing to raise their children . Henson hired writer Jerry Juhl in 1961 and puppet performer Frank Oz in 1963 to replace her . Henson later credited both with developing much of the humor and character of his Muppets . Henson and Oz developed a close friendship and a performing partnership that lasted 27 years ; their teamwork is particularly evident in their portrayals of the characters of Bert and Ernie , Kermit and Miss Piggy , and Kermit and Fozzie Bear .
Henson 's 1960s talk show appearances culminated when he devised Rowlf , a piano @-@ playing anthropomorphic dog . Rowlf became the first Muppet to make regular appearances on a network show , The Jimmy Dean Show . Henson was so grateful for this break that he offered Jimmy Dean a 40 % interest in his production company , but Dean declined stating that Henson deserved all the rewards for his own work , a decision of conscience Dean never regretted . From 1963 to 1966 , Henson began exploring film @-@ making and produced a series of experimental films . His nine @-@ minute experimental film , Time Piece , was nominated for an Academy Award for Live Action Short Film in 1966 . The year 1969 saw the production of The Cube — another Henson @-@ produced experimental movie .
Also around this time , the first drafts of a live @-@ action experimental movie script were written with Jerry Juhl , which would eventually become Henson 's last unproduced full @-@ length screenplay , Tale of Sand . The script remained in the Henson Company archives until the screenplay was adapted in the 2012 graphic novel , Jim Henson 's Tale of Sand .
= = Sesame Street : 1969 = =
In 1969 , television producer Joan Ganz Cooney and her staff at the Children 's Television Workshop , impressed by the quality and creativity of the Henson @-@ led team , asked Henson and staff to work full @-@ time on Sesame Street , a visionary children 's program for public television . This union of talents would become legendary in television entertainment .
Part of the show was set aside for a series of funny , colorful , puppet characters living on the titular street . These included Grover , Oscar the Grouch , Bert and Ernie , Cookie Monster , Elmo , and Big Bird . Henson performed the characters of Ernie , game @-@ show host Guy Smiley , and Kermit , who appeared as a roving television news reporter . It was around this time that a frill was added around Kermit 's neck to make him more frog @-@ like . The collar was functional as well : it covered the joint where the Muppet 's neck and body met .
At first , Henson 's Muppets appeared separately from the realistic segments on the Street , but after a poor test @-@ screening in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , the show was revamped to integrate the two , placing much greater emphasis on Henson 's work . Though Henson would often downplay his role in Sesame Street 's success , Cooney frequently praised Jim 's work and , in 1990 , the Public Broadcasting Service called him " the spark that ignited our fledgling broadcast service . " The success of Sesame Street also allowed Henson to stop producing commercials . He later remembered that " it was a pleasure to get out of that world " .
In addition to creating and performing Muppet characters , Henson was involved in producing various shows and animation insets during the first two seasons . During the first , Henson produced a series of counting films for the numbers 1 through 10 , which always ended with a baker ( voiced by Henson ) falling down the stairs while carrying the featured number of desserts . For seasons two to seven , Henson worked on a variety of inserts for the numbers 2 through 12 , in a number of different styles — including film ( " Dollhouse " , " Number Three Ball Film " ) , stop @-@ motion ( " King of Eight " , " Queen of Six " ) , cut @-@ out animation ( " Eleven Cheer " ) , and computer animation ( " Nobody Counts To 10 " ) . Jim Henson also directed the original C Is For Cookie .
Concurrently with the first years of Sesame Street , Henson directed Tales from Muppetland , a short series of TV movie specials — in the form of comedic telling of classic fairy tales — aimed at a young audience and hosted by Kermit the Frog . The series included Hey , Cinderella ! , The Frog Prince , and The Muppet Musicians of Bremen .
= = Expansion of audience : 1970 – 77 = =
Concerned that the company was becoming typecast solely as a purveyor of children 's entertainment , Henson , Frank Oz , and his team targeted an adult audience with a series of sketches on the first season of the groundbreaking comedy series Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) . Eleven " Dregs and Vestiges " sketches , set mostly in the Land of Gorch , aired between October 1975 and January 1976 [ inclusive ] , with four additional appearances in March , April , May , and September [ of 1976 ] . Henson recalled that " I saw what [ creator Lorne Michaels ] was going for and I really liked it and wanted to be a part of it , but somehow what we were trying to do and what his writers could write for it never gelled . " The SNL writers never got comfortable writing for the characters , and frequently disparaged Henson 's creations ; one , Michael O 'Donoghue , quipped , " I won 't write for felt . "
Around the time of Henson 's characters ' final appearances on SNL , he began developing two projects featuring the Muppets : a Broadway show and a weekly television series . In 1976 , the series was initially rejected by the American networks who believed that Muppets would appeal to only a child audience . Then Henson pitched the show to British impresario Lew Grade to finance the show . The show would be shot in the United Kingdom and syndicated worldwide . That same year , he scrapped plans for his Broadway show and moved his creative team to England , where The Muppet Show began taping . The Muppet Show featured Kermit as host , and a variety of other memorable characters , notably Miss Piggy , Gonzo the Great , and Fozzie Bear , along with other characters such as Animal . Kermit 's role on The Muppet Show was often compared by his co @-@ workers to Henson 's role in Muppet Productions : a shy , gentle boss with " A whim of steel " who " [ ran ] things as firmly as it is possible to run an explosion in a mattress factory . " Caroll Spinney , the puppet performer of Big Bird and Oscar the Grouch , remembered that Henson " would never say he didn 't like something . He would just go ' Hmm . ' That was famous . And if he liked it , he would say , ' Lovely ! ' " Henson himself recognized Kermit as an alter @-@ ego , though he thought that Kermit was bolder than he ; he once said of the character , " He can say things I hold back . "
Jim Henson was the performer for several well @-@ known characters , including Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , the Swedish Chef , Waldorf , and Link Hogthrob .
In 1977 , Henson produced a one @-@ hour television adaptation of the Russell Hoban story Emmet Otter 's Jug @-@ Band Christmas .
= = Transition to the big screen : 1979 – 82 = =
Three years after the start of The Muppet Show , the Muppets appeared in their first theatrical feature film The Muppet Movie . The movie was both a critical and financial success ; it made US $ 65 @.@ 2 million domestically and was at the time the 61st highest @-@ grossing film ever made .
A song from the film , " The Rainbow Connection " , sung by Henson as Kermit , hit number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was nominated for a Best Song Academy Award . In 1981 , a Henson @-@ directed sequel , The Great Muppet Caper , followed , and Henson decided to end the still @-@ popular Muppet Show to concentrate on making films . From time to time , the Muppet characters continued to appear in made @-@ for @-@ TV @-@ movies and television specials .
In addition to his own puppetry projects , Henson aided others in their work . In 1979 , he was asked by the producers of the Star Wars sequel The Empire Strikes Back to aid make @-@ up artist Stuart Freeborn in the creation and articulation of enigmatic Jedi Master Yoda . Henson suggested to Star Wars creator George Lucas , himself a Muppets fan , that he use Frank Oz as the puppeteer and voice of Yoda . Oz voiced Yoda in The Empire Strikes Back and each of the four subsequent Star Wars films . The naturalistic , lifelike Yoda became one of the most popular characters of the Star Wars franchise . Lucas even lobbied unsuccessfully to have Oz nominated for a Best Supporting Actor Academy Award .
In 1982 , Henson founded the Jim Henson Foundation to promote and develop the art of puppetry in the United States . Around that time , he began creating darker and more realistic fantasy films that did not feature the Muppets and displayed " a growing , brooding interest in mortality . " With 1982 's The Dark Crystal , which he co @-@ directed with Frank Oz and co @-@ wrote , Henson said he was " trying to go toward a sense of realism — toward a reality of creatures that are actually alive [ where ] it 's not so much a symbol of the thing , but you 're trying to [ present ] the thing itself . " To provide a visual style distinct from the Muppets , the puppets in The Dark Crystal were based on conceptual artwork by Brian Froud .
The Dark Crystal was a financial and critical success and , a year later , the Muppet @-@ starring The Muppets Take Manhattan ( directed by Frank Oz ) did fair box @-@ office business , grossing $ 25 @.@ 5 million domestically and ranking as one of the top 40 films of 1984 . However , 1986 's Labyrinth , a Crystal @-@ like fantasy that Henson directed by himself , was considered ( in part due to its cost ) a commercial disappointment . Despite some positive reviews ( The New York Times called it " a fabulous film " ) , the commercial failure of Labyrinth demoralized Henson to the point that son Brian Henson remembered the time of its release as being " the closest I 've seen him to turning in on himself and getting quite depressed . " The film later became a cult classic .
Henson and his wife separated the same year , although they remained close for the rest of his life . Jane later said that Jim was so involved with his work that he had very little time to spend with her or their children . All five of his children began working with Muppets at an early age , partly because , as Cheryl Henson remembered , " one of the best ways of being around him was to work with him . "
= = Later life and death : 1983 – 90 = =
Though he was still engaged in creating children 's television , such as the successful eighties shows Fraggle Rock and the animated Muppet Babies , Henson continued to explore darker , mature themes with the folk tale and mythology @-@ oriented show The Storyteller ( 1988 ) , which won an Emmy for Outstanding Children 's Program . The next year , Henson returned to television with The Jim Henson Hour , which mixed lighthearted Muppet fare with riskier material . The show was critically well received and won Henson another Emmy for Outstanding Directing in a Variety or Music Program , but was canceled after 13 episodes due to low ratings . Henson blamed its failure on NBC 's constant rescheduling .
In late 1989 , Henson entered into negotiations to sell his company to The Walt Disney Company for almost $ 150 million , hoping that , with Disney handling business matters , he would " be able to spend a lot more of my time on the creative side of things . " By 1990 , he had completed production on a television special , The Muppets at Walt Disney World , and a Disney World ( later Disney California Adventure Park as well ) attraction , Jim Henson 's Muppet * Vision 3D , and was developing film ideas and a television series titled Muppet High . He also made a Disney show called Little Mermaid 's Island .
In the late 1980s , Henson worked with illustrator / designer William Stout on a feature film starring animatronic dinosaurs with the working title of The Natural History Project . In 1991 , news stories written around the premiere of The Jim Henson Company @-@ produced Dinosaurs sitcom highlighted the show 's connection to Henson . " Jim Henson dreamed up the show 's basic concept about three years ago , " said a New York Times article in April 1991 .
'He wanted it to be a sitcom with a pretty standard structure , with the biggest differences being that it 's a family of dinosaurs and their society has this strange toxic life style , ' said [ his son ] Brian Henson . But until The Simpsons took off , said Alex Rockwell , a vice president of the Henson organization , ' people thought it was a crazy idea.'
A New Yorker article said that Henson continued to work on a dinosaur project ( presumably the Dinosaurs concept ) until the " last months of his life . "
During production of his 1990 projects Henson traveled continuously . By late Spring , Henson began to experience recurring flu @-@ like symptoms . On May 4 , 1990 , Henson appeared with Kermit on The Arsenio Hall Show , one of his last television appearances . At the time , he mentioned to his publicist that he was tired and had a sore throat , but felt that it would go away .
On May 12 , 1990 , Henson traveled to Ahoskie , North Carolina , with his daughter Cheryl , to visit his father and stepmother . They both returned to New York on May 13 , and Henson cancelled a Muppet recording session scheduled for May 14 . That night , Henson 's wife Jane , from whom he was separated , came to visit for the last time . Hours later , on May 15 , Henson was having trouble breathing and began coughing up blood . He suggested to his wife that he might be dying , but did not want to take time from his schedule to visit a hospital . Jane later stated that while Henson 's Christian Science upbringing " affect [ ed ] his general thinking " , it did not have any influence on his postponement of medical treatment , and still later told People magazine that his avoidance was likely due to his desire not to be a bother to anyone . His stepmother and others also denied rumors that Henson 's Christian Science beliefs might have contributed to his death , as Henson had ceased practicing in his early 20s .
Two hours later , Henson finally agreed to go to New York Hospital in New York City . By the time he was admitted shortly after 4 : 00 am , he could no longer breathe on his own , and an X @-@ ray revealed he had abscesses in his lungs . He was placed on a mechanical ventilator to help him breathe , but his condition deteriorated rapidly despite aggressive treatment with multiple antibiotics . Less than 24 hours later on May 16 , 1990 , Henson died at the age of 53 .
The official cause of death was first reported as Streptococcus pneumoniae , a bacterial infection that causes bacterial pneumonia . It was later classified as organ failure resulting from streptococcal toxic shock syndrome ( caused by Streptococcus pyogenes ) . S. pyogenes is the bacterial species that causes strep throat , scarlet fever , and rheumatic fever . It can also cause other infections .
On May 21 , Henson 's public memorial service was conducted in New York City at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine . Another was conducted on July 2 at St. Paul 's Cathedral in London . In accordance with Henson 's will , no one in attendance wore black , and The Dirty Dozen Brass Band finished the service by performing " When the Saints Go Marching In " . Harry Belafonte sang " Turn the World Around , " a song he had debuted on The Muppet Show , as each member of the congregation waved , with a puppet performer 's rod , an individual , brightly colored foam butterfly . Later , Big Bird , performed by Caroll Spinney , walked out onto the stage and sang Kermit the Frog 's signature song , " Bein ' Green " .
In the final minutes of the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour service , six of the core Muppet performers — Dave Goelz , Frank Oz , Kevin Clash , Steve Whitmire , Jerry Nelson , and Richard Hunt — sang , in their characters ' voices , a medley of Jim Henson 's favorite songs , eventually ending with a performance of " Just One Person " that began with Richard Hunt singing alone , as Scooter . Henson employee Chris Barry writes that during each verse , " each Muppeteer joined in with their own Muppets until the stage was filled with all the Muppet performers and their beloved characters . " The funeral was later described by Life as " an epic and almost unbearably moving event . " The image of a growing number of performers singing " Just One Person " was recreated for the 1990 television special The Muppets Celebrate Jim Henson and inspired screenwriter Richard Curtis , who attended the London service , to write the growing @-@ orchestra wedding scene of his 2003 film Love Actually .
= = Legacy = =
The Jim Henson Company and the Jim Henson Foundation continued after his death , producing new series and specials . Jim Henson 's Creature Shop , founded by Henson , also continues to build creatures for a large number of other films and series ( e.g. the science @-@ fiction production Farscape , the film adaptation of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , and the movie MirrorMask ) and is considered one of the most advanced and well @-@ respected creators of film creatures . His son Brian and daughter Lisa are currently the co @-@ chairs and co @-@ CEOs of the company ; his daughter Cheryl is the president of the foundation . Steve Whitmire , a veteran member of the Muppet puppeteering crew , has assumed the roles of Kermit the Frog and Ernie , the most famous characters formerly played by Jim Henson . Whitmire also assumed the roles of Link Hogthrob , from the " Pigs in Space " " Muppet Show " sketch , starting with the video game " Muppets Racemania " from 2000 , as well as The Muppet Newsman , starting in 2008 , with Muppet.com viral online videos . Muppeteer veteran Bill Barretta has taken over for Henson 's fairly deeper voiced roles , such as the Swedish Chef , Mahna Mahna , Rowlf the Dog , and Dr. Teeth . Guy Smiley , in recent years , has been taken over by Eric Jacobson , and the role of Waldorf , in 1992 , was assumed by Muppet performer veteran Dave Goelz .
On February 17 , 2004 , it was announced that the non @-@ Sesame Street / Fraggle Rock Muppets ( the Sesame Street characters are separately owned by Sesame Workshop , and the Fraggle Rock characters are still owned by The Jim Henson Company ) and the Bear in the Big Blue House properties had been sold by Henson 's heirs to The Walt Disney Company . However , as a result , Sesame Workshop ( formerly the Children 's Television Workshop ) , also lost the rights to Kermit the Frog , and thus he would not appear on new material on Sesame Street for some time . However , Sesame Workshop has since obtained permission from Disney to use Kermit , allowing him to make an appearance on the premiere of the show 's 40th season on November 10 , 2009 . In addition , Sesame Workshop has made many of Kermit 's previous segments on the show available for viewing on their YouTube account .
One of Henson 's last projects is a show attraction in Walt Disney World and Disneyland featuring the Muppets , called Muppet * Vision 3D , which opened in 1991 , shortly after his death .
The Jim Henson Company retains the Creature Shop , as well as the rest of its film and television library including Fraggle Rock ( one of the few Muppet @-@ related properties still owned by The Jim Henson Company ) , Farscape , The Dark Crystal , and Labyrinth .
In 2010 , it was announced that the first major biography of Henson , sanctioned by the family and the Jim Henson Legacy , was underway . The biography by Brian Jay Jones was published on September 24 , 2013 , Henson 's 77th birthday .
On February 14 , 2014 , Henson 's son , John Henson , died of a heart attack after playing in the snow with his daughter . He was 48 .
= = = Tributes = = =
Henson is honored both as himself and as Kermit the Frog on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . Only three other people have received this honor : Walt Disney as both himself and Mickey Mouse ; Mel Blanc as both himself and Bugs Bunny ; and Mike Myers as both himself and Shrek . Henson was posthumously inducted into the Walk of Fame in 1991 .
Henson has also earned induction into the Television Hall of Fame . He achieved this honor in 1987 .
The theater at his alma mater , Northwestern High School , in Hyattsville , MD , is named in his honor .
Basil Hears A Noise a CBC special opening with a dedication to him .
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II : The Secret of the Ooze and The Muppet Christmas Carol are both dedicated to him .
Stephen Lynch produced a song titled " Jim Henson 's Dead " , in which he pays homage to many of the characters from The Muppet Show and Sesame Street .
Henson featured in The American Adventure in Epcot at the Walt Disney World Resort .
Philip Roth often quotes Jim Henson in his Sabbath 's Theater as the " great regret " for Mickey Sabbath .
The Jim Henson Museum , located in Leland , Mississippi , features an assortment of original Muppet characters , official certificates from the Mississippi Legislature honoring Henson and his characters , and a statue of Kermit in the middle of the stream behind the museum .
The 1990 television special The Muppets Celebrate Jim Henson allowed the Muppets themselves to pay tribute to Henson . The special featured interviews with Steven Spielberg and others .
Celtic singer , musician , and songwriter Heather Alexander wrote a song titled " Storyteller " in 1990 as a tribute to Jim Henson , which harkens to his " Storyteller " series as well as his role as a modern storyteller .
Tom Smith 's Henson tribute song , " A Boy and His Frog " , won the Pegasus Award for Best Filk Song in 1991 .
Henson was featured in Boyz II Men 's 1991 video , " It 's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday " .
Episode 2880 of Sesame Street ( which aired on November 15 , 1991 ) was dedicated in his memory , with a memorial card following the closing credits .
The classes of 1994 , 1998 , and 1999 at the University of Maryland , College Park , Henson 's alma mater , commissioned a life @-@ size statue of Henson and Kermit the Frog , which was dedicated on September 24 , 2003 , [ which would have been ] Henson 's 67th birthday . The statue cost $ 217 @,@ 000 , and is displayed outside Maryland 's student union . In 2006 , Maryland introduced 50 statues of their school mascot , Testudo the Terrapin , with various designs chosen by different sponsoring groups . Among them was Kertle , a statue by Washington , DC , artist Elizabeth Baldwin , designed to look like Kermit the Frog .
Kermit the Frog was named grand marshal of the 1996 Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena , California .
On the evening of October 25 , 2000 , Comedy Central had a banner sign that said : Jim Henson [ 1936 – 1990 ] .
In 2003 , Jim Henson was honored at the annual Norsk Høstfest in Minot , North Dakota .
Oury Atlan , Thibaut Berland , and Damien Ferri wrote , directed , and animated a 3D tribute to Henson entitled Over Time that was shown as part of the 2005 Electronic Theater at SIGGRAPH .
On September 28 , 2005 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a sheet of commemorative stamps honoring Henson and the Muppets .
The Center for Puppetry Arts in Atlanta , Georgia , has acquired more than 700 puppets created by Henson and his studio , including some of the earliest Muppets . Many of these are displayed in the museum exhibit Jim Henson : Puppeteer . In September 2008 , the Center opened Jim Henson : Wonders From His Workshop , highlighting creations from Fraggle Rock , Labyrinth , and other later works .
On August 9 , 2011 , Jim Henson posthumously received the Disney Legends Award . Two of his characters , Kermit the Frog and Rowlf the Dog , performed " Rainbow Connection " in his honor .
On September 24 , 2011 , Leland renamed one of their bridges " The Rainbow Connection " to honor Henson and his work . He was also honored with a Google doodle on his 75th birthday ; the Google logo had six Muppets that were clickable using the " hand " buttons .
= = Muppet performance credits = =
Sam and Friends as Sam , Harry the Hipster , Kermit the Frog , Professor Madcliffe , Omar , Yorick , Pierre the French Rat , and others
Sesame Street as Ernie , Kermit the Frog , Guy Smiley , Dan , Henry , Lance , Captain Vegetable , Mr. Nose , The King , Stan , Harold Happy , Sammy the Snake , and others
Hey Cinderella ! as Kermit the Frog , and others
The Frog Prince as Kermit the Frog , and others
The Muppets Valentine Show as Wally , Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Ernie , and others
The Muppet Show : Sex and Violence as Nigel , George Washington , The Swedish Chef , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Kermit the Frog , and others
The Muppet Show as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , The Swedish Chef , Link Hogthrob , The Newsman , and others
The Muppet Movie as Kermit the Frog , Rowlf the Dog , Dr. Teeth , Waldorf , Swedish Chef , and others
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to stay together and has released The Notorious Cherry Bombs which was nominated for Grammies in both the ' Best Country Performance By A Duo Or Group With Vocal ' and ' Best Country Song ' categories . Along with Bayers the band consists of Vince Gill , Rodney Crowell , Hank DeVito , Richard Bennett , and Michael Rhodes .
= = = The Medallion Band = = =
An all @-@ star lineup was assembled to be the backing band at the 2010 Country Music Hall of Fame induction ceremony dubbed the Medallion Band . Bayers served as drummer and was accompanied by keyboardist and music director John Hobbs , pedal steel player Paul Franklin , electric guitarist Steve Gibson , bassist Michael Rhodes , fiddler Deanie Richardson , tuba player Larry Paxton , background vocalists Dawn Sears and Jeff White , and acoustic guitarist Biff Watson . Later that year Bayers and a slightly revamped Medallion Band accompanied Shawn Camp in honoring Hall of Fame inductee Jimmy Dean . Bayers played the same role for the 2011 Country Music Hall of Fame induction ceremony with the band now dubbed the Medallion All @-@ Stars .
= = Accolades = =
Bayers received the ' Academy of Country Music Drummer of the Year Award ' 13 times , ' Nashville Music Awards Drummer of the Year ' three times , and one of the 10 greatest session drummers of all time by Drum ! magazine . He has been nominated for the ' CMA Musician of the Year ' ten times but has yet to bring home the prize .
= = Music industry = =
In addition to his work as a musician , Bayers has contributed to the recording industry as a 12 @-@ year member of the Board of Governors for NARAS . He is also the part @-@ owner of the Money Pit recording studio . The number one singles " What I Really Meant to Say " by Cyndi Thomson and " Blessed " by Martina McBride were both recorded at his studio .
= = Selected discography = =
= Edwin Donayre =
General Edwin Donayre ( born January 8 , 1952 ) is a retired Peruvian military officer and former Commanding General of the Peruvian Army ( 2006 – 2008 ) . General Donayre previously served as commander of the Center Military Region , the Southern Military Region and the 2nd Infantry Brigade . He assumed the role of commanding general on December 5 , 2006 , replacing General César Reinoso , who resigned amid accusations of corruption . During his tenure , Donayre was accused of corruption and obstructing inquiries into human rights violations . He was also at the center of an international controversy when a video surfaced in the media showing him making anti @-@ Chilean remarks at a private party . He retired on December 5 , 2008 and was replaced by General Otto Guibovich .
= = Military career = =
Edwin Donayre was born on January 8 , 1952 in the city of Ayacucho in the highlands of Peru . He attended San Juan Bosco school , a Salesian institution in his hometown , and studied at a seminary for two years before studying two years of Chemical Engineering at the San Cristóbal of Huamanga University . Donayre 's military career started at the Chorrillos Military School , where his first year grades earned him a scholarship to continue his formation in Argentina . At the National Military College in Buenos Aires he graduated with honors as a military engineer . In active duty Donayre has served four times in regions under state of emergency due to Shining Path guerrilla activity and five times in frontier regions . He has held several command posts , among them commander of the 20th Combat Engineer Battalion , director of the Army Engineer School , commander of the 2nd Infantry Brigade , commander of the Southern Military Region , and commander of the Central Military Region .
= = Commanding General = =
Donayre 's tenure as Commanding General of the army was controversial from the start due to corruption allegations and an international incident with Chile . Opposition leader Ollanta Humala criticized Donayre 's designation as irregular because at that time he was not serving as general of any of the three major army divisions as stipulated by Peruvian law . As commander of the Army , Donayre was also accused of acquiring 50 @,@ 000 American @-@ made MREs — military rations — to supply troops deployed against Shining Path guerrillas in the Apurímac and Ene river valleys , instead of acquiring cheaper , locally @-@ made alternatives . An attempt to buy 50 @,@ 000 more rations led to an inquiry by the Ministry of Defense .
According to a report by the army inspector general , Francisco Vargas , Donayre requested 80 @,@ 000 gallons of fuel without clear justification when he was commander of the Southern Military Region , between January and September 2006 , and diverted part of it to army headquarters in Lima . This led to an investigation by the anti @-@ corruption prosecutor , Marlene Berrú , but , despite being summoned six times , Donayre did not show up at her office . He finally attended her request on November 25 , 2008 ; in his testimony he denied any wrongdoing and claimed that the Southern Military Region actually received less fuel under his command than in the previous year .
The general 's stance on human rights issues has also been quite controversial . It has been reported that he was behind the Army 's refusal to provide any information on the 1984 massacre at the village of Putis . Requests issued on June 2008 by prosecutor Rubén López for a detailed report on the military personnel deployed there at that time were answered the following month by the Defense Ministry stating that the Army did not have any information on the subject in its archives . Donayre also joined a campaign to raise funds to defend armed forces personnel accused of committing human rights abuses during the internal conflict in Peru .
= = International controversy = =
Donayre became the center of an international controversy on November 24 , 2008 , when Peruvian media showed a YouTube video in which the general said " We are not going to let Chileans pass by ( ... ) [ A ] Chilean who enters will not leave . Or will leave in a coffin . And if there aren 't sufficient coffins , there will be plastic bags " . The video , dated to 2006 or 2007 , was recorded during a party at a friend 's house attended by army officials and civilians . These comments caused widespread indignation in Chile , making headlines in the El Mercurio newspaper . The Peruvian president , Alan García , called his Chilean counterpart , Michelle Bachelet , to explain that these remarks did not reflect official Peruvian policy . Bachelet declared herself satisfied with the explanations .
On November 28 , in response to this incident , a Chilean government spokesman stated that a scheduled visit to Chile by the Peruvian defense minister , Antero Flores Aráoz , might be inopportune given the circumstances . The following day , Flores Aráoz announced his decision to postpone his trip after conferring with the Foreign Affairs Minister , José García Belaúnde . Several members of the Peruvian government commented on the spokesman 's remarks including president García who said the country " did not accept pressure or orders from anybody outside of Peru " . Donayre defended the video , declaring that Peruvian citizens have a right to say whatever they want at private gatherings and that even though he is scheduled to retire on December 5 he will not be forced to resign early under external pressure . As a consequence of these exchanges , tensions between Peru and Chile rose again ; president Bachelet met with top aides on December 1 to discuss the matter and possible courses of action . Meanwhile , in Lima , Congressman Gustavo Espinoza became the center of attention as the main suspect of leaking the video to Chilean press and politicians . Donayre ended his tenure as Commanding General of the Army on December 5 , 2008 , as expected ; president Alan García appointed General Otto Guibovich as his replacement .
= Super Mario Kart =
Super Mario Kart ( スーパーマリオカート , Sūpā Mario Kāto ) is a 1992 go @-@ kart racing video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System video game console . The first game of the Mario Kart series , it was launched in Japan on August 27 , 1992 , in North America on September 1 , 1992 , and in Europe on January 21 , 1993 . Selling nine million copies worldwide , the game went on to become the third best selling SNES game of all time . Super Mario Kart was re @-@ released on the Wii 's Virtual Console in Japan on June 9 , 2009 , North America on November 23 , 2009 , and in Europe on April 2 , 2010 . Super Mario Kart was re @-@ released again on the Wii U 's Virtual Console in Japan on June 19 , 2013 , Europe on March 27 , 2014 , and in North America on August 6 , 2014 . Super Mario Kart was released once more on the 3DS 's Virtual Console .
In Super Mario Kart , the player takes control of one of eight Mario series characters , each with differing capabilities . In single player mode players can race against computer controlled characters in multi @-@ race cups over three difficulty levels . During the races , offensive and speed boosting power @-@ ups can be used to gain an advantage . Alternatively players can race against the clock in a Time Trial mode . In multi @-@ player mode two players can simultaneously take part in the cups or can race against each other one @-@ on @-@ one in Match Race mode . In a third multiplayer mode – Battle Mode – the aim is to defeat the other players by attacking them with power @-@ ups , destroying balloons which surround each kart .
Super Mario Kart received positive reviews and was praised for its presentation , innovation and use of Mode 7 graphics . It has been ranked among the best games of all time by several organizations including Edge , IGN , The Age and GameSpot , while Guinness World Records has named it as the top console game ever . It is often credited with creating the kart @-@ racing subgenre of video games , leading other developers to try to duplicate its success . The game is also seen as having been key to expanding the Mario series into non @-@ platforming games . This diversity has led to it becoming the best @-@ selling game franchise of all time . Several sequels to Super Mario Kart have been released , for consoles , handhelds and in arcades , each enjoying critical and commercial success . While some elements have developed throughout the series , the core experience from Super Mario Kart has remained intact .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario Kart is a kart racing game featuring several single and multiplayer modes . During the game , players take control of one of eight Mario franchise characters and drive karts around tracks with a Mario franchise theme . In order for them to begin driving , Lakitu will come in with the traffic light hanging on a fishing pole , which starts the countdown . When the light turns green , the race or battle officially begins . During a race , the player 's viewpoint is from behind his or her kart . The goal of the game is to either finish a race ahead of other racers , who are controlled by the computer and other players , or complete a circuit in the fastest time . There is also a battle mode in which the aim is to attack the karts of the other human players .
Tiles marked with question marks are arrayed on the race tracks ; they give special abilities ( power @-@ ups ) to a player 's kart if the vehicle passes over them . Power @-@ ups , such as the ability to throw shells and bananas , allow racers to hit others with the objects , causing them to spin and lose control . A kart that obtains the star power @-@ up is temporary invulnerable to attack . Computer players have specific special powers associated with each character , that they are able to use throughout the race . Lines of coins are found on the tracks in competitive race modes . By running over these coins , a kart collects them and increases its top speed . Having coins also helps players when their kart is hit by another : instead of spinning and losing control , they lose a coin . Coins are also lost when karts are struck by power @-@ ups or fall off the tracks .
The game features advanced maneuvers such as power sliding and hopping . Power sliding allows a kart to maintain its speed while turning , although executing the maneuver for too long causes the kart to spin . Hopping helps a kart execute tighter turns : the kart makes a short hop and turns in the air , speeding off in the new direction when it lands . Reviewers praised Super Mario Kart 's gameplay , describing the battle mode as " addictive " and the single player gameplay as " incredible " . IGN stated that the gameplay mechanics defined the genre .
= = = Modes = = =
Super Mario Kart has two single @-@ player modes , Mario Kart GP ( which stands for Grand Prix ) and Time Trial . In Mario Kart GP , one player is required to race against seven computer @-@ controlled characters in a series of five races which are called cups . Initially there are three cups available – the Mushroom Cup , Flower Cup and Star Cup – at two difficulty levels , 50cc and 100cc . By winning all three of the cups at the 100cc level , a fourth cup – the Special Cup – is unlocked . Winning all four cups at 100cc unlocks a new difficulty level , 150cc . Each cup consists of five five @-@ lap races , each taking place on a distinct track . In order to continue through a cup , a position of fourth or higher must be achieved in each race . If a player finishes in fifth to eighth position , they are " ranked out " and the race must be replayed – at the cost of one of a limited number of lives – until a placing of fourth or above is achieved . If the player has no lives when they rank out , the game is over . Points are accrued by finishing in the top four positions in a race ; first to fourth place receive nine , six , three and one points . If a player finished in the same position three times in a row , then an extra life is awarded . The racer with the highest number of points after all five races have been completed wins the cup . In time trial mode , players race against the clock through the same tracks that are present in Mario Kart GP mode , attempting to set the fastest time possible .
Super Mario Kart also has three multiplayer modes ; Mario Kart GP , Match Race and Battle Mode . The multiplayer modes support two players and the second player uses the bottom half of the screen which is used as a map in the single player modes . Mario Kart GP is the same as in single player , the only difference being that there are now two human controlled and six computer controlled drivers . Match Race involves the two players going head to head on a track of their choice without any opponents . In Battle Mode , the two players again go head to head , but this time in one of four dedicated Battle Mode courses . Each player starts with three balloons around their kart which can be popped by power @-@ ups fired by the other player . The first player to have all three of their balloons popped loses .
= = = Characters = = =
Super Mario Kart features eight playable characters from the Mario series – Mario , Luigi , Princess Peach , Yoshi , Bowser , Donkey Kong Jr . , Koopa Troopa and Toad . Each character 's kart has different capabilities with differing levels of top speed , acceleration and handling . Mario , Luigi , Peach , Yoshi , Bowser and Toad returned in all of the subsequent Mario Kart games starting with Mario Kart 64 . During races , computer @-@ controlled characters have special items , or superpowers , which they are able to use . These powers are specific to each character ; for example , Yoshi drops eggs which cause players who hit them to lose coins and spin , while Donkey Kong Jr. throws bananas .
The characters are rendered as sprites portrayed from sixteen different angles . The sprites were described as " detailed " by Nintendo Magazine System when the game was first reviewed and were thought to contribute to the " spectacular " graphics of the game as a whole . More recently , Nintendojo called the sprites " not @-@ so @-@ pretty " when they are rendered at a distance , and IGN has commented on the dated look of the game . Super Mario Kart was the first game to feature playable characters from the Mario series other than Mario or Luigi in a non @-@ platforming game and the selection and different attributes of the characters is regarded as one of the game 's strengths , IGN describing a well @-@ balanced " all @-@ star cast " . All of the characters present in Super Mario Kart have gone on to appear in all of the later games in the series , except for Koopa Troopa , who has only appeared intermittently after being replaced by Wario in Mario Kart 64 . Donkey Kong Jr. was replaced by Donkey Kong , who has appeared in every Mario Kart game since . This was Donkey Kong Jr . ' s last appearance as a playable character , except for the Mario Tennis sub @-@ series , including installments on the Nintendo 64 and Virtual Boy .
= = = Tracks = = =
The tracks in Super Mario Kart are based on locations in Super Mario World such as Donut Plains . Each of the four cups contains five different tracks for a total of twenty unique tracks , additionally there are four unique Battle Mode courses . The course outlines are marked out by impassable barriers and feature a variety of bends ranging from sharp hairpins to wide curves which players can power slide around . Numerous obstacles themed from the Mario series appear , such as Thwomps in the Bowser 's Castle tracks , the Cheep @-@ Cheeps from Super Mario World in Koopa Beach and pipe barriers which are found in the Mario Circuit tracks . Other features include off @-@ road sections which slow down the karts such as the mud bogs in the Choco Island tracks . Each single player track is littered with coins and power up tiles , as well as turbo tiles which give the karts a boost of speed and jumps which launch the karts into the air .
The tracks have received positive commentary with GameSpy describing them as wonderfully designed and IGN calling them perfect . When naming its top five Mario Kart tracks of all time in 2008 , 1UP.com named Battle Mode Course 4 at number three and Rainbow Road – along with its subsequent versions in the series – at number one . The track themes in Super Mario Kart influenced later games in the series ; recurring themes that first appeared in Super Mario Kart include haunted tracks , Bowser 's castle and Rainbow Road . Some of the tracks from Super Mario Kart have been duplicated in later games . All twenty of the original tracks are unlockable as an extra feature in the Game Boy Advance sequel Mario Kart : Super Circuit . Remakes of Mario Circuit 1 , Donut Plains 1 , Koopa Beach 2 and Choco Island 2 appear as part of the Retro Grand Prix series in Mario Kart DS , remakes of Ghost Valley 2 , Mario Circuit 3 , and Battle Course 4 appear as part of the Retro Grand Prix and battles in Mario Kart Wii , remakes of Mario Circuit 2 and Rainbow Road appear as part of the Retro Grand Prix in Mario Kart 7 , and remake of Donut Plains 3 and once again , Rainbow Road appear as part of the Retro Grand Prix and battles in Mario Kart 8 .
= = Development = =
Super Mario Kart was produced by Shigeru Miyamoto and directed by Tadashi Sugiyama and Hideki Konno . In an interview Miyamoto has said that the development team originally set out to produce a game capable of displaying two players on the same game screen simultaneously . In the same interview Konno stated that development started with a desire to create a two player racing game in contrast to the single player gameplay of SNES launch title F @-@ Zero . The team found that due to limitations of the SNES hardware , the strong focus on multiplayer prevented the inclusions of tracks as elaborate as those found in F @-@ Zero . Computer and Video Games suggest that this initial emphasis on creating a two player experience is the reason for the game 's horizontal split @-@ screen during single player modes .
The intention to create the racing modes of the game had been present from the start of the project and Battle Mode was developed from the desire to create a one @-@ on @-@ one mode where victory was not determined simply by competing for rank . The game did not start out as a Mario series game and the first prototype featured a generic man in overalls in the kart ; the team decided that characters three heads tall would best suit the design of the karts . They did not decide on incorporating Mario series characters into the game until two or three months after the start of development . The choice was made after the development team , when observing how one kart looked to another driving past it , decided to see what it would look like with Mario in the kart . Thinking that having Mario in the kart looked better than previous designs , the idea of a Mario themed racing game was born .
Notable in the development of Super Mario Kart was its use of Mode 7 graphics . First seen in F @-@ Zero , Mode 7 is a form of texture mapping available on the SNES which allows a plane to be rotated and scaled freely , achieving a pseudo @-@ three @-@ dimensional appearance . 1UP.com have credited the use of Mode 7 with giving the game graphics which at the time of release were considered to be " breathtaking " . Retrospective reflection on the Mode 7 visuals was mixed , with IGN stating that the once revolutionary technology now looks " crude and flickery " while the Video Game Bible describes them as " beautiful " and adding to the game . Super Mario Kart featured a DSP ( Digital Signal Processor ) chip ; DSPs were used in SNES games as they provided a better handling of floating point calculations to assist with three @-@ dimensional maths . The DSP @-@ 1 chip that was used in Super Mario Kart went on to be the most popular DSP chip to be used in SNES games . The music for the title was created by composer Soyo Oka .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario Kart received critical acclaim and proved to be a commercial success ; it received a Player 's Choice release after selling one million copies and eventually went on to sell nine million copies to become the third best selling game ever for the SNES . Aggregate scoring sites GameRankings and MobyGames both give an average of more than 90 percent . Critics praised the game 's Mode 7 graphics ; in 1992 Nintendo Magazine System described them as superb and the graphics have since been described as among the best ever seen on the SNES . Another aspect of the game to have been praised is its gameplay , which Thunderbolt has described as the " deepest [ and ] most addictive ... to be found on the SNES console " . Nintendo Magazine System showed a preference for the multiplayer modes of the game and stated that while the " single player mode becomes dull quickly " the " two @-@ player mode won 't lose appeal " . Retrospective reviews of the game have been positive with perfect scores given by review sites including Thunderbolt and HonestGamers . The use of the style and characters from the Mario franchise was also praised as well as the individual characteristics of each racer . Mean Machines describes the game as having " struck gold " in a way that no other – not even its sequels – has matched and GameSpot named the game as one of the greatest games of all time for its innovation , gameplay and visual style .
Since being released Super Mario Kart has been listed among the best games ever made several times . IGN ranked it as the 15th best game ever in 2005 , describing it as " the original karting masterpiece " and as the 23rd best game ever in 2007 , discussing its originality at time of release . The Age placed it at number 19 on their list of the 50 best games in 2005 and in 2007 Edge ranked Super Mario Kart at number 14 on a list of their 100 best games , noting its continued influence on video game design . The game is also included in Yahoo ! Games UK 's list of the hundred greatest games of all time which praises the appealing characters and power ups and 1UP.com 's " Essential 50 " , a list of the fifty most important games ever made . The game placed 13th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time . Guinness World Records ranked it at number 1 on a list of the top 50 console games of all time based on initial impact and lasting legacy .
= = = Legacy = = =
Super Mario Kart has been credited with inventing the " kart racing " subgenre of video gaming and soon after its release several other developers attempted to duplicate its success . In 1994 , less than two years after the release of Super Mario Kart , Sega released Sonic Drift ; a kart racing game featuring characters from the Sonic the Hedgehog series . Also in 1994 Ubisoft released Street Racer , a kart racing game for the SNES and Mega Drive / Genesis which included a four player mode not present in Super Mario Kart . Apogee Software released Wacky Wheels for PC . Future games that followed in the mould of Super Mario Kart include South Park Rally , Konami Krazy Racers , Diddy Kong Racing , Sonic & Sega All @-@ Stars Racing and several racing games in the Crash Bandicoot series . Response to the karting games released since Super Mario Kart has been mixed , with GameSpot describing them as tending to be bad while 1UP.com notes that countless developers have tried to improve upon the Mario Kart formula without success .
Super Mario Kart is also credited as being the first non @-@ platforming game to feature multiple playable characters from the Mario franchise . As well as several sequels Nintendo has released numerous other sporting and non @-@ sporting Mario spin @-@ offs since Super Mario Kart ; a trend in part accredited to the commercial and critical success of the game . The Mario characters have appeared in many sports games including those relating to basketball , baseball , golf , tennis and soccer . Non @-@ sporting franchises using the Mario characters have also been created , including the Super Smash Bros. series of fighting games and the Mario Party series of board game based , party games . Mario series characters have also made cameos in games from other series such as SSX on Tour and NBA Street V3 , both published by EA Sports . The genre spanning nature of the Mario series that was sparked off by the success of Super Mario Kart has been described as key to the success and longevity of the franchise ; keeping fans interested despite the infrequency of traditional Mario platforming games . Following this model the Mario series has gone on to become the best selling video game franchise of all time with 193 million units sold as of January 2007 , almost 40 million units ahead of second ranked franchise ( Pokémon , also by Nintendo ) .
Super Mario Kart was re @-@ released on the Japanese Virtual Console on June 9 , 2009 , and later in North America on November 23 , 2009 . Previously , when naming it as one of the most wanted games for the platform in November 2008 , Eurogamer stated that problems emulating the Mode 7 graphics were responsible for its absence .
The game was also released for the Wii U virtual console in Japan during June 2013 , and in Europe on March 27 , 2014 . In addition , North America users was able to get the game starting from August 6 , 2014 to celebrate the 22nd anniversary of the game , which also includes the new game update of Mario Kart 8 on August 27 , 2014 .
Super Mario 3D World has a stage with a look based on the Mario Circuit racetracks from Super Mario Kart . A remixed version of the music can also be heard .
= = = Sequels = = =
Several sequels to Super Mario Kart have been brought out for successive generations of Nintendo consoles , each receiving commercial success and critical acclaim . The first of these , Mario Kart 64 was released in 1996 for the Nintendo 64 and was the first Mario Kart game to feature fully 3D graphics . Although reviewers including IGN and GameSpot felt that the single player gameplay was lacking compared to its predecessor , the simultaneous four @-@ person multiplayer modes – a first for the Nintendo 64 – were praised . The second sequel , Mario Kart : Super Circuit , was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 . It was described by GameSpot as more of a remake of Super Mario Kart than a sequel to Mario Kart 64 and featured a return to the graphical style of the original . As well as featuring all new tracks , players are able to unlock the original SNES tracks if certain achievements are completed . Mario Kart : Double Dash ‼ was released for the Nintendo GameCube in 2003 . Unlike any other Mario Kart game before or since , it features two riders in each kart , allowing for a new form of cooperative multiplayer where one player controls the kart 's movement and the other fires weapons . Mario Kart DS , released for the Nintendo DS in 2005 , was the first Mario Kart game to include online play via the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection . It went on to become the best selling hand @-@ held racing game of all time , selling 7 @.@ 83 million units . The game also marks the debut of tracks appearing in previous games . Mario Kart Wii was released for the Wii in 2008 and incorporates motion controls and 12 @-@ player racing . Like Mario Kart DS , it includes on @-@ line play ; it also allows racers to play as user @-@ created Miis ( after unlocking the Mii character ) as well as Mario series characters and comes packaged with the Wii Wheel peripheral , which can act as the game 's primary control mechanism when coupled with a Wii Remote . Mario Kart Wii went on to be the worldwide best @-@ selling game of 2008 ahead of another Nintendo game – Wii Fit – and the critically acclaimed Grand Theft Auto IV . Mario Kart 7 for the Nintendo 3DS was released in 2011 , which features racing on land , sea , and air . Also in Mario Kart 7 is the ability to customize your kart and to race in first @-@ person mode . Three Mario Kart arcade games have also been released , Mario Kart Arcade GP in 2005 , Mario Kart Arcade GP 2 in 2007 , and Mario Kart Arcade GP DX in 2013 . All of them were developed jointly by Nintendo and Namco and feature classic Namco characters including Pac @-@ Man and Blinky . The most recent entry in the series is Mario Kart 8 for the Wii U , which was released at the end of May 2014 , which brings back gliders and propellers from Mario Kart 7 as well as 12 @-@ player racing in Mario Kart Wii . Mario Kart 8 also includes a new feature called Mario Kart TV , where players can watch highlights of previous races and uploading them to YouTube . Another new feature is anti @-@ gravity racing , where players can race on walls and ceilings .
As the series has progressed , many aspects included in Super Mario Kart have been developed and altered . The power up boxes which are flat against the track in Super Mario Kart due to the technical limitations of the SNES became floating boxes in later games . The roster of racers has expanded in recent games to include a greater selection of Nintendo characters including some which had not been created at the time of Super Mario Kart 's release – such as Petey Piranha from Super Mario Sunshine who appeared in Mario Kart : Double Dash ! ! . Multiplayer has remained a key feature of the series and has expanded from the two @-@ player modes available in Super Mario Kart ; first to allow up to four simultaneous players in Mario Kart 64 and eventually up to twelve simultaneous online players in Mario Kart Wii . Many of the track themes have been retained throughout the series , including Rainbow Road – the final track of the Special Cup – which has appeared in every Mario Kart console game . Other features present in Super Mario Kart have disappeared from the series . These include the " super @-@ powers " of the computer characters , the feather power up which allows players to jump high into the air and having a restricted number of lives . The only other Mario Kart games to feature the coin collecting of the original are Mario Kart : Super Circuit , Mario Kart 7 , and Mario Kart 8 . The aspects of style and gameplay from Super Mario Kart that have been retained throughout the series have led Nintendo to face criticism for a lack of originality but the franchise is still considered to be a beloved household name by many , known for its familiar core gameplay .
= Dyer Lum =
Dyer Daniel Lum ( 1839 – April 6 , 1893 ) was a 19th @-@ century American anarchist , labor activist and poet . A leading anarcho @-@ syndicalist and a prominent left @-@ wing intellectual of the 1880s , Lum is best remembered as the lover and mentor of early anarcha @-@ feminist Voltairine de Cleyre .
Lum was a prolific writer who wrote a number of key anarchist texts , and contributed to publications including Mother Earth , Twentieth Century , Liberty ( Benjamin Tucker 's individualist anarchist journal ) , The Alarm ( the journal of the International Working People 's Association ) and The Open Court among others . Following the arrest of Albert Parsons , Lum edited The Alarm from 1892 – 1893 .
Traditionally portrayed as a " genteel , theoretical anarchist " , Lum has recently been recast by the scholarship of Paul Avrich as an " uncompromising rebel thirsty for violence and martyrdom " in the light of his involvement in the Haymarket affair in 1886 .
= = Life = =
In disposition , Mr. Lum was most amiable ; in the character of his mind he was philosophical ; in mental capacity , he was at once keen and broad . His friends , who were many , mourn his passing away .
Lum was a descendant of the prominent New England Tappan family ; his grandfather was an American revolutionary . In hopes of bringing about the end of slavery , he volunteered to fight for the Union Army in the American Civil War . He served as an adjutant in the Fourteenth New York Cavalry , and later as a brevet captain , seeing combat in the Red River Campaign . A bookbinder by trade , Lum became active in the American labor movement in the aftermath of the war . He served as a secretary to Samuel Gompers and ran for lieutenant governor of Massachusetts on the Labor Reform ticket of abolitionist Wendell Phillips in 1870 .
He became widely known in 1877 after a period traveling across the country as secretary to a congressional committee appointed to " inquire into the depression of labor . " Between 1880 and 1892 , he was an advocate of direct action and trade unionism , and in later years was " the moving spirit of the American group " which worked for the commutation of Alexander Berkman 's sentence for the latter 's attempted assassination of Henry Clay Frick . Lum committed suicide in 1893 after suffering from severe depression , although at the time the cause of death was reported in the anarchist press as " fatty degeneration of the heart . "
= = = Relationship with de Cleyre = = =
When Lum met Voltairine de Cleyre in 1888 , he was twenty @-@ seven years her elder and had lived a life rich in experience . They forged an " unshakable " friendship , and Lum had a profound influence on Voltairine de Cleyre 's political development , which evolved in an opposite direction to his ; she started out as an orthodox Tuckerite individualist , but became increasingly involved with the radical labor movement and ultimately called for a panarchist " anarchism without adjectives " movement . Their relationship ended after five years of intense involvement , leaving their planned collaborative project — a lengthy social and philosophical anarchist novel — ultimately unpublished .
= = = Involvement in the Haymarket Riot = = =
Lum was closely associated with , and worked alongside the martyrs of the Haymarket affair in Chicago in 1886 . In an 1891 essay , he wrote that on the afternoon of May 4 , August Spies sent word to the militants that they were not to bring arms to the Haymarket . This order was not respected , Lum noted – " one man disobeyed that order ; always self @-@ determined , he acted upon his own responsibility , preferring to be prepared for resistance to onslaught rather than to quietly imitate the spiritual " lamb led to slaughter . " Lum asserted that the eight defendants were initially unaware of the bomb @-@ thrower 's identity , although it became known to two of them ( " but neither Spies nor Parsons … " ) , believed by Paul Avrich to be George Engel and Adolph Fischer .
In Lum 's account , the bomb @-@ thrower 's name " was never mentioned in the trial and is today unknown to the public . " Paul Avrich attests that Lum urged Albert Parsons to refuse clemency , and plotted to rescue the anarchists from Cook County Jail by attacking it with explosives . According to de Cleyre , he then assisted the suicide of one of the eight defendants , Louis Lingg , by smuggling into Lingg 's prison cell a dynamite cap concealed in a cigar , which Lingg subsequently lit , thereby blowing off half his face and leaving himself lingering for several hours in torturous pain before dying .
= = Thought = =
… rent , interest , profit are the triple heads of the monster against which modern civilization is waging war .
Lum 's political philosophy was a fusion of individualist anarchist economics – " a radicalized form of laissez @-@ faire economics " inspired by the Boston anarchists – with radical labor organization similar to that of the Chicago anarchists of the time . Lum 's ideas have variously been described as individualist anarchist , syndicalist , mutualist , and anarcho @-@ communist , as well as anarchist without adjectives . Herbert Spencer and Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon influenced Lum strongly in his individualist tendency . He developed a " mutualist " theory of unions and as such was active within the Knights of Labor and later promoted anti @-@ political strategies in the American Federation of Labor . Frustration with abolitionism , spiritualism , and labor reform caused Lum to embrace anarchism and radicalize workers , as he came to believe that revolution would inevitably involve a violent struggle between the working class and the employing class . Convinced of the necessity of violence to enact social change he volunteered to fight in the American Civil War , hoping thereby to bring about the end of slavery . Kevin Carson has praised Lum 's fusion of individualist laissez @-@ faire economics with radical labor activism as " creative " and described him as " more significant than any in the Boston group " .
Lum argued in The Economics of Anarchy that the " labor problem " was a result of intervention by the state in creating monopolies , with particular reference to the land and money monopolies . Lum advocated the destruction of the land monopoly , which he saw as a government @-@ granted monopoly , by abolishing land titles and to allow free access to land , thus making the extraction of rent impossible . Similarly , mutual banks set up to issue their own currencies would end the state monopoly and undercut the ability of banks and lenders to charge interest .
In anarchy labor and capital would be merged into one , for capital would be without prerogatives and dependent upon labor , and owned by it . The laborer would find that to produce was to enjoy and the nightmare of destitution banished . The artisan would find in co @-@ operation that nature alone remained to be exploited . The tradesman would find that production offered greater inducement than exchange , unless he accepted a position of competence and ease in the labor exchange which would supplant isolated stores . The clerk , no longer with his horizon bounded by a ribbon counter , would have full scope to display his talents in any direction . The farmer , above all , free from irksome care to meet interest , to dread foreclosure from enforced taxation , with his family growing up around him , and rendered secure by a common title and mutual inter @-@ dependence , or seeking in insurance indemnity for depredation. would find in anarchy release from useless drudgery and his labor crowned with plentiness and peace .
= = = Selected articles = = =
" Dyer D. Lum on Anarchy , " published in The Alarm and in Parsons ' Anarchism : Its Philosophy and Scientific Basis .
" Eighteen Christian Centuries or the Evolution of the Gospel of Anarchy " syndicated in Liberty
" The Status of the Scab , " published in Rights of Labor , and later heavily critiqued by Victor Yarros in Liberty .
= Thomas C. Kinkaid =
Thomas Cassin Kinkaid ( 3 April 1888 – 17 November 1972 ) served as an admiral in the United States Navy during World War II . He built a reputation as a " fighting admiral " in the aircraft carrier battles of 1942 and commanded the Allied forces in the Aleutian Islands Campaign . He was Commander Allied Naval Forces and the Seventh Fleet under General of the Army Douglas MacArthur in the Southwest Pacific Area , where he conducted numerous amphibious operations , and commanded an Allied fleet during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , largest naval battle of World War II and the last naval battle between battleships in history .
Born into a naval family , Kinkaid was ranked in the lower half of his class on his graduation from the United States Naval Academy in June 1908 . His early commissioned service was spent aboard battleships . In 1913 , he began instruction in ordnance engineering and served in that field for many years . He saw action during the 1916 United States occupation of the Dominican Republic . During World War I , he was attached to the Royal Navy before serving as Gunnery Officer aboard the battleship USS Arizona . After the war , he was Assistant Chief of Staff to the Commander U.S. Naval Detachment in Turkey . Kinkaid received his first command , the destroyer USS Isherwood , in 1924 . He was Executive Officer of the battleship USS Colorado when the 1933 Long Beach earthquake struck , and participated in relief efforts . He received his second command in 1937 , the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis .
From 1938 to 1941 , Kinkaid was a naval attaché in Italy and Yugoslavia . In the months prior to U.S. entry into World War II , he commanded a destroyer squadron . Promoted to rear admiral in 1941 , he assumed command of a U.S. Pacific Fleet cruiser division . His cruisers defended the aircraft carrier USS Lexington during the Battle of the Coral Sea and USS Hornet during the Battle of Midway . After that battle he took command of Task Force 16 , a task force built around the carrier USS Enterprise , which he led during the long and difficult Solomon Islands campaign , participating in the Battles of the Eastern Solomons and the Santa Cruz Islands . Kinkaid was placed in charge of the North Pacific Force in January 1943 and commanded the operations that regained control of the Aleutian Islands . He was promoted to vice admiral in June 1943 .
In November 1943 , Kinkaid became Commander Allied Naval Forces South West Pacific Area , and Commander of the Seventh Fleet , directing U.S. and Royal Australian Navy forces supporting the New Guinea campaign . During the Battle of the Surigao Strait he commanded the Allied ships in the last naval battle between battleships in history . Following the demise of Japanese naval power in the region , the Allied navies supported the campaigns in the Philippines and Borneo . Kinkaid was promoted to admiral on 3 April 1945 . After the Pacific War ended in August 1945 , the Seventh Fleet assisted in operations on the Korean and China coasts . Admiral Kinkaid was Commander Eastern Sea Frontier and the Sixteenth Fleet from 1946 until his retirement in May 1950 . He was a member of the National Security Training Commission for much of the rest of the decade . He also served with the American Battle Monuments Commission for 15 years .
= = Early life = =
Thomas Cassin Kinkaid was born in Hanover , New Hampshire , on 3 April 1888 , the second child and only son of Thomas Wright Kinkaid , a naval officer , and his wife Virginia Lee née Cassin . At the time , Thomas Wright Kinkaid was on leave from the U.S. Navy and employed at the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts . When Thomas was only a year old , his father was posted to the USS Pinta , and the family moved to Sitka , Alaska , where a third child , Dorothy , was born in 1890 . Over the next few years the family successively moved to Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; Norfolk , Virginia ; Annapolis , Maryland and Georgetown , Washington , D.C.
Thomas attended Western High School for three years before entering a U.S. Naval Academy preparatory school . He sought and secured an appointment to Annapolis from President Theodore Roosevelt , and was asked to take the admission examination . The Navy was undergoing a period of expansion , and the intake of midshipmen was double that of two years earlier . Of the 350 who took the examination , 283 were admitted . The class was the largest since the Academy had opened in 1845 .
Kinkaid was admitted to Annapolis as a midshipman in July 1904 . His instructors included four future Chiefs of Naval Operations : William S. Benson , William V. Pratt , William D. Leahy and Ernest J. King . In 1905 he took an instructional cruise on USS Nevada . He also spent six weeks on USS Hartford , his only experience of a warship under sail . In subsequent years , his training cruises were on the USS Newark and USS Arkansas which , while much newer , were by this time also obsolete . He participated in sports , particularly in rowing , earning a seat in the Academy 's eight @-@ oar racing shell . He graduated on 5 June 1908 , ranked 136th in his class of 201 .
= = Early career = =
Kinkaid 's first posting was to San Francisco where he joined the crew of the battleship USS Nebraska , part of the Great White Fleet . During the next year , he circumnavigated the globe with the fleet , visiting New Zealand and Australia . The fleet returned to its home port of Norfolk , Virginia in February 1909 . In 1910 , Kinkaid took his examinations for the rank of ensign but failed navigation . While his classmates were promoted in June 1910 , Kinkaid remained a midshipman , pending the result of a makeup examination in December 1910 . In July , he developed pleurisy and was hospitalized in New York , New York before being sent to Annapolis to recuperate . At the time his father was in charge of the Naval Engineering Experiment Station there , which allowed Kinkaid to stay with his parents while studying for his navigation examination . In October , he was posted to the battleship USS Minnesota whose skipper , Commander William Sims , an Annapolis classmate of his father 's , encouraged Kinkaid 's early interest in gunnery . Kinkaid passed his navigation examination on 7 December and was promoted to ensign on 14 February 1911 , backdated to 6 June 1910 . While still at Annapolis , Kinkaid met Helen Sherburne Ross , the daughter of a Philadelphia businessman . The two were married on 24 April 1911 in the Silver Chapel of St. Mark 's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia in a ceremony attended by a small number of guests . Their marriage produced no children . They enjoyed playing contract bridge and golf , and Helen was the women 's golf champion for the District of Columbia in 1921 and 1922 .
In 1913 , Kinkaid , now a lieutenant ( junior grade ) , commenced a course in ordnance at the Naval Academy Postgraduate School . This consisted of four months of classroom instruction followed by tours with the leading naval ordnance manufacturers , and concluded with a tour of duty at the Indian Head Naval Proving Ground . Students had to commit to remain in the Navy for at least eight years . After completing the four months in the classroom at Annapolis , Kinkaid commenced a three @-@ month assignment at Midvale Steel , but this was interrupted after two months by the United States occupation of Veracruz . Kinkaid was ordered to report to the gunboat USS Machias for duty in the Caribbean , during which the ship participated in the 1916 United States occupation of the Dominican Republic . Kinkaid came under fire for the first time when the ship was fired upon from ashore . Machias replied with its machine guns . When one jammed , Kinkaid exposed himself to fire to assist in clearing the weapon . He fired it in response to gunfire against the ship . Machias returned home in December , and in February Kinkaid resumed his ordnance studies and went to Bausch & Lomb in Rochester , New York , where he studied the manufacture of spotting and fire control systems . In March he reported to the Washington Navy Yard , where he wrote a pamphlet on fire control . He also created a design for a human torpedo , but the Bureau of Ordnance decided that his concept was unsound . He completed his ordnance studies with tours at Bethlehem Steel , the Indian Head Naval Proving Ground and the Sperry Gyroscope Company in Brooklyn .
In July 1916 , Kinkaid reported to USS Pennsylvania , the navy 's newest battleship , as a gunfire spotter . He was promoted to lieutenant in January 1917 . In November 1917 , he was ordered to supervise the delivery of a newly developed 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) rangefinder from the Norfolk Navy Yard to the Grand Fleet . On reaching London , Kinkaid reported to Sims , now a vice admiral , who then ordered Kinkaid to deliver secret documents to Admiral William S. Benson at a meeting with Allied naval leaders in Paris . Afterwards , Kinkaid returned to the United Kingdom and tested the rangefinder at HMS Excellent on Whale Island , Hampshire . He visited optical works in London , York and Glasgow to study the British Royal Navy 's rangefinders , and the Grand Fleet at its anchorages . On returning to the United States in January 1918 , he visited Sperry Gyroscope and Ford Instruments to consult with them on fire control systems . Promoted to lieutenant commander in February 1918 , he was posted to Pennsylvania 's sister ship , USS Arizona . In May 1919 , Arizona was sent to cover the Greek occupation of Smyrna . For his services from September 1918 to July 1919 , Kinkaid was recommended for the Navy Distinguished Service Medal , but it was not awarded .
= = Between the wars = =
Following the normal pattern of alternating assignments afloat and ashore , Kinkaid was posted to a shore billet as the Chief of the Supply Section of the Bureau of Ordnance in Washington D.C. During this time he published two articles in the United States Naval Institute magazine Proceedings . The first , on the " Probability and Accuracy of Gun Fire " , was a technical article arguing for more rather than bigger guns on battleships and cruisers . The Washington Naval Conference would prevent these ideas from being put into practice , by restricting the number and size of warships and their guns . The second , entitled " Naval Corps , Specialization and Efficiency " , argued for increasing the specializations of line officers rather than creating separate corps of specialists , a more controversial topic at a time when naval aviators were agitating for the creation of a new specialist branch of their own .
In 1922 , Kinkaid became Assistant Chief of Staff to the Commander U.S. Naval Detachment in Turkish Waters , Rear Admiral Mark L. Bristol . This tour saw the end of the Greek occupation of Smyrna . The ratification of the Treaty of Lausanne by Turkey resulted in a draw @-@ down of U.S. naval forces in the region , reducing Bristol 's post to a primarily diplomatic one . In 1924 , Kinkaid , whose father had died in August 1920 , requested a posting back to the United States owing to his mother 's ill @-@ health . The ship taking him back , the light cruiser USS Trenton , had to sail by way of Iran in order to collect the body of Vice Consul Robert Imbrie , who had been killed by an angry mob in Tehran .
Kinkaid received his first command , the destroyer USS Isherwood , on 11 November 1924 . Since its home port was the Philadelphia Navy Yard and ships ' captains did not have to spend their nights on board , Kinkaid was able to live with Helen at her parents ' residence in Philadelphia . In July 1925 , he was assigned to the Naval Gun Factory . He was promoted to commander in June 1926 . For the next two years , he served as Fleet Gunnery Officer and Aide to the Commander in Chief , U.S. Fleet , Admiral Henry A. Wiley . In 1929 and 1930 , Kinkaid attended the Naval War College . This was followed by duty on the Navy General Board . He was then seconded to the State Department as a Naval Advisor at the Geneva Disarmament Conference .
Kinkaid next became Executive Officer of the USS Colorado , one of the navy 's newest battleships , in February 1933 . By coincidence the ship was at anchor in Long Beach , California when the 1933 Long Beach earthquake struck . Over the next few days thousands of sailors and marines participated in relief activities . Kinkaid convinced the captain to allow homeless families of crew members to stay on the ship , and erected tarpaulins on the quayside to create family areas . He sent medical and relief supplies ashore from Colorado .
In 1934 , he returned to Washington for a tour of duty with the Bureau of Navigation , in charge of the Officers ' Detail Section . During this time , Kinkaid came up for promotion to captain . Classmates including Richmond K. Turner and Willis A. Lee were selected in January 1935 , but Kinkaid was passed over for promotion . However , with the help of strong fitness reports from his superiors , Rear Admirals William D. Leahy and Adolphus Andrews , he was selected in January 1936 and , after passing the required physical and professional examinations , was promoted on 11 January 1937 . Kinkaid was then given his second seagoing command , the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis . He assumed command from Captain Henry K. Hewitt on 7 June 1937 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Attaché = = =
Kinkaid hoped his next assignment would be that of naval attaché to London , but that job went to Captain Alan G. Kirk . Kinkaid was offered and accepted the post in Rome instead . He took up his posting there in November 1938 . In 1939 , he was also accredited with the American embassy in Belgrade . Kinkaid reported that Italy was unprepared for war . Only in May 1940 did he warn that Italy was mobilizing . Soon after , he learned from Count Galeazzo Ciano that Italy would declare war on France and Britain between 10 and 15 June 1940 . He provided accurate reports on the damage inflicted by the British in the Battle of Taranto . He returned to
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received excellent grades . Later , he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during the week . He played junior varsity football , and seldom missed a practice , even though he was rarely used in games . He had greater success as a debater , winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton 's Head of English , H. Lynn Sheller . Nixon later remembered Sheller 's words , " Remember , speaking is conversation ... don 't shout at people . Talk to them . Converse with them . " Nixon stated that he tried to use the conversational tone as much as possible .
His parents permitted Richard to transfer to Whittier High School for his junior year , beginning in September 1928 . At Whittier High , Nixon suffered his first electoral defeat , for student body president . He generally rose at 4 a.m. , to drive the family truck into Los Angeles and purchase vegetables at the market . He then drove to the store to wash and display them , before going to school . Harold had been diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year ; when their mother took him to Arizona in the hopes of improving his health , the demands on Richard increased , causing him to give up football . Nevertheless , Richard graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207 students .
= = = Collegiate and law school education = = =
Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University , but Harold 's continued illness and the need for their mother to care for him meant Richard was needed at the store . He remained in his hometown and attended Whittier College , his expenses there covered by a bequest from his maternal grandfather . Nixon played for the basketball team ; he also tried out for football , but lacked the size to play . He remained on the team as a substitute , and was noted for his enthusiasm . Instead of fraternities and sororities , Whittier had literary societies . Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men , the Franklins ; many members of the Franklins were from prominent families but Nixon was not . He responded by helping to found a new society , the Orthogonian Society . In addition to the society , schoolwork , and work at the store , Nixon found time for a large number of extracurricular activities , becoming a champion debater and gaining a reputation as a hard worker . In 1933 , he became engaged to Ola Florence Welch , daughter of the Whittier police chief . The two broke up in 1935 .
After his graduation from Whittier in 1934 , Nixon received a full scholarship to attend Duke University School of Law . The school was new and sought to attract top students by offering scholarships . It paid high salaries to its professors , many of whom had national or international reputations . The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third @-@ year students , forcing recipients into intense competition . Nixon not only kept his scholarship but was elected president of the Duke Bar Association , inducted into the Order of the Coif , and graduated third in his class in June 1937 .
= = Early career and marriage = =
After graduating from Duke , Nixon initially hoped to join the Federal Bureau of Investigation . He received no response to his letter of application and learned years later that he had been hired , but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts . Instead , he returned to California and was admitted to the bar in 1937 . He began practicing with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in Whittier , working on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters , as well as on wills . In later years , Nixon proudly stated that he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney . Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases , disliking frank sexual talk from women . In 1938 , he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra , California , and became a full partner in the firm the following year .
In January 1938 , Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower . There he played opposite a high school teacher named Thelma " Pat " Ryan . Nixon described it in his memoirs as " a case of love at first sight " — for Nixon only , as Pat Ryan turned down the young lawyer several times before agreeing to date him . Once they began their courtship , Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon ; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal . They wed at a small ceremony on June 21 , 1940 . After a honeymoon in Mexico , the Nixons began their married life in Whittier . They had two daughters , Tricia ( born 1946 ) and Julie ( born 1948 ) .
= = World War II = =
In January 1942 , the couple moved to Washington , D.C. , where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration . In his political campaigns , Nixon would suggest that this was his response to Pearl Harbor , but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941 . Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier . He was assigned to the tire rationing division , where he was tasked with replying to correspondence . He did not enjoy the role , and four months later , applied to join the United States Navy . As a birthright Quaker , he could have claimed exemption from the draft ; he might also have been deferred because he worked in government service . But instead of exploiting his circumstance , Nixon opted to enlist in the Navy . His application to enlist was successful , and was appointed a lieutenant junior grade in the U.S Naval Reserve ( U.S. Navy Reserve ) on June 15 , 1942 .
In October 1942 , he was assigned as aide to the commander of the Naval Air Station Ottumwa in Iowa until May 1943 . On October 1 , 1943 , Nixon was promoted to lieutenant . Seeking more excitement , he requested sea duty and was reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command , supporting the logistics of operations in the South West Pacific theater ; he was the Officer in Charge of the Combat Air Transport Command at Guadalcanal in the Solomons and in March 1944 at Green Island ( Nissan island ) just north of Bougainville . His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for C @-@ 47 operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the cargo aircraft . For this service , he received a Navy Letter of Commendation ( awarded a Navy Commendation Ribbon which was later updated to the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal ) from his commanding officer for " meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command " . Upon his return to the U.S. , Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in California . In January 1945 , he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia to help negotiate the termination of war contracts , and received his second letter of commendation , from the Secretary of the Navy for " meritorious service , tireless effort , and devotion to duty " . Later , Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts and finally to Baltimore . On October 3 , 1945 , he was promoted to lieutenant commander . On March 10 , 1946 , he was relieved of active duty . He resigned his commission on New Year 's Day 1946 . On June 1 , 1953 , he was promoted to commander . He retired in the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6 , 1966 .
= = Rising politician = =
= = = Congressional career = = =
In 1945 , Republicans in California 's 12th congressional district , frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic Congressman Jerry Voorhis , sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him . They formed a " Committee of 100 " to decide on a candidate , hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to Voorhis victories . After the committee failed to attract higher @-@ profile candidates , Herman Perry , Whittier 's Bank of America branch manager , suggested Nixon , a family friend with whom he had served on the Whittier College Board of Trustees before the war . Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore . After a night of excited talk between the Nixons , the naval officer responded to Perry with enthusiasm . Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee . When he left the Navy at the start of 1946 , Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier , where Nixon began a year of intensive campaigning . He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a congressman and suggested that Voorhis 's endorsement by a group linked to communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views . Nixon won the election , receiving 65 @,@ 586 votes to Voorhis ' 49 @,@ 994 .
In Congress , Nixon supported the Taft – Hartley Act of 1947 , a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions , and served on the Education and Labor Committee . He was part of the Herter Committee , which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid . Nixon was the youngest member of the committee , and the only Westerner . Advocacy by Herter Committee members , including Nixon , led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan .
Nixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation , as a member of the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) , broke the Alger Hiss spy case . While many doubted Whittaker Chambers ' allegations that Hiss , a former State Department official , had been a Soviet spy , Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation . Under suit for defamation filed by Hiss , Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations . These included paper and microfilm copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after having hidden them overnight in a field ; they became known as the " Pumpkin Papers " . Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers . In 1948 , Nixon successfully cross @-@ filed as a candidate in his district , winning both major party primaries , and was comfortably reelected .
In 1949 , Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent , Sheridan Downey , and entered the race in November of that year . Downey , faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas , announced his retirement in March 1950 . Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue . Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas ' liberal voting record . As part of that effort , a " Pink Sheet " was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that , as Douglas ' voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio ( believed by some to be a communist ) , their political views must be nearly identical . Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points . During this campaign , Nixon was first called " Tricky Dick " by his opponents for his campaign tactics .
In the Senate , Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism , traveling frequently and speaking out against the threat . He maintained friendly relations with his fellow anti @-@ communist , the controversial Wisconsin senator , Joseph McCarthy , but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy 's allegations . Nixon also criticized President Harry S. Truman 's handling of the Korean War . He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii , voted in favor of civil rights for minorities , and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia . He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions , benefits for illegal immigrants , and public power .
= = = Vice Presidency = = =
General Dwight D. Eisenhower was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952 . He had no strong preference for a vice presidential candidate , and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a " smoke @-@ filled room " and recommended Nixon to the general , who agreed to the senator 's selection . Nixon 's youth ( he was then 39 ) , stance against communism , and political base in California — one of the largest states — were all seen as vote @-@ winners by the leaders . Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft , New Jersey Governor Alfred Driscoll and Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen . On the campaign trail , Eisenhower spoke to his plans for the country , leaving the negative campaigning to his running mate .
In mid @-@ September , the Republican ticket faced a major crisis . The media reported that Nixon had a political fund , maintained by his backers , which reimbursed him for political expenses . Such a fund was not illegal , but it exposed Nixon to allegations of possible conflict of interest . With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon 's resignation from the ticket , the senator went on television to deliver an address to the nation on September 23 , 1952 . The address , later termed the Checkers speech , was heard by about 60 million Americans — including the largest television audience up to that point . Nixon emotionally defended himself , stating that the fund was not secret , nor had donors received special favors . He painted himself as a man of modest means ( his wife had no mink coat ; instead she wore a " respectable Republican cloth coat " ) and a patriot . The speech would be remembered for the gift which Nixon had received , but which he would not give back : " a little cocker spaniel dog … sent all the way from Texas . And our little girl — Tricia , the 6 @-@ year @-@ old — named it Checkers . " The speech was a masterpiece and prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon . Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket , which proved victorious in the November election .
Eisenhower gave Nixon responsibilities during his term as vice president — more than any previous vice president . Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them when Eisenhower was absent . A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and prompted Nixon to appreciate the potential of the region as an industrial center . He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina . On his return to the United States at the end of 1953 , Nixon increased the amount of time he devoted to foreign relations .
Biographer Irwin Gellman , who chronicled Nixon 's congressional years , said of his vice presidency :
Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office . The vice president welcomed the president 's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives . Because of the collaboration between these two leaders , Nixon deserves the title , " the first modern vice president " .
Despite intense campaigning by Nixon , who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats , the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections . These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term . On September 24 , 1955 , President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack ; his condition was initially believed to be life @-@ threatening . Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks . The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed , and the Vice President had no formal power to act . Nonetheless , Nixon acted in Eisenhower 's stead during this period , presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power . According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose , Nixon had " earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power " .
His spirits buoyed , Nixon sought a second term , but some of Eisenhower 's aides aimed to displace him . In a December 1955 meeting , Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection in order to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration . Nixon , however , believed such an action would destroy his political career . When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956 , he hedged on the choice of his running mate , stating that it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated . Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower , Nixon received a substantial number of write @-@ in votes against the President in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election . In late April , the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate . Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election .
In the spring of 1957 , Nixon undertook another major foreign trip , this time to Africa . On his return , he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress . The bill was weakened in the Senate , and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it . Nixon advised the President to sign the bill , which he did . Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957 , and Nixon gave a press conference , assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower 's brief illness .
On April 27 , 1958 , Richard and Pat Nixon embarked on a goodwill tour of South America . In Montevideo , Uruguay , Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus , where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy . The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima , Peru , where he was met with student demonstrations . Nixon went to the campus , got out of his car to confront the students , and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects . At his hotel , Nixon faced another mob , and one demonstrator spat on him . In Caracas , Venezuela , Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti @-@ American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe @-@ wielding mob . According to Ambrose , Nixon 's courageous conduct " caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect " .
In July 1959 , President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow . On July 24 , while touring the exhibits with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev , the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the " Kitchen Debate " .
= = = 1960 and 1962 elections ; wilderness years = = =
In 1960 , Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States . He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate . His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy , and the race remained close for the duration . Nixon campaigned on his experience , but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower – Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in ballistic missiles ( the " missile gap " ) . A new political medium was introduced in the campaign : televised presidential debates . In the first of four such debates , Nixon appeared pale , with a five o 'clock shadow , in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy . Nixon 's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television , though many people listening on the radio thought that Nixon had won . Nixon lost the election narrowly , with Kennedy ahead by only 120 @,@ 000 votes ( 0 @.@ 2 percent ) in the popular vote .
There were charges of vote fraud in Texas and Illinois , both states won by Kennedy ; Nixon refused to consider contesting the election , feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world , and the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests . At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961 , Nixon and his family returned to California , where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book , Six Crises , which included coverage of the Hiss case , Eisenhower 's heart attack , and the Fund Crisis , which had been resolved by the Checkers speech .
Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for Governor of California in the 1962 election . Despite initial reluctance , Nixon entered the race . The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping @-@ stone for another presidential run , some opposition from the far @-@ right of the party , and his own lack of interest in being California 's governor . Nixon hoped that a successful run would confirm him in his status as the nation 's leading active Republican politician , and ensure he remained a major player in national politics . Instead , he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points , and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career . In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election , Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent , saying , " You won 't have Nixon to kick around anymore because , gentlemen , this is my last press conference " . The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11 , 1962 , episode of ABC 's Howard K. Smith : News and Comment entitled " The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon " . Alger Hiss appeared on the program , and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to allow a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president . The furor drove Smith and his program from the air , and public sympathy for Nixon grew .
The Nixon family traveled to Europe in 1963 , where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited . The family moved to New York City , where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon , Mudge , Rose , Guthrie & Alexander . Nixon had pledged , when announcing his California campaign , not to run for president in 1964 ; even if he had not , he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy , or after his assassination , Kennedy 's successor , Lyndon Johnson . In 1964 , he supported Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater for the Republican nomination for president ; when Goldwater was successful in gaining the nomination , Nixon was selected to introduce the candidate to the convention . Although he thought Goldwater unlikely to win , Nixon campaigned for him loyally . The election was a disaster for the Republicans ; Goldwater 's landslide loss to Johnson was matched by heavy losses for the party in Congress and among state governors .
Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results , and he sought to build on that in the 1966 congressional elections . He campaigned for many Republicans seeking to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide and received credit for helping the Republicans make major gains in the midterm election .
= = 1968 presidential election = =
At the end of 1967 , Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time . Although Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life ( for example , she had been embarrassed by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech ) , she was supportive of her husband 's ambitions . Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the Vietnam War , a Republican had a good chance of winning , although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960 .
One of the most tumultuous primary election seasons ever began as the Tet Offensive was launched , followed by the withdrawal of President Johnson as a candidate after doing unexpectedly poorly in the New Hampshire primary ; it concluded with the assassination of one of the Democratic candidates , Senator Robert F. Kennedy , just moments after his victory in the California primary . On the Republican side , Nixon 's main opposition was Michigan Governor George Romney , though New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller and California Governor Ronald Reagan each hoped to be nominated in a brokered convention . Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot . He selected Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate , a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party , appealing to both Northern moderates and Southerners disaffected with the Democrats .
Nixon 's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President Hubert Humphrey , who was nominated at a convention marked by violent protests . Throughout the campaign , Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval . He appealed to what he later called the " silent majority " of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti @-@ war demonstrators . Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups , solidifying Nixon 's position with the right .
Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign , meeting with supporters in front of cameras . He stressed that the crime rate was too high , and attacked what he perceived as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States ' nuclear superiority . Nixon promised " peace with honor " in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that " new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific " . He did not release specifics of how he hoped to end the war , resulting in media intimations that he must have a " secret plan " . His slogan of " Nixon 's the One " proved to be effective .
Johnson 's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam prior to the election . Nixon received astute analysis on the talks from Henry Kissinger , then a consultant to U.S. negotiator Averell Harriman , and his campaign was in regular contact with Anna Chennault in Saigon . She advised South Vietnamese president Thieu not to go to Paris to join the talks , hinting that Nixon would give him a better deal if elected . Johnson was aware of what was going on , as he had both Chennault and the South Vietnamese ambassador to Washington bugged , and was enraged by what he considered an attempt by Nixon to undermine U.S. foreign policy . On October 31 , with no agreement , Johnson announced a unilateral halt to the bombing , and that peace negotiations would start in Paris on November 6 , the day after Election Day . On November 2 , after speaking with Chennault again , Thieu stated he would not go to Paris . Johnson telephoned Nixon , who denied any involvement ; the President did not believe him . Johnson felt he could not publicly mention Chennault 's involvement , which had been obtained by wiretapping , but told Humphrey , who chose not to use the information .
In a three @-@ way race between Nixon , Humphrey , and independent candidate former Alabama Governor George Wallace , Nixon defeated Humphrey by nearly 500 @,@ 000 votes ( seven @-@ tenths of a percentage point ) , with 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace . In his victory speech , Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together . Nixon said : " I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President , congratulating me for winning the election . I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds . I also told him that I know exactly how he felt . I know how it feels to lose a close one . "
= = Presidency ( 1969 – 74 ) = =
Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20 , 1969 , sworn in by his onetime political rival , Chief Justice Earl Warren . Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2 : 4 , which reads , " They shall beat their swords into plowshares , and their spears into pruning hooks . " In his inaugural address , which received almost uniformly positive reviews , Nixon remarked that " the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker " — a phrase that would later be placed on his gravestone . He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity :
In these difficult years , America has suffered from a fever of words ; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver ; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds ; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading . We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another , until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
= = = = China = = = =
Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China even before he became president , writing in Foreign Affairs a year before his election : " There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation . " Assisting him in this venture was his National Security Advisor and future Secretary of State , Henry Kissinger , with whom the President worked closely , bypassing Cabinet officials . With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir — border clashes between the two took place during Nixon 's first year in office — Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations . A breakthrough came in early 1971 , when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and play against top Chinese players . Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials . On July 15 , 1971 , it was simultaneously announced by Beijing and by Nixon ( on television and radio ) that the President would visit China the following February . The announcements astounded the world . The secrecy allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact .
In February 1972 , Nixon and his wife traveled to China . Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation . Upon touching down , the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One and greeted Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai . Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou 's hand , something which then @-@ Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva . Over 100 television journalists accompanied the president . On Nixon 's orders , television was strongly favored over printed publications , as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print . It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print journalists he despised .
Nixon and Kissinger met for an hour with Mao and Zhou at Mao 's official private residence , where they discussed a range of issues . Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon , whom he considered forthright , unlike the leftists and the Soviets . He said he was suspicious of Kissinger , though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his " encounter with history " . A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the Great Hall of the People . The following day , Nixon met with Zhou ; the joint communique following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China , and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification . When not in meetings , Nixon toured architectural wonders including the Forbidden City , Ming Tombs , and the Great Wall . Americans received their first glimpse into Chinese life through the cameras which accompanied Pat Nixon , who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes , schools , factories , and hospitals .
The visit ushered in a new era of Sino @-@ American relations . Fearing the possibility of a Sino @-@ American alliance , the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for détente with the United States .
= = = = Vietnam War = = = =
When Nixon took office , about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam , and the war was broadly unpopular in the United States , with violent protests against the war ongoing . The Johnson administration had agreed to suspend bombing in exchange for negotiations without preconditions , but this agreement never fully took force . According to Walter Isaacson , soon after taking office , Nixon had concluded that the Vietnam War could not be won and he was determined to end the war quickly . Conversely , Black argues that Nixon sincerely believed he could intimidate North Vietnam through the " Madman theory " . Nixon sought some arrangement which would permit American forces to withdraw , while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack .
Nixon approved a secret bombing campaign of North Vietnamese and allied Khmer Rouge positions in Cambodia in March 1969 ( code @-@ named Operation Menu ) , a policy begun under Johnson . These operations resulted in heavy bombing of Cambodia ; by one measurement more bombs were dropped over Cambodia under Johnson and Nixon than the Allies dropped during World War II . In mid @-@ 1969 , Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese , sending a personal letter to North Vietnamese leaders , and peace talks began in Paris . Initial talks , however , did not result in an agreement . In May 1969 he publicly proposed to withdraw all American troops from South Vietnam provided North Vietnam also did so and for South Vietnam to hold internationally supervised elections with Viet Cong participation .
In July 1969 , Nixon visited South Vietnam , where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu . Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout , he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops , known as " Vietnamization " . He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals but authorized incursions into Laos , in part to interrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail , used to supply North Vietnamese forces , that passed through Laos and Cambodia . Nixon announced the ground invasion of Cambodia to the American public on April 30 , 1970 . His responses to protesters included an impromptu , early morning meeting with them at the Lincoln Memorial on May 9 , 1970 . Documents uncovered from the Soviet archives after 1991 reveal that the North Vietnamese attempt to overrun Cambodia in 1970 was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by Pol Pot 's then @-@ second @-@ in @-@ command , Nuon Chea . Nixon 's campaign promise to curb the war , contrasted with the escalated bombing , led to claims that Nixon had a " credibility gap " on the issue .
In 1971 , excerpts from the " Pentagon Papers " , which had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg , were published by The New York Times and The Washington Post . When news of the leak first appeared , Nixon was inclined to do nothing ; the Papers , a history of United States ' involvement in Vietnam , mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations . He was persuaded by Kissinger that the papers were more harmful than they appeared , and the President tried to prevent publication . The Supreme Court eventually ruled for the newspapers .
As U.S. troop withdrawals continued , conscription was reduced and in 1973 ended ; the armed forces became all @-@ volunteer . After years of fighting , the Paris Peace Accords were signed at the beginning of 1973 . The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops ; however , it did not require the 160 @,@ 000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the South to withdraw . Once American combat support ended , there was a brief truce , before fighting broke out again , this time without American combat involvement . North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975 .
= = = = Latin American policy = = = =
Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy in the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis ; on taking office he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president , Fidel Castro . He maintained close relations with the Cuban @-@ American exile community through his friend , Bebe Rebozo , who often suggested ways of irritating Castro . These activities concerned the Soviets and Cubans , who feared Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev which had ended the missile crisis . In August 1970 , the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding ; despite his hard line against Castro , Nixon agreed . The process had not yet been completed when the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of Cienfuegos in October 1970 . A minor confrontation ensued , which was concluded with an understanding that the Soviets would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles . The final round of diplomatic notes , reaffirming the 1962 accord , were exchanged in November .
The election of Marxist candidate Salvador Allende as President of Chile in September 1970 spurred Nixon and Kissinger to pursue a vigorous campaign of covert resistance to Allende , first designed to convince the Chilean congress to confirm Jorge Alessandri as the winner of the election and then messages to military officers in support of a coup . Other support included strikes organized against Allende and funding for Allende opponents . It was even alleged that " Nixon personally authorized " $ 700 @,@ 000 in covert funds to print anti @-@ Allende messages in a prominent Chilean newspaper . Following an extended period of social , political , and economic unrest , General Augusto Pinochet assumed power in a violent coup d 'état on September 11 , 1973 ; among the dead was Allende .
= = = = Soviet Union = = = =
Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace . Following the announcement of his visit to China , the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for him to visit the Soviet Union . The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22 , 1972 and met with Leonid Brezhnev , the General Secretary of the Communist Party ; Alexei Kosygin , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers ; and Nikolai Podgorny , the head of state , among other leading Soviet officials .
Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev . Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties : SALT I , the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers , and the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty , which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles . Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of " peaceful coexistence " . A banquet was held that evening at the Kremlin .
Seeking to foster better relations with the United States , both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily . Nixon later described his strategy :
I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist , if possible , the help of the Soviets and the Chinese . Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves , I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war . At worst , Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing . At best , if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry , Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept .
Having made considerable progress over the previous two years in U.S.-Soviet relations , Nixon embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974 . He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony , cheering crowds , and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening . Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta , where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact , détente , and MIRVs . While he considered proposing a comprehensive test @-@ ban treaty , Nixon felt he would not have time as president to complete it . There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations .
= = = = Middle Eastern policy = = = =
As part of the Nixon Doctrine that the U.S. would avoid direct combat assistance to allies where possible , instead giving them assistance to defend themselves , the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East — particularly Israel , Iran and Saudi Arabia — during the Nixon administration . The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel , an American ally in the Middle East , but the support was not unconditional . Nixon believed that Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the United States should encourage it . The president believed that — except during the Suez Crisis — the U.S. had failed to intervene with Israel , and should use the leverage of the large U.S. military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table . However , the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon 's attention during his first term — for one thing , he felt that no matter what he did , American Jews would oppose his reelection .
On October 6 , 1973 , an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria , supported with tons of arms and materiel by the Soviet Union , attacked Israel in what was known as the Yom Kippur War . Israel suffered heavy losses and Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses , cutting through inter @-@ departmental squabbles and bureaucracy and taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations . More than a week later , by the time the U.S. and Soviet Union began negotiating a truce , Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory . The truce negotiations rapidly escalated into a superpower crisis ; when Israel gained the upper @-@ hand , Egyptian President Sadat requested a joint U.S.-USSR peacekeeping mission , which the U.S. refused . When Soviet Premier Brezhnev threatened to unilaterally enforce any peacekeeping mission militarily , Nixon ordered the U.S. military to DEFCON3 , placing all U.S. military personnel and bases on alert for nuclear war . This was the closest that the world had come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis . Brezhnev backed down as a result of Nixon 's actions .
Because Israel 's victory was largely due to U.S. support , the Arab OPEC nations retaliated by refusing to sell crude oil to the U.S. , resulting in the 1973 oil crisis . The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973 , and was eventually ended by the oil @-@ producing nations as peace in the Middle East took hold .
After the war , and under Nixon 's presidency , the U.S. reestablished relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967 . Nixon used the Middle East crisis to restart the stalled Middle East Peace Negotiations ; he wrote in a confidential memo to Kissinger on October 20 :
I believe that , beyond a doubt , we are now facing the best opportunity we have had in 15 years to build a lasting peace in the Middle East . I am convinced history will hold us responsible if we let this opportunity slip by ... I now consider a permanent Middle East settlement to be the most important final goal to which we must devote ourselves .
Nixon made one of his final international visits as president to the Middle East in June 1974 , and became the first President to visit Israel .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Economy = = = =
At the time Nixon took office in 1969 , inflation was at 4 @.@ 7 percent — its highest rate since the Korean War . The Great Society had been enacted under Johnson , which , together with the Vietnam War costs , was causing large budget deficits . Unemployment was low , but interest rates were at their highest in a century . Nixon 's major economic goal was to reduce inflation ; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war . This could not be accomplished overnight , and the U.S. economy continued to struggle through 1970 , contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections ( Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon 's presidency ) . According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon 's economic record , the new president did little to alter Johnson 's policies through the first year of his presidency .
Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies , but believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition , and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection . As part of his " New Federalism " views , he proposed grants to the states , but these proposals were for the most part lost in the congressional budget process . However , Nixon gained political credit for advocating them . In 1970 , Congress had granted the President the power to impose wage and price freezes , though the Democratic majorities , knowing Nixon had opposed such controls through his career , did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority . With inflation unresolved by August 1971 , and an election year looming , Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David . He then announced temporary wage and price controls , allowed the dollar to float against other currencies , and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold . Bowles points out ,
by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation 's defeat , Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him . His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself .
Nixon 's policies dampened inflation through 1972 , although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration .
After he won reelection , Nixon found inflation returning . He reimposed price controls in June 1973 . The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople , who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy . The controls produced food shortages , as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss . Despite the failure to control inflation , controls were slowly ended , and on April 30 , 1974 , their statutory authorization lapsed .
= = = = Governmental initiatives and organization = = = =
Nixon advocated a " New Federalism " , which would devolve power to state and local elected officials , though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them . He eliminated the Cabinet @-@ level United States Post Office Department , which in 1971 became the government @-@ run United States Postal Service .
Nixon was a late convert to the conservation movement . Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election ; the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject . He saw that the first Earth Day in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject , and sought to use that to his benefit ; in June he announced the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Nixon broke new ground by discussing environment policy in his State of the Union speech ; other initiatives supported by Nixon included the Clean Air Act of 1970 and Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) ; the National Environmental Policy Act required environmental impact statements for many Federal projects . Nixon vetoed the Clean Water Act of 1972 — objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them , which he deemed excessive . After Congress overrode his veto , Nixon impounded the funds he deemed unjustifiable .
In 1971 , Nixon proposed health insurance reform — a private health insurance employer mandate , federalization of Medicaid for poor families with dependent minor children , and support for health maintenance organizations ( HMOs ) . A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973 . In 1974 , Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform — a private health insurance employer mandate and replacement of Medicaid by state @-@ run health insurance plans available to all , with income @-@ based premiums and cost sharing .
Concerned about the prevalence of drug use both domestically and among American soldiers in Vietnam , Nixon called for a War on Drugs , pledging to cut off sources of supply abroad , and to increase funds for education and for rehabilitation facilities .
As one policy initiative , Nixon called for more money for sickle @-@ cell research , treatment , and education in February 1971 and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16 , 1972 . While Nixon called for increased spending on such high @-@ profile items as sickle @-@ cell disease and for a War on Cancer , at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the National Institutes of Health .
= = = = Civil rights = = = =
The Nixon presidency witnessed the first large @-@ scale integration of public schools in the South . Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats , whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites . Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972 , he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then . Soon after his inauguration , he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force , which worked with local leaders — both white and black — to determine how to integrate local schools . Agnew had little interest in the work , and most of it was done by Labor Secretary George Shultz . Federal aid was available , and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees . By September 1970 , less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools . By 1971 , however , tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities , with angry protests over the busing of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance . Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use .
In addition to desegregating public schools , Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970 — the first significant federal affirmative action program . He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in
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Nativity , and the reredos is a copy of Leonardo da Vinci 's Last Supper . Over the north and south doors are paintings of Moses and Aaron . These were painted by Robert Cardinall , and formerly hung in a position flanking the reredos at the east end of the church . The lectern , pulpit and altar are Victorian , as is the stained glass . The three @-@ manual organ was built in 1911 by T. C. Lewis . It was renovated in 1942 by Henry Willis & Sons , and rebuilt in 1987 by Bishop . A major rebuild was carried out by J. W. Walker & Sons Ltd in 1999 . There is a ring of ten bells , the oldest three being cast in about 1470 , and the most recent two in 1978 .
= A Vindication of the Rights of Woman =
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman : with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects ( 1792 ) , written by the 18th @-@ century British proto @-@ feminist Mary Wollstonecraft , is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy . In it , Wollstonecraft responds to those educational and political theorists of the 18th century who did not believe women should have an education . She argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society , claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be " companions " to their husbands , rather than mere wives . Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage , Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men .
Wollstonecraft was prompted to write the Rights of Woman after reading Charles Maurice de Talleyrand @-@ Périgord 's 1791 report to the French National Assembly , which stated that women should only receive a domestic education ; she used her commentary on this specific event to launch a broad attack against sexual double standards and to indict men for encouraging women to indulge in excessive emotion . Wollstonecraft wrote the Rights of Woman hurriedly to respond directly to ongoing events ; she intended to write a more thoughtful second volume but died before completing it .
While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life , such as morality , she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal . Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have since made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist , particularly since the word and the concept were unavailable to her . Although it is commonly assumed now that the Rights of Woman was unfavourably received , this is a modern misconception based on the belief that Wollstonecraft was as reviled during her lifetime as she became after the publication of William Godwin 's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) . The Rights of Woman was actually well received when it was first published in 1792 . One biographer has called it " perhaps the most original book of [ Wollstonecraft 's ] century " .
= = Historical context = =
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman was written against the tumultuous background of the French Revolution and the debates that it spawned in Britain . In a lively and sometimes vicious pamphlet war , now referred to as the Revolution Controversy , British political commentators addressed topics ranging from representative government to human rights to the separation of church and state , many of these issues having been raised in France first . Wollstonecraft first entered this fray in 1790 with A Vindication of the Rights of Men , a response to Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) . In his Reflections , Burke criticised the view of many British thinkers and writers who had welcomed the early stages of the French revolution . While they saw the revolution as analogous to Britain 's own Glorious Revolution in 1688 , which had restricted the powers of the monarchy , Burke argued that the appropriate historical analogy was the English Civil War ( 1642 – 1651 ) in which Charles I had been executed in 1649 . He viewed the French revolution as the violent overthrow of a legitimate government . In Reflections he argues that citizens do not have the right to revolt against their government because civilisation is the result of social and political consensus ; its traditions cannot be continually challenged — the result would be anarchy . One of the key arguments of Wollstonecraft 's Rights of Men , published just six weeks after Burke 's Reflections , is that rights cannot be based on tradition ; rights , she argues , should be conferred because they are reasonable and just , regardless of their basis in tradition .
When Charles Maurice de Talleyrand @-@ Périgord presented his Rapport sur l 'instruction publique ( 1791 ) to the National Assembly in France , Wollstonecraft was galvanised to respond . In his recommendations for a national system of education , Talleyrand had written :
Let us bring up women , not to aspire to advantages which the Constitution denies them , but to know and appreciate those which it guarantees them . . . Men are destined to live on the stage of the world . A public education suits them : it early places before their eyes all the scenes of life : only the proportions are different . The paternal home is better for the education of women ; they have less need to learn to deal with the interests of others , than to accustom themselves to a calm and secluded life .
Wollstonecraft dedicated the Rights of Woman to Talleyrand : " Having read with great pleasure a pamphlet which you have lately published , I dedicate this volume to you ; to induce you to reconsider the subject , and maturely weigh what I have advanced respecting the rights of woman and national education . " At the end of 1791 , French feminist Olympe de Gouges had published her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen , and the question of women 's rights became central to political debates in both France and Britain .
The Rights of Woman is an extension of Wollstonecraft 's arguments in the Rights of Men . In the Rights of Men , as the title suggests , she is concerned with the rights of particular men ( 18th @-@ century British men ) while in the Rights of Woman , she is concerned with the rights afforded to " woman " , an abstract category . She does not isolate her argument to 18th @-@ century women or British women . The first chapter of the Rights of Woman addresses the issue of natural rights and asks who has those inalienable rights and on what grounds . She answers that since natural rights are given by God , for one segment of society to deny them to another segment is a sin . The Rights of Woman thus engages not only specific events in France and in Britain but also larger questions being raised by political philosophers such as John Locke and Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau .
= = Themes of writings = =
Wollstonecraft did not employ the formal argumentation or logical prose style common to 18th @-@ century philosophical writing when composing her own works . The Rights of Woman is a long essay that introduces all of its major topics in the opening chapters and then repeatedly returns to them , each time from a different point of view . It also adopts a hybrid tone that combines rational argument with the fervent rhetoric of sensibility .
In the 18th century , sensibility was a physical phenomenon that came to be attached to a specific set of moral beliefs . Physicians and anatomists believed that the more sensitive people 's nerves , the more emotionally affected they would be by their surroundings . Since women were thought to have keener nerves than men , it was also believed that women were more emotional than men . The emotional excess associated with sensibility also theoretically produced an ethic of compassion : those with sensibility could easily sympathise with people in pain . Thus historians have credited the discourse of sensibility and those who promoted it with the increased humanitarian efforts , such as the movement to abolish the slave trade . But sensibility also paralysed those who had too much of it ; as scholar G. J. Barker @-@ Benfield explains , " an innate refinement of nerves was also identifiable with greater suffering , with weakness , and a susceptibility to disorder " .
By the time Wollstonecraft was writing the Rights of Woman , sensibility had already been under sustained attack for a number of years . Sensibility , which had initially promised to draw individuals together through sympathy , was now viewed as " profoundly separatist " ; novels , plays , and poems that employed the language of sensibility asserted individual rights , sexual freedom , and unconventional familial relationships based only upon feeling . Furthermore , as Janet Todd , another scholar of sensibility , argues , " to many in Britain the cult of sensibility seemed to have feminized the nation , given women undue prominence , and emasculated men . "
= = = Rational education = = =
One of Wollstonecraft 's central arguments in the Rights of Woman is that women should be educated rationally to give them the opportunity to contribute to society . In the 18th century , it was often assumed by both educational philosophers and conduct book writers , who wrote what one might think of as early self @-@ help books , that women were incapable of rational or abstract thought . Women , it was believed , were too susceptible to sensibility and too fragile to be able to think clearly . Wollstonecraft , along with other female reformers such as Catharine Macaulay and Hester Chapone , maintained that women were indeed capable of rational thought and deserved to be educated . She argued this point in her own conduct book , Thoughts on the Education of Daughters ( 1787 ) , in her children 's book , Original Stories from Real Life ( 1788 ) , as well as in the Rights of Woman .
Stating in her preface that " my main argument is built on this simple principle , that if [ woman ] be not prepared by education to become the companion of man , she will stop the progress of knowledge and virtue ; for truth must be common to all " , Wollstonecraft contends that society will degenerate without educated women , particularly because mothers are the primary educators of young children . She attributes the problem of uneducated women to men and " a false system of education , gathered from the books written on this subject by men who [ consider ] females rather as women than human creatures " . Women are capable of rationality ; it only appears that they are not , because men have refused to educate them and encouraged them to be frivolous ( Wollstonecraft describes silly women as " spaniels " and " toys " ) . While stressing it is of the same kind , she entertains the notion that women might not be able to attain the same degree of knowledge that men do .
Wollstonecraft attacks conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory as well as educational philosophers such as Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau who argue that a woman does not need a rational education . ( Rousseau famously argues in Emile ( 1762 ) that women should be educated for the pleasure of men ; Wollstonecraft , infuriated by this argument , attacks not only it but also Rousseau himself . ) Intent on illustrating the limitations that contemporary educational theory placed upon women , Wollstonecraft writes , " taught from their infancy that beauty is woman 's sceptre , the mind shapes itself to the body , and , roaming round its gilt cage , only seeks to adorn its prison " , implying that without this damaging ideology , which encourages young women to focus their attention on beauty and outward accomplishments , they could achieve much more . Wives could be the rational " companions " of their husbands and even pursue careers should they so choose : " women might certainly study the art of healing , and be physicians as well as nurses . And midwifery , decency seems to allot to them . . . they might , also , study politics . . . Business of various kinds , they might likewise pursue . "
For Wollstonecraft , " the most perfect education " is " an exercise of the understanding as is best calculated to strengthen the body and form the heart . Or , in other words , to enable the individual to attach such habits of virtue as will render it independent . " In addition to her broad philosophical arguments , Wollstonecraft lays out a specific plan for national education to counter Talleyrand 's . In Chapter 12 , " On National Education , " she proposes that children be sent to day schools as well as given some education at home " to inspire a love of home and domestic pleasures , " and that such schools be free for children " five to nine years of age . " She also maintains that schooling should be co @-@ educational , contending that men and women , whose marriages are " the cement of society , " should be " educated after the same model . "
= = = Feminism writings = = =
It is debatable to what extent the Rights of Woman is a feminist text ; because the definitions of feminist vary , different scholars have come to different conclusions . Wollstonecraft would never have referred to her text as feminist because the words feminist and feminism were not coined until the 1890s . Moreover , there was no feminist movement to speak of during Wollstonecraft 's lifetime . In the introduction to her seminal work on Wollstonecraft 's thought , Barbara Taylor writes :
Describing [ Wollstonecraft 's philosophy ] as feminist is problematic , and I do it only after much consideration . The label is of course anachronistic . . . Treating Wollstonecraft 's thought as an anticipation of nineteenth and twentieth @-@ century feminist argument has meant sacrificing or distorting some of its key elements . Leading examples of this . . . have been the widespread neglect of her religious beliefs , and the misrepresentation of her as a bourgeois liberal , which together have resulted in the displacement of a religiously inspired utopian radicalism by a secular , class @-@ partisan reformism as alien to Wollstonecraft 's political project as her dream of a divinely promised age of universal happiness is to our own . Even more important however has been the imposition on Wollstonecraft of a heroic @-@ individualist brand of politics utterly at odds with her own ethically driven case for women 's emancipation . Wollstonecraft 's leading ambition for women was that they should attain virtue , and it was to this end that she sought their liberation .
In the Rights of Woman , Wollstonecraft does not make the claim for gender equality using the same arguments or the same language that late 19th- and 20th century feminists later would . For instance , rather than unequivocally stating that men and women are equal , Wollstonecraft contends that men and women are equal in the eyes of God , which means that they are both subject to the same moral law . For Wollstonecraft , men and women are equal in the most important areas of life . While such an idea may not seem revolutionary to 21st @-@ century readers , its implications were revolutionary during the 18th century . For example , it implied that both men and women — not just women — should be modest and respect the sanctity of marriage . Wollstonecraft 's argument exposed the sexual double standard of the late 18th century and demanded that men adhere to the same virtues demanded of women .
However , Wollstonecraft 's arguments for equality stand in contrast to her statements respecting the superiority of masculine strength and valour . Wollstonecraft famously and ambiguously states :
Let it not be concluded , that I wish to invert the order of things ; I have already granted , that , from the constitution of their bodies , men seem to be designed by Providence to attain a greater degree of virtue . I speak collectively of the whole sex ; but I see not the shadow of a reason to conclude that their virtues should differ in respect to their nature . In fact , how can they , if virtue has only one eternal standard ? I must therefore , if I reason consequentially , as strenuously maintain that they have the same simple direction , as that there is a God .
Moreover , Wollstonecraft calls on men , rather than women , to initiate the social and political changes she outlines in the Rights of Woman . Because women are uneducated , they cannot alter their own situation — men must come to their aid . Wollstonecraft writes at the end of her chapter " Of the Pernicious Effects Which Arise from the Unnatural Distinctions Established in Society " :
I then would fain convince reasonable men of the importance of some of my remarks ; and prevail on them to weigh dispassionately the whole tenor of my observations . – I appeal to their understandings ; and , as a fellow @-@ creature , claim , in the name of my sex , some interest in their hearts . I entreat them to assist to emancipate their companion , to make her a help meet for them ! Would men but generously snap our chains , and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience , they would find us more observant daughters , more affectionate sisters , more faithful wives , more reasonable mothers – in a word , better citizens .
It is Wollstonecraft 's last novel , Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman ( 1798 ) , the fictionalised sequel to the Rights of Woman , that is usually considered her most radical feminist work .
= = = Sensibility = = =
One of Wollstonecraft 's most scathing criticisms in the Rights of Woman is against false and excessive sensibility , particularly in women . She argues that women who succumb to sensibility are " blown about by every momentary gust of feeling " ; because these women are " the prey of their senses " , they cannot think rationally . In fact , not only do they do harm to themselves but they also do harm to all of civilisation : these are not women who can refine civilisation – these are women who will destroy it . But reason and feeling are not independent for Wollstonecraft ; rather , she believes that they should inform each other . For Wollstonecraft , as for the important 18th @-@ century philosopher David Hume , the passions underpin all reason . This was a theme that she would return to throughout her career , but particularly in her novels Mary : A Fiction ( 1788 ) and Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman .
As part of her argument that women should not be overly influenced by their feelings , Wollstonecraft emphasises that they should not be constrained by or made slaves to their bodies or their sexual feelings . This particular argument has led many modern feminists to suggest that Wollstonecraft intentionally avoids granting women any sexual desire . Cora Kaplan argues that the " negative and prescriptive assault on female sexuality " is a " leitmotif " of the Rights of Woman . For example , Wollstonecraft advises her readers to " calmly let passion subside into friendship " in the ideal companionate marriage ( that is , in the ideal of a love @-@ based marriage that was developing at the time ) . It would be better , she writes , when " two virtuous young people marry . . . if some circumstances checked their passion " . According to Wollstonecraft , " love and friendship cannot subsist in the same bosom " . As Mary Poovey explains , " Wollstonecraft betrays her fear that female desire might in fact court man 's lascivious and degrading attentions , that the subordinate position women have been given might even be deserved . Until women can transcend their fleshly desires and fleshly forms , they will be hostage to the body . " If women are not interested in sexuality , they cannot be dominated by men . Wollstonecraft worries that women are consumed with " romantic wavering " , that is , they are interested only in satisfying their lusts . Because the Rights of Woman eliminates sexuality from a woman 's life , Kaplan contends , it " expresses a violent antagonism to the sexual " while at the same time " exaggerat [ ing ] the importance of the sensual in the everyday life of women " . Wollstonecraft was so determined to wipe sexuality from her picture of the ideal woman that she ended up foregrounding it by insisting upon its absence . But as Kaplan and others have remarked , Wollstonecraft may have been forced to make this sacrifice : " it is important to remember that the notion of woman as politically enabled and independent [ was ] fatally linked [ during the eighteenth century ] to the unrestrained and vicious exercise of her sexuality . "
= = = Republicanism = = =
Claudia Johnson , a prominent Wollstonecraft scholar , has called the Rights of Woman " a republican manifesto " . Johnson contends that Wollstonecraft is hearkening back to the Commonwealth tradition of the 17th century and attempting to reestablish a republican ethos . In Wollstonecraft 's version , there would be strong , but separate , masculine and feminine roles for citizens . According to Johnson , Wollstonecraft " denounces the collapse of proper sexual distinction as the leading feature of her age , and as the grievous consequence of sentimentality itself . The problem undermining society in her view is feminized men " . If men feel free to adopt both the masculine position and the sentimental feminine position , she argues , women have no position open to them in society . Johnson therefore sees Wollstonecraft as a critic , in both the Rights of Men and the Rights of Woman , of the " masculinization of sensitivity " in such works as Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France .
In the Rights of Woman Wollstonecraft adheres to a version of republicanism that includes a belief in the eventual overthrow of all titles , including the monarchy . She also briefly suggests that all men and women should be represented in government . But the bulk of her " political criticism , " as Chris Jones , a Wollstonecraft scholar , explains , " is couched predominantly in terms of morality " . Her definition of virtue focuses on the individual 's happiness rather than , for example , the good of the entire society . This is reflected in her explanation of natural rights . Because rights ultimately proceed from God , Wollstonecraft maintains that there are duties , tied to those rights , incumbent upon each and every person . For Wollstonecraft , the individual is taught republicanism and benevolence within the family ; domestic relations and familial ties are crucial to her understanding of social cohesion and patriotism .
= = = Class = = =
In many ways the Rights of Woman is inflected by a bourgeois view of the world , as is its direct predecessor the Rights of Men . Wollstonecraft addresses her text to the middle class , which she calls the " most natural state " . She also frequently praises modesty and industry , virtues which , at the time , were associated with the middle class . From her position as a middle @-@ class writer arguing for a middle @-@ class ethos , Wollstonecraft also attacks the wealthy , criticising them using the same arguments she employs against women . She points out the " false @-@ refinement , immorality , and vanity " of the rich , calling them " weak , artificial beings , raised above the common wants and affections of their race , in a premature unnatural manner [ who ] undermine the very foundation of virtue , and spread corruption through the whole mass of society " .
But Wollstonecraft 's criticisms of the wealthy do not necessarily reflect a concomitant sympathy for the poor . For her , the poor are fortunate because they will never be trapped by the snares of wealth : " Happy is it when people have the cares of life to struggle with ; for these struggles prevent their becoming a prey to enervating vices , merely from idleness ! " Moreover , she contends that charity has only negative consequences because , as Jones puts it , she " sees it as sustaining an unequal society while giving the appearance of virtue to the rich " .
In her national plan for education , she retains class distinctions ( with an exception for the intelligent ) , suggesting that : " After the age of nine , girls and boys , intended for domestic employments , or mechanical trades , ought to be removed to other schools , and receive instruction , in some measure appropriated to the destination of each individual . . . The young people of superior abilities , or fortune , might now be taught , in another school , the dead and living languages , the elements of science , and continue the study of history and politics , on a more extensive scale , which would not exclude polite literature . "
= = Rhetoric and style = =
In attempting to navigate the cultural expectations of female writers and the generic conventions of political and philosophical discourse , Wollstonecraft , as she does throughout her oeuvre , constructs a unique blend of masculine and feminine styles in the Rights of Woman . She utilises the language of philosophy , referring to her work as a " treatise " with " arguments " and " principles " . However , Wollstonecraft also uses a personal tone , employing " I " and " you " , dashes and exclamation marks , and autobiographical references to create a distinctly feminine voice in the text . The Rights of Woman further hybridizes its genre by weaving together elements of the conduct book , the short essay , and the novel , genres often associated with women , while at the same time claiming that these genres could be used to discuss philosophical topics such as rights .
Although Wollstonecraft argues against excessive sensibility , the rhetoric of the Rights of Woman is at times heated and attempts to provoke the reader . Many of the most emotional comments in the book are directed at Rousseau . For example , after excerpting a long passage from Emile ( 1762 ) , Wollstonecraft pithily states , " I shall make no other comments on this ingenious passage , than just to observe , that it is the philosophy of lasciviousness . " A mere page later , after indicting Rousseau 's plan for female education , she writes " I must relieve myself by drawing another picture . " These terse exclamations are meant to draw the reader to her side of the argument ( it is assumed that the reader will agree with them ) . While she claims to write in a plain style so that her ideas will reach the broadest possible audience , she actually combines the plain , rational language of the political treatise with the poetic , passionate language of sensibility to demonstrate that one can combine rationality and sensibility in the same self . Wollstonecraft defends her positions not only with reasoned argument but also with ardent rhetoric .
In her efforts to vividly describe the condition of women within society , Wollstonecraft employs several different analogies . She often compares women to slaves , arguing that their ignorance and powerlessness places them in that position . But at the same time , she also compares them to " capricious tyrants " who use cunning and deceit to manipulate the men around them . At one point , she reasons that a woman can become either a slave or tyrant , which she describes as two sides of the same coin . Wollstonecraft also compares women to soldiers ; like military men , they are valued only for their appearance . And like the rich , women 's " softness " has " debased mankind " .
= = Revision = =
Wollstonecraft was forced to write the Rights of Woman hurriedly to respond to Talleyrand and ongoing events . Upon completing the work , she wrote to her friend William Roscoe : " I am dissatisfied with myself for not having done justice to the subject . – Do not suspect me of false modesty – I mean to say that had I allowed myself more time I could have written a better book , in every sense of the word . . . I intend to finish the next volume before I begin to print , for it is not pleasant to have the Devil coming for the conclusion of a sheet fore it is written . " When Wollstonecraft revised the Rights of Woman for the second edition , she took the opportunity not only to fix small spelling and grammar mistakes but also to bolster the feminist claims of her argument . She changed some of her statements regarding female and male difference to reflect a greater equality between the sexes .
Wollstonecraft never wrote the second part to the Rights of Woman , although William Godwin published her " Hints " , which were " chiefly designed to have been incorporated in the second part of the Vindication of the Rights of Woman " , in the posthumous collection of her works . However , she did begin writing the novel Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman , which most scholars consider a fictionalised sequel to the Rights of Woman . It was unfinished at her death and also included in the Posthumous Works published by Godwin .
= = Reception and legacy = =
When it was first published in 1792 , the Rights of Woman was reviewed favourably by the Analytical Review , the General Magazine , the Literary Magazine , New York Magazine , and the Monthly Review , although the assumption persists even today that Rights of Woman received hostile reviews . It was almost immediately released in a second edition in 1792 , several American editions appeared , and it was translated into French . Taylor writes that " it was an immediate success " . Moreover , other writers such as Mary Hays and Mary Robinson specifically alluded to Wollstonecraft 's text in their own works . Hays cited the Rights of Woman in her novel Memoirs of Emma Courtney ( 1796 ) and modelled her female characters after Wollstonecraft 's ideal woman . Although female conservatives such as Hannah More excoriated Wollstonecraft personally , they actually shared many of the same values . As the scholar Anne Mellor has shown , both More and Wollstonecraft wanted a society founded on " Christian virtues of rational benevolence , honesty , personal virtue , the fulfillment of social duty , thrift , sobriety , and hard work " . During the early 1790s , many writers within British society were engaged in an intense debate regarding the position of women in society . For example , the respected poet and essayist Anna Laetitia Barbauld and Wollstonecraft sparred back and forth ; Barbauld published several poems responding to Wollstonecraft 's work and Wollstonecraft commented on them in footnotes to the Rights of Woman . The work also provoked outright hostility . The bluestocking Elizabeth Carter was unimpressed with the work . Thomas Taylor , the Neoplatonist translator who had been a landlord to the Wollstonecraft family in the late 1770s , swiftly wrote a satire called A Vindication of the Rights of Brutes : if women have rights , why not animals too ?
After Wollstonecraft died in 1797 , her husband William Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) . He revealed much about her private life that had previously not been known to the public : her illegitimate child , her love affairs , and her attempts at suicide . While Godwin believed he was portraying his wife with love , sincerity , and compassion , contemporary readers were shocked by Wollstonecraft 's unorthodox lifestyle and she became a reviled figure . Richard Polwhele targeted her in particular in his anonymous long poem The Unsex 'd Females ( 1798 ) , a defensive reaction to women 's literary self @-@ assertion : Hannah More is Christ to Wollstonecraft 's Satan . His poem was " well known " among the responses A Vindication . One reviewer comments this " ingenious poem " with its " playful sallies of sarcastic wit " against " our modern ladies , " though others found it " a tedious , lifeless piece of writing . " Critical responses largely fell along clear @-@ cut political lines .
Wollstonecraft 's ideas became associated with her life story and women writers felt that it was dangerous to mention her in their texts . Hays , who had previously been a close friend and an outspoken advocate for Wollstonecraft and her Rights of Woman , for example , did not include her in the collection of Illustrious and Celebrated Women she published in 1803 . Maria Edgeworth specifically distances herself from Wollstonecraft in her novel Belinda ( 1802 ) ; she caricatures Wollstonecraft as a radical feminist in the character of Harriet Freke . But , like Jane Austen , she does not reject Wollstonecraft 's ideas . Both Edgeworth and Austen argue that women are crucial to the development of the nation ; moreover , they portray women as rational beings who should choose companionate marriage .
The negative views towards Wollstonecraft persisted for over a century . The Rights of Woman was not reprinted until the middle of the 19th century and it still retained an aura of ill @-@ repute . George Eliot wrote " there is in some quarters a vague prejudice against the Rights of Woman as in some way or other a reprehensible book , but readers who go to it with this impression will be surprised to find it eminently serious , severely moral , and withal rather heavy " . The suffragist ( i.e. moderate reformer , as opposed to suffragette ) Millicent Garrett Fawcett wrote the introduction to the centenary edition of the Rights of Woman , cleansing the memory of Wollstonecraft and claiming her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote . While the Rights of Woman may have paved the way for feminist arguments , 20th century feminists have tended to use Wollstonecraft 's life story , rather than her texts , for inspiration ; her unorthodox lifestyle convinced them to try new " experiments in living " , as Virginia Woolf termed it in her famous essay on Wollstonecraft . However , there is some evidence that the Rights of Woman may be influencing current feminists . Ayaan Hirsi Ali , a feminist who is critical of Islam 's dictates regarding women , cites the Rights of Woman in her autobiography Infidel , writing that she was " inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft , the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights " .
= = = Modern reprints = = =
Wollstonecraft , Mary . The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft . Ed . Janet Todd and Marilyn Butler . 7 vols . London : William Pickering , 1989 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8147 @-@ 9225 @-@ 1 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary . The Vindications : The Rights of Men and The Rights of Woman . Eds . D.L. Macdonald and Kathleen Scherf . Toronto : Broadview Literary Texts , 1997 . ISBN 1 @-@ 55111 @-@ 088 @-@ 1
Wollstonecraft , Mary . A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . Ed . Miriam Brody Kramnick . Rev. ed . Harmondsworth : Penguin , 2004 . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 144125 @-@ 9 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary . A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . Ed . Deidre Shauna Lynch . 3rd ed . New York : W. W. Norton and Company , 2009 . ISBN 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 92974 @-@ 4 .
Wollstonecraft , Mary . A Vindication of the Rights of Men and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . Ed . Sylvana Tomaselli . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1995 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 43633 @-@ 8 .
= = = = Contemporary reviews = = = =
Analytical Review 12 ( 1792 ) : 241 – 249 ; 13 ( 1792 ) : 418 – 489 .
Christian Miscellany 1 ( 1792 ) : 209 – 212 .
Critical Review New Series 4 ( 1792 ) : 389 – 398 ; 5 ( 1792 ) : 132 – 141 .
General Magazine and Imperial Review 6 @.@ 2 ( 1792 ) : 187 – 191 .
Literary Magazine and British Review 8 ( 1792 ) ; 133 – 139 .
Monthly Review New Series 8 ( 1792 ) : 198 – 209 .
New Annual Register 13 ( 1792 ) : 298 .
New @-@ York Magazine 4 ( 1793 ) : 77 – 81 .
Scots Magazine 54 ( 1792 ) : 284 – 290 .
Sentimental and Masonic Magazine 1 ( 1792 ) : 63 – 72 .
Town and Country Magazine 24 ( 1792 ) : 279 .
= Susan Mayer =
Susan Mayer is a fictional character played by Teri Hatcher on the ABC television series Desperate Housewives . The character was created by television producer and screenwriter Marc Cherry . She first appeared in the pilot episode of the series on October 3 , 2004 , and appeared in every episode until the series finale on May 13 , 2012 . Susan resides on the fictional Wisteria Lane in Fairview , Eagle State , the primary setting of the show . One of four lead characters , Susan is characterized as being a " notoriously clumsy " romantic with a " magnetic charm . " Her storylines tend to focus on her romantic relationships , most notably with Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) , whom she marries twice in the series .
Cherry originally created Susan as a girl next door archetype and intended for the character to provide an emotional anchor for the series . When developing the character , Cherry drew upon his personal experiences as well as those of single women in his life . The role was originally written for Mary @-@ Louise Parker , who turned it down ; as a result , Hatcher was cast in early 2004 . Hatcher 's portrayal of the character is both comedic and vulnerable . During the series ' debut season , both the character and Hatcher 's performance received positive critical reception ; however , as the series has progressed , the character has been received less favorably by critics and fans . Hatcher has received both a Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance in the series .
= = Development and casting = =
While developing the series , Desperate Housewives creator Marc Cherry envisioned Susan as a girl next door and chose her to convey this image . In the original pilot , the character 's surname was spelled " Meyer " but had to be changed to " Mayer " for clearance purposes . Cherry commented , " I knew Susan was going to be my anchor character , and I didn 't really know my take on her at first . And then it occurred to me that one of these women should be divorced ... I thought there was something so real about a woman saying , ' I don 't have much time left , ' and when this available hunky guy moves onto the street , something in her saying ' Let me at him ' " . The character is a compendium of single mothers in Cherry 's life " desperate to land a man " . He also drew upon his own personal experiences while creating the character .
Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus expressed interest in the role , but ABC executives felt she was not right for the part . Actors originally considered for the role include Courteney Cox , Calista Flockhart , Heather Locklear , Mary @-@ Louise Parker , and Sela Ward . Cherry wrote the part with Parker in mind , but she rejected the offer , later explaining " it just didn ’ t feel like I was gonna [ sic ] serve it as well as someone else might " . Teri Hatcher auditioned for the role in January 2004 and impressed Cherry immediately . After a second audition , Hatcher read for the role in front of network executives . Cherry praised her performance , saying " it was the best audition I 've ever seen in network " . Hatcher later commented , " I don 't think they were hot to hire me for Susan ... I was maybe on a B @-@ list , certainly not an A @-@ list " . Despite her reservations , Hatcher was the third reported cast member to have been cast in the series on February 18 , 2004 .
= = Personality and characteristics = =
Susan is primarily characterized as the girl next door . Teri Hatcher stated " I ’ m not exactly her , but I get her . I get her insecurities , her flaws . " She called the character " a great representation of what [ everyone ] deals with daily . Our responsibilities can be overwhelming and things often don 't go as you planned , so you have to roll with it . Susan celebrates rolling with it " . She is a hopeless romantic and often expresses her more openly and vulnerably than the other characters in the series . The series begins a year after Susan 's first divorce , when she is still emotionally raw . Throughout the series , several other characters have confronted Susan about her inability to live happily and without drama . Susan has a close relationship with her daughter , Julie ( Andrea Bowen ) , who often acts as the parent figure in the relationship .
Susan 's accident @-@ proneness is commonly used throughout the series to provide comic relief . Her susceptibility to bad luck and embarrassing situations have created some of the series ' most memorable moments , including accidentally burning down Edie 's house and being locked out of her own house completely naked . Susan 's poor cooking skills have also become a running gag in the series .
= = History = =
= = = Past = = =
Susan Bremmer was raised by single mother Sophie Bremmer ( Lesley Ann Warren ) . She was told her father was a United States Merchant Marine who died in the Battle of Hanoi during the Vietnam War . She was a cheerleader in high school and graduated as valedictorian of her class . She graduated from community college with an art degree . Eventually , Susan began writing and illustrating children 's books , the first of which was Ants in My Picnic Basket .
In her early twenties , Susan married Karl Mayer ( Richard Burgi ) and gave birth to their daughter , Julie , at age 26 . In 1992 , the family moved to Wisteria Lane in Fairview , Eagle State , where Susan befriended Mary Alice Young ( Brenda Strong ) , her new neighbor . Susan became close friends with Bree Van de Kamp ( Marcia Cross ) , Lynette Scavo ( Felicity Huffman ) , and Gabrielle Solis ( Eva Longoria ) when they moved to Wisteria Lane . In 2003 , Karl left Susan for his secretary , Brandi ( Anne Dudek ) . The two divorced and agreed to share custody of Julie , although she chose to live primarily with Susan .
= = = Season 1 = = =
A year after her divorce , Susan takes an interest in Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) , a plumber who has recently moved in across the street . Susan begins dating Mike , despite competition from Edie Britt ( Nicollette Sheridan ) . Meanwhile , Susan begins investigating Mary Alice 's suicide after she and her friends discover a blackmail note addressed to her . Later , Susan discovers that Mary Alice 's husband , Paul ( Mark Moses ) , had their son , Zach ( Cody Kasch ) , committed to a youth mental institution after he broke into the Van de Kamp house and decorated it for Christmas , Julie begins corresponding with Zach without Susan 's knowledge and hides him in her room when he escapes from the institution . When Susan finds Zach in her home , she and Mike return him to Paul ; however , Julie and Zach continue dating . Paul fabricates unconvincing lies to thwart Susan 's efforts to discover his family 's secrets too .
As her relationship with Mike progresses , Susan becomes suspicious of his past , especially when she finds a gun and large sums of money in his kitchen cabinets . Additionally , evidence connecting Mike to the murder of Wisteria Lane resident , Martha Huber ( Christine Estabrook ) , surfaces . Susan ends the relationship when police inform her that Mike was convicted of manslaughter and drug trafficking . However , Susan learns the murder was accidental and the two renew their relationship and agree that Mike will move into Susan 's house . While Mike is away on business , Susan finds Zach , armed with a handgun , in Mike 's house . He vows to kill Mike when he comes home as he believes Mike killed Paul .
= = = Season 2 = = =
When Mike arrives home , Zach 's murder scheme backfires and he runs away . Mike informs Susan that he recently learned that Zach is his biological son . Susan agrees to help Mike search for Zach and finds him in a nearby park . When Zach expresses hope of rekindling his romance with Julie , she gives him money to look for Paul in Utah . When Mike finds out about her betrayal , he ends their relationship . Susan decides to write an autobiography following the break @-@ up . While researching her father , she learns that her mother lied and her father is local business owner Addison Prudy ( Paul Dooley ) . She tries to establish a relationship with her reluctant father , but her attempts are effectively unsuccessful .
Meanwhile , Susan is dismayed to learn that Karl has moved in with Edie . She begins dating her doctor , Ron McCready ( Jay Harrington ) , who informs her that she has a wandering spleen and will need a splenectomy . When Susan learns that her health insurance will not cover the operation , Karl offers to remarry her for his medical benefits . They agree to keep their sham marriage a secret from Edie and Ron . While under anesthesia before her operation , Susan professes her love for Mike to Ron , which prompts Ron to break up with her . Soon after , Karl leaves Edie , as his love for Susan has resurfaced . Upon learning that Susan is the other woman , Edie intentionally sets Susan 's house on fire . In this time of need , both Mike and Karl vie for Susan 's affections . She chooses to rekindle her relationship with Mike and Karl signs the divorce papers . Susan and Mike then make plans to meet for dinner at nearby Torch Lake , where Mike plans to propose . On his way to dinner , Mike is a victim of a hit @-@ and @-@ run at the hands of Orson Hodge ( Kyle MacLachlan ) , a dentist whom Susan had recently befriended .
= = = Season 3 = = =
As a result of the hit @-@ and @-@ run , Mike falls into a coma . Having waited six months for Mike to wake up , she reluctantly enters a relationship with Ian Hainsworth ( Dougray Scott ) , a British man whose wife , Jane ( Cecily Gambrell ) , has been in a coma for years . When Mike finally awakens , doctors conclude that he now suffers from retrograde amnesia . While Susan is out of town , Edie convinces Mike that Susan was horrible to him during their relationship . Mike turns Susan away when she returns to Fairview . Having lost hope , Susan continues her romance with Ian . Meanwhile , Susan is suspicious of Orson , who has married Bree and is accused of killing his missing ex @-@ wife , Alma ( Valerie Mahaffey ) . When Mike is arrested for the murder of Monique Polier ( Kathleen York ) , Orson 's former mistress , Edie breaks up with him , leaving him without bail . Susan defends Mike , which frustrates Ian . He promises to pay for Mike 's bail if Susan breaks off all contact with him . Mike is eventually acquitted for the crime . Following Jane 's death , Susan accepts Ian 's marriage proposal .
As he slowly regains his memory , Mike recalls his feelings for Susan and challenges Ian for her affections . When Susan learns that the two had made a bet on her in a game of poker , she calls off the wedding and declares that she does not want to see either of them again . Realizing that letting both of them go is a mistake , Susan decides to take Ian back . However , he tells her that he cannot spend the rest of his life wondering if she is still in love with Mike , and he leaves . Susan and Mike reunite and become engaged . The couple get married in a private ceremony in the woods , with Julie as their only guest .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the fourth season premiere , one month after her wedding , Susan learns that she is pregnant . While looking into their medical histories for the baby 's interest , Mike is forced to tell Susan that he lied about his father being dead . Susan visits Mike 's father , Nick ( Robert Forster ) , who is in jail for murder . Nick warns Susan that Mike is still troubled by demons of his past . With the stress of finances for the baby , Mike begins working overtime , despite an injury resulting from the hit @-@ and @-@ run over a year ago . He begins relying heavily on painkillers . Susan confronts Mike about his addiction , threatening to leave him if he does not enter rehab ; he agrees to admit himself . After a devastating tornado hits Wisteria Lane , Bree , Orson , and their newborn , Benjamin , move into Susan 's house temporarily . During his stay , Orson develops a sleep walking habit and unconsciously admits to running over Mike with his car . Susan feels extremely betrayed and Bree , unable to forgive Orson , asks him to move out . Shortly after , Susan gives birth to a boy , whom she names Maynard , after Mike 's deceased grandfather .
= = = = Five @-@ year jump = = = =
In the five years that take place between seasons four and five , Susan and Mike are involved in a car crash that kills a mother and her daughter . Although Susan was driving , Mike takes the blame , as Susan did not have her license with her at the time . Susan feels incredibly guilty for taking the lives of Lila ( Marie Caldare ) and Paige Dash ( Madeleine Michelle Dunn ) , but Mike insists it was not their fault . The argument over the topic becomes so great that it results in divorce . Giving up on love , Susan engages in a casual relationship with her house painter , Jackson Braddock ( Gale Harold ) .
= = = Season 5 = = =
While Susan manages to keep her relationship with Jackson a secret from her friends and her son , nicknamed M.J. , Jackson seeks a deeper connection with her . Soon enough , Mike and M.J. learn about the relationship . Jackson makes the sudden announcement that he is moving to nearby Riverton for work and asks Susan to come with him . After much consideration , Susan decides that she is unsure of what she wants and turns down Jackson 's offer . Also , Mike moves across the street from Susan and begins dating her close friend and neighbor , Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) . Realizing she cannot keep Mike from being happy , she gives the couple her blessing , despite still feeling uncomfortable . Susan and Mike decide to enroll M.J. in private school , and Susan takes a job as an assistant art teacher at the school to help pay for the tuition . With both Susan and Mike employed , M.J. spends more time under Katherine 's care , which makes Susan uneasy . She is heartbroken to learn that Mike and Katherine have decided to move in with one another and become engaged .
Susan attempts to console Edie 's husband , Dave Williams ( Neal McDonough ) , following Edie 's death . She explains the truth behind her own accident , completely unaware that Lila and Paige Dash were Dave 's wife and daughter , respectively , and that he had been seeking revenge on Mike since moving to Wisteria Lane . Meanwhile , Jackson returns to Fairview and proposes to Susan , revealing that his visa has expired and he needs to marry an American citizen . When Susan learns that Mike , who is engaged to Katherine , will no longer have to pay alimony once she is married , she explains the false pretenses of her engagement . Dave , who now understands that Susan was driving the car that killed his family , overhears this and reports Jackson to immigration officials . With Jackson out of the picture , Dave invites Susan and M.J. on a fishing trip , planning to kill M.J. just like Susan killed his own child . Mike discovers Dave 's plans and is able to save Susan and M.J. After the ordeal , Susan and Mike share a brief , yet romantic kiss . Dave is sent to a psychiatric hospital in Boston and two months later , Mike marries an unidentified bride .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Susan is identified as Mike 's bride in the sixth season premiere . Her marriage to Mike destroys her friendship with Katherine . After the wedding , Julie is strangled outside of Susan 's home . Julie slips into a coma following her attack . While waiting for her to awaken , Susan learns that Julie had dropped out of medical school , was involved with a married man , and had a pregnancy scare before her attack . When Julie awakens , she refuses to identify the married man she was seeing . Later in the season , Julie 's attacker is revealed to be Eddie Orlofsky ( Josh Zuckerman ) , a local young adult who is also responsible for a handful of murders in Fairview . Prior to the attack , Susan had taken Eddie on as an art student and he developed a crush on her . When he discovered that she was remarrying Mike and that she did not see him as a romantic suitor , he attacked Julie , mistaking her for Susan .
Katherine continues to pursue Mike , believing that he is still in love with her . Mike warns her to leave his family alone and claims he never truly loved her . After he leaves , Katherine calls 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 asking for an ambulance , and then stabs herself with a knife with Mike 's fingerprints on it . Katherine frames Mike for her wound . Susan , realizing that Katherine has suffered a total nervous breakdown , calls Katherine 's daughter , Dylan ( Lyndsy Fonseca ) , who comes to town and has her mother committed for psychiatric observation . Susan later forgives Katherine once she recovers from her breakdown . Soon after , Mike reveals that he has accumulated an immense debt in the past year . Unable to balance their debt , Susan and Mike decide to move off Wisteria Lane and rent their house out temporarily . They move into an apartment across town while Paul Young rents their house on Wisteria Lane .
= = = Season 7 = = =
Susan accepts an offer from her landlady , Maxine Rosen ( Lainie Kazan ) , to appear on a website in which she does housework in her lingerie in order to make ends meet , though she keeps her new job a secret from her friends and family . Soon after , Maxine 's site is merged with a larger company that uses Susan 's image to advertise the website on billboards across the country . Susan pays the company $ 9 @,@ 000 to have the billboards removed . As a result , she begins working for the website 's video chatting services to earn back the money . Paul discovers her secret and threatens to expose it unless she sells him her home , in which he now lives with his second wife , Beth ( Emily Bergl ) . Hoping to derail Paul 's blackmail scheme , Susan tells Mike about her job on the website . Paul retaliates by spreading the word about Susan 's involvement with the website , causing her to lose her teaching job . Strapped for money , Mike accepts a job on an oil rig in Alaska and Susan becomes Lynette 's nanny .
After purchasing a majority of the houses on Wisteria Lane , Paul announces that he plans to open a halfway house for ex @-@ convicts on the street . A protest against his plan escalates into a violent riot and Susan is trampled by the unruly crowd . As a result , Susan loses a kidney and learns that her second kidney is deformed and she is at severe risk of renal failure . Susan reluctantly agrees to undergo dialysis while waiting for a transplant . After Paul throws her out , Beth submits paperwork indicating that in the event of her death , her kidney would be given to Susan , and then commits suicide . Despite initial refusal , Paul allows the operation to move forward and he and Susan reconcile . After discovering that Paul has been depressed following Beth 's suicide , Susan begins cooking meals for him with the assistance of Felicia Tilman ( Harriet Sansom Harris ) , Beth 's mother and Martha Huber 's sister , who secretly adds antifreeze to the food in an effort to kill him . Paul nearly dies as a result of the poisoned food . Unaware that Felicia is helping prepare his meals , Paul has Susan arrested for attempting to kill him . Eventually , Susan is released , Paul confesses to the murder of Martha Huber , and Felicia presumably dies in a car crash while fleeing town . Susan and her family move back onto Wisteria Lane . During a dinner party , Gabrielle 's former stepfather , Alejandro ( Tony Plana ) , who raped her during her childhood , attempts to harm Gabrielle until her husband , Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) kills him . Susan , Lynette , and Bree agree to help cover up the crime .
= = = Season 8 = = =
Susan begins to withdraw from her friends and family out of guilt for having helped cover up Alejandro 's death . She bonds with Carlos over their mutual guilt . When Mike begins suspecting Susan and Carlos are having an affair , they agree to tell him the truth about the cover @-@ up . Soon after , Susan begins taking an art class with renowned painter , Andre Zeller ( Miguel Ferrer ) , and discovers that her guilt has given her a renewed artistic ability . In a series of paintings , Susan depicts the scene of Alejandro 's death and subsequent burial , arousing the suspicion of Detective Chuck Vance ( Jonathan Cake ) , Bree 's embittered ex @-@ boyfriend assigned to investigate Alejandro 's disappearance . She briefly considers moving to New York to explore new career opportunities , but ultimately decides against it . In an effort to ease her guilt , Susan visits Alejandro 's wife and stepdaughter , Claudia ( Justina Machado ) and Marisa ( Daniela Bobadilla ) , respectively , and write them a check to help their financial misfortune , which only arouses Claudia 's suspicions . Claudia confronts Susan and Gabrielle about Alejandro 's disappearance , but agrees to stop prying after learning that he had been sexually abusing Marisa .
In " Is This What You Call Love ? " , Susan learns that Julie is six months pregnant and has no relationship with the baby 's father . To her dismay , Julie plans to put the child up for adoption . When Susan discovers that Lynette 's son , Porter ( Max Carver ) , is the father , she supports his decision to raise the child himself . In " You Take for Granted " , Mike is murdered by a vengeful loan shark . The final episodes of the series deal with Susan grieving and eventually moving on from Mike 's death . In the series finale , Julie gives birth to a daughter , whom she now plans on keeping . Susan sells her home on Wisteria Lane and she and M.J. move to help Julie raise the baby .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
In the first season of Desperate Housewives , the character of Susan was a critics ' favorite and generally regarded as the series ' most prominent role . Hatcher 's portrayal as Susan received praise in the series ' first year . Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle called Hatcher 's performance in the pilot episode " a huge surprise , " commenting that she gives " self @-@ effacing , disheveled and sadly hopeless Susan a spirit that makes you root for her " . Robert Bianco of USA Today declared that Hatcher delivered " a revelatory performance " . Heather Havrilesky of Salon.com was less enthusiastic , criticizing Hatcher for overacting . In the series ' second season , Susan becomes less important as Bree " comfortably moves into position as the show 's lead " . Many critics noted that the character suffered as a result of the declining quality of the second season . Bianco wrote that the writers were making Susan " too stupid " . Hatcher continued to provide comic relief in the third season .
By season four , critics thought that Susan 's storylines were the least interesting and that she had not " operated at full potential since [ her ] pivotal role in the debut season " . Bianco was more forgiving , stating that while " Susan 's silliness sometimes spirals out of control , Teri Hatcher usually manages to keep her likable " . As a result of the five @-@ year time jump between seasons four and five , a new direction was taken with Susan 's character . The Stat @-@ Legend 's Alan Sepinwall calls Susan 's character arc in season five the " least annoying storyline she 's had in at least three years " . However , Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly still felt the character was " ever @-@ annoying " . In the series ' sixth season , Stransky stated that Susan was still " whiny " and he would have rather seen Mike marry Katherine , though he was not surprised when the mystery bride was revealed to be Susan . Entertainment Weekly named her one of the " 21 Most Annoying TV Characters Ever " .
= = = Awards = = =
Hatcher won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Comedy Series in 2005 , beating out fellow cast members Marcia Cross and Felicity Huffman . Also that year , Hatcher received the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Comedy Series . In 2005 , Hatcher , along with Cross and Huffman , received a nomination for a Satellite Award in the Best Television Actress in a Musical or Comedy Series . She was also nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series , but was beaten out by Huffman . In 2006 , Hatcher was once again nominated for the Golden Globe Award in the same category , along with Cross , Huffman , and Eva Longoria . All four Desperate Housewives stars lost to Mary @-@ Louise Parker . Hatcher was also nominated for a Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Actress and a People 's Choice Award for Favorite Female TV Star .
= = = Controversy = = =
ABC and the Desperate Housewives producers faced criticism following the September 30 , 2007 fourth season premiere in which the character of Susan made a controversial remark about Filipino doctors . When her gynecologist suggests that she may be entering menopause , Susan responds " OK , before we go any further , can I check these diplomas ? Just to make sure they aren 't , like , from some med school in the Philippines ? " Following its broadcast , viewers demanded an apology from the network . ABC issued an apology on October 3 , but the controversy grew to an international concern and Health Secretary Francisco Duque III of Manila publicly sought an apology from the series ' producers . Protests against the network and series were staged , prompting ABC to remove the episode from digital and online platforms in order to apply edits . As a result , the line of controversy was removed from all future broadcasts of the episode , as well as from DVD productions . However , protests continued even after this action was taken . The scene with the line in question is still viewable on YouTube .
= = = Cultural influences and merchandise = = =
Nicole Parker portrayed Susan in a Desperate Housewives parody on an episode of MADtv . Susan 's klutziness is mocked in the skit . Colette Whitaker voices Susan in the Desperate Housewives computer game , which was released in October 2006 . In 2007 , Madame Alexander released a line of 16 @-@ inch fashion dolls of the series ' main characters , including Susan .
= Spanish battleship Jaime I =
Jaime I was the third and final member of the España class of dreadnought battleships of the Spanish Navy . She had two sister ships , España and Alfonso XIII . Jaime I was built by the SECN shipyard ; she was laid down in February 1912 , launched in September 1914 , and completed in December 1921 . She was armed with a main battery of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns and could steam at a speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) .
Jaime I served in the Spanish fleet from 1921 to 1937 . She and her sisters participated in the Rif War , where they provided gunfire support to Spanish Army forces . During the conflict , she was damaged by a rebel coastal battery . The ship served with the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War . Nationalist bombers attacked the ship twice and on 17 June 1937 , she was destroyed by an accidental explosion . The wreck was later raised and scrapped .
= = Technical characteristics = =
Jaime I was 132 @.@ 6 m ( 435 ft ) long at the waterline and 140 m ( 460 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 24 m ( 79 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 8 m ( 26 ft ) ; her freeboard was 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) amidships . Her propulsion system consisted of four @-@ shaft Parsons steam turbines and twelve Yarrow boilers . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 11 @,@ 600 kW ) and produced a top speed of 19 @.@ 5 knots ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) . Jaime I had a cruising radius of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew consisted of 854 officers and enlisted men .
Jaime I was armed with a main battery of eight 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) / 50 guns , mounted in four twin gun turrets . One turret was placed forward , two were positioned en echelon amidships , and the fourth was aft of the superstructure . This mounting scheme was chosen in preference to superimposed turrets , as was done in the South Carolinas , to save weight and cost . Her secondary battery consisted of twenty 102 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) guns mounted in casemates along the length of the hull . They were too close to the waterline , however , which made them unusable in heavy seas . She was also armed with four 3 @-@ pounder guns and two machine guns . Her armored belt was 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick amidships ; the main battery turrets were protected with the same amount of armor plate . The conning tower had 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick sides . Her armored deck was 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Jaime I was laid down at the Sociedad Española de Construcción Naval shipyard in Ferrol on 5 February 1912 . She was launched on 21 September 1914 , less than two months after the start of World War I. Spain remained neutral during the conflict , but because Britain supplied much of the armament and other building materials , work on Jaime I was considerably delayed . The ship was ready to go to sea by 1917 , but she was not completed until well after the end of the war ; work was finally finished on 20 December 1921 . Upon her completion , she joined her two sister ships in the 1st Squadron of the Spanish fleet . Jaime I saw action against insurgents in Morocco in the Rif War during the early 1920s along with her two sisters . Rif insurgents operating a coastal battery damaged the ship in 1924 .
She fought with the Spanish Republican Navy in the Spanish Civil War . At the outbreak of the Nationalist revolt , wireless operators in the navy headquarters Madrid intercepted radio messages from General Francisco Franco to rebels in Morocco . They alerted the crews aboard Jaime I and other ships , who mutinied against their rebellious officers and ensured the ships would remain under Republican control . The vessels were nevertheless crippled by poor discipline for some time , as they had murdered many of their officers , and distrusted those that were not killed . On the first months of the war , Jaime I shelled a number of rebel strongholds , among them Ceuta , Melilla and Algeciras . In Algeciras she hit with her secondary armament the Nationalist gunboat Eduardo Dato , which was burned down to the waterline , although she was later repaired and returned to service .
During the Civil War , Jaime I was damaged by a Nationalist air attack at Málaga on 13 August 1936 ; a single , small bomb struck the ship in the bow and caused minimal damage . On 21 May 1937 , she was attacked again while in drydock at Cartagena for repairs after a recent grounding . Three bombs hit the ship , that again caused only minor damage . On 17 June , while at Cartagena , she was wrecked by an accidental internal explosion and fire , although sabotage is suspected . She was refloated , but determined to be beyond repair . She was officially discarded on 3 July 1939 , and broken up in 1941 .
In 1940 , the all the guns were recovered , the front and rear twin turrets were used in the Gibraltar strait coastal defense batteries D9 and D10 , El vigia and Casquebel respectively , near Tarifa . Abandoned in 1985 , the twin turrets and canons are still in place. but under degradation . All the other guns were placed en single mounts in several locations
= Pharnavaz I of Iberia =
Pharnavaz ( Georgian : ფარნავაზი Georgian pronunciation : [ pʰɑrnɑvɑzi ] ) also transliterated as Parnavaz or Farnavaz was the king of Kartli , an ancient Georgian kingdom known as Iberia to the Classical sources . The Georgian Chronicles credits him with being the first monarch founding the kingship of Kartli and the Pharnavazid dynasty , while another independent chronicles , The Conversion of Kartli makes him the second Georgian monarch . Based on the medieval evidence , most scholars locate Pharnavaz ’ s rule in the 3rd century BC : 302 – 237 BC according to Prince Vakhushti of Kartli , 299 – 234 BC according to Cyril Toumanoff and 284 – 219 BC according to Pavle Ingoroqva . Pharnavaz 's rise and the advent of the Iberian monarchy was directly tied to the victory of Alexander the Great over the Achaemenid Empire .
= = Life = =
According to the Georgian royal annals , Pharnavaz descended from Uplos , son of Mtskhetos , son of Kartlos , who was one of the powerful and famous eight brothers , who from their part were descendants of Targamos , son of Tarsi , the grandson of Japheth , son of the Biblical Noah . He is not directly attested in non @-@ Georgian sources and there is no definite contemporary indication that he was indeed the first of the Georgian kings . His story is saturated with legendary imagery and symbols , and it seems feasible that , as the memory of the historical facts faded , the real Pharnavaz " accumulated a legendary façade " and emerged as the model pre @-@ Christian monarch in the Georgian annals .
According to the c . 800 chronicle The Life of Kings , Pharnavaz had a distinguished genealogy , tracing back to Kartlos , the mythical ethnarch of Kartli . His paternal uncle , Samara , held the position of mamasakhlisi ( " father of the house " ) of the Georgian tribes around Mtskheta . Pharnavaz ’ s mother is claimed to have been a Persian woman from Isfahan , whom Prince Teimuraz of Georgia and Patriarch Anton I of Georgia identify with a daughter of King Darius III . The entire story of Pharnavaz , although written by a Christian chronicler , abounds in ancient Iranian @-@ like imagery and mystic allusions , a reflection of the archaeologically confirmed cultural and presumably political ties between Iran and Kartli of that time . The name " Pharnavaz " is also an illustrative example with its root par- being based upon the Persian farnah , the divine radiance believed by the ancient Iranians to mark a legitimate dynast ( cf. khvarenah ) . The dynastic tag Parnavaziani ( " of / from / named for Pharnavaz " ) is also preserved in the early Armenian histories as P 'arnawazean ( Faustus of Byzantium 5 @.@ 15 ; fifth century ) and P 'arazean ( History of Armenia 14 ; probably the early fifth century ) , an acknowledgment that a king named Pharnavaz was understood to have been the founder of a Georgian dynasty . Pharnavaz is also mentioned in the Armazi stele of Serapit .
Perhaps the most artistically rounded section of the Georgian annals , the narrative follows Pharnavaz 's life from birth to burial . Aged 3 , small Pharnavaz 's family is destroyed , and his heritage is usurped by Azon installed by Alexander the Great during his campaign in Kartli . Alexander 's invasion of Iberia , remembered not only by the Georgian historical tradition , but also by Pliny the Elder ( 4 @.@ 10 @.@ 39 ) and Gaius Julius Solinus ( 9 @.@ 19 ) , appears to be memory of some Macedonian interference in Iberia , which must have taken place in connection with the expedition mentioned by Strabo ( 11 @.@ 14 @.@ 9 ) sent by Alexander in 323 BC to the confines of Iberia , in search of gold mines .
Pharnavaz is brought up fatherless , but a magic dream , in which he anoints himself with the essence of the Sun , heralds the peripeteia . He is persuaded by this vision to " devote [ himself ] to noble deeds " . He then sets off and goes hunting . In a pursuit of a deer , he encounters a mass of treasure stored in a hidden cave . Pharnavaz retrieves the treasure and exploits it to mount a loyal army against the tyrannical Azon . He is aided by Kuji of Colchis , who eventually marries Pharnavaz 's sister . The rebels are also joined by 1 @,@ 000 soldiers from Azon 's camp ; they are anachronistically referred to by the author as Romans , and claimed to
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a solo act at the Oxford Music Hall , where he performed " The Simple Pimple " and " He 'll Get It Where He 's Gone to Now " . The theatrical press soon became aware of his act , and The Stage called him a " comedian with a pretty sense of humour [ who ] delivers his songs with considerable point and meets with all success " . In early 1892 , together with his performances at the Royal Aquarium and the Oxford Music Hall , Robey starred alongside Jenny Hill , Bessie Bonehill and Harriet Vernon at the Paragon Theatre of Varieties in Mile End , where , according to his biographer Peter Cotes , he " stole the notices from experienced troupers " .
That summer , Robey conducted a music hall tour of the English provinces which began in Chatham and took him to Liverpool , at a venue owned by the mother of the influential London impresario Oswald Stoll . Through this engagement Robey met Stoll , and the two became lifelong friends . In early December , Robey appeared in five music halls a night , including Gatti 's Under the Arches , the Tivoli Music Hall and the London Pavilion . In mid @-@ December , he travelled to Brighton , where he appeared in his first Christmas pantomime , Whittington Up @-@ to @-@ Date . Pantomime would become a lucrative and regular source of employment for the comedian . Cotes calls Robey 's festive performances the " cornerstone of his comic art " , and the source of " some of his greatest successes " .
= = = = Music hall characterisations = = = =
During the 1890s Robey created a number of music hall characters centred on everyday life . Among them were " The Chinese Laundryman " and " Clarence , the Last of the Dandies " . As Clarence , Robey dressed in a top hat and frock coat and carried a malacca cane , the garb of a stereotypical Victorian gentleman . For his drag pieces , the comedian established " The Lady Dresser " , a female tailor who was desperate to out @-@ dress her high class customers , and " Daisy Dillwater , the District Nurse " who arrived on stage with a bicycle to share light @-@ hearted scandal and gossip with the audience before hurriedly cycling off .
With Robey 's popularity came an eagerness to differentiate himself from his music hall rivals , and so he devised a signature costume when appearing as himself : an oversized black coat fastened from the neck down with large , wooden buttons ; black , unkempt , baggy trousers and a partially bald wig with black , whispery strands of unbrushed , dirty @-@ looking hair that poked below a large , dishevelled top @-@ hat . He applied thick white face paint and exaggerated the redness on his cheeks and nose with bright red make @-@ up ; his eye line and eyebrows were also enhanced with thick , black greasepaint . He held a short , misshaped , wooden walking stick , which was curved at the top . Robey later used the costume for his character , The Prime Minister of Mirth . The outfit helped Robey become instantly recognisable on the London music hall circuit . He next made a start at building his repertoire and bought the rights to comic songs and monologues by several well @-@ established music hall writers , including Sax Rohmer and Bennett Scott . For his routines , Robey developed a characteristic delivery described by Cotes as " a kind of machine @-@ gun staccato rattle through each polysyllabic line , ending abruptly , and holding the pause while he fixed his audience with his basilisk stare . "
= = = = Success in pantomime and the provinces = = = =
At the start of 1894 , Robey travelled to Manchester to participate in the pantomime Jack and Jill , where he was paid £ 25 a week for a three @-@ month contract . He did not appear in Jack and Jill until the third act but pleased the holiday crowds nonetheless . During one performance the scenery mechanism failed , which forced him to improvise for the first time . Robey fabricated a story that he had just dined with the Lord Mayor before detailing exactly what he had eaten . The routine was such a hit that it was incorporated into the show as part of the script .
In the final months of 1894 , Robey returned to London to honour a contract for Augustus Harris at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , the details of which are unknown . In September he starred in a series of stand @-@ up comedy shows that he would perform every September between 1894 and 1899 . These short performances , in English seaside resorts including Scarborough and Bournemouth , were designed chiefly to enhance his name among provincial audiences . For the 1895 and 1896 Christmas pantomimes , he appeared in Manchester and Birmingham , respectively , in the title role of Dick Whittington , for which he received favourable reviews and praise from audiences . Despite the show 's success , Robey and his co @-@ stars disliked the experience . The actress Ada Reeve felt that the production had a bad back @-@ stage atmosphere and was thankful when the season ended , while the comedian Barry Lupino was dismayed at having his role , Muffins , considerably reduced .
On 29 April 1898 , Robey married his first wife , the Australian @-@ born musical theatre actress Ethel Hayden , at St Clement Danes church in the Strand , London . The congregation was made up of various theatrical colleagues ; J. Pitt Hardacre was his best man , and composer Leslie Stuart was the organist . Robey and Ethel resided briefly in Circus Road , St John 's Wood , until the birth of their first child Edward in 1900 . They then moved to 83 Finchley Road in Swiss Cottage , Hampstead . Family life suited Robey ; his son Edward recalled many happy experiences with his father , including the evenings when he would accompany him to the half @-@ dozen music halls at which he would be appearing each night .
By the start of the new century , Robey was a big name in pantomime , and he was able to choose his roles . Pantomime enjoyed wide popularity until the 1890s , but by the time Robey had reached his peak , interest in it was on the wane . A type of character he particularly enjoyed taking on was the pantomime dame , which historically was played by comedians from the music hall . Robey was inspired by the older comedians Herbert Campbell and Dan Leno , and , although post @-@ dating them , he rivalled their eccentricity and popularity , earning the festive entertainment a new audience . In his 1972 biography of Robey , Neville Cardus thought that the comedian was " at his fullest as a pantomime Dame " .
In 1902 Robey created the character " The Prehistoric Man " . He dressed as a caveman and spoke of modern political issues , often complaining about the government " slapping another pound of rock on his taxes " . The character was received favourably by audiences , who found it easy to relate to his topical observations . That year he released " The Prehistoric Man " and " Not That I Wish to Say Anything " on shellac discs using the early acoustic recording process .
Robey signed a six @-@ year contract in June 1904 to appear annually at , among other venues , the Oxford Music Hall in London , for a fee of £ 120 a week . The contract also required him to perform during the spring and autumn seasons between 1910 and 1912 . Robey disputed this part of the contract and stated that he agreed to this only as a personal favour to the music hall manager George Adney Payne and that it should have become void on Payne 's death in 1907 . The management of the Oxford counter @-@ claimed and forbade Robey from appearing in any other music hall during this period . The matter went to court , where the judge found in Robey 's favour .
Robey was engaged to play the title role in the 1905 pantomime Queen of Hearts . The show was considered risqué by the theatrical press . In one scene Robey accidentally sat on his crown before bellowing " Assistance ! Methinks I have sat upon a hedgehog " ; in another sketch , the comedian mused , " Then there 's Mrs Simkins , the swank ! Many 's the squeeze she 's had of my blue bag on washing day . " Robey scored a further hit with the show the following year , in Birmingham , which Cotes describes as " the most famous of all famous Birmingham Theatre Royal pantomimes " . Robey incorporated " The Dresser " , a music hall sketch taken from his own repertoire , into the show . Over the next few years he continued to tour the music hall circuit both in London and the English provinces and recorded two songs , " What Are You Looking at Me For ? " and " The Mayor of Mudcumdyke " , which were later released by the Gramophone and Typewriter Company .
= = = Career peak years = = =
= = = = Sporting interests and violin @-@ making = = = =
Off @-@ stage , Robey led an active lifestyle and was a keen amateur sportsman . He was proud of his healthy physique and maintained it by performing frequent exercise and following a careful diet . By the time he was in his mid @-@ thirties , he had played as an amateur against Millwall , Chelsea and Fulham football clubs . He organised and played in many charity football matches throughout England , which were described by the sporting press as being of a very high standard , and he remained an active football player well into his fifties . Robey became associated with cricket by 1895 when he led a team of amateur players for a match at Turney Road in Dulwich . In September 1904 , while appearing in Hull , he was asked by the cricketer Harry Wrathall to take part in a charity cricket match at the Yorkshire County Cricket Club . Robey played so well that Wrathall asked him to return the following Saturday to take part in a professional game . That weekend , while waiting in the pavilion before the game , Robey was approached by an agent for Hull City A.F.C. , who asked the comedian to play in a match that same afternoon . Robey agreed , swapped his cricket flannels for a football kit and played with the team against Nottingham Forest as an inside right .
By 1903 Robey was playing at a semi @-@ professional level . He was signed as an inside forward by Millwall Football Club and scored many goals for them . He also displayed a good level of ability in vigoro , an Australian sport derived from both cricket and baseball which was short @-@ lived in England . Two years later he became a member of the Marylebone Cricket Club and played in minor games for them for many years . He gained a reputation at the club for his comic antics on the field , such as raising his eyebrows at the approaching bowler in an attempt to distract him . The writer Neville Cardus was complimentary about Robey 's cricket prowess and called him " an elegant player " whose performances on the cricket field were as entertaining as they were on the stage . Although a versatile player , Robey thought of himself as a " medium @-@ paced , right @-@ handed bowler " .
Robey was asked to help organise a charity football match in 1907 by friends of the Scottish football trainer James Miller , who had died the previous year . Robey compiled a team of amateur footballers from the theatrical profession and met Miller 's former team Chelsea Football Club at their home ground . The match raised considerable proceeds for Miller 's widow . Robey was proud of the match and joked : " I just wanted to make sure that Chelsea stay in the first division . "
In his spare time , Robey made violins , a hobby that he first took up during his years in Dresden . He became a skilled craftsman of the instrument , although he never intended for them to be played in public . Speaking in the 1960s , the violinist and composer Yehudi Menuhin , who played one of Robey 's violins for a public performance during that decade , called the comedian 's finished instrument " very professional " . He was intrigued by the idea that a man as famous as Robey could produce such a " beautifully finished " instrument , unbeknown to the public . Robey was also an artist , and some of his pen and ink self @-@ caricatures are kept at the National Portrait Gallery , London .
= = = = Oswald Stoll = = = =
Robey 's first high @-@ profile invitation came in the first decade of the 1900s from Hugh Lowther , 5th Earl of Lonsdale , who hired him as entertainment for a party he was hosting at Carlton House Terrace in Westminster . Soon afterwards , the comedian appeared for the first time before royalty when King Edward VII had Robey hired for several private functions . Robey performed a series of songs and monologues and introduced the " Mayor of Mudcumdyke " , all of which was met with much praise and admiration from the royal watchers . He was later hired by Edward 's son , the Prince of Wales ( the future King George V ) , who arranged a performance at Carlton House Terrace for his friend Lord Curzon .
In July 1912 , at the invitation of the impresario Oswald Stoll , Robey took part for the first time in the Royal Command Performance , to which Cotes attributes " one of the prime factors in his continuing popularity " . King George V and Queen Mary were " delighted " with Robey 's comic sketch , in which he performed the " Mayor of Mudcumdyke " in public for the first time . Robey found the royal show to be a less daunting experience than the numerous private command performances that he gave during his career .
At the outbreak of the First World War , Robey wished to enlist in the army but , now in his 40s , he was too old for active service . Instead , he volunteered for the Special Constabulary and raised money for charity through his performances as a comedian . It was not uncommon for him to finish at the theatre at 1 : 00 am and then to patrol as a special constable until 6 : 00 am , where he would frequently help out during zeppelin raids . He combined his civilian duties with work for a volunteer motor transport unit towards the end of the war , in which he served as a lieutenant . He committed three nights a week to the corps while organising performances during the day to benefit war charities . Robey was a strong supporter of the Merchant Navy and thought that they were often overlooked when it came to charitable donations . He raised £ 22 @,@ 000 at a benefit held at the London Coliseum , which he donated in the navy 's favour .
= = = = Film debut and The Bing Boys Are Here = = = =
Robey 's first experience in cinema was in 1913 , with two early sound film shorts : " And Very Nice Too " and " Good Queen Bess " , made in the Kinoplasticon process , where the film was synchronised with phonograph records . The next year , he tried to emulate his music hall colleagues Billy Merson and Charlie Austin , who had set up Homeland Films and found success with the Squibs series of films starring Betty Balfour . Robey met filmmakers from the Burns Film Company , who engaged him in a silent short entitled " George Robey Turns Anarchist " , in which he played a character who fails to blow up the Houses of Parliament . He continued to appear sporadically in film throughout the rest of his career , never achieving more than a modest amount of success .
In 1914 , for the first time in many years , Robey appeared in a Christmas pantomime as a male when he was engaged to play the title role in Sinbad the Sailor ; Fred Emney Sr played the dame role . Although the critics were surprised by the casting , it appealed to audiences , and the scenes featuring Robey and Emney together proved the most memorable . During the war the demand for light entertainment in the English provinces guaranteed Robey frequent bookings and a regular income . His appearances in Manchester , Liverpool , Newcastle and Glasgow were as popular as his annual performances in Birmingham . His wife Ethel accompanied him on these tours and frequently starred alongside him .
By the First World War , music hall entertainment had fallen out of favour with audiences . Theatrical historians blame the music hall 's decline on the increasing salaries of performers and the halls ' inability to present profitably the twenty or thirty acts that the audiences expected to see . Revue appealed to wartime audiences , and Robey decided to capitalise on the medium 's popularity . Stoll offered Robey a lucrative contract in 1916 to appear in the new revue The Bing Boys Are Here at the Alhambra Theatre , London . Dividing his time between three or four music halls a night had become unappealing to the comedian , and he relished the opportunity to appear in a single theatre . He was cast as Lucius Bing opposite Violet Loraine , who played his love interest Emma , and the couple duetted in the show 's signature song " If You Were the Only Girl ( In the World ) " , which became an international success .
This London engagement was a new experience for Robey , who had only been familiar with provincial pantomimes and week @-@ long , one @-@ man comedy shows . Aside from pantomime , he had never taken part in a long @-@ running production , and he had never had to memorise lines precisely or keep to schedules enforced by strict directors and theatre managers . The Bing Boys Are Here ran for 378 performances and occupied the Alhambra for more than a year . The theatrical press praised Robey as " the first actor of the halls " . He made two films towards the end of the war : The Anti @-@ frivolity League in 1916 and Doing His Bit the following year .
= = = = Zig @-@ Zag to Joy Bells = = = =
Robey left the cast of The Bing Boys during its run , in January 1917 , to star at the London Hippodrome in Albert de Courville , Dave Stamper and Gene Buck 's lavishly @-@ staged revue Zig @-@ Zag ! . Robey included a sketch based on his music hall character " The Prehistoric Man " , with Daphne Pollard playing the role of " She of the Tireless Tongue " . In another scene , he played a drunken gentleman who accidentally secures a box at the Savoy Theatre instead of an intended hotel room . The audience appeared unresponsive to the character , so he changed it mid @-@ performance to that of a naive Yorkshire man . The change provoked much amusement , and it became one of the most popular scenes of the show . Zig @-@ Zag ran for 648 performances . Stoll again secured Robey for the Alhambra in 1918 for a sequel , The Bing Boys on Broadway . The show , again co @-@ starring Violet Loraine , matched the popularity of its predecessor and beat the original show 's run with a total of 562 performances .
Robey returned to the London Hippodrome in 1919 where he took a leading role in another hit revue , Joy Bells . Phyllis Bedells took over from Pollard as his stage partner , with Anita Elson and Leon Errol as supporting dancers . Robey played the role of an old @-@ fashioned father who is mystified over the changing traditions after the First World War . He interpolated two music hall sketches : " No , No , No " centred on turning innocent , everyday sayings into suggestive and provocative maxims , and " The Rest Cure " told the story of a pre @-@ op hospital patient who hears worrying stories of malpractice from his well @-@ meaning friends who visit him . In the Italian newspaper La Tribuna , the writer Emilio Cecchi commented : " Robey , just by being Robey , makes us laugh until we weep . We do not want to see either Figaro or Othello ; it is quite enough for Robey to appear in travelling costume and to turn his eyes in crab @-@ like fashion from one side of the auditorium to another . Robey 's aspect in dealing with his audience is paternal and , one might say , apostolic . " Joy Bells ran for 723 performances .
In the early months of 1919 , Robey completed a book of memoirs , My Rest Cure , which was published later that year . During the run of Joy Bells he was awarded the Legion of Honour for raising £ 14 @,@ 000 for the French Red Cross . He declined a knighthood that same year because , according to Cotes , he was worried that the title would distance him from his working @-@ class audiences ; he was appointed a CBE by George V at Buckingham Palace instead . On the morning of the penultimate Joy Bells performance , Robey was invited to Stoll 's London office , where he was offered a role in a new revue at the Alhambra Theatre . On the journey , he met the theatre impresario Sir Alfred Butt , who agreed to pay him £ 100 more , but out of loyalty to Stoll , he declined the offer and resumed his £ 600 a week contract at the Alhambra . On 28 July 1919 , Robey took part in his second Royal Command Performance , at the London Coliseum . He and Loraine sang " If You Were the Only Girl ( In the World ) " .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
= = = = Films and revues of the early 1920s = = = =
A gap in the Alhambra 's schedule allowed Stoll to showcase Robey in a new short film . " George Robey 's Day Off " ( 1919 ) showed the comedian acting out his daily domestic routines to comic effect , but the picture failed at the box office . The British director John Baxter concluded that producers did not know how best to apply Robey 's stage talents to film .
By 1920 variety theatre had become popular in Britain , and Robey had completed the successful transition from music hall to variety star . Pantomime , which relied on its stars to make up much of the script through ad lib , was also beginning to fall out of favour , and his contemporaries were finding it too difficult to create fresh material for every performance ; for Robey , however , the festive entertainment continued to be a lucrative source of employment .
Robey 's first revue of the 1920s was Johnny Jones , which opened on 1 June 1920 at the Alhambra Theatre . The show also featured Ivy St. Helier , Lupino Lane and Eric Blore and carried the advertisement " A Robey salad with musical dressing " . One of the show 's more popular gags was a scene in which Robey picked and ate cherries off St. Helier 's hat , before tossing the stones into the orchestra pit which were then met by loud bangs from the bass drum . A sign of his popularity came in August 1920 when he was depicted in scouting costume for a series of 12 Royal Mail stamps in aid of the Printers Pension Corporation War Orphans and the Prince of Wales Boy Scout Funds .
The revue Robey en Casserole ( 1921 ) was next for Robey , during which he led a troupe of dancers in a musical piece called the " Policemen Ballet " . Each dancer was dressed in a mock police uniform on top and a tutu below . The show was the first failure for the comedian under Stoll 's management . That December Robey appeared in his only London pantomime , Jack and the Beanstalk , at the Hippodrome . His biographer , Peter Cotes , remembered the comedian 's interpretation of Dame Trot as " enormously funny : a bucolic caricature of a woman , sturdy and fruity , leathery and forbidding " and thought that Robey 's comic timing was " in a class of its own . " In March 1922 Robey remained at the Hippodrome in the revue Round in Fifty , a modernised version of Round the World in Eighty Days , which proved to be another hit for the London theatre , and a personal favourite of the comedian .
= = = = Marriage breakdown and foreign tours = = = =
Stoll brought Robey to cinema audiences a further four times during 1923 . The first two films were written with the intention of showcasing the comedian 's pantomime talents : One Arabian Night was a reworking of Aladdin and co @-@ starred Lionelle Howard and Edward O 'Neill , while Harlequinade visited the roots of pantomime . One of Robey 's more notable roles under Stoll was Sancho Panza in Maurice Elvey 's 1923 film Don Quixote , for which he received a fee of £ 700 a week . The amount of time he spent working away from home led to the breakdown of his marriage , and he separated from Ethel in 1923 . He had a brief affair with one of his leading ladies and walked out of the family home .
Robey made a return to the London Hippodrome in 1924 in the revue Leap Year in which he co @-@ starred with Laddie Cliff , Betty Chester and Vera Pearce . Leap Year was set in South Africa , Australia and Canada , and was written to appeal to the tourists who were visiting London from the Commonwealth countries . Robey was much to their tastes , and his rendition of " My Old Dutch " helped the show achieve another long run of 421 performances . Sky High was next and opened at the London Palladium in March 1925 . The chorus dancer Marie Blanche was his co @-@ star , a partnership that caused the gossip columnists to comment on the performers ' alleged romance two years previously . Despite the rumours Blanche continued as his leading lady for the next four years , and Sky High lasted for 309 performances on the West End stage .
The year 1926 was lacking in variety entertainment , a fact largely attributed to the UK general strike that had occurred in May of that year . The strike was unexpected by Robey , who had signed the previous year to star in a series of variety dates for Moss Empires . The contract was lucrative , made more so by the comedian 's willingness to manage his own bookings . He took the show to the provinces under the title of Bits and Pieces and employed a company of 25 artists as well as engineers and support staff . Despite the economic hardships of Britain in 1926 , large numbers of people turned out to see the show . He returned to Birmingham , a city where he was held in great affection , and where he was sure the audiences would embrace his new show . However , censors demanded that he omit the provocative song " I Stopped , I Looked , I Listened " and that he heavily edit the sketch " The Cheat " . The restrictions failed to dampen the audiences ' enthusiasm , and Bits and Pieces enjoyed rave reviews . It ran until Christmas and earned a six @-@ month extension .
In the spring of 1927 Robey embraced the opportunity to tour abroad , when he and his company took Bits and Pieces to South Africa , where it was received favourably . By the time he had left Cape Town , he had played to over 60 @,@ 000 people and had travelled in excess of 15 @,@ 000 miles . Upon his return to England in October , he took Bits and Pieces to Bradford . In August 1928 , Robey and his company travelled to Canada , where they played to packed audiences for three months . It was there that he produced a new revue , Between Ourselves , in Vancouver , which was staged especially for the country 's armed forces . The Canadians were enthusiastic about Robey ; he was awarded the freedom of the city in London , Ontario , made a chieftain of the Sarcee tribe , and was an honorary guest at a cricket match in Edmonton , Alberta . He described the tour as " one of unbroken happiness . " In the late 1920s Robey also wrote and starred in two Phonofilm sound @-@ on @-@ film productions , Safety First ( 1928 ) and Mrs. Mephistopheles ( 1929 ) .
In early 1929 Robey returned to South Africa and then Canada for another tour with Bits and Pieces , after which he started another series of variety dates back in England . Among the towns he visited was Woolwich , where he performed to packed audiences over the course of a week . Here he met the theatre managers Frank and Agnes Littler , with the latter briefly becoming his manager . In 1932 Robey appeared in his first sound film , The Temperance Fête , and followed this with Marry Me , which was , according to his biographer A. E. Wilson , one of the most successful musical films of the comedian 's career . The film tells the story of a sound recordist in a gramophone company who romances a colleague when she becomes the family housekeeper .
By the later months of 1932 , Robey had formed a romantic relationship with the Littlers ' daughter Blanche ( 1897 – 1981 ) , who then took over as his manager . The couple grew close during the filming of Don Quixote , a remake of the comedian 's 1923 success as Sancho Panza . Unlike its predecessor , Don Quixote had an ambitious script , big budget and an authentic foreign setting . Robey , however , resented having to grow a beard for the role and disliked the French climate and gruelling 12 @-@ week filming schedule . He refused to act out his character 's death scene in a farcical way and also objected to the lateness of the " dreadfully banal " scripts , which were often written the night before filming .
= = = = Venture into legitimate theatre = = = =
Until 1932 Robey had never played in legitimate theatre , although he read Shakespeare from an early age . That year he took the part of King Menelaus in Helen ! , which was an English @-@ language adaptation by A. P. Herbert of Offenbach 's operetta La belle Hélène . The show 's producer C. B. Cochran , a longstanding admirer of Robey , engaged a prestigious cast for the production , including Evelyn Laye and W. H. Berry , with choreography by Léonide Massine and sets by Oliver Messel . The operetta opened on 30 January 1932 , becoming the Adelphi Theatre 's most successful show of the year . The critic Harold Conway wrote that while Robey had reached the pinnacle of his career as a variety star , which only required him to rely on his " breezy , cheeky personality " , he had reservations about the comedian 's ability to " integrate himself with the other stars ... to learn many pages of dialogue , and to remember countless cues . "
After the run of Helen ! , Robey briefly resumed his commitments to the variety stage before signing a contract to appear at the Savoy Theatre as Bold Ben Blister in the operetta Jolly Roger , which premiered in March 1933 . The production had a run of bad luck , including an actors ' strike which was caused by Robey 's refusal to join the actors ' union Equity . The dispute was settled when he was included as a co @-@ producer of the show , thus excluding him as a full @-@ time actor . Robey made a substantial donation to the union , and the production went ahead . Despite its troubles , the show was a success and received much praise from the press . Harold Conway of the Daily Mail called the piece " one of the outstanding triumphs of personality witnessed in a London theatre " . Later that year , Robey completed his final autobiography , Looking Back on Life . The literary critic Graham Sutton admired Robey for his honest and frank account , and thought that he was " at his best when most personal " .
= = = = = Shakespearean roles = = = = =
According to Wilson , Robey revered Shakespeare and had an " excellent reading knowledge of the Bard " even though the comedian had never seen a Shakespeare play . As a child , he had committed to memory the " ghost " scene in Hamlet . Writing in 1933 , Cochran expressed the opinion that Robey had been a victim of a largely conservative and " snobbish " attitude from theatre managers , that the comedian was " cut out for Shakespeare " , and that if he had been frequently engaged in playing the Bard 's works , then " Shakespeare would probably have been popular . " In 1934 , the theatre director Sydney Carroll offered Robey the chance to appear as Nick Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream at the Open Air Theatre , Regent 's Park , but he initially declined the offer , citing a hectic schedule , including a conflict with his appearance in that year 's Royal Variety Performance on 8 May . He was also concerned that he would not be taken seriously by legitimate theatre critics and knew that he would not be able to include a comic sketch or to engage in his customary resourceful gagging . In the same year , Robey starred in a film version of the hit musical Chu Chin Chow . The New York Times called him " a lovable and laughable Ali Baba " .
At the start of 1935 Robey accepted his first Shakespearean role , as Falstaff in Henry IV , Part 1 , which surprised the press and worried fans who thought that he might retire the Prime Minister of Mirth . The theatrical press were sceptical of a music hall performer taking on such a distinguished role ; Carroll , the play 's producer , vehemently defended his casting choice . Carroll later admitted taking a gamble on employing Robey but wrote that the comedian " has unlimited courage in challenging criticism and risking his reputation on a venture of this kind ; he takes both his past and his future in both hands and is faced with the alternative of dashing them into the depths or lifting them to a height hitherto undreamt of . " Carroll further opined that " [ Robey ] has never failed in anything he has undertaken . He is one of the most intelligent and capable of actors . "
Henry IV , Part I opened on 28 February at Her Majesty 's Theatre , and Robey proved himself to be a capable Shakespearean actor , though his Shakespearean debut was marred initially by an inability to remember his lines . A journalist from The Daily Express thought that Robey seemed uncomfortable , displayed a halting delivery and was " far from word perfect " . Writing in The Observer , the critic Ivor Brown said of Robey 's portrayal : " In no performance within my memory has the actor been more obviously the afflicted servant of his lines and more obviously the omnipotent master of the situation " . Another journalist , writing in the Daily Mirror , thought that Robey " gave 25 percent of Shakespeare and 75 percent of himself " .
In any case , such was Robey 's popularity in the role that the German theatre and film producer Max Reinhardt declared that , should the opportunity arise for a film version , the comedian would be his perfect choice as Falstaff . Cotes described Robey as having " a great vitality and immense command of the [ role ] . He never faltered , he had to take his audience by the throat and make them attentive at once because he couldn 't play himself in . " Although he was eager to be taken seriously as a legitimate actor , Robey provided a subtle nod in the direction of his comic career by using the wooden cane intended for the Prime Minister of Mirth for the majority of his scenes as Falstaff . The poet John Betjeman responded to the critics ' early scepticism : " Variety artistes are a separate world from the legitimate stage . They are separate too , from ballet , opera , and musical comedy . It is possible for variety artists to appear in all of these . Indeed , no one who saw will ever forget the superb pathos and humour of George Robey 's Falstaff " . Later , in 1935 , Blanche Littler persuaded Robey to accept Carroll 's earlier offer to play Bottom , and the comedian cancelled three weeks ' worth of dates . The press were complimentary of his performance , and he later attributed his success to Littler and her encouragement .
= = = Later career : 1936 – 50 = = =
= = = = Radio and television debut = = = =
Robey made his radio debut in 1936 when he was interviewed for The Spice of Life programme for the BBC . He spoke about his private life and his time spent on the music hall circuit , which he described as the " most enjoyable experience " of his life . The usually reserved Robey admitted that privately he was not a sociable person and that he often grew tired of his audiences while performing on stage , but that he got his biggest thrill from making others laugh . He also declared a love for the outdoors and mentioned that , to relax , he would draw " comic scribbles " of himself as the Prime Minister of Mirth , which he would occasionally give to fans . As a result of the interview he received more than a thousand fan letters from listeners . Wilson thought that Robey 's " perfect diction and intimate manner made him an ideal broadcast speaker " . The press commented favourably on his performance , with one reporter from Variety Life writing : " I doubt whether any speaker other than a stage idol could have used , as Robey did , the first person singular almost incessantly for half an hour without causing something akin to resentment . ... The comedian 's talk was brilliantly conceived and written . "
In the later months of 1936 , Robey repeated his radio success with a thirty @-@ minute programme entitled " Music @-@ Hall " , recorded for American audiences , to honour the tenth birthday of the National Broadcasting Corporation . In it , he presented a montage of his characterisations as well as impressions of other famous acts of the day . A second programme , which he recorded the following year , featured the comedian speaking fondly of cricket and of the many well @-@ known players whom he had met on his frequent visits to the Oval and Lord 's cricket grounds over his fifty @-@ year association .
In the summer of 1938 Robey appeared in the film A Girl Must Live , directed by Carol Reed , in which he played the role of Horace Blount . A report in the Kinematograph Weekly commented that the 69 @-@ year @-@ old comedian was still able to " stand up to the screen by day and variety by night . " A journalist for The Times opined that Robey 's performance as an elderly furrier , the love interest of both Margaret Lockwood and Lilli Palmer , was " a perfect study in bewildered embarrassment " .
Robey made his television debut in August 1938 but was unenthused with the medium and only made rare appearances . The BBC producer Grace Wyndham Goldie was dismayed at how little of his " comic quality " was conveyed on the small screen . Goldie thought that Robey 's comic abilities were not limited to his voice and depended largely on the relation between his facial expressions and his witty words . She felt that he should " be forbidden , by his own angel , if nobody else , to approach the ordinary microphone " . Nonetheless , Goldie remained optimistic about Robey 's future television career . The journalist L. Marsland Gander disagreed and thought that Robey 's methods were " really too slow for television " .
That November , and with his divorce from Ethel finalised , Robey married Blanche Littler , who was more than two decades his junior , at Marylebone Town Hall . At Christmas , he fractured three ribs and bruised his spine when he accidentally fell into the orchestra pit while appearing in the 1938 – 39 pantomime Robinson Crusoe in Birmingham . He attributed the fall to his face mask which gave him a limited view of the stage . The critic Harold Conway was less forgiving , blaming the accident on the comedian 's " lost self @-@ confidence " and opining that the accident was the start of Robey 's professional decline .
= = = = Second World War = = = =
Aware of demand for his act in Australia , Robey conducted a second tour of the country at the start of 1939 . While he was appearing at the Tivoli Theatre in Sydney , war broke out with Germany . Robey returned to England and concentrated his efforts on entertaining to raise money for the war effort . He signed up with the Entertainments National Service Association ( ENSA ) for whom he appeared in a wide range of shows and also in his own one @-@ man engagements . He would sometimes turn up unannounced to perform at hospitals , munition factories , airfields , anti @-@ aircraft posts and other venues where there was an audience of just a few people .
During the 1940s , Robey appeared predominantly in troop concerts as himself but caused controversy by jokingly supporting the Nazis and belittling black people during his act . His intentions were to gently poke fun at the " Little Englanders " , but audiences thought that he was sympathising with Nazism . His jocular view that a defeat for Hitler would mean a victory for bolshevism was highlighted in a series of controversial interviews , which caused him much embarrassment when challenged and which he regretted afterwards . His views became known in the press as " Robeyisms " , which drew increasing criticism , but his Prime Minister of Mirth remained popular , and he used the character to divert the negative publicity . Cotes wrote that Robey was not a politician , merely a jingoist , who " lived long enough to feel [ that ] his little @-@ Englander outlook [ was causing him ] acute embarrassment , and his army of admirers deep dismay . "
Robey starred in the film Salute John Citizen in 1942 , directed by Maurice Elvey and co @-@ starring Edward Rigby and Stanley Holloway , about the effects that the war had on a normal British family . In a 1944 review of the film , Robey was described as being " convincing in [ an ] important role " but the film itself had " dull moments in the simple tale " . That Christmas , Robey travelled to Bristol , where he starred in the pantomime Robinson Crusoe . A further four films followed in 1943 , one of which promoted war propaganda while the other two displayed the popular medium of cine @-@ variety . Cine @-@ variety introduced Robey to the Astoria in Finsbury Park , London , a venue which was used to huge audiences and big @-@ name acts and was described as " a super @-@ cinema " .
During the early months of 1944 , Robey returned to the role of Falstaff when he appeared in the film version of Henry V , produced by Eagle @-@ Lion Films . The American film critic Bosley Crowther had mixed opinions of the film . Writing in The New York Times in 1946 , he thought that it showcased " a fine group of British film craftsmen and actors " , who contributed to " a stunningly brilliant and intriguing screen spectacle " . Despite that , he considered the film 's additional screenplay poor and called Falstaff 's deathbed scene " non @-@ essential and just a bit grotesque . " Late in 1944 , he appeared in Burnley in a show entitled Vive Paree alongside Janice Hart and Frank O 'Brian . In 1945 , Robey starred in two minor film roles , as " Old Sam " in The Trojan Brothers , a short comedy film in which two actors experience various problems as a pantomime horse , and as " Vogel " in the musical romance Waltz Time . He spent 1947 touring England , while the following spring he undertook a provincial tour of Frederick Bowyer 's fairy play The Windmill Man , which he also co @-@ produced with his wife .
= = = Last years = = =
= = = = Decline in health = = = =
In June 1951 , now aged 81 , Robey starred in a midnight gala performance at the London Palladium in aid of the family of Sid Field who had died that year . For the finale , Robey performed " I Stopped , I Looked , I Listened " and " If You Were the Only Girl in the World " ; the rest of the three @-@ hour performance featured celebrities from the radio , television and film mediums . The American comedian Danny Kaye , who was also engaged for the performance , called Robey a " great , great artist " . The same month , Robey returned to Birmingham , where he opened a garden party at St. Mary and St. Ambrose Church , a venue in which he had appeared at the beginning of his career . On 25 September he appeared for the BBC on an edition of the radio series Desert Island Discs for which he chose among others " Mondo ladro " , Falstaff 's rueful complaint about the wicked world in Verdi 's opera Falstaff . For the rest of the year Robey made a number of personal appearances opening fetes and attending charity events .
Robey took part in the Festival of Variety for the BBC in 1951 , which paid tribute to the British music hall . For his performance , he adopted an ad @-@ lib style rather than use a script . His wife sat at the side of the stage , ready to provide support should he need it . According to Wilson , Robey 's turn earned the loudest applause of the evening . The following month Robey undertook a long provincial tour in the variety show Do You Remember ? under the management of Bernard Delfont . After an evening 's performance in Sheffield , he was asked by a local newspaper reporter if he considered retiring . The comedian quipped : " Me retire ? Good gracious , I 'm too old for that . I could not think of starting a new career at my age ! " In December , he opened the Lansbury Lodge home for retired cricketers in Poplar , East London ; he considered the ceremony to be one of the " happiest memories of his life . "
By early 1952 , Robey was becoming noticeably frail , and he lost interest in many of his sporting pastimes . Instead , he stayed at home and drew comic sketches featuring the Prime Minister of Mirth . In May he filmed The Pickwick Papers , in which he played the role of old Tony Weller , a part which he had initially turned down on health grounds . The following year , and in aid of the games fund , he starred as Clown in a short pantomime at the Olympic Variety Show at the Victoria Palace Theatre . Organisers asked for him to appear in the Prime Minister of Mirth costume instead of the usual clown garb , a request the comedian was happy to fulfil .
= = = = Knighthood and death = = = =
In the early months of 1954 , Robey accepted a knighthood which was conferred on him by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother at Buckingham Palace . During the following weeks , his health declined ; he became confined to a wheelchair and spent the majority of his time at home under the care of his wife . In May he opened a British Red Cross fete in Seaford , East Sussex , and , a month later , made his last public appearance , on television as a panellist in the English version of The Name 's the Same . Wilson called Robey 's performance " pathetic " and thought that he appeared with only " a hint of his old self " . By June he had become housebound and quietly celebrated his 85th birthday surrounded by family ; visiting friends were organised into appointments by his wife Blanche , but theatrical colleagues were barred in case they caused the comedian too much excitement .
Robey suffered a stroke on 20 November and remained in a semi @-@ coma for just over a week . He died on 29 November 1954 at his home in Saltdean , East Sussex , and was cremated at the Downs Crematorium in Brighton . Blanche continued to live on the Sussex coast until her death at the age of 83 in 1981 .
= = Tributes and legacy = =
News of Robey 's death prompted tributes from the press , who printed illustrations , anecdotes and reminders of his stage performances and charitable activities . " Knighthood notwithstanding , George Robey long ago made himself a place as an entertainer and artist of the people " , declared a reporter from the Daily Worker , while a critic for the Daily Mail wrote : " Personality has become a wildly misused word since his heyday , but George Robey breathed it in every pore . " In Robey 's obituary in The Spectator , Compton Mackenzie called the comedian " one of the last great figures of the late Victorian and Edwardian music @-@ hall . "
In December 1954 , a memorial service for Robey was held at St Paul 's Cathedral . The diverse congregation consisted of royalty , actors , hospital workers , stage personnel , students and taxi drivers , among others . The Bishop of Stepney , Joost de Blank , said : " We have lost a great English music hall artist , one of the greatest this country has known in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries . " Performers gave readings at the service , including the comedian Leslie Henson , who called Robey " that great obstinate bullock of variety " . In his lifetime , Robey helped to earn more than £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 for charitable causes , with £ 500 @,@ 000 of that figure being raised during the First World War . In recognition of his efforts , the Merchant Seaman 's Convalescent Home in Limpsfield , Surrey , named a ward after him , and managerial staff at the Royal Sussex Hospital later bought a new dialysis machine in his memory . In the 1960s , a public house in Finsbury Park , North London , was named " The George Robey " .
Robey 's comic delivery influenced other comedians , but opinions of his effectiveness as a comic vary . The radio personality Robb Wilton acknowledged learning a lot from him , and although he felt that Robey " was not very funny " , he could time a comic situation perfectly . Similarly , the comedian Charlie Chester admitted that , as a comedian , Robey " still didn 't make me laugh , " although he described him as " a legend " whose Prime Minister of Mirth character used a beautiful make @-@ up design . Robey 's biographer Peter Cotes disagreed with these assessments , praising the comedian 's " droll like humour " and comparing it in greatness to Chaplin 's miming and Grock 's clowning . Cotes wrote : " His Mayor , Professor of Music , Saracen , Dame Trot , Queen of Hearts , District Nurse , Pro 's Landlady , and of course his immortal Prime Minister , were all absurdities : rich , outsize in prim and pride , gloriously disapproving bureaucratic petty officialdom at its worst , best and funniest . "
Violet Loraine called her former co @-@ star " one of the greatest comedians the world has ever known " , while the theatrical producer Basil Dean opined that " George was a great artist , one of the last and [ sic ] the really big figures of his era . They don 't breed them like that now . " The actor John Gielgud , who remembered meeting Robey at the Alhambra Theatre in 1953 , called the comedian " charming , gracious [ and ] one of the few really great ones " of the music hall era . Upon his death , Robey 's costume for the Prime Minister of Mirth was donated to the London Museum , where it is on permanent display .
= Jack Parsons ( rocket engineer ) =
John Whiteside Parsons ( born Marvel Whiteside Parsons ; October 2 , 1914 – June 17 , 1952 ) , better known as Jack Parsons , was an American rocket engineer and rocket propulsion researcher , chemist , and Thelemite occultist . Associated with the California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) , Parsons was one of the principal founders of both the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) and the Aerojet Engineering Corporation . He invented the first rocket engine using a castable , composite rocket propellant , and pioneered the advancement of both liquid @-@ fuel and solid @-@ fuel rockets .
Born in Los Angeles , California , Parsons was raised by a wealthy family on Orange Grove Avenue in Pasadena . Inspired by science fiction literature , he developed an interest in rocketry in his childhood and in 1928 began amateur rocket experiments with school friend Ed Forman . He dropped out of Pasadena Junior College and Stanford University due to financial difficulties during the Great Depression , but in 1934 he united with Forman and graduate student Frank Malina to form the Caltech @-@ affiliated GALCIT Rocket Research Group , supported by Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory chairman Theodore von Kármán . In 1939 the GALCIT Group gained funding from the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) to work on Jet @-@ Assisted Take Off ( JATO ) for the U.S. military . Following American entry into World War II , in 1942 they founded Aerojet to develop and sell their JATO technology , while the GALCIT Group became JPL in 1943 .
After a brief involvement with Marxism in 1939 , Parsons converted to Thelema , the English occultist Aleister Crowley 's new religious movement . In 1941 , alongside his first wife Helen Northrup , Parsons joined the Agape Lodge , the Californian branch of the Thelemite Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) . At Crowley 's bidding , he replaced Wilfred Talbot Smith as its leader in 1942 and ran the Lodge from his mansion on Orange Grove Avenue . Parsons was expelled from JPL and Aerojet in 1944 due to the Lodge 's infamy and allegedly illicit activities , along with his hazardous workplace conduct . In 1945 Parsons separated from Helen after having an affair with her sister Sara ; when Sara left him for L. Ron Hubbard , he conducted the Babalon Working , a series of rituals designed to invoke the Thelemic goddess Babalon to Earth . He and Hubbard continued the procedure with Marjorie Cameron , whom Parsons married in 1946 . After Hubbard and Sara defrauded him of his life savings , Parsons resigned from the O.T.O. and went through various jobs while acting as a consultant for the Israeli rocket program . Amid the climate of McCarthyism , he was accused of espionage and left unable to work in rocketry . In 1952 , Parsons died at the age of 37 in a home laboratory explosion that attracted national media attention ; the police ruled it an accident , but many associates suspected suicide or assassination .
Parsons ' occult and libertarian polemical writings were published posthumously , with Western esoteric and countercultural circles citing him as one of the most significant figures in propagating Thelema across North America . Although academic interest in his scientific career was originally negligible , in subsequent decades historians came to recognize Parsons ' contributions to rocket engineering . For these innovations , his advocacy of space exploration and human spaceflight , and his role in the founding of JPL and Aerojet , Parsons is regarded as among the most important figures in the history of the U.S. space program . He has been the subject of several biographies and fictionalized portrayals .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1914 – 34 = = =
Marvel Whiteside Parsons was born on October 2 , 1914 , at the Good Samaritan Hospital in Los Angeles . His parents , Ruth Virginia Whiteside ( c . 1893 – 1952 ) and Marvel H. Parsons ( c . 1894 – 1947 ) , had moved to California from Massachusetts the previous year , purchasing a house on Scarf Street in downtown Los Angeles . Although their son was his father 's namesake , he was known in the household as Jack . Their marriage broke down soon after Jack 's birth , when Ruth discovered that his father had made numerous visits to a prostitute , and she filed for divorce in March 1915 . Parsons ' father returned to Massachusetts after being publicly exposed as an adulterer , with Ruth forbidding him from having any contact with Jack . Parsons '
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father would later join the armed forces , reaching the rank of major , and marry a woman with whom he had a son named Charles — a half @-@ brother whom Jack would only meet once . Although she retained her ex @-@ husband 's surname , Ruth started calling her son John ; many friends throughout his life knew him as Jack . Ruth 's parents Walter and Carrie Whiteside moved to California to be with Jack and their daughter , using their wealth to buy an up @-@ market house on Orange Grove Avenue in Pasadena — known locally as " Millionaire 's Mile " — where they could live together . Jack was surrounded by domestic servants . Having few friends , he lived a solitary childhood and spent much time reading ; he took a particular interest in works of mythology , Arthurian legend , and the Arabian Nights . Through the works of Jules Verne he became interested in science fiction and a keen reader of pulp magazines like Amazing Stories , which led to his early interest in rocketry .
At age twelve , Parsons began attending Washington Junior High School , where he performed poorly — something biographer George Pendle attributed to undiagnosed dyslexia — and was bullied for his upper @-@ class status and perceived effeminacy . Although unpopular , he formed a strong friendship with Edward Forman , a boy from a poor working class family who defended him from bullies and shared his interest in science fiction and rocketry , with the well @-@ read Parsons enthralling Forman with his literary prowess . In 1928 the pair — adopting the Latin motto per aspera ad astra ( through hardship to the stars ) — began engaging in homemade gunpowder @-@ based rocket experiments in the nearby Arroyo Seco canyon , as well as the Parsons family 's back garden , which left it pockmarked with craters from explosive test failures . They incorporated commonly available fireworks such as cherry bombs into their rockets , and Parsons suggested using glue as a binding agent to reduce the rocket fuel 's volatility . This research became more complex when they began using materials such as aluminium foil to enhance the castability of the gunpowder . Parsons had also begun to investigate occultism , and performed a ritual intended to invoke the Devil into his bedroom ; he worried that the invocation was successful and was frightened into ceasing these activities . In 1929 he began attending John Muir High School , where he maintained an insular friendship with Forman and was a keen participant in the sports of fencing and archery . After receiving poor school results , Parsons ' mother sent him away to study at a private boarding school in San Diego — the Brown Military Academy for Boys — but he was expelled for blowing up the toilets .
The Parsons family spent the summer of 1929 on a tour of Europe before returning to Pasadena , where they moved into a house on San Rafael Avenue . With the onset of the Great Depression their fortune began to dwindle , and in July 1931 Jack 's grandfather Walter died . Parsons began studying at the privately run University School , a liberal institution that took an unconventional approach to teaching . He flourished academically , becoming editor of the school 's newspaper El Universitano and winning an award for literary excellence , while teachers that had trained at the nearby California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) honed his attentions on the study of chemistry . With the family 's financial difficulties deepening , Parsons began working during weekends and school holidays at the offices of the Hercules Powder Company , where he learned more about explosives and their potential use in rocket propulsion . He and Forman continued to independently explore the subject in their spare time , building and testing different rockets — sometimes with materials that Parsons had stolen from work . Parsons soon constructed a solid @-@ fuel rocket engine , and with Forman corresponded with pioneer rocket engineers including Robert H. Goddard , Hermann Oberth and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky , and Germans Willy Ley and Wernher von Braun . Parsons and von Braun had hours of telephone conversations about rocketry in their respective countries as well as their own research .
Graduating from University School in the summer of 1933 , Parsons moved with his mother and grandmother to a more modest house on St. John Avenue , where he continued to pursue his interests in literature and poetry . In the autumn he enrolled in Pasadena Junior College with the hope of earning an associate degree in physics and chemistry , but dropped out after only a term because of his financial situation and he took up permanent employment at the Hercules Powder Company . His employers then sent him to work at their manufacturing plant in Pinole on San Francisco Bay , where he earned a relatively high wage of $ 100 a month ; however , he was plagued by headaches caused by exposure to nitroglycerin . He saved money in the hope of continuing his academic studies and began a degree in chemistry at Stanford University , but again found the tuition fees unaffordable and returned to Pasadena .
= = = GALCIT Rocket Research Group and the Kynette trial : 1934 – 38 = = =
In the hope of gaining access to the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art resources of Caltech to use in their rocketry research , Parsons and Forman attended a lecture on the work of Austrian rocket engineer Eugen Sänger and hypothetical above @-@ stratospheric aircraft by the institute 's William Bollay — a PhD student specializing in rocket @-@ powered aircraft — and approached him to express their interest in designing a liquid @-@ fuel rocket motor . Bollay redirected them to another PhD student named Frank Malina , a mathematician and mechanical engineer composing a thesis on rocket propulsion who shared their interests and soon befriended the pair . Parsons , Forman , and Malina applied for funding from Caltech together ; they did not mention that their ultimate objective was to develop rockets for space exploration , realizing that most of the scientific establishment then relegated such ideas to science fiction . While Caltech 's Clark Blanchard Millikan immediately rebuffed them , Malina 's doctoral advisor Theodore von Kármán saw more promise in their proposal and agreed to allow them to operate under the auspices of the university 's Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory ( GALCIT ) . Naming themselves the GALCIT Rocket Research Group , they gained access to Caltech 's specialist equipment , though the economics of the Great Depression left von Kármán unable to finance them .
The trio focused their distinct skills on collaborative rocket development ; Parsons was the chemist , Forman the machinist , and Malina the technical theoretician . Malina wrote in 1968 that the self @-@ educated Parsons " lacked the discipline of a formal higher education , [ and ] had an uninhibited and fruitful imagination . " The informally trained Parsons and Forman who , as described by Geoffrey A. Landis , " were eager to try whatever idea happened to spring to mind " , contrasted with the approach of Malina , who insisted on the need for scientific discipline as informed by von Kármán . Landis writes that their creativity , however , " kept Malina focused toward building actual rocket engines , not just solving equations on paper " . Sharing socialist values , they operated on an egalitarian basis ; Malina taught the others about scientific procedure and they taught him about the practical elements of rocketry . They often socialized , smoking marijuana and drinking , while Malina and Parsons set about writing a semiautobiographical science fiction screenplay they planned to pitch to Hollywood with strong anti @-@ capitalist and pacifist themes .
Parsons had met Helen Northup at a local church dance and proposed marriage in July 1934 . She accepted and they were married in April 1935 at the Little Church of the Flowers in Forest Lane Memorial Park , Glendale , before undertaking a brief honeymoon in San Diego . They moved into a house on South Terrace Drive , Pasadena , while Parsons gained employment for the explosives manufacturer Halifax Powder Company at their facility in Saugus . Much to Helen 's dismay , Parsons spent most of his wages funding the GALCIT Rocket Research Group . For extra money he manufactured nitroglycerin in their home , constructing a home laboratory on their front porch , and at one point he pawned Helen 's engagement ring and would often ask her family for loans .
Malina recounted that " Parsons and Forman were not too pleased with an austere program that did not include at least the launching of model rockets " , but the Group reached the consensus of developing a working static rocket @-@ motor before embarking on more complex research . They contacted liquid @-@ fuel rocket pioneer Robert H. Goddard and he invited Malina to his facility in Roswell , New Mexico , but he was not interested in cooperating — reticent about sharing his research and having been subjected to widespread derision for his work in rocketry . They were instead joined by Caltech graduate students Apollo M. O. " Amo " Smith , Carlos C. Wood , Mark Muir Mills , Fred S. Miller , William C. Rockefeller , and Rudolph Schott ; Schott was relied upon for the use of his pickup truck to transport equipment . Their first liquid @-@ fuel motor test took place near the Devil 's Gate Dam in the Arroyo Seco on Halloween 1936 . Parsons ' biographer John Carter described the layout of the contraption as showing
oxygen flowing from one side , with methyl alcohol ( the fuel ) and nitrogen flowing from the other side . Water cooled the rocket during the burn . Thrust pulled down a spring which measured force . The deflection of the spring measured the force applied to it . A small diamond tip on the apparatus scratched a glass plate to mark the furthest point of deflection . The rocket and mount were protected by sandbags , with the tanks ( and the experimenters ) well away from it .
Three attempts to fire the rocket failed ; on the fourth the oxygen line was accidentally ignited and perilously billowed fire at the Group , but they viewed this experience as formative . They continued their experiments throughout the final quarter of 1936 ; after the final test was successfully completed in January 1937 von Kármán agreed that they could perform their future experiments at an exclusive rocket testing facility on campus .
In April 1937 Caltech mathematician Qian Xuesen ( a Chinese citizen ) joined the Group . Several months later Weld Arnold , a Caltech laboratory assistant who worked as the Group 's official photographer , also joined . The main reason for Arnold 's appointment to this position was his provision of a donation to the Group on behalf of an anonymous benefactor whose identity was never revealed . They became well known on campus , earning the moniker of the " Suicide Squad " for the dangerous nature of some of their experiments and attracting attention from the local press . Parsons himself gained further media publicity when he appeared as an expert explosives witness in the trial of Captain Earl Kynette , the head of police intelligence in Los Angeles who was accused of conspiring to set a car bomb in the attempted murder of private investigator Harry Raymond , a former LAPD detective who was fired after whistleblowing against police corruption . When Kynette was convicted largely on Parsons ' testimony , which included his forensic reconstruction of the car bomb and its explosion , his identity as an expert scientist in the public eye was established despite his lack of a university education . While working at Caltech , Parsons was admitted to evening courses in chemistry at the University of Southern California ( USC ) , but distracted by his GALCIT workload he attended sporadically and received unexceptional grades .
By early 1938 the Group had made their static rocket motor , which originally burned for three seconds , run for over a minute . In May that year , Parsons was invited by Forrest J Ackerman to lecture on his rocketry work at Chapter Number 4 of the Los Angeles Science Fiction League ( LASFL ) . Although he never joined the society , he occasionally attended their talks , on one occasion conversing with a teenage Ray Bradbury . Another scientist to become involved in the GALCIT project was Sidney Weinbaum , a Jewish refugee from Europe who was a vocal Marxist ; he led Parsons , Malina , and Qian in their creation of a largely secretive communist discussion group at Caltech , which became known as Professional Unit 122 of the Pasadena Communist Party . Although Parsons subscribed to the People 's Daily World and joined the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) , he refused to join the American Communist Party , causing a break in his and Weinbaum 's friendship . This coupled with the need to focus on paid employment led to the disintegration of much of the Rocket Research Group , leaving only its three founding members by late 1938 .
= = = Embracing Thelema ; advancing JATO and foundation of Aerojet : 1939 – 42 = = =
In January 1939 John and Frances Baxter , a brother and sister who had befriended Jack and Helen Parsons , took Jack to the Church of Thelema in Winona Boulevard , Hollywood , where he witnessed the performance of The Gnostic Mass . Notable attendees of the church had included Hollywood actor John Carradine and gay rights activist Harry Hay . Parsons was intrigued , having already heard of Thelema 's founder and Outer Head of the Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) , Aleister Crowley , after reading a copy of Crowley 's text Konx om Pax ( 1907 ) .
Parsons was introduced to leading members Regina Kahl , Jane Wolfe , and Wilfred Talbot Smith at the mass . Feeling both " repulsion and attraction " for Smith , Parsons continued to sporadically attend the Church 's events for a year . He continued to read Crowley 's works , which increasingly interested him , and encouraged Helen to read them . Parsons came to believe in the reality of magic — or magick in Thelemic terms — as a force that could be explained through quantum physics . He tried to interest his friends and acquaintances in Thelema , taking science fiction writers Jack Williamson and Cleve Cartmill to a performance of The Gnostic Mass . Although they were unimpressed , Parsons was more successful with Grady Louis McMurtry , a young Caltech student whom he had befriended , as well as McMurtry 's fiancée Claire Palmer , and Helen 's sister Sara " Betty " Northrup .
Jack and Helen were initiated into the Agape Lodge , the renamed Church of Thelema , in February 1941 . Parsons adopted the Thelemic motto of Thelema Obtenteum Proedero Amoris Nuptiae , a Latin mistranslation of " The establishment of Thelema through the rituals of love " . The initials of this motto spelled out T.O.P.A.N. , also serving as the declaration " To Pan " . Commenting on Parsons ' errors of translation , in jest Crowley said that " the motto which you mention is couched in a language beyond my powers of understanding " . Parsons also adopted the Thelemic title Frater T.O.P.A.N — with T.O.P.A.N represented in Kabbalistic numerology as 210 — the name with which he frequently signed letters to occult associates — while Helen became known as Soror Grimaud . Smith wrote to Crowley claiming that Parsons was " a really excellent man ... He has an excellent mind and much better intellect than myself ... JP is going to be very valuable " . Wolfe wrote to German O.T.O. representative Karl Germer that Parsons was " an A1 man ... Crowleyesque in attainment as a matter of fact " , and mooted Parsons as a potential successor to Crowley himself as Outer Head of the Order . Crowley concurred with such assessments , informing Smith that Parsons " is the most valued member of the whole Order , with no exception ! "
At von Kármán 's suggestion , Malina approached the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) Committee on Army Air Corps Research to request funding for research into what they referred to as " jet propulsion " , a term chosen to avoid the stigma attached to rocketry . The military were interested in jet propulsion as a means of getting aircraft quickly airborne where there was insufficient room for a full @-@ length runway , and gave the Rocket Research Group $ 1 @,@ 000 to put together a proposal on the feasibility of Jet @-@ Assisted Take Off ( JATO ) by June 1939 , making Parsons et al. the first U.S. government @-@ sanctioned rocket research group . Since their formation in 1934 , they had also performed experiments involving model , black powder motor @-@ propelled multistage rockets . In a research paper submitted to the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ( AIAA ) , Parsons reported these rockets reaching velocities of 4 @,@ 875 miles per hour , thereby demonstrating the potential of solid fuels as being significantly more effective than liquid types primarily preferred by researchers such as Goddard . In light of this progress , Caltech and the GALCIT Group received an additional $ 10 @,@ 000 rocketry research grant from the AIAA .
Although a quarter of their funding went on repairing damage to Caltech buildings caused by their experiments , in June 1940 they submitted a report to the NAS in which they showed the feasibility of the project for the development of JATO and requested $ 100 @,@ 000 to continue ; however , they only received $ 22 @,@ 000 . Now known as GALCIT Project Number 1 , they continued to be ostracized by other Caltech scientists who grew increasingly irritated by their accidents and noise pollution , and were made to relocate their experiments back to the Arroyo Seco , at a site with unventilated , corrugated iron sheds that served as both research facilities and administrative offices . It was here that JPL would be founded . Parsons and Forman 's rocket experiments were the cover story of the August 1940 edition of Popular Mechanics , in which the pair discussed the prospect of rockets being able to ascend above Earth 's atmosphere and orbit around it for research purposes , as well as reaching the Moon .
For the JATO project , they were joined by Caltech mathematician Martin Summerfield and 18 workers supplied by the Works Progress Administration . Former colleagues like Qian were prevented from returning to the project by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , who ensured the secrecy of the operation and restricted the involvement of foreign nationals and political extremists . The FBI was satisfied that Parsons was not a Marxist but were concerned when Thelemite friend Paul Seckler used Parsons ' gun in a drunken car hijacking , for which Seckler was imprisoned in San Quentin State Prison for two years . Englishman George Emerson replaced Arnold as the Group 's official photographer .
The Group 's aim was to find a replacement for black @-@ powder rocket motors — units consisting of charcoal , sulphur and potassium nitrate with dectin as a binding agent — the volatility of which frequently resulted in explosions damaging military aircraft . The solid JATO fuel invented by Parsons consisted of amide , corn starch , and ammonium nitrate bound together in the JATO unit with glue and blotting paper . It was codenamed GALCIT @-@ 27 , implying the previous invention of 26 new fuels . The first JATO tests using an Ercoupe plane took place in late July 1941 ; though effectively aiding propulsion , the units frequently exploded and damaged the aircraft . Parsons theorized that this was because the ammonium nitrate became dangerously combustible following overnight storage , during which temperature and consistency changes had resulted in a chemical imbalance . Parsons and Malina accordingly devised a method in which they would fill the JATOs with the fuel in the early mornings shortly before the tests , enduring sleep deprivation to do so . On August 21 , 1941 , Navy Captain Homer J. Boushey , Jr . — watched by such figures as Clark Millikan and William F. Durand — piloted the JATO @-@ equipped Ercoupe at the March Air Force Base in Moreno Valley , California . It proved a success and reduced takeoff distance by 30 % , but one of the JATOs partially exploded . Over the following weeks 62 further tests took place , and the NAS increased their grant to $ 125 @,@ 000 . During a series of static experiments , an exploding JATO did significant damage to the fuselage in the Ercoupe 's tail ; one observer optimistically noted that " at least it wasn 't a big hole " , but necessary repairs delayed their efforts .
The military ordered a flight test using liquid fuel rather than the pre @-@ existing solid fuel in early 1942 . Upon the United States ' entry into the Second World War in December 1941 , the Group realized they could be drafted directly into military service if they failed to provide viable JATO technology for the military . Informed by their left @-@ wing politics , aiding the war effort against Nazi Germany and the Axis powers was as much of a moral vocation to Parsons , Forman and Malina as it was a practical one . Parsons , Summerfield and the GALCIT workers focused on the task and found success with a combination of gasoline with red fuming nitric acid as its oxidizer — with the latter , suggested by Parsons , proving to be an effective substitute for liquid oxygen . The testing of this fuel resulted in another calamity , however , when the testing rocket motor exploded ; the fire , containing iron shed fragments and shrapnel inexplicably left the experimenters unscathed . Malina solved the problem by replacing the gasoline with aniline , resulting in a successful test launch of a JATO @-@ equipped A @-@ 20A plane at the Mura Auxiliary Air Field in the Mojave Desert . Providing a thrust five times more powerful than GALCIT @-@ 27 , and again reducing takeoff distance by 30 % , Malina wrote to his parents that " We now have something that really works and we should be able to help give the Fascists hell ! "
The Group then agreed to produce and sell 60 JATO engines to the United States Army Air Corps . To do so they formed the Aerojet Engineering Corporation in March 1942 , into which Parsons , Forman , Malina , von Kármán , and Summerfield each invested $ 250 , opening their offices on Colorado Boulevard and bringing in Amo Smith as their engineer . Andrew G. Haley was recruited by von Kármán as their lawyer and treasurer . Although Aerojet was a for @-@ profit operation that provided technology for military means , the founders ' mentality was rooted in the ideal of using rockets for peaceful space exploration . As Haley recounted von Kármán requesting : " we will make the rockets — you must make the corporation and obtain the money . Later on you will have to see that we all behave well in outer space . "
Despite these successes , Parsons — project engineer of Aerojet 's Solid Fuel Department — remained motivated to address the malfunctions observed during the Ercoupe tests . In June 1942 — assisted by Mills and Miller — he focused his attention on developing an effective method of restricted burning when using solid rocket fuel , as the military demanded JATOs that could provide over 100 pounds of thrust without any risk of exploding . Although solid fuels such as GALCIT @-@ 27 were less volatile than their liquid counterparts , they were disfavored for military JATO use as they provided less immediate thrust and did not have the versatility of being turned on and off mid @-@ flight . Parsons tried to resolve GALCIT @-@ 27 's volatility issue with GACLIT @-@ 46 , which replaced the former 's ammonium nitrate with guanidine nitrate . To avoid the problems seen with ammonium nitrate , he had GALCIT @-@ 46 supercooled and then superheated prior to testing . When it failed the test , he realized that the fuel 's binding black powders rather than the oxidizers which had resulted in their volatility , and in June that year had the idea of using liquidized asphalt as an appropriate binding agent with potassium perchlorate as its oxidizer .
Malina recounted that Parsons was inspired to use asphalt by the ancient incendiary weapon Greek fire , while in a 1982 talk for the International Association of Astronomical Artists Captain Boushey stated that Parsons experienced an epiphany after watching manual workers using molten asphalt to fix tiles onto a roof . Known as GALCIT @-@ 53 , this fuel proved to be significantly less volatile than the Group 's earlier concoctions , fulfilling Parsons ' aim of creating a restricted @-@ burn rocket fuel inside a castable container , and providing a thrust 427 % more powerful than that of GALCIT @-@ 27 . This set a precedent which according to his biographer John Carter " changed the future of rocket technology " : the thermoplastic asphalt casting — durable in all climates — allowing for mass @-@ production and indefinite storage of the Group 's invention and transforming solid @-@ fuel agents into a safe and viable form of rocket propulsion . Plasticized variants of Parsons ' solid @-@ fuel design — invented by JPL 's Charles Bartley — were later used by NASA in Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters and by the Strategic Air Command in Polaris , Poseidon and Minuteman intercontinental ballistic missiles .
= = = Foundation of JPL and leading the Agape Lodge : 1942 – 44 = = =
Aerojet 's first two contracts were from the U.S. Navy ; the Bureau of Aeronautics requested a solid @-@ fuel JATO and the Wilbur Wright Field requested a liquid @-@ fuel unit . The Air Corps had requested two thousand JATOs from Aerojet by late 1943 , committing $ 256 @,@ 000 toward Parsons ' solid @-@ fuel type . Despite this drastically increased turnover , the company continued to operate informally and remained intertwined with the GALCIT project . Caltech astronomer Fritz Zwicky was brought in as head of the company 's research department , and Haley replaced von Kármán as Aerojet chairman and imposed payroll cuts instead of reducing JATO output ; the alternative was to cut staff numbers while maintaining more generous salaries , but Haley 's priority was Aerojet 's contribution to the war effort . However , company heads including Parsons were exempted from this austerity , drawing the ire of many personnel .
Parsons ' newfound credentials and financial security gave him the opportunity to travel more widely throughout the U.S. as an ambassador for Aerojet , meeting with other rocket enthusiasts . In New York he met with Karl Germer , the head of the O.T.O. in North America and in Washington , D.C. he met Poet Laureate Joseph Auslander , donating some of Crowley 's poetry books to the Library of Congress . He also became a regular at the Mañana Literary Society , which met in Laurel Canyon at the home of Parsons ' friend Robert A. Heinlein and included science fiction writers including Cleve Cartmill , Jack Williamson , and Anthony Boucher . Among Parsons ' favorite works of fiction was Williamson 's Darker Than You Think , a novelette published in the fantasy magazine Unknown in 1940 , which inspired his later occult workings . Boucher used Parsons as a partial basis for the character of Hugo Chantrelle in his murder mystery Rocket to the Morgue ( 1942 ) .
Helen went away for a period in June 1941 , during which Parsons , encouraged to do so by the sexually permissive attitude of the O.T.O. , began a sexual relationship with her 17 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Sara . Upon Helen 's return , Sara asserted that she was Parsons ' new wife , and Parsons himself admitted that he found Sara more sexually attractive than Helen . Conflicted in her feelings , Helen sought comfort in Smith and began a relationship with him that would last for the rest of his life ; the four remained friends . The two couples , along with a number of other Thelemites ( some of whom with their children ) , relocated to 1003 South Orange Grove Avenue , an American Craftsman @-@ style mansion . They all contributed to the rent of $ 100 a month and lived communally in what replaced Winona Boulevard as the new base of the Agape Lodge , maintaining an allotment and slaughtering their own livestock for meat as well as blood rituals . Parsons decorated his new room with a copy of the Stele of Revealing , a statue of Pan , and his collection of swords and daggers . He converted the garage and laundry room into a chemical laboratory and often held science fiction discussion meetings in the kitchen , and entertained the children with hunts for fairies in the 25 acre garden .
Although there were arguments among the commune members , Parsons remained dedicated to Thelema . He gave almost all of his salary to the O.T.O. while actively seeking out new members — including Forman — and financially supported Crowley in London through Germer . Parsons ' enthusiasm for the Lodge quickly began to impact on his professional life . He frequently appeared at Aerojet hungover and sleep deprived from late nights of Lodge activities , and invited many of his colleagues to them , drawing the ire of staff who previously tolerated Parsons ' occultism as harmless eccentricity ; known to von Kármán as a " delightful screwball " , he was frequently observed reciting Crowley 's poem " Hymn to Pan " in an ecstatic manner compared to the preaching of Billy Graham during rocket tests — and on request at parties to their great amusement . However , they disapproved of his hesitancy to separate his vocations ; Parsons became more rigorously engaged in Aerojet 's day @-@ to @-@ day business in an effort to resolve this weariness , but the Agape Lodge soon came under investigation by both the Pasadena Police Department and the FBI . Both had received allegations of a " black magic cult " involved in sexual orgies ; one complainant was a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy who claimed that he was raped by lodge members , while neighbors reported a ritual involving a naked pregnant woman jumping through fire . After Parsons explained that the Lodge was simply " an organization dedicated to religious and philosophical speculation " , neither agency found evidence of illegal activity and came to the conclusion that the Lodge constituted no threat to national security . Having been a long @-@ term heavy @-@ user of alcohol and marijuana , Parsons now habitually used cocaine , amphetamines , peyote , mescaline and opiates as well . He continued to have sexual relations with multiple women , including McMurtry 's fiancee Claire . When Parsons paid for Claire to have an abortion , McMurtry was angered and their friendship broke down .
Crowley and Germer wanted to see Smith removed as head of the Agape Lodge , believing that he had become a bad influence on its members . Parsons and Helen wrote to them to defend their mentor but Germer nevertheless ordered him to stand down and Parsons was appointed as temporary head of the Lodge . Some veteran Lodge members disliked Parsons ' influence , concerned that it encouraged excessive sexual polyandry that was religiously detrimental , but his charismatic orations at Lodge meetings assured his popularity among the majority of followers . Parsons soon created the Thelemite journal Oriflamme , in which he published his own poetry , but Crowley was unimpressed — particularly due to Parsons ' descriptions of drug use — and the project was soon shelved . Helen gave birth to Smith 's son in April ; the child was named Kwen Lanval Parsons . Smith and Helen left with Kwen for a two @-@ room cabin in Rainbow Valley in May . Concurrently in England , Crowley undertook an astrological analysis of Smith 's birth chart and came to the conclusion that Smith was the incarnation of a god , greatly altering his estimation of him . Smith remained skeptical as Crowley 's analysis was seemingly deliberately devised in Parsons ' favor , encouraging Smith to step down from his role in the Agape Lodge and instructing him to take a meditative retreat . Refusing to take orders from Germer anymore , Smith resigned from the O.T.O. Parsons — who remained sympathetic and friendly to Smith during the conflict and was weary of Crowley 's " appalling egotism , bad taste , bad judgement , and pedanticism " — ceased lodge activities and resigned as its head , but withdrew his resignation after receiving a pacifying letter from Crowley .
By the summer of 1943 Aerojet was operating on a budget of $ 650 @,@ 000 . The same year Parsons and von Kármán traveled to Norfolk , Virginia to consult on a new JATO contract for the U.S. Navy on the invitation of Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox . Though JATOs were being mass @-@ produced for military applications , JATO @-@ propelled aircraft could not " keep up " with larger , bomber planes taking off from long aircraft carrier runways — which made Aerojet 's industry at risk of becoming defunct . Parsons demonstrated the efficacy of the newer JATOs to solve this issue by equipping a Grumman plane with solid @-@ fuel units ; its assisted takeoff from the USS Charger was successful , but produced smoke containing a noxious , yellow @-@ colored residue . The Navy guaranteed Parsons a contract on the condition that this residue was removed ; this led to the invention of Aeroplex , a technology for smokeless vapor trails developed at Aerojet by Parsons .
As the U.S. became aware that Nazi Germany had developed the V @-@ 2 rocket , the military — following recommendations from von Kármán based upon research using British intelligence — placed a renewed impetus on its own rocket research , reinstating Qian to the GALCIT project . They gave the Group a $ 3 million grant to develop rocket @-@ based weapons , and the Group was expanded and renamed the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) . By this point the Navy were ordering 20 @,@ 000 JATOs a month from Aerojet , and in December 1944 Haley negotiated for the company to sell 51 % of its stock to the General Tire and Rubber Company to cope with the increased demand . However , Aerojet 's Caltech @-@ linked employees — including Zwicky , Malina and Summerfield — would only agree to the sale on the condition that Parsons and Forman were removed from the company , viewing their occult activities as disreputable . JPL historian Erik M. Conway also attributes Parsons ' expulsion to more practical concerns : he " still wanted to work in the same way as he 'd done in his backyard , instinctive and without regard for safety " . Parsons and Forman were unfazed , informing Haley of their prediction that the rocket industry would become obsolete in the postwar age and seeing more financial incentive in starting a chain of laundromats . Haley persuaded them to sell their stock , resulting in Parsons leaving the company with $ 11 @,@ 000 . With this money he bought the lease to 1003 , which had come to be known as " the Parsonage " after him .
= = = L. Ron Hubbard and the Babalon Working : 1945 – 46 = = =
Now disassociated from JPL and Aerojet , Parsons and Forman founded the Ad Astra Engineering Company , under which Parsons founded the chemical manufacturing Vulcan Powder Company . Ad Astra was subject to an FBI investigation under suspicion of espionage when security agents from the Manhattan Project discovered that Parsons and Forman had procured a chemical used in a top secret project for a material known only as x @-@ metal , but they were later acquitted of any wrongdoing . Parsons continued to financially support Smith and Helen , although he asked for a divorce from her and ignored Crowley 's commands by welcoming Smith back to the Parsonage when his retreat was finished . Parsons continued to hold O.T.O. activities at the Parsonage but began renting rooms at the house to non @-@ Thelemites , including journalist Nieson Himmel , Manhattan Project physicist Robert Cornog , and science fiction artist Louis Goldstone . Parsons attracted controversy in Pasadena for his preferred clientele . Parsonage resident Alva Rogers recalled in a 1962 article for an occultist fanzine : " In the ads placed in the local paper Jack specified that only bohemians , artists , musicians , atheists , anarchists , or any other exotic types need to apply for rooms — any mundane soul would be unceremoniously rejected " .
Science fiction writer and U.S. Navy officer L. Ron Hubbard soon moved in to the Parsonage ; he and Parsons became close friends . Parsons wrote to Crowley that although Hubbard had " no formal training in Magick he has an extraordinary amount of experience and understanding in the field . From some of his experiences I deduce he is direct touch with some higher intelligence , possibly his Guardian Angel . ... He is the most Thelemic person I have ever met and is in complete accord with our own principles . "
Although Parsons and Sara were in an open relationship encouraged by the O.T.O. ' s polyandrous sexual ethics , she became enamored with Hubbard ; Parsons , despite attempting to repress his passions , became intensely jealous . Motivated to find a new partner through occult means , Parsons began to devote his energies to conducting black magic , causing concern among fellow O.T.O. members who believed that it was invoking troublesome spirits into the Parsonage ; Jane Wolfe wrote to Crowley that " our own Jack is enamored with Witchcraft , the houmfort , voodoo . From the start he always wanted to evoke something — no matter what , I am inclined to think , as long as he got a result . " He claimed to the residents that he was imbuing statues in the house with a magical energy in order to sell them to fellow occultists . Parsons reported paranormal events in the house resulting from the rituals ; including poltergeist activity , sightings of orbs and ghostly apparitions , alchemical ( sylphic ) effect on the weather , and disembodied voices . Pendle suggested that Parsons was particularly susceptible to these interpretations and attributed the voices to a prank by Hubbard and Sara . One ritual allegedly brought screaming banshees to the windows of the Parsonage , an incident that disturbed Forman for the rest of his life . In December 1945 Parsons began a series of rituals based on Enochian magic during which he masturbated onto magical tablets , accompanied by Sergei Prokofiev 's Second Violin Concerto and using his own semen and blood for this purpose . Describing this magical operation as the Babalon Working , he hoped to bring about the incarnation of Thelemite goddess Babalon onto Earth . He allowed Hubbard to take part as his " scribe " , believing that he was particularly sensitive to detecting magical phenomena . As described by Richard Metzger , " Parsons jerked off in the name of spiritual advancement " while Hubbard " scanned the astral plane for signs and visions . "
Their final ritual took place in the Mojave Desert in late February 1946 , during which Parsons abruptly decided that his undertaking was complete . On returning to the Parsonage he discovered that a woman named Marjorie Cameron — an unemployed illustrator and former Navy WAVE — had come to visit . Believing her to be the " elemental " woman and manifestation of Babalon that he had invoked , in early March Parsons began performing sex magic rituals with Cameron , who acted as his " Scarlet Woman " , while Hubbard continued to participate as the amanuensis . Unlike the rest of the household , Cameron knew nothing at first of Parsons ' magical intentions : " I didn 't know anything about the O.T.O. , I didn 't know that they had invoked me , I didn 't know anything , but the whole house knew it . Everybody was watching to see what was going on . " Despite this ignorance and her skepticism about Parsons ' magic , Cameron reported her sighting of a UFO to Parsons , who secretly recorded the sighting as a materialization of Babalon .
Inspired by Crowley 's novel Moonchild ( 1917 ) , Parsons and Hubbard aimed to magically fertilize a " magical child " through immaculate conception , which when born to a woman somewhere on Earth nine months following the working 's completion would become the Thelemic messiah embodying Babalon . To quote Metzger , the purpose of the Babalon Working was " a daring attempt to shatter the boundaries of space and time " facilitating , according to Parsons , the emergence of Thelema 's Æon of Horus . When Cameron departed for a trip to New York , Parsons retreated to the desert , where he believed that a preternatural entity psychographically provided him with Liber 49 , which represented a fourth part of Crowley 's The Book of the Law , the primary sacred text of Thelema , as well as part of a new sacred text he called the Book of Babalon . Crowley was bewildered and concerned by the endeavor , complaining to Germer of being " fairly frantic when I contemplate the idiocy of these louts ! " Believing the Babalon Working was accomplished , Parsons sold the Parsonage to developers for $ 25 @,@ 000 under the condition that he and Cameron could continue to live in the coach house , and he appointed Roy Leffingwell to head the Agape Lodge , which would now have to meet elsewhere for its rituals .
Parsons decided to co @-@ found a company called Allied Enterprises with Hubbard and Sara , into which Parsons invested his life savings of $ 20 @,@ 970 . Hubbard suggested that with this money they travel to Miami to purchase three yachts , which they would then sail through the Panama Canal to the West Coast , where they could sell them on for a profit . Parsons agreed , but many of his friends thought it was a bad idea . Hubbard had secretly requested permission from the U.S. Navy to sail to China and South and Central America on a mission to " collect writing material " ; his real plans were for a world cruise . Left " flat broke " by this defrauding , Parsons was incensed when he discovered that Hubbard and Sara had left for Miami with $ 10 @,@ 000 of the money ; he suspected a scam but was placated by a telephone call from Hubbard and agreed to remain business partners . When Crowley , in a telegram to Germer , dismissed Parsons as a " weak fool " and victim to Hubbard and Sara 's obvious confidence trick , Parsons changed his mind , flew to Miami and placed a temporary injunction and restraining order on them . Upon tracking them down to a harbor in County Causeway , Parsons discovered that the couple had purchased three yachts as planned ; they tried to flee aboard one but hit a squall and were forced to return to port . Parsons was convinced that he had brought them to shore through a lesser banishing ritual of the pentagram containing an astrological , geomantic invocation of Bartzabel — a vengeful spirit of Mars . Allied Enterprises was dissolved and in a court settlement Hubbard was made to promise to reimburse Parsons . Parsons was discouraged from taking further action by Sara , who threatened to report him for statutory rape since their sexual relationship took place when she was under California 's age of consent of 18 . Parsons was ultimately compensated with only $ 2 @,@ 900 . Hubbard , already married to Margaret Grubb , bigamously married Sara and went on to found Dianetics and Scientology .
The Sunday Times published an article about Hubbard 's involvement with the O.T.O. and Parsons ' occult activities in December 1969 . In response , the Church of Scientology released an unsubstantiated press statement which said that Hubbard had been sent as an undercover agent by the U.S. Navy to intercept and destroy Parsons ' " black magic cult " , and save Sara from its influence . The Church also claimed that Robert A. Heinlein was the clandestine Navy operative who " sent in " Hubbard to undertake this operation . Returning to California , Parsons completed the sale of the Parsonage , which was then demolished , and resigned from the O.T.O. He wrote in his letter to Crowley that he did not believe that " as an autocratic organization , [ the O.T.O. ] constitutes a true and proper medium for the expression and attainment " of Thelema .
= = = Work for Israelis and espionage accusations : 1946 – 52 = = =
Parsons was employed by North American Aviation at Inglewood , where he worked on the Navaho Missile Program . He and Cameron moved into a house in Manhattan Beach , where he instructed her in occultism and esotericism . When Cameron developed catalepsy , Parsons referred her to Sylvan Muldoon 's books on astral projection , suggesting that she could manipulate her seizures to accomplish it . They were married on October 19 , 1946 , four days after his divorce from Helen was finalized , with Forman as their witness . Parsons continued to be seen as a specialist in rocketry ; he acted as an expert consultant in numerous industrial tribunals and police and Army Ordnance investigations regarding explosions . In May 1947 , Parsons gave a talk at the Pacific Rocket Society in which he predicted that rockets would take humans to the Moon . Although he had become distant from the now largely defunct O.T.O. and had sold much of his Crowleyan library , he continued to correspond with Crowley until the latter 's death in December 1947 .
At the emergence of the Cold War , a Red Scare developed in the U.S. as the Congressional House Un @-@ American Activities Committee began investigating and obstructing the careers of people with perceived communist sympathies . Many of Parsons ' former colleagues lost their security clearances and jobs as a result , and eventually the FBI stripped Parsons of his clearance because of his " subversive " character , including his involvement in and advocacy of " sexual perversion " in the O.T.O. He speculated in a June 1949 letter to Germer that his clearance was revoked in response to his public dissemination of Crowley 's Liber OZ , a 1941 tract summarizing the individualist moral principles of Thelema . Declassified FBI documents would reveal that the FBI 's primary concern was Parsons ' former connections to Marxists at Caltech and his membership of the also " subversive " ACLU . When they interviewed Parsons he denied communist sympathies but informed them of Sidney Weinbaum 's " extreme communist views " and Frank Malina 's involvement in Weinbaum 's communist cell at Caltech , which resulted in Weinbaum 's arrest for perjury since he had lied under oath by denying any involvement in communist groups . Malina 's security clearance was withdrawn as well . In reaction to this hostile treatment , Parsons sought work in the rocket industry abroad . He sought advice to do so in correspondence with von Kármán ; whose advice he followed by enrolling in an evening course in advanced mathematics at USC to bolster his employability in the field — but again he neglected attendance and failed the course . Parsons again resorted to bootlegging nitroglycerin for money , and managed to earn a wage as a car mechanic , a manual laborer at a gas station , and a hospital orderly ; for two years he was also a faculty member at the USC Department of Pharmacology . Relations between Parsons and Cameron became strained ; they agreed to a temporary separation and she moved to Mexico to join an artists ' commune in San Miguel de Allende .
Unable to pursue his scientific career , without his wife and devoid of friendship , Parsons decided to return to occultism and embarked on sexually based magical operations with prostitutes . He was intent , informally following the ritualistic practice of Thelemite organization the A ∴ A ∴ , on performing " the Crossing of the Abyss " , attaining union with the universal consciousness , or " All " as understood in Thelemic mysticism , and becoming the " Master of the Temple " . Following his apparent success in doing so , Parsons recounted having an out @-@ of @-@ body experience invoked by Babalon , who astrally transported him to the biblical City of Chorazin , an experience he referred to as a " Black Pilgrimage " . Accompanying Parsons ' " Oath of the Abyss " was his own " Oath of the AntiChrist " , which was witnessed by Wilfred Talbot Smith . In this oath , Parsons professed to embody an entity named Belarion Armillus Al Dajjal , the Antichrist " who am come [ sic ] to fulfill the law of the Beast 666 [ Aleister Crowley ] " . Viewing these oaths as the completion of the Babalon Working , Parsons wrote an illeist autobiography titled Analysis by a Master of the Temple and an occult text titled The Book of AntiChrist . In the latter work , Parsons ( writing as Belarion ) prophesied within nine years Babalon would manifest on Earth and supersede the dominance of the Abrahamic religions .
During this period , Parsons also wrote an essay on his individualist philosophy and politics — which he described as standing for " liberalism and liberal principles " — titled " Freedom is a Two @-@ Edged Sword " , in which he condemned the authoritarianism , censorship , corruption , antisexualism and racism he saw as prevalent in American society . None of these works were published in his lifetime . Through Heinlein , Parsons received a visit from writer L. Sprague de Camp , with whom he discussed magic and science fiction , and disclosed that Hubbard had sent a letter offering him Sara back . De Camp later referred to Parsons as " An authentic mad genius if I ever met one " , and based the character Courtney James on him in his time travel story A Gun for Dinosaur ( 1956 ) . Parsons was also visited by Jane Wolfe , who unsuccessfully appealed for him to rejoin the dilapidated O.T.O. He entered a brief relationship with an Irishwoman named Gladis Gohan ; they moved to a house on Redondo Beach , a building known by them as the " Concrete Castle " . Cameron returned to Redondo Beach from San Miguel de Allende and violently argued with Parsons upon discovering his infidelity , before she again left for Mexico . Parsons responded by initiating divorce proceedings against her on the grounds of " extreme cruelty " .
Parsons testified to a closed federal court that the moral philosophy of Thelema was both anti @-@ fascist and anti @-@ communist , emphasizing his belief in individualism . This along with references from his scientific colleagues resulted in his security clearance being reinstated by the Industrial Employment Review Board , which ruled that there was insufficient evidence that he had ever had communist sympathies . This allowed Parsons to obtain a contract in designing and constructing a chemical plant for the Hughes Aircraft Company in Culver City . Von Kármán put Parsons in touch with Herbert T. Rosenfeld , President of the Southern Californian chapter of the American Technion Society — a Zionist group dedicated to supporting the newly created State of Israel . Rosenfeld offered Parsons a job with the Israeli rocket program and hired him to produce technical reports for them . In November 1950 , as the Red Scare intensified , Parsons decided to migrate to Israel to pursue Rosenfeld 's offer , but a Hughes secretary whom Parsons had asked to type up a portfolio of technical documents reported him to the FBI . She accused Parsons of espionage and attempted theft of classified company documents on the basis of some of the reports that he had sought to submit to the Technion Society .
Parsons was immediately fired from Hughes ; the FBI investigated the complaint and were suspicious that Parsons was spying for the Israeli government . Parsons denied the allegations when interrogated ; he insisted that his intentions were peaceful and had suffered an error of judgment in procurement of the documents . Some of Parsons ' scientific colleagues rallied to his defense , but the case against him worsened when the FBI investigated Rosenfeld for being linked to Soviet agents , and more accounts of his occult and sexually permissive activities at the Parsonage came to light . In October 1951 the U.S. attorney decided that because the contents of the reports did not constitute state secrets , Parsons was not guilty of espionage .
The Review Board , however , still considered Parsons a liability because of his historical Marxist affiliations and investigations by the FBI , and in January 1952 they permanently reinstated their ban on him working for classified projects , effectively prohibiting him from working in rocketry . To make a living he founded the Parsons Chemical Manufacturing Company , which was based in North Hollywood and created pyrotechnics and explosives such as fog effects and imitation gunshot wounds for the film industry , and he also returned to chemical manufacturing at the Bermite Powder Company in Saugus .
Reconciling with Cameron , they resumed their relationship and moved into a former coach house on Orange Grove Avenue . Parsons converted its large , first @-@ floor laundry room into a home laboratory to work on his chemical and pyrotechnic projects , homebrew absinthe and stockpile his materials . They let out the upstairs bedrooms and began holding parties that were attended largely by bohemians and members of the Beat Generation , along with old friends including Forman , Malina and Cornog . They also congregated at the home of Andrew Haley , who lived on the same street . Though Parsons in his mid @-@ thirties was a " prewar relic " to the younger attendees , the raucous socials often lasted until dawn and frequently attracted police attention . Parsons also founded a new Thelemite group known as " the Witchcraft " , whose beliefs revolved around a simplified version of Crowley 's Thelema and Parsons ' own Babalon prophecies . He offered a course in its teachings for a ten dollar fee , which included a new Thelemic belief system called " the Gnosis " , a version of Christian Gnosticism with Sophia as its godhead and the Christian God as its demiurge . He also collaborated with Cameron on Songs for the Witch Woman , a collection of poems which she illustrated that remained unpublished until 2014 .
= = = Death : 1952 = = =
Parsons and Cameron decided to travel to Mexico for a few months , both for a vacation and for Parsons to take up a job opportunity establishing an explosives factory for the Mexican government . They hoped that this would facilitate a move to Israel , where they could start a family , and where Parsons could bypass the U.S. government to recommence his rocketry career . He was particularly disturbed by the presence of the FBI , convinced that they were spying on him .
On June 17 , 1952 , a day before their planned departure , Parsons received a rush order of explosives for a film set and began to work on it in his home laboratory . An explosion destroyed the lower part of the building , during which Parsons sustained mortal wounds . His right forearm was amputated , his legs and left arm were broken and a hole was torn in the right side of his face . Despite these critical injuries , Parsons was found conscious by the upstairs lodgers . He tried to communicate with the arriving ambulance workers , who rushed him to the Huntingdon Memorial Hospital , where he was declared dead around thirty @-@ seven minutes after the explosion . Parsons ' last words are frequently said to have been " I wasn 't done " , but Cameron recited them as " Who will take care of me now ? " When his mother , Ruth , was informed of the events , she immediately committed suicide by taking an overdose of barbiturates . Cameron learned of her husband 's death from reporters at the scene when she returned home from grocery shopping .
Pasadena Police Department criminologist Don Harding led the official investigation ; he concluded that Parsons had been mixing fulminate of mercury in a coffee can when he dropped it on the floor , causing the initial explosion , which worsened when it came into contact with other chemicals in the room . Forman considered this likely , stating that Parsons often had sweaty hands and could easily have dropped the can . Some of Parsons ' colleagues rejected this explanation , saying that he was very attentive about safety . Two colleagues from the Bermite Powder Company described Parsons ' work habits as " scrupulously neat " and " exceptionally cautious " . The latter statement — from chemical engineer George Santymers — insisted that the explosion must have come from beneath the floorboards , implying an organized plot to kill Parsons . Harding accepted that these inconsistencies were " incongruous " but described the manner in which Parsons had stored his chemicals as " criminally negligent " , and noted that Parsons had previously been investigated by the police for illegally storing chemicals at the Parsonage . He also found a morphine @-@ filled syringe at the scene , indicating that Parsons was narcotized . The police saw insufficient evidence to continue the investigation and closed the case as an accidental death .
Both Wolfe and Smith suggested that Parsons ' death had been suicide , stating that he had suffered from depression for some time . Others theorized that the explosion was an assassination planned by Howard Hughes in response to Parsons ' suspected theft of Hughes Aircraft Company documents . Cameron became convinced that Parsons had been murdered — either by police officers seeking vengeance for his role in the conviction of Earl Kynette or by anti @-@ Zionists opposed to his work for Israel . One of Cameron 's friends , the artist Renate Druks , later stated her belief that Parsons had died in a rite designed to create a homunculus . His death has never been definitively explained .
The immediate aftermath of the explosion attracted the interest of the U.S. media , making headline news in the Los Angeles Times . These initial reports focused on Parsons ' prominence in rocketry but neglected to mention his occult interests . When asked for comment , Aerojet secretary @-@ treasurer T.E. Beehan said that Parsons " liked to wander , but he was one of the top men in the field " . However , within several days , journalists had discovered his involvement in Thelema and emphasized this in their reports .
A private prayer service was held for Parsons at the funeral home where his body was cremated . Cameron scattered his ashes in the Mojave Desert , before burning most of his possessions . She later tried to perform astral projection to commune with him . The O.T.O. also held a memorial service — with attendees including Helen and Sara — at which Smith led the Gnostic Mass .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Personality = = =
Although considered effeminate as a child , in adult life Parsons was known to exhibit an attitude of machismo . His FBI file described him as " potentially bisexual " and he once expressed experiencing a latent homosexuality . The actor Paul Mathison claimed to have had a gay relationship with Parsons in the 1950s , though this was disputed by others who knew him and Cameron . Parsons had the reputation of being a womanizer , and was notorious for frequently flirting and having sexual liaisons with female staff members at JPL and Aerojet . He was also known for personal eccentricity such as greeting house guests with a large pet snake around his neck , driving to work in a rundown Pontiac , and using a mannequin dressed in a tuxedo with a bucket labelled " The Resident " as his mailbox .
As well as a fencing and archery enthusiast , Parsons was also a keen shooter ; he often hunted jack rabbits and cotton tails in the desert , and was amused by mock duelling with Forman while on test sites with rifles and shotguns . Upon proposing to his first wife Helen , he also gifted her with a pistol . Parsons also enjoyed playing pranks on his colleagues , often through detonating explosives such as firecrackers and smoke bombs , and was known to spend hours at a time in the bathtub playing with toy boats while living at the Parsonage .
As well as intense bursts of creativity , Parsons suffered from what he described as " manic hysteria and depressing melancholy . " His father Marvel , after suffering a near @-@ fatal heart attack , died as a psychiatric patient at St. Elizabeths Hospital in Washington D.C. diagnosed with severe clinical depression , a condition Pendle suggested the younger Parsons inherited .
= = = Professional associations = = =
Parsons ' obituary listed him as a member of the Army Ordnance Corps Association , the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics , the American Chemical Society , the American Association for the Advancement of Science , and — despite his lack of an academic degree — the Sigma Xi fraternity . It also stated that he had turned down several honorary degrees .
= = Philosophy = =
= = = Religious beliefs = = =
Parsons adhered to the occult philosophy of Thelema , which had been founded in 1904 by the English occultist Aleister Crowley following a spiritual revelation that he had in the city of Cairo , Egypt , when — according to Crowley 's own accounts — a spirit being known as Aiwass dictated to him a prophetic text known as The Book of the Law . Prior to becoming aware of Thelema and Crowley , Parsons ' interest in esotericism was developed through his reading of The Golden Bough ( 1890 ) , a work in comparative mythology by Scottish social anthropologist James George Frazer . Parsons had also attended lectures on Theosophy by philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti with his first wife Helen , but disliked the belief system 's sentiment of " the good and the true " . During rocket tests , Parsons often recited Crowley 's poem " Hymn to Pan " as a good luck charm . He took to addressing Crowley as his " Most Beloved Father " and signed off to him as " thy son , John " .
In July 1945 , Parsons gave a speech to the Agape Lodge , in which he attempted to explain how he felt that The Book of the Law could be made relevant to " modern life " . In this speech , which was subsequently published under the title of " Doing your Will " , he examined the Thelemite concept of True Will , writing that :
The mainspring of an individual is his creative Will . This Will is the sum of his tendencies , his destiny , his inner truth . It is one with the force that makes the birds sing and flowers bloom ; as inevitable as gravity , as implicit as a bowel movement , it informs alike atoms and men and suns .
To the man who knows this Will , there is no why or why not , no can or cannot ; he IS !
There is no known force that can turn an apple into an alley cat ; there is no known force that can turn a man from his Will . This is the triumph of genius ; that , surviving the centuries , enlightens the world .
This force burns in every man .
Parsons identified four obstacles that prevented humans from achieving and performing their True Will , all of which he connected with fear : the fear of incompetence , the fear of the opinion of others , the fear of hurting others , and the fear of insecurity . He insisted that these must be overcome , writing that " The Will must be freed of its fetters . The ruthless examination and destruction of taboos , complexes , frustrations , dislikes , fears and disgusts hostile to the Will is essential to progress . "
Though Parsons was a lifelong devotee to Thelema , he grew weary of and eventually left the Ordo Templi Orientis — the religious organization that began propagating Thelema under Crowley 's leadership from the 1910s — which Parsons viewed , despite the disagreement of Crowley himself , as excessively hierarchical and impeding upon the rigorous spiritual and philosophical practice of True Will , describing the O.T.O. as " an excellent training school for adepts , but hardly an appropriate Order for the manifestation of Thelema " . In this sense Parsons was described by Carter as an " almost fundamentalist " Thelemite who placed The Book of the Law 's dogma above all other doctrine .
= = = Politics = = =
From early on in his career , Parsons took an interest in socialism and communism , views that he shared with his friend Malina . Under the influence of another friend , Sidney Weinbaum , the two joined a communist group in the late 1930s , with Parsons reading Marxist literature , but he remained unconvinced and refused to join the American Communist Party . Malina asserted that this was because Parsons was a " political romantic " , whose attitude was more anti @-@ authoritarian than anti @-@ capitalist . Parsons would later become critical of the Marxist @-@ Leninist government of the Soviet Union led by Joseph Stalin , sarcastically commenting that
The dictatorship of the proletariat is merely temporary — the state will eventually wither away like a snark hunter , leaving us all free as birds . Meanwhile it may be necessary to kill , torture and imprison a few million people , but whose fault is it if they get in the way of progress ?
During the era of McCarthyism and the Second Red Scare in the early 1950s , Parsons was questioned regarding his former links to the communist movement , by which time he denied any connection to it , instead describing himself as " an individualist " who was both anti @-@ communist and anti @-@ fascist . In reaction to the McCarthyite red @-@ baiting of scientists , he expressed disdain that
Science , that was going to save the world in H. G. Wells ' time is regimented , straight @-@ jacked , [ and ] scared shitless , its universal language diminished to one word : security .
Parsons was politically influenced by Thelema — which holds to the ethical code of " Do what thou wilt " — equating this principle to the libertarian views of some of the Founding Fathers of the United States in his article " Freedom is a Lonely Star " , claiming that by his own time these values had been " sold out by America , and for that reason the heart of America is sick and the soul of America is dead . " He proceeded to criticize many aspects of contemporary U.S. society , particularly the police force , remarking that " The police mind is usually of a sadistic and homicidal trend " and noting that they carried out the " ruthless punishment of symbolic scapegoats " such as African @-@ Americans , prostitutes , alcoholics , homeless people and sociopolitical radicals , under the pretense of a country that upheld " liberty and justice for all . "
To bring about a freer future Parsons believed in liberalizing attitudes to sexual morality stating that , in his belief , the publication of the Kinsey report and development of the psychonautical sciences had as significant an influence on Western society as the creation of the atomic bomb and the development of nuclear physics . He also believed that in the future the restrictions on sexual morality within society should be abolished in order to bring about greater freedom and individuality . Parsons concluded that
the liberty of the individual is the foundation of civilization . No true civilization is possible without this liberty and no state , national or international , is stable in its absence . The proper relation between individual liberty on the one hand and social responsibility on the other is the balance which will assure a stable society . The only other road to social equilibrium demands the total annihilation of individuality . There is not further evasion of nature 's immemorial ultimatum : change or perish but the choice of change is ours .
Jack Cashill , American studies professor at Purdue University , argues that " Although his literary career never got much beyond pamphleteering and an untitled anti @-@ war , anti @-@ capitalist manuscript " , Parsons played a significant role — greater than that of Church of Satan founder Anton LaVey — in shaping the Californian counterculture of the 1960s and beyond through his influence on contemporaries such as Hubbard and Heinlein . Hugh Urban , religious studies professor at Ohio State University , cites Parsons ' Witchcraft group as precipitating the neopagan revival of the 1950s .
Science fiction writer and occultist Robert Anton Wilson described Parsons ' political writings as exemplifying an " ultra @-@ individualist " who exhibited a " genuine sympathy for working people " , strongly empathized with feminism and held an antipathy toward patriarchy comparable to that of John Stuart Mill , arguing in this context that Parsons was an influence on the American libertarian and anarchist movements of the 20th century . Parsons was also supportive of the creation of the State of Israel , making plans to emigrate there when his military security clearance was revoked .
= = Legacy and influence = =
In the decades following his death , Parsons would be better remembered among the Western esoteric community rather than their scientific counterpart , with his recognition in the latter frequently amounting to a footnote . For instance , English Thelemite Kenneth Grant suggested that Parsons ' Babalon Working marked the start of the appearance of flying saucers in the skies , leading to phenomena such as the Roswell UFO incident and Kenneth Arnold UFO sighting . Cameron herself postulated that the 1952 Washington , D.C. UFO incident was a spiritual reaction to Parsons ' death . In 1954 she portrayed Babalon in American Thelemite Kenneth Anger 's short film Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome , viewing this cinematic depiction of a Thelemic ritual as aiding the literal invocation of Babalon begun by Parsons ' working , and later claimed that his Book of the AntiChrist prophecies were fulfilled through the manifestation of Babalon in her person .
In December 1958 JPL was integrated into the newly established National Aeronautics and Space Administration , after having built the Explorer 1 satellite that commenced America 's Space Race with the Soviet Union . Aerojet was contracted by NASA to build the main engine of the Apollo Command / Service Module , and the Space Shuttle Orbital Maneuvering System . In a letter to Malina , von Kármán ranked Parsons first in a list of figures he viewed as most important to modern rocketry and the foundation of the American space program . According to Richard Metzger , Wernher von Braun — who was nicknamed " The Father of Rocket Science " — once argued that Parsons was more worthy of this moniker . In October 1968 Malina — himself a pioneer in sounding rocketry — gave a speech at JPL in which he highlighted Parsons ' contribution to the U.S. rocket project , and lamented how it had come to be neglected , crediting him for making " key contributions to the development of storable propellants and of long duration solid propellant agents that play such an important role in American and European space technology . "
The same month JPL held an open access event to mark the 32nd anniversary of its foundation — which featured a " nativity scene " of mannequins reconstructing the November 1936 photograph of the GALCIT Group — and erected a monument commemorating their first rocket test on Halloween 1936 . Among the aerospace industry , JPL was nicknamed as standing for " Jack Parsons ' Laboratory " or " Jack Parsons Lives " . The International Astronomical Union decided to name a crater on the far side of the Moon Parsons after him in 1972 . JPL would later credit him for making " distinctive technical innovations that advanced early efforts " in rocket engineering , with aerospace journalist Craig Covault stating that the work of Parsons , Qian Xuesen and the GALCIT Group " planted the seeds for JPL to become preeminent in space and rocketry . "
Many of Parsons ' writings would see posthumous publication as Freedom is a Two @-@ Edged Sword in 1989 , a compilation co @-@ edited by Cameron and O.T.O. leader Hymenaeus Beta ( ceremonial name of musician William Breeze ) , which incited a resurgence of interest in Parsons within occult and countercultural circles . For example , comic book artist and occultist Alan Moore noted Parsons as a creative influence in a 1998 interview with Clifford Meth . The Cameron @-@ Parsons Foundation was founded as an incorporated company in 2006 , with the intention of conserving and promoting Parsons ' writings and Cameron 's artwork , and in 2014 Fulger Esoterica published Songs for the Witch Woman — a limited edition book of poems by Parsons with illustrations by Cameron , released to coincide with his centenary . An exhibition of the same name was held at the Museum of Contemporary Art , Los Angeles .
In 1999 Feral House published the biography Sex and Rockets : The Occult World of Jack Parsons by John Carter , who expressed the opinion that Parsons had accomplished more in under five years of research than Robert H. Goddard had in his lifetime , and noted that his role in the development of rocket technology had been neglected by historians of science ; conversely , Carter thought that Parsons ' abilities and accomplishments as an occultist had been overestimated and exaggerated among Western esotericists , emphasizing his disowning by Crowley for practising magic beyond his grade . Feral House republished the work as a new edition in 2004 , accompanied with an introduction by Robert Anton Wilson . Wilson believed that Parsons was " the one single individual who contributed the most to rocket science " , describing him as being " very strange , very brilliant , very funny , [ and ] very tormented " , and considering it noteworthy that the day of Parsons ' birth was the predicted beginning of the apocalypse advocated by Charles Taze Russell ,
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most weeks at number one single in the chart 's history . In addition , the song became the first @-@ place winner on various weekly chart shows such as M ! Countdown ( three straight weeks ) and Music Bank ( a total of 16 weeks including a record 10 @-@ consecutive @-@ week ) . According to the Korea Music Content Industry Association , " Gangnam Style " became the best selling song of 2012 in South Korea with 3 @,@ 842 @,@ 109 download sales .
The song debuted at number six on the Billboard Korea K @-@ Pop Hot 100 for the week of July 28 , 2012 . It then topped the chart the week after and remained at the summit for five consecutive weeks , tying IU 's record with " You and I " for the longest running number one song on the chart . The record , however , was broken by Lee Seung @-@ gi 's " Return " earned six weeks at the top spot from December 2012 to January 2013 . " Gangnam Style " took number one spot on the 2012 Billboard K @-@ Pop Hot 100 year @-@ end chart .
= = = Oceania = = =
In Oceania , " Gangnam Style " was a huge success . The single made its chart debut on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 21 on September 3 , 2012 . After two weeks , the song reached in the top ten and the following week topped the chart , becoming the first K @-@ pop song and the first foreign language song in three decades to achieve that feat since German band Nena 's " 99 Luftballons " hit the top spot in March 1982 . The song remained atop the chart for two consecutive weeks before being deposed of the top spot by One Direction 's " Live While We 're Young " . After one week of the band 's reign , " Gangnam Style " regained its number one position and stayed at the top spot for a further four weeks , tallying a total of six non @-@ consecutive weeks atop the chart . The track was ranked in the top ten of the chart for 17 consecutive weeks before it fell to number 11 on the January 14 , 2013 chart . The song has been certified 4 × Platinum with sales exceeding 60 @,@ 000 by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . " Gangnam Style " was the second biggest @-@ selling single of 2012 in the country behind Carly Rae Jepsen 's " Call Me Maybe " .
In Australia , the song debuted at number seven on the ARIA Singles Chart on September 17 , 2012 , becoming the highest debut for the week . It reached number one on the chart just three weeks after its release , overtaking " Battle Scars " by Guy Sebastian featuring Lupe Fiasco , and spent six consecutive weeks at the summit , making it the second longest running chart @-@ topper for 2012 behind Flo Rida 's " Whistle " remained at the pole position for seven weeks . As a result , Psy became the first artist to reach number one on the chart with a foreign language song since Las Ketchup topped the chart with " The Ketchup Song " in September 2002 , and the eighth overall . In addition , " Gangnam Style " was the first Korean song to enter the chart and to climb to the top spot in Australian chart history . After the single spent the first fourteen weeks in the top ten of the chart since its chart debut , it dropped to number eleven in its 15th week . The song , however , rebounded from the position to number three on the issue date of December 31 , 2012 . It descended to number 14 in its 18th week , ending a 16 @-@ week in the top ten , and out of the top 20 the following week , placed at number 23 . It has been certified 10 × Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , with sales exceeding 700 @,@ 000 copies . " Gangnam Style " was placed at number two on the 2012 ARIA Singles year @-@ end chart behind Carly Rae Jepsen 's " Call Me Maybe " . The song is currently the fourth best @-@ selling single in Australian music history .
= = = Europe = = =
In European region , the song made a massive success as well , topping the charts in almost all countries . " Gangnam Style " made its first European chart appearance , entering the Danish Singles Chart at number 40 on August 3 , 2012 . It reached the top ten in its fifth week , and climbed to number four in its sixth . For the issue dated September 14 , 2012 , the song became Psy 's first number one on the chart , ending the one @-@ week reign of the Danish rock band Nephew 's " Hjertestarter " . The song remained at the top position for seven consecutive weeks , tying it with " Somebody That I Used to Know " performed by Gotye featuring Kimbra for the longest running number one single on the chart for 2012 . In its 24th week , it climbed back to the top , giving it its 8th week in that position . The single spent 22 straight weeks in the top ten of the chart . In January 2013 , the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI Denmark ) certified the single 2 × Platinum , denoting sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies .
The song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 196 on September 1 , 2012 , and in its fourth week broke into the top 40 at number 37 . In its fifth week , the song reached the top five on the chart and eventually peaked at number one on the week of October 6 , becoming the first ever K @-@ pop song to achieve that feat . While the track only remained atop the chart for one week before being overtaken by Rihanna 's " Diamonds " , it spent a further 17 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the chart before it fell to number twelve on the January 26 , 2013 chart . The song was the sixth biggest selling single of 2012 with 878 @,@ 000 sales , and ranked at number 24 among the top 40 most streamed tracks of the year in the United Kingdom . According to Official Charts Company sales data , Gangnam Style has become not only the 129th track to sell over a million copies in the history of the UK ’ s Official Singles Chart , but also the first million seller by an Asian music star . On April 9 , 2013 , the song became 13th most downloaded single of all time in the UK .
Elsewhere in Europe , the song also peaked at number one on the German Singles Chart for two non @-@ consecutive weeks in 2012 . For the week of January 11 , 2013 , it returned to the summit , ending the ten @-@ consecutive @-@ week reign of " Diamonds " by Rihanna , and spent a week at the top . Psy 's song has remained in the top ten on the chart for a 19 straight week including fifteen in the top three position since October 2012 . It has been certified Gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) , denoting sales of 150 @,@ 000 copies . In addition , the single has remained number one in Austria for four non @-@ consecutive weeks , Belgium ( Flanders ) for five consecutive weeks , Belgium ( Wallonia ) for seven straight weeks , Czech Republic for one week , Finland for four consecutive weeks , France for six non @-@ consecutive weeks , Italy for a week , the Netherlands for two consecutive weeks , Norway for four straight weeks , Scotland for a week , Spain for twelve consecutive weeks , and Switzerland for three non @-@ consecutive weeks . It has additionally placed top five positions in Iceland , Ireland and Sweden , and top ten in Hungary and Slovakia .
= = = North America = = =
In the United States , " Gangnam Style " debuted at number 64 the Billboard Hot 100 in the week of September 22 , 2012 , with 61 @,@ 000 downloads sold , more than the total number of previous weeks ( 57 @,@ 000 ) , becoming the second K @-@ pop song to enter the chart behind the Wonder Girls ' " Nobody " , which spent a week at No. 76 on the Oct. 31 , 2009 , chart . The following week , the song rocketed to number eleven on the chart with 188 @,@ 000 downloads , seeing a sales increase of 210 % after Psy appeared on various TV shows such as The Ellen DeGeneres Show and NBC 's Today . In its third week , it rose to number two on the chart , topping the Hot Digital Songs chart with a 60 % increase to 301 @,@ 000 downloads sold and climbing to number nine on On @-@ Demand Songs chart . Since then , the song has peaked at the runner @-@ up spot for seven consecutive weeks behind Maroon 5 's " One More Night " , failing to gain in enough radio audience to ascend to the summit , although it ruled Hot Digital Songs for a fourth week and On @-@ Demand Songs for a fifth week during that period . While " One More Night " dominated the Radio Songs chart for eight weeks , " Gangnam Style " peaked at just number twelve on the chart .
For the week of November 24 , the song dropped to number five on the Hot 100 , despite leading in sales with 188 @,@ 000 downloads . In its 12th week , the single rebounded from number seven to number five with top Digital Gainer accolades , spurred by Psy 's show @-@ closing performance of the song with MC Hammer at the AMA . The track returned for a sixth week atop Hot Digital Songs with 229 @,@ 000 downloads sold including 41 @,@ 000 stemmed from the duet version , which mixed in Hammer 's 1992 No. 5 Hot 100 hit " 2 Legit 2 Quit . " It was the first song to spend six weeks at number one on the Digital Songs chart without reaching the top spot on the Hot 100 since Miley Cyrus ' " Party in the U.S.A. " in 2009 . After the song stayed in the top ten of the Hot 100 for 11 consecutive weeks , it dropped out of the top ten on the December 22 , 2012 chart , falling from number ten to number eleven . The following week , " Gangnam Style " descended to number 18 on the chart but achieved the milestone of 3 million downloads sold in the country , becoming the first and only K @-@ pop song to reach the mark . For the week of January 12 , 2013 , powered by consumers purchasing some of 2012 's most buzzworthy hits and radio airplay recounting the same in year @-@ end retrospectives , the song resurged from number 19 to number six with its best weekly total 400 @,@ 000 downloads sold , returning to the Hot 100 's top ten after three weeks out of the top ten . The track dropped to number 14 in its 18th week , ending a 12 @-@ week in the top 10 , and number 22 in its 19th week , despite staying in the top ten of Digital Songs chart with 192 @,@ 000 and 105 @,@ 000 copies sold , respectively . On February 20 , 2013 , Billboard and Nielsen announced the addition of U.S. YouTube video streaming data to its platforms , which includes an update to the methodology for the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Thanks to the change to reflect online video activity , " Gangnam Style " rebounded from number 48 to number 26 on the Hot 100 for the week of March 2 , 2013 .
On October 11 , 2012 , Billboard unveiled new methodology for the Hot Rap Songs chart , including digital download sales and streaming data for the first time , along with radio airplay audience impressions as measured by Nielsen BDS . Due to this , " Gangnam Style " soared from number 20 to number one on the October 20 , 2012 chart . The song spent eight consecutive weeks atop the chart before being overtaken by Flo Rida 's " I Cry " . After four weeks of his reign , " Gangnam Style " regained its number one position in the week of January 12 , 2013 . The track also peaked at number three on the Hot Dance / Club Play Songs chart in the week of November 17 , 2012 . The song was certified 4 × Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on April 19 , 2013 , denoting digital download sales of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Gangnam Style " became the 9th best selling song of 2012 in the United States with 3 @,@ 592 @,@ 000 download sales . In late January 2013 , the song topped the 4 million mark in digital sales , becoming the third comic / novelty song to reach the mark , following LMFAO 's " Sexy and I Know It " and Cee Lo Green 's " Fuck You ! " .
In Canada , " Gangnam Style " was a big hit just like the rest of the world . The song entered the Canadian Hot 100 chart at number 71 on the week of September 8 , 2012 . In its fourth week , it reached in the top ten of the chart , climbing to number three , and the following week hit the pole position . The single spent seven consecutive weeks atop the chart , making it the second longest running number one song of 2012 behind Maroon 5 's " Payphone " remained at the top for eight straight weeks . On the week of September 12 , 2012 , the song debuted at number seven on the Top 20 Digital Tracks chart , based on Nielsen SoundScan data . The following week it topped the chart and spent four weeks at the top spot before giving the summit to " I Knew You Were Trouble " by Taylor Swift . " Gangnam Style " , however , was back on top of the chart for the week of October 24 , and grabbed the number one position for another four straight weeks , tallying a total of eight non @-@ consecutive weeks atop the chart . On November 16 , 2012 , the track was certified 4 × Platinum by Music Canada , and as of January 2013 has sold over 476 @,@ 000 copies in the country .
= = = Music video = = =
On August 21 , 2012 , " Gangnam Style " charted number one on the iTunes Music Video Charts , overtaking Justin Bieber 's " As Long as You Love Me " and Katy Perry 's " Wide Awake " ; this feat is the first for any South Korean artist . From September 8 , 2012 to February 23 , 2013 , the song has also peaked and stayed at number one on Billboard 's YouTube Chart for 22 weeks , until being surpassed by " Stay " by Rihanna for one week ; It has since reclaimed its top position for a 30th week as of April , 2013 .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = " Oppa Is Just My Style " = =
" Gangnam Style " was officially re @-@ released on August 14 , 2012 , as " Oppa Is Just My Style " ( Korean : 오빤 딱 내 스타일 ) , featuring additional vocals provided by Korean singer and 4Minute member Hyuna . Mallika Rao of The Huffington Post wrote that the video was " apparently retrofitted here to work from a woman 's point of view , but the main difference we 're spotting is less invisible horse riding and more sultry side @-@ eyeing . " As of July 2016 , the accompanying music video has garnered over 640 million views on YouTube .
= Super Mario Bros. =
Super Mario Bros. is a platform video game developed and published by Nintendo as a pseudo @-@ sequel to the 1983 game , Mario Bros. It was originally released in Japan for the Family Computer on September 13 , 1985 , and later that year for the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America and Europe on May 15 , 1987 , and Australia later in 1987 .
It is the first of the Super Mario series of games . In Super Mario Bros. , the player controls Mario and in a two @-@ player game , a second player controls Mario 's brother Luigi as he travels through the Mushroom Kingdom in order to rescue Princess Toadstool from the antagonist Bowser .
In 2005 , IGN 's poll named the " pioneering " and " highly influential " title as the " greatest game of all time " , considering it to have aided in resurrecting the crashed American video game market of the 1980s . The game 's mid @-@ 1980s release served to further popularize the side @-@ scrolling subgenre of the already popular platform video game genre of the early 1980s . In addition to its definitive features , the game has also sold enormously well , and was the best @-@ selling game of all time for a single platform for approximately three decades at over 40 million units , until Nintendo 's Wii Sports took that title . The commercial success of Super Mario Bros. has caused it to be ported to almost every one of Nintendo 's major gaming consoles . Nintendo released special red variants of the Wii and Nintendo DSi XL consoles in re @-@ packaged , Mario @-@ themed , limited edition bundles in late 2010 as part of the 25th anniversary of the game 's release .
= = Gameplay = =
The player takes on the role of the main protagonist of the series , Mario . Mario 's younger brother , Luigi , is only playable by the second player in the game 's multiplayer mode , and assumes the same plot role and functionality as Mario . The objective is to race through the Mushroom Kingdom , survive the main antagonist Bowser 's forces , and save Princess Toadstool . The player moves from the left side of the screen to the right side in order to reach the flag pole at the end of each level .
The game world has coins scattered around it for Mario to collect , and special bricks marked with a question mark ( ? ) , which when hit from below by Mario , may reveal more coins or a special item . Other " secret " , often invisible , bricks may contain more coins or rare items . If the player gains a red and yellow Super Mushroom , Mario grows to double his size and can take one extra hit from most enemies and obstacles , in addition to being able to break bricks above him . Players are given a certain number of lives , and may gain additional lives by picking up green and orange 1 @-@ Up mushrooms , collecting 100 coins , defeating several enemies in a row with a Koopa shell , or bouncing on enemies successively without touching the ground . One life is lost when Mario takes damage while small , falls in a pit , or runs out of time . The game ends when all lives are lost .
Mario 's primary attack is jumping on top of enemies , though many enemies have differing responses to this . For example , a Goomba will flatten and be defeated , while a Koopa Troopa will temporarily retract into its shell , allowing Mario to use it as a projectile . These shells may be deflected off a wall to destroy other enemies , though they can also bounce back against Mario , which will hurt or kill him . Another attack , for enemies standing overhead , is to jump up and hit beneath the brick that the enemy is standing on . Another is the Fire Flower ; when picked up , this item changes the color of Super Mario 's outfit and allows him to throw fireballs , or only upgrades Mario to Super Mario if he has not already . A less common item is the Starman , which often appears when Mario hits certain concealed or otherwise invisible blocks . This item makes Mario temporarily invincible to most hazards and capable of defeating enemies on contact .
The game consists of eight worlds with four sub @-@ levels called " stages " in each world . The final stage of each world takes place in a castle where Bowser or one of his decoys are fought . The game also includes some stages taking place underwater , which contain different enemies . In addition , there are bonuses and secret areas in the game . Most secret areas contain more coins for Mario to collect , but some contain " warp pipes " that allow Mario to advance to later worlds in the game , skipping over earlier ones .
= = Development = =
Super Mario Bros. , the successor to the 1983 arcade title Mario Bros. , was designed by Shigeru Miyamoto and Takashi Tezuka , both of whom belonged to Nintendo 's former creative department at the time . Miyamoto designed the game world and led a team of seven programmers and artists who turned his ideas into code , sprites , music and sound effects . The development of SMB was thus an early example of specialization in the video game industry , made possible and necessary by the capabilities of the Famicom .
The game 's development was motivated by a desire to give Famicom ( i.e. , Nintendo Entertainment System game cartridges ) a swan song in light of the forthcoming Famicom Disk System , and to further progress Nintendo 's work on " athletic games " . Originally , the game was based around a shooting mechanic with very different controls . A desire to focus on jumping and the mapping of the mechanic to the A button resulted in it being dropped . Unlike in Mario Bros. , where Mario would be hurt by stomping on turtles without first flipping them on their backs , Mario could defeat turtles by stomping on their shells , as the developers decided the previous method had been illogical . The ability to have Mario change size was a result of basing level design around a smaller Mario , then intending to make his size bigger in the final version . They later decided it would be fun to have Mario become bigger as a power @-@ up . Early level design was focused on teaching players that mushrooms were distinct from Goombas and would be beneficial to them : In the first level of the game , the first mushroom is difficult to avoid if it is released .
Using mushrooms to change size was influenced by folk tales in which people wander into forests and eat magical Mushrooms ; this also resulted in the game world being named the " Mushroom Kingdom " .
Development was aimed at keeping things simple , in order to have a new game available for the end @-@ of @-@ year shopping season . Originally an idea for a run and gun stage in which Mario would jump onto a cloud and fire at enemies was to be included ; however , this was dropped to maintain the game 's focus on jumping action , but the sky @-@ based bonus stages still remained .
= = = World 1 @-@ 1 = = =
During the third generation of video game consoles , tutorials in which players are explained the mechanics of a video game were rare , and instead , they had to learn how a video game worked by being guided by level design . The opening sections of Nintendo Entertainment System games such as Metroid , The Legend of Zelda and Super Mario Bros. are all designed in such a way that players were forced to explore the mechanics of the game to be able to advance . Super Mario Bros. was the first side @-@ scrolling video game featuring Mario , and one of the first video games directed and designed by Shigeru Miyamoto . Rather to confront the player with obstacles , the first level of Super Mario Bros. lays down the variety of in @-@ game hazards by means of repetition , iteration , and escalation .
In an interview with Eurogamer , Miyamoto explained that he created " World 1 @-@ 1 " to contain everything a player needs to " gradually and naturally understand what they ’ re doing , " so that they can quickly understand how the game works . According to Miyamoto , once the player understands the mechanics of the game , the player will be able to play more freely and it becomes " their game . "
= = = Music = = =
Koji Kondo wrote the six @-@ song musical score for Super Mario Bros. , as well as all of the sound effects . At the time he was composing , video game music was mostly meant to attract attention , not necessarily to enhance or conform to the game . Kondo 's work on Super Mario Bros. was one of the major forces in the shift towards music becoming an integral and participatory part of video games . Whenever he has been asked , Kondo lists the Overworld themes from Super Mario Bros. and The Legend of Zelda as his favourite .
Kondo had two specific goals for his music : " to convey an unambiguous sonic image of the game world " , and " to enhance the emotional and physical experience of the gamer " . The music of Super Mario Bros. is coordinated with the onscreen animations of the various sprites , which was one way he created a sense of greater immersion . He wasn 't the first to do this , for example , Space Invaders has a simple song that gets faster and faster as the aliens speed up , eliciting a sense of stress and impending doom that matches the increasing challenge of the game . However , he took the idea further than that , saying that , “ the guiding question which decides whether to accept or reject his own ( and , more recently , others ’ ) musical tracks is : do the game and music fit one another ? ”
This shift in ideals and results was , in part , born of a method of design that was unusual at the time : instead of bring hired later in the process to add music to a nearly finished game , Kondo was there almost from the beginning , working in tandem with the rest of the team . As he said , " the [ Super Mario Bros. ] music is inspired by the game controls , and its purpose is to heighten the feeling of how the game controls " . Before composition began , a prototype was presented to Kondo for the game so that he could get an idea of Mario 's general environment . Kondo wrote the score with the help of small pianos for an appropriate melody of this scene . After the development of the game showed progress , he realized that his music did not quite fit the pace of the game , so he changed it a bit by increasing the tempo . The music was further adjusted based on the expectations of Nintendo 's play @-@ testers .
= = Minus World = =
The " Minus World " ( also referred to as " World Negative One " ) is the name given to an unbeatable glitch level in Super Mario Bros. World 1 @-@ 2 contains a hidden warp zone , with warp pipes that transport the player to worlds 2 , 3 , and 4 , accessed by running over a wall near the exit . If the player is able to exploit a bug that allows Mario to pass through bricks , the player can enter the warp zone by passing through the wall and the pipe to World 4 @-@ 1 may instead transport the player to a stage labeled " World -1 " . This stage 's map is identical to worlds 2 @-@ 2 and 7 @-@ 2 and upon entering the warp pipe at the end , the player is taken back to the start of the level , thus trapping the player in the level until losing all extra lives . Although the level name is shown as " -1 " ( note the leading space ) on the heads @-@ up display , it is actually World 36 @-@ 1 . The game displays tile No. 36 , which is a blank space , to the left of the hyphen .
The glitch occurs because passing through the wall allows the player to reach the warp pipes before the screen has scrolled far enough to activate the invisible object that initializes the warp . The game defaults to the World 4 @-@ 2 warp data since this is the first warp defined in the program . Most warps have three pipes with the destination world number displayed above them ; since the World 4 @-@ 2 warp has only one pipe , the other two exits are set to World 36 , so that a blank tile is displayed in the empty spots . Since the World 1 @-@ 2 warp has three pipes , the player is able to take the other two to World 36 @-@ 1 ( World " -1 " ) .
The Minus World bug in the Japanese Famicom Disk System version of the game behaves differently and creates multiple , completable stages . " World -1 " is an underwater version of World 1 @-@ 3 with an alternate color palette , and contains sprites of Princess Toadstool , Bowser , and Hammer Bros. " World -2 " is an identical copy of World 7 @-@ 3 , and " World -3 " is a copy of World 4 @-@ 4 , also with an alternate color palette , and contains flying Bloopers , no Bowser , and water instead of lava . After completing these levels , the player returns to the title screen as if the game were completed .
The Minus World bug was fixed in Super Mario All @-@ Stars and subsequent remakes ; however , the Virtual Console releases for Wii , 3DS and Wii U allow players to perform the glitch , as they are emulations of the original Super Mario Bros. Additionally , the game NES Remix for Wii U is also based upon authentic emulation and thus yields the same initially exploitable wall @-@ traversal bug , but the game 's strictly compartmentalized gameplay format yields a loss of a life if the player finally attempts to access the entrance pipe to the Minus World .
On November 25 , 2013 , WatchMojo.com ranked the glitch at No. 1 in the video " Top 10 Video Game Glitches " .
= = Alternate versions = =
As one of Nintendo 's most popular games , Super Mario Bros. has been re @-@ released and remade numerous times , ranging from an arcade version released soon after the original NES release , to the game being available for download on the Virtual Console for the Wii , Nintendo 3DS and Wii U.
= = = Ports = = =
Super Mario Bros. was ported several times in the years following its original release on the Famicom / NES . A side @-@ scrolling platform game entitled Super Mario Bros. was released for the Game & Watch range of handheld LCD game systems by Nintendo . The Game & Watch Super Mario Bros. is an entirely new game , featuring none of the stages from the Famicom / NES original . In Japan , Super Mario Bros. was released for the Disk System , Nintendo 's proprietary floppy disk drive for the Famicom . This version also had multiple Minus World levels and featured on its packaging an artwork drawn by Miyamoto himself . It was also released for the North American NES with other games on the same cartridge ( Super Mario Bros.-Duck Hunt and Super Mario Bros.-Duck Hunt @-@ World Class Track Meet ) .
= = = Vs . Super Mario Bros. = = =
One alternate version , Vs . Super Mario Bros. , is nearly a separate game in its own right . This game , one of several made for Nintendo 's NES @-@ based arcade cabinet , the Nintendo Vs . Unisystem ( and its variant , Nintendo Vs . Dualsystem ) , is based on Super Mario Bros. , and has an identical format . The stages are different ; the early stages are subtly different , with small differences like the omission of 1 @-@ up mushrooms and other hidden items , narrower platforms and more dangerous enemies , but later stages are changed entirely . These changes have a net effect of making Vs . Super Mario Bros. more difficult than the original Super Mario Bros. Many of these later , changed stages reappeared in the 1986 game , Super Mario Bros. 2 .
As with many older arcade games , it is unclear exactly when this game was released ; while the arcade boards themselves are stamped " 1985 " , the Killer List of Video Games , the title screen , and the MAME game listing list the game as having been released in 1986 .
= = = All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros. = = =
All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros. ( オールナイトニッポンスーパーマリオブラザーズ , Ōru Naito Nippon Sūpā Mario Burazāzu ) is a very rare version of Super Mario Bros. with graphics based upon the popular Japanese radio show All Night Nippon . The game , which was only released in Japan for the Famicom Disk System , was a special promotional version that was given away by the show in December 1986 . The creators altered the sprites of the enemies , mushroom retainers , and other characters to look like famous Japanese music idols , recording artists , and DJs as well as other people related to All @-@ Night Nippon . They also used the same slightly upgraded graphics and physics that Super Mario Bros. : The Lost Levels used . It was published by Fuji TV , the same company that later published the game Yume Kōjō : Doki Doki Panic ( which was later modified into the Super Mario Bros. 2 that was released outside Japan ) .
= = = Super Mario Bros. Special = = =
Super Mario Bros. Special ( スーパーマリオブラザーズスペシャル , Sūpā Mario Burazāzu Supesharu ) was a game released only in Japan by Hudson Soft for the NEC PC @-@ 8801 and Sharp X1 computers in Q2 1986 . Although it has similar controls and graphics , there are new level layouts and the game scrolls in a different manner than the original game ( differing based on the computer ) . In addition , many new enemies are included , including enemies from Mario Bros. and Donkey Kong .
On the NEC version , the game goes at a greater speed , meaning that the timer drains more swiftly , and the screen does not scroll . The Sharp X1 version has a speed that is much closer to the original game . Neither version features Luigi or a two @-@ player mode .
= = = Super Mario All @-@ Stars = = =
In 1993 , Nintendo released an enhanced Super NES compilation titled Super Mario All @-@ Stars . It includes all of the Super Mario Bros. games released for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Famicom . The version of Super Mario Bros. included in the compilation has improved graphics and sound to match the SNES 's 16 @-@ bit capabilities , as well as minor alterations in some collision mechanics . Another new feature introduced in this game is the ability for the player to switch to Luigi after the end of the stage , unlike in the original Super Mario Bros. where the second player could only play after Mario died . The new version also included a save game feature . Several glitches from the original NES release were also fixed . This version has also been released for the Wii under a re @-@ packaged , special 25th anniversary compilation known as Super Mario All @-@ Stars : 25th Anniversary Edition .
= = = Super Mario Bros. Deluxe = = =
Super Mario Bros. Deluxe ( スーパーマリオブラザーズデラックス , Sūpā Mario Burazāzu Derakkusu ) , sometimes referred to as Super Mario Bros. DX was released on the Game Boy Color in 1999 in North America and Europe and in 2000 in Japan . Based on the original Super Mario Bros. , it featured an overworld level map , simultaneous multiplayer , a Challenge mode ( in which the player had to find hidden objects and achieve a certain score in addition to normally completing the level ) and eight additional worlds based on the main worlds of the 1986 Super Mario Bros. 2 ( which was released on Super Mario All @-@ Stars as Super Mario Bros. : The Lost Levels ) as an unlockable extra , under the name " For Super Players " . It also was compatible with the Game Boy Printer . The game did not feature any upgraded visuals ( aside from some graphics such as water and lava now being animated rather than static ) , and , since the screen resolution of the Game Boy Color was smaller than the NES , the view distance of the player is reduced . To compensate , players can press up and down to see above and below the player . Pressing select during the game also places the player in the middle or off to the left of the screen so that player can see well . Players can also go back for a very short distance instead of always going to the right . Players can alternate between Mario and Luigi by pressing select on the map screen , and Luigi 's outfit was changed from the original white overalls and green shirt to green overalls and brown shirt to better match Mario and the more common color palette . Fire Luigi , originally identical to Fire Mario , took on normal Luigi ’ s original colors to fit with his Fire colors in later games .
The game holds an aggregate score of 92 @.@ 11 percent on Game Rankings , coming in as the second best game on the Game Boy Color and the 150th best game overall on its lists . IGN 's Craig Harris gave it a perfect score , praising it as a perfect translation of the NES game . He hoped that it would be the example for other NES games to follow when being ported to the Game Boy Color . GameSpot gave the game a 9 @.@ 9 , hailing it as the " killer app " for the Game Boy Color and praising the controls and the visuals ( it was also the highest rated game in the series , later surpassed by Super Mario Galaxy 2 which holds a perfect 10 ) . Both gave it their Editors ' Choice Award . Allgame 's Colin Williamson praised the porting of the game as well as the extras , noting the only flaw of the game being that sometimes the camera goes with Mario as he jumps up . Nintendo World Report 's Jon Lindemann , in 2009 , called it their " ( Likely ) 1999 NWR Handheld Game of the Year , " calling the quality of its porting and offerings undeniable . Nintendo Life gave it a perfect score , noting that it retains the qualities of the original game and the extras . St. Petersburg Times ′ Robb Guido commented that in this form , Super Mario Bros. " never looked better . " The Lakeland Ledger ′ s Nick S. agreed , praising the visuals and the controls . In 2004 , a Game Boy Advance port of Super Mario Bros. ( part of the Classic NES Series ) was released , which had none of the extras or unlockables available in Super Mario Bros. Deluxe . Of that version , IGN noted that the version did not " offer nearly as much as what was already given on the Game Boy Color " and gave it an 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 . Super Mario Bros. Deluxe ranked third in the best @-@ selling handheld game charts in the U.S. between June 6 and 12 , 1999 and sold over 2 @.@ 8 million copies in the U.S. It was included on Singapore Airlines flights in 2006 . Lindermann noted Deluxe as a notable handheld release in 1999 .
It was released on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in 2014 . In Japan , users who registered a Nintendo Network ID on their Nintendo 3DS system between December 10 , 2013 and January 10 , 2014 received a free download code , with emails with download codes being sent out starting January 27 , 2014 . In Europe and Australia , users who registered a Nintendo Network ID on their Nintendo 3DS system between December 10 , 2013 and January 31 , 2014 received a free download code , with emails with download codes being sent out from February 13 to 28 , 2014 . It was released for purchase on the Nintendo 3DS eShop in Europe on February 27 , 2014 , in Australia on February 28 , 2014 , and in North America on December 25 , 2014 .
= = = Super Luigi Bros. = = =
Super Luigi Bros. is a remake of Super Mario Bros. included in NES Remix 2 , featuring Luigi and mirrored to scroll from right to left . The only playable character in the game is Luigi , with the same performance attributes he has in the Japan release of Super Mario Bros. 2 . If the two player mode is played then both players play as Luigi . The game is based on a mission in NES Remix , featuring Luigi in a mirrored version of World 1 @-@ 2 .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario Bros. received favorable reviews , and further popularized the side @-@ scrolling subgenre of the already popular platform video game . This led to many sequels in the series that built upon the same basic premise . Altogether , excluding Game Boy Advance and Virtual Console sales , the game has sold 40 @.@ 24 million copies , making it the best @-@ selling video game in the Mario series .
Allgame gave Super Mario Bros. a five star rating , stating that " The sense of excitement , wonder and most of all -- enjoyment felt upon first playing this masterpiece of videogame can 't barely be put into words . And while its sequels have far surpassed it in terms of length , graphics , sound and other aspects , Super Mario Bros. , like any classic -- whether of a cinematic or musical nature -- has withstood the test of time , continuing to be fun and playable . " and that " Anyone who considers them self a gamer needs to play this game at least once , if not simply for a history lesson . "
Almost all of the game 's aspects have been praised at one time or another , from its large cast of characters to a diverse set of levels . One of the most @-@ praised aspects of the game is the precise controls . The player is able to control how high and far Mario or Luigi jumps , and how fast he can run . Nintendo Power listed it as the fourth best Nintendo Entertainment System video game , describing it as the game that started the modern era of video games as well as " Shigeru Miyamoto 's masterpiece " . The game ranked first on Electronic Gaming Monthly ′ s " Greatest 200 Games of Their Time " list and was named in IGN 's top 100 games of all @-@ time list twice ( in 2005 and 2007 ) . ScrewAttack declared it the second @-@ best Mario game of all time . In 2009 , Game Informer put Super Mario Bros. in second place on their list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time , " behind The Legend of Zelda , saying that it " remains a monument to brilliant design and fun gameplay " . The Game Informer staff also ranked it the second best in their 2001 list of the top 100 games ever made . In 2012 , G4 ranked Super Mario Bros. first of the " Top 100 Video Games of All Time , " citing its revolutionary gameplay as well as its role in helping recover the NA gaming industry from the Video Game Crash of 1983 . In 2014 , IGN ranked Super Mario Bros. as the best Nintendo game in their " Top 125 Nintendo Games of All Time " list , saying that " this is the most important Nintendo game ever made . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Super Mario Bros. ' s success led to the development of many successors in the Super Mario series of video games , which in turn form the core of the greater Mario franchise . The gameplay concepts and elements established in Super Mario Bros. are prevalent in nearly every Super Mario game . The series consists of over 15 entries ; at least one Super Mario game has been released on nearly every Nintendo console to date . The most recent release is Super Mario Maker , released in 2015 for the Wii U. The series is one of the best @-@ selling , with over 310 million copies of games sold worldwide as of September 2015 .
Super Mario Bros. and its sequels inspired products in various media , such as the 1986 anime film , Super Mario Bros. : The Great Mission to Rescue Princess Peach ! ; the 1989 American animated series , The Super Mario Bros. Super Show ! ; and the 1993 live action film , Super Mario Bros. , which stars Bob Hoskins and John Leguizamo as Mario and Luigi , respectively .
In the United States Supreme Court case Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association , the Electronic Frontier Foundation submitted an amicus brief citing social research that declared Super Mario Bros to be a violent video game . It was compared to Mighty Mouse and Road Runner , cartoons that depict a similar form of violence with little negative reaction from the public .
= = Re @-@ releases = =
In early 2003 , Nintendo re @-@ released the game on the Game Boy Advance in Japan as part of their Famicom Minis collection and in the U.S. as part of the NES Series . Unlike previous re @-@ releases , these versions contain no graphical updates and all of the original glitches remain . Super Mario Bros. was one of the best @-@ selling of these re @-@ releases ; according to the NPD Group ( which tracks game sales in North America ) , this re @-@ released version of Super Mario Bros. was the best @-@ selling Game Boy Advance game in June 2004 to December 2004 . In 2005 , Nintendo released this game again for the GBA as part of its 20th Anniversary with a special edition , which sold approximately 876 @,@ 000 units . Super Mario Bros. is also one of the 19 NES games included in the GameCube game Animal Crossing . The only known way to unlock Super Mario Bros. in most versions is by use of a game modification device ( like the Game Shark or Action Replay ) , though it was distributed as a Famitsu prize to owners of Doubutsu no Mori + . The game is fully emulated ( in fact , it is the original ROM ) , so it includes every glitch from the NES including the Minus World glitch . Super Mario Bros. was released on December 2 , 2006 in Japan , December 25 , 2006 in North America and January 5 , 2007 in PAL regions for Wii 's Virtual Console . As it is a copy of the original game , all glitches — including the Minus World — remain in the game . Super Mario Bros. is also one of the trial games available in the " Masterpieces " section in Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Super Mario Bros. was released on the Nintendo 3DS in September 2011 for members of Nintendo 's 3DS Ambassador Program , and a general release came through in Japan on January 5 , 2012 , in North America on February 16 , 2012 and in Europe on March 1 , 2012 .
= The Firebrand =
The Firebrand is an 1987 historical fantasy novel by American author Marion Zimmer Bradley . Set in the ancient city of Troy , the novel is a re @-@ telling of Homer 's epic poem , the Iliad . The Firebrand is written from the point of view of Kassandra , the prophet daughter of King Priam of Troy , and also features other prominent characters from Greek mythology . As in the Iliad , Kassandra foresees catastrophe for her city but few pay heed to her warnings . In Bradley 's story , Kassandra is presented as a strong and insightful woman , rather than as a sufferer of insanity .
The novel has been described as belonging to the genres of revisionist history and feminist literature , and employs themes of gender , religion , and power . Bradley wrote it after the success of her 1983 novel The Mists of Avalon , a re @-@ telling of the Arthurian legend from a female perspective . To appeal to a wider readership , The Firebrand includes fewer elements of fantasy than Bradley 's previous works . Her only novel set in ancient Greece , her husband Walter H. Breen helped her research the story .
Simon & Schuster released The Firebrand on October 1 , 1987 in hardcover , and it was issued in paperback in September 1988 . The Firebrand has been overshadowed by the popularity of The Mists of Avalon , receiving less attention and critical praise . Reviews of the book ranged from mixed to positive , with many literary critics praising Bradley 's ability to give new characterizations to legendary figures . It has been translated into at least twelve languages , beginning with Portuguese and French in 1989 .
= = Main characters = =
Princess Kassandra of Troy is the story 's protagonist , and it is told from her perspective . It begins when an elderly Kassandra tiredly agrees to correct the Homeric version of the Trojan War that is told by a traveling minstrel . Kassandra recounts her life experiences at Troy and Colchis , how she came to balk at the gender roles dictated by Trojan culture , and her inner turmoil over whether she should be serving the Goddess or Apollo .
In her early years , Kassandra is known among her family as the " clever girl , " while her older sister Polyxena is the " proper , modest " , and " pretty one " . Her parents intend for Kassandra to be brought up as a lady and to eventually marry a nobleman — to her gradual displeasure . She often comes into conflict with her father , King Priam , who is characterized as cruel , violent , and power @-@ hungry . Queen Hecuba and Kassandra are not close ; the queen often disparages her daughter for her prophecies . Though Hecuba grew up as an Amazon , she gradually adopted patriarchal Trojan customs as her own .
The warrior Hector is close to their sister Polyxena , and is described by Kassandra as a bully . He disapproves of Kassandra 's desire to be a warrior , but he is much loved in the city . As an adult , Kassandra reflects , " of all [ Priam and Hecuba 's children ] , Hector was closest to their hearts , and [ she ] the least loved . Was it only that she had always been so different from the others ? " Kassandra is happiest when she travels with the Amazons , whose chief Penthesilea becomes a mother figure for Kassandra .
Hector 's wife , Andromache , is the elder daughter of Queen Imandra ; despite Colchis ' matriarchal culture Andromache is content to adopt Trojan culture and be subservient to her husband . She and Kassandra become close , as does Kassandra with Helen , despite her initial distaste for the problems Helen brings to Troy . Despite being her twin , Paris dislikes Kassandra . Early in the story , Bradley writes that Paris ' main character flaw is " a total lack of interest in anything that did not relate to himself or contribute in some way to his own comfort and satisfaction . "
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Volume One = = =
In the wealthy and powerful city of Troy , the pregnant queen Hecuba experiences a prophetic dream which distresses her . When consulted , a priestess of the Great Goddess tells Hecuba and her husband , King Priam , that the dream indicates she will birth a son who will bring destruction to Troy . Priam declares that this boy must be exposed to death , but upon his birth three days later , Priam agrees to Hecuba 's pleas and has him fostered by a shepherd on the slopes of Mount Ida . Priam names the boy Alexandros ( later Paris ) , and names his twin sister Alexandra , whom Hecuba keeps and decides to call Kassandra .
While visiting the temple of Apollo with her mother , six @-@ year @-@ old Kassandra experiences a vision of the god telling her she is to become " his priestess " . In the following years , Kassandra experiences further visions . When she is twelve , Kassandra sees a vision of Paris , who is now a shepherd . Kassandra asks her father the boy 's identity but he reacts angrily . Kassandra is sent to be fostered by Hecuba 's sister Penthesilea , chief of the Amazons — a nomadic warrior tribe consisting only of women . There , Kassandra comes to love their lifestyle — though it is not without its trials — and she learns of her twin , continuing to experience visions of him . Kassandra sees the Judgement of Paris , in which her brother deems Aphrodite more beautiful than Athena or Hera ; Aphrodite rewards Paris by eventually promising the love of Helen of Sparta — daughter of Leda and Zeus .
In Colchis , ruled over by Queen Imandra , Kassandra undergoes the rites of a priestess and is told that serving the Goddess is her destiny . At the age of fifteen , Kassandra is unhappily returned to her home . She arrives during a festival in time to see Paris win and be revealed to his true parents as their son . Despite the prophecy , Priam and Hecuba happily welcome him home . However , Hector and his other brothers , jealous of the attention and achievements Paris has suddenly garnered , suggest that he be sent abroad to treaty with King Agamemnon — who holds Priam 's sister . Paris readily agrees . Meanwhile , Kassandra begins training as a priestess of the temple of Apollo , despite misgivings that she is abandoning the Goddess . Part of her duties include helping care for the temple serpents — symbols of Python whom Apollo is said to have slain . Paris returns to Troy with the beautiful Helen , wife of King Menelaus , and she is welcomed into the city . Kassandra 's warnings that Helen will destroy Troy go unheeded , and Paris denounces his sister as a madwoman .
= = = Volume Two = = =
At the temple , Kassandra is assaulted by Khryse , a priest who disguises himself as Apollo in order to seduce her . She sees through his trickery and fights him off , but the god feels insulted by her refusal and makes the city 's residents stop believing her prophecies . Menelaus ' brother Agamemnon uses Helen 's flight as a pretext for war and soon begins launching daily raids on Troy , beginning the Trojan War . Kassandra spends more time with her family to help with daily tasks while the men — led by Hector — fight off the Akhaian invaders . The war continues sporadically despite the attempts of former Trojan ally Odysseus to end the conflict .
Two years into the war , Kassandra returns to Colchis to learn more of serpent lore . Along the way , she encounters Penthesilea . Kassandra is unhappy to find that the nomadic ways of life of the Amazon and Kentaur are ending , and that Penthesilea 's tribe is dwindling in number . Kassandra experiences a horrifying vision of Apollo firing arrows indiscriminately at both armies — a sign of his wrath — which prompts her to return home . Accompanied with an adopted infant daughter named Honey whom she finds alongside the road , Kassandra returns to Troy and finds that the war is not going well for the Trojans .
Soon after her return , Apollo takes the form of Khryse and spreads a plague in the Akhaians ' camp in response to Agamemnon 's sacrilegious refusal to return Khryse 's daughter , who has been Agamemnon 's prisoner for three years . Khryse 's daughter is reluctantly returned to her father and the Akhaian leader takes the young warrior Akhilles ' concubine as reparation for his loss . The furious Akhilles refuses to continue fighting . Menelaus and Paris duel each other , but Paris flees the fight due to the intervention of Helen and Aphrodite .
= = = Volume Three = = =
Most of Kassandra 's family has come to think of her as mad , and become angry when she feels compelled to vocalize prophecies that foretell the end of Troy . Despite Kassandra 's warnings , the city experiences an earthquake sent by Poseidon , killing the three young sons of Helen and Paris . After Patroklus is killed by Hector , his closest friend Akhilles again joins the fight to get his revenge . Hector and his younger brother Troilus are killed , to the grief of everyone in Troy . Akhilles kills Penthesilea in battle , and soon after Kassandra fires a fatally poisoned arrow at his unprotected heel .
Poseidon sends another earthquake , knocking down Troy 's defenses . The Akhaians flood into the city , and Kassandra and Honey are raped by the warrior Ajax . The women of Troy are divided up among the Akhaians , and Kassandra becomes Agamemnon 's concubine . She is freed when his wife Klytemnestra murders him upon their return to Mykenae . Kassandra makes her way back to Asia Minor , where in the desert she hopes to recreate a kingdom of old — one ruled by a powerful queen .
= = Development = =
The Firebrand was written by American author Marion Zimmer Bradley ( 1930 – 1999 ) , who was best known for her Darkover science fiction series and her novel , The Mists of Avalon ; a re @-@ telling of the Arthurian legend from the point of view of Arthur 's antagonist , Morgan le Fay . Bradley wrote The Firebrand after publishing The Mists of Avalon in 1983 . The Encyclopedia of Fantasy said that after The Mists of Avalon , Bradley wrote stories with a strong literary appeal to appeal to a wide readership rather than focus on the fantasy genre . Bradley 's later works often centered on strong lead characters in " mytho @-@ historic settings " with few fantasy elements . For instance , in The Firebrand the Kentaurs are depicted as a nomadic tribe of short , naked riders of horses rather than as the half @-@ human , half @-@ horsemen legends traditionally portray .
The Firebrand is Bradley 's second re @-@ telling of a famous legend , and her only novel set in ancient Greece . She decided to re @-@ envision legends from a female perspective , and said that she had an interest to " hear more about the human realities " surrounding well @-@ known stories , but did not believe this constituted a feminist writing style . In an interview with Lisa See of Publishers Weekly , Bradley said she viewed the Trojan War legend as an example of masculine culture dominating and obfuscating female viewpoints and contributions . She said :
" During the Dorian invasion , when iron won out over bronze , the female cult died . The Minoan and Mycenaean cultures were dead overnight . But you could also look at that period of history and say , here were two cultures that should have been ruled by female twins — Helen and Klytemnestra . And what do you know ? When they married Menelaus and Agamemnon , the men took over their cities . I just want to look at what history was really like before the women @-@ haters got hold of it . I want to look at these people like any other people , as though no one had ever written about them before . "
Unlike The Mists of Avalon , which featured a wide range of Arthurian legends that Bradley drew upon as source material , Bradley cited few sources while writing The Firebrand . She credits her then @-@ husband , author Walter H. Breen , with helping her research the book and create the story . Breen was knowledgeable about ancient Greek history and language ; according to Bradley he persuaded her to use linguistically correct transliterations of the characters ' names , such as Akhilles rather than the commonly known form Achilles . Though Kassandra 's fate remains unknown in the Iliad , Bradley found inspiration for the character 's ending from an inscription at the Archaeological Museum in Athens , which mentioned Kassandra 's descendants . Bradley believed that this inscription provided the historical basis for Kassandra 's existence .
= = Themes and analysis = =
= = = Gender roles = = =
In the original story found in the Iliad , female characters receive little attention ; although they are often crucial to progressing events , they have no developed identities of their own , and are instead defined by motherhood , wifehood , and sisterhood . Cassandra is described in that story as " the loveliest of [ Priam 's ] lovely daughters , " but does not speak at all . Today she is remembered for portending the city 's doom and for not being believed by its inhabitants , who think she is mad . On ancient Greek pottery she is depicted as half naked with long , wild hair , and Shakespeare 's 1602 play Troilus and Cressida characterizes her as an insane woman . After the Akhaians use the Trojan Horse to enter Troy , the Aeneid and other accounts relay how Cassandra is raped by Ajax , is taken captive by Agamemnon , and is later killed with him by his angry wife Clytemnestra . By setting her story from the female perspective , Bradley gives women — especially the formerly silent Cassandra — a voice . Here , Kassandra is depicted as a strong and insightful woman rather than as a lunatic , yet she is still misunderstood by many of those around her . She is allowed to survive Klytemnestra 's wrath to record a female counter @-@ narrative .
The Firebrand employs similar themes to Bradley 's other works , including the reversal of gender roles where " women are the true heroes " while the " proud , arrogant " men who lead Troy to doom " fail to invoke the reader 's sympathy " . The novel 's title refers to Paris and the destruction he brings to Troy . The Firebrand has been perceived as belonging to the revisionist history genre , as it fits into a " reinvent [ ion of ] stories that are either historical or derived from myth / legend but often taken to be historical , " and then told with a different narrative . The novel has also been seen as an example of feminist literature . Despite Bradley 's refusal to label herself as a feminist , her works often dealt with themes of gender , religion , and power , particularly in historically patriarchal societies . In The Firebrand , Bradley introduces feminist ideals by equating the patriarchal culture with oppressive tendencies ; perceived to have been scorned by the male god Apollo , Kassandra is not believed by Trojan citizens because of her gender .
Funda Basak Dorschel noted that because there is " no humanity or compassion in this masculine world , " characters traditionally associated with noble , positive qualities are instead " stripped of their own glamor " and are portrayed in a negative light — Akhilles for instance is a " mad dog " who rapes Penthesilea as an act of cold @-@ blooded contempt , rather than as an act of sudden love upon causing her death . Agamemnon and Menelaus are rendered as patriarchal stereotypes . In her entry for Science Fiction & Fantasy Book Review Annual , Mary @-@ Kay Bray wrote that Bradley 's account makes these traditional heroes seem more human and flawed , even if they are also less admirable .
= = = Religion and gender = = =
Bradley believed that " cultural shock , the clash of alien cultures , is the essence of literature and drama , " and incorporated this viewpoint into many of her works . The Firebrand is set in a time of change and Kassandra is caught between new and old cultures . Despite being ruled by a king and worshiping the male god Apollo , the Trojans still respect the ancient cult surrounding the Earth Mother . In Colchis , the powerful queen Imandra rules alone but her way of life is declining — she is aging and uncertain of her successor , and the impoverished areas surrounding Colchis contain two other dwindling civilizations ; the Amazons and the Kentaurs .
Literary critics have observed elements of neo @-@ paganism in the novel . Bradley often included characteristics of neo @-@ paganism into her stories as she explored the intersection of gender and religion . While neo @-@ paganism lacks a singular definition , many followers have come to define it as a primitive , matriarchal religion that flourished in Western Europe , centered on the worship of a " Mother Goddess " , and became largely decimated by Christianity . Fry wrote that " a basic assumption [ in The Firebrand ] is that the people of ancient Greece had worshiped the Goddess prior to the arrival of the Akhaians , " a people who brought with them a " male warrior pantheon of Gods ... and gradually subverted the old ways . " Bradley 's Penthesilea tells a young Kassandra , " But remember , child : before ever Apollo Sun Lord came to rule these lands , our Horse Mother — the Great Mare , the Earth Mother from whom we all are born — she was here . "
The Firebrand combines two belief systems and mixes neo @-@ paganism with elements of Greek mythology . Scholars have found similarities between The Firebrand and The Mists of Avalon ; they serve " parallel purposes " by retelling old legends from female perspectives . Both stories deal with the confrontation between female @-@ based , Earth @-@ centered belief systems and rising patriarchal religions . This religious dichotomy appears first as a conflict between Apollo and the Goddess , and later as a confrontation between the Akhaian and Trojan gods . In the novel 's tradition , serpents represent the Mother Goddess ' prominent place in religious life , immortality , rebirth , and regeneration . Readers are told that Python — a female snake deity and symbol of the Goddess — was slain by the Hellenistic Apollo , representing the destruction of feminine social , political , and religious power .
Bradley also uses the story 's female characters to create a feminist dichotomy ; Kassandra and Penthesilea represent the " feminist side " in their pursuit of independence , while many of the other women — such as Andromache , Hecuba , and Helen — " subordinate themselves to patriarchal traditions , values , goods . " The loss of this matriarchal culture has been viewed as the novel 's main theme . Bradley writes of the power of women in many of her works , including The Mists of Avalon and the Darkover series , and The Firebrand continues this by depicting Kassandra in an idealized world ; the Amazons follow the Earth Goddess but are slowly dwindling in the wake of the patriarchal " male warrior pantheon of Gods . " Through Kassandra 's experiences with the Amazons , Bradley shows that she idealizes this group of women .
= = Release = =
The novel was published on October 1 , 1987 by Simon & Schuster , and a paperback edition was released in September 1988 . In 1989 , The Firebrand was translated into Portuguese by A. B. Pinheiro de Lemos and into French by Hubert Tezenas . It has been published in at least ten other languages , including Italian , German , Lithuanian , Japanese , and modern Greek .
= = = Reception = = =
The Firebrand has received less critical attention and success than Bradley 's earlier novel The Mists of Avalon , which has tended to overshadow it . The Firebrand received mixed to positive reviews from mainstream literary critics . Magill Book Reviews applauded Bradley 's faithfulness to the source material in the Iliad , despite the " startling liberties [ she takes ] with Homer 's work . " However , the reviewer said her themes of gender and religion , " rendered artfully and gracefully in [ The Mists of Avalon ] , becomes tiresome with repetition . " Bradley said that some readers would take umbrage at her changes to the Trojan legend ; she said , " had I been content with the account in the Iliad , there would have been no reason to write a novel . Besides , the Iliad stops short just at the most interesting point , leaving the writer to conjecture about the end from assorted legends and traditions . " The Library Journal said readers should familiarize themselves with Greek mythology before beginning the novel , and said the author " makes a strong statement about the desirability of women having control of their own
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destinies and about the cruelties men inflict upon them . " The Encyclopedia of Fantasy said that The Firebrand and Bradley 's 1994 novel The Forest House " display [ Bradley 's ] talent for plot , character , vision and fine storytelling . "
Reviewing for The Globe and Mail , H.J. Kirchhoff compared The Firebrand to The Mists of Avalon , and wrote that the former " is neither as refreshing nor as lovely , even though it is a pretty good read . " Kirchhoff wrote that The Firebrand contained too many similarities to Bradley 's previous novels , saying , " the interlarding of old story and feminist ideology seems forced , " though he praised her " flesh @-@ and @-@ blood " depiction of the men associated with the legend . Vicki McCash of the Sun Sentinel commended the novel for making the legendary characters " breathe and feel " and for giving a " refreshing " twist to the ancient story . McCash wrote , " From the first pages , the reader is gripped in the magic of ancient Troy . These stories have been revered for centuries , but in The Firebrand they are retold to become one epic novel , not only of heroes and gods , but of heroines and goddesses and of change in the very fabric of society . " McCash said that male readers might be troubled by the negative portrayals of their sex , but that Bradley attempted to avoid this by inputting a few sympathetic men such as Aeneas , and several evil women such as Klytemnestra . Virginia Judge of The Herald called it a " fascinating , but lengthy tale , " and praised Bradley 's depictions of the old religion . She criticized the ending for seeming " contrived . "
A reviewer for the English Journal praised the novel and found one of its main strengths is " its ability to entertain the reader with characters who are basically faithful to their origins in the Iliad , yet at the same time rounder , fuller , and more personally engaging . " The reviewer wrote the Bradley " fleshes out the stereotypes on which the characterization in the epic poem rests — the cold calculating Achilles ; crafty , gregarious Odysseus ; frustrated Cassandra — with convincing dialogue which not only carries the plot but gives reference to other events both mythical and historical . " The English Journal also said that " Bradley tempers the bitterness and cynicism of Homer 's Cassandra , presenting instead a woman confused and tormented by knowledge on which she is powerless to act . " In an overview of Bradley 's body of work , Encyclopedia of Fantasy and Horror Fiction author Don D 'Amassa called the novel " one of her better fantasies . " Bradley 's works have received praise from feminist critics , who have particularly lauded her ability to portray multidimensional women as " revered conduit [ s ] of nature @-@ based religion and mysticism " as seen with the character of Kassandra . At the 1988 Locus Awards , The Firebrand was voted the twentieth best fantasy novel of the year .
= Archimedes =
Archimedes of Syracuse ( / ˌɑːkɪˈmiːdiːz / ; Greek : Ἀρχιμήδης ; c . 287 BC – c . 212 BC ) was an Ancient Greek mathematician , physicist , engineer , inventor , and astronomer . Although few details of his life are known , he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity . Generally considered the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time , Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying concepts of infinitesimals and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems , including the area of a circle , the surface area and volume of a sphere , and the area under a parabola .
Other mathematical achievements include deriving an accurate approximation of pi , defining and investigating the spiral bearing his name , and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers . He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena , founding hydrostatics and statics , including an explanation of the principle of the lever . He is credited with designing innovative machines , such as his screw pump , compound pulleys , and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion .
Archimedes died during the Siege of Syracuse when he was killed by a Roman soldier despite orders that he should not be harmed . Cicero describes visiting the tomb of Archimedes , which was surmounted by a sphere and a cylinder , which Archimedes had requested to be placed on his tomb , representing his mathematical discoveries .
Unlike his inventions , the mathematical writings of Archimedes were little known in antiquity . Mathematicians from Alexandria read and quoted him , but the first comprehensive compilation was not made until c . 530 AD by Isidore of Miletus in Byzantine Constantinople , while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD opened them to wider readership for the first time . The relatively few copies of Archimedes ' written work that survived through the Middle Ages were an influential source of ideas for scientists during the Renaissance , while the discovery in 1906 of previously unknown works by Archimedes in the Archimedes Palimpsest has provided new insights into how he obtained mathematical results .
= = Biography = =
Archimedes was born c . 287 BC in the seaport city of Syracuse , Sicily , at that time a self @-@ governing colony in Magna Graecia , located along the coast of Southern Italy . The date of birth is based on a statement by the Byzantine Greek historian John Tzetzes that Archimedes lived for 75 years . In The Sand Reckoner , Archimedes gives his father 's name as Phidias , an astronomer about whom nothing is known . Plutarch wrote in his Parallel Lives that Archimedes was related to King Hiero II , the ruler of Syracuse . A biography of Archimedes was written by his friend Heracleides but this work has been lost , leaving the details of his life obscure . It is unknown , for instance , whether he ever married or had children . During his youth , Archimedes may have studied in Alexandria , Egypt , where Conon of Samos and Eratosthenes of Cyrene were contemporaries . He referred to Conon of Samos as his friend , while two of his works ( The Method of Mechanical Theorems and the Cattle Problem ) have introductions addressed to Eratosthenes .
Archimedes died c . 212 BC during the Second Punic War , when Roman forces under General Marcus Claudius Marcellus captured the city of Syracuse after a two @-@ year @-@ long siege . According to the popular account given by Plutarch , Archimedes was contemplating a mathematical diagram when the city was captured . A Roman soldier commanded him to come and meet General Marcellus but he declined , saying that he had to finish working on the problem . The soldier was enraged by this , and killed Archimedes with his sword . Plutarch also gives a lesser @-@ known account of the death of Archimedes which suggests that he may have been killed while attempting to surrender to a Roman soldier . According to this story , Archimedes was carrying mathematical instruments , and was killed because the soldier thought that they were valuable items . General Marcellus was reportedly angered by the death of Archimedes , as he considered him a valuable scientific asset and had ordered that he not be harmed . Marcellus called Archimedes " a geometrical Briareus " .
The last words attributed to Archimedes are " Do not disturb my circles " , a reference to the circles in the mathematical drawing that he was supposedly studying when disturbed by the Roman soldier . This quote is often given in Latin as " Noli turbare circulos meos , " but there is no reliable evidence that Archimedes uttered these words and they do not appear in the account given by Plutarch . Valerius Maximus , writing in Memorable Doings and Sayings in the 1st century AD , gives the phrase as " ... sed protecto manibus puluere ' noli ' inquit , ' obsecro , istum disturbare ' " - " ... but protecting the dust with his hands , said ' I beg of you , do not disturb this . ' " The phrase is also given in Katharevousa Greek as " μὴ μου τοὺς κύκλους τάραττε ! " ( Mē mou tous kuklous taratte ! ) .
The tomb of Archimedes carried a sculpture illustrating his favorite mathematical proof , consisting of a sphere and a cylinder of the same height and diameter . Archimedes had proven that the volume and surface area of the sphere are two thirds that of the cylinder including its bases . In 75 BC , 137 years after his death , the Roman orator Cicero was serving as quaestor in Sicily . He had heard stories about the tomb of Archimedes , but none of the locals was able to give him the location . Eventually he found the tomb near the Agrigentine gate in Syracuse , in a neglected condition and overgrown with bushes . Cicero had the tomb cleaned up , and was able to see the carving and read some of the verses that had been added as an inscription . A tomb discovered in the courtyard of the Hotel Panorama in Syracuse in the early 1960s was claimed to be that of Archimedes , but there was no compelling evidence for this and the location of his tomb today is unknown .
The standard versions of the life of Archimedes were written long after his death by the historians of Ancient Rome . The account of the siege of Syracuse given by Polybius in his Universal History was written around seventy years after Archimedes ' death , and was used subsequently as a source by Plutarch and Livy . It sheds little light on Archimedes as a person , and focuses on the war machines that he is said to have built in order to defend the city .
= = Discoveries and inventions = =
= = = Archimedes ' principle = = =
The most widely known anecdote about Archimedes tells of how he invented a method for determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape . According to Vitruvius , a votive crown for a temple had been made for King Hiero II , who had supplied the pure gold to be used , and Archimedes was asked to determine whether some silver had been substituted by the dishonest goldsmith . Archimedes had to solve the problem without damaging the crown , so he could not melt it down into a regularly shaped body in order to calculate its density . While taking a bath , he noticed that the level of the water in the tub rose as he got in , and realized that this effect could be used to determine the volume of the crown . For practical purposes water is incompressible , so the submerged crown would displace an amount of water equal to its own volume . By dividing the mass of the crown by the volume of water displaced , the density of the crown could be obtained . This density would be lower than that of gold if cheaper and less dense metals had been added . Archimedes then took to the streets naked , so excited by his discovery that he had forgotten to dress , crying " Eureka ! " ( Greek : " εὕρηκα , heúrēka ! " , meaning " I have found [ it ] ! " ) . The test was conducted successfully , proving that silver had indeed been mixed in .
The story of the golden crown does not appear in the known works of Archimedes . Moreover , the practicality of the method it describes has been called into question , due to the extreme accuracy with which one would have to measure the water displacement . Archimedes may have instead sought a solution that applied the principle known in hydrostatics as Archimedes ' principle , which he describes in his treatise On Floating Bodies . This principle states that a body immersed in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces . Using this principle , it would have been possible to compare the density of the golden crown to that of solid gold by balancing the crown on a scale with a gold reference sample , then immersing the apparatus in water . The difference in density between the two samples would cause the scale to tip accordingly . Galileo considered it " probable that this method is the same that Archimedes followed , since , besides being very accurate , it is based on demonstrations found by Archimedes himself . " In a 12th @-@ century text titled Mappae clavicula there are instructions on how to perform the weighings in the water in order to calculate the percentage of silver used , and thus solve the problem . The Latin poem Carmen de ponderibus et mensuris of the 4th or 5th century describes the use of a hydrostatic balance to solve the problem of the crown , and attributes the method to Archimedes .
= = = Archimedes ' screw = = =
A large part of Archimedes ' work in engineering arose from fulfilling the needs of his home city of Syracuse . The Greek writer Athenaeus of Naucratis described how King Hiero II commissioned Archimedes to design a huge ship , the Syracusia , which could be used for luxury travel , carrying supplies , and as a naval warship . The Syracusia is said to have been the largest ship built in classical antiquity . According to Athenaeus , it was capable of carrying 600 people and included garden decorations , a gymnasium and a temple dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite among its facilities . Since a ship of this size would leak a considerable amount of water through the hull , the Archimedes ' screw was purportedly developed in order to remove the bilge water . Archimedes ' machine was a device with a revolving screw @-@ shaped blade inside a cylinder . It was turned by hand , and could also be used to transfer water from a low @-@ lying body of water into irrigation canals . The Archimedes ' screw is still in use today for pumping liquids and granulated solids such as coal and grain . The Archimedes ' screw described in Roman times by Vitruvius may have been an improvement on a screw pump that was used to irrigate the Hanging Gardens of Babylon . The world 's first seagoing steamship with a screw propeller was the SS Archimedes , which was launched in 1839 and named in honor of Archimedes and his work on the screw .
= = = Claw of Archimedes = = =
The Claw of Archimedes is a weapon that he is said to have designed in order to defend the city of Syracuse . Also known as " the ship shaker , " the claw consisted of a crane @-@ like arm from which a large metal grappling hook was suspended . When the claw was dropped onto an attacking ship the arm would swing upwards , lifting the ship out of the water and possibly sinking it . There have been modern experiments to test the feasibility of the claw , and in 2005 a television documentary entitled Superweapons of the Ancient World built a version of the claw and concluded that it was a workable device .
= = = Heat ray = = =
Archimedes may have used mirrors acting collectively as a parabolic reflector to burn ships attacking Syracuse . The 2nd century AD author Lucian wrote that during the Siege of Syracuse ( c . 214 – 212 BC ) , Archimedes destroyed enemy ships with fire . Centuries later , Anthemius of Tralles mentions burning @-@ glasses as Archimedes ' weapon . The device , sometimes called the " Archimedes heat ray " , was used to focus sunlight onto approaching ships , causing them to catch fire .
This purported weapon has been the subject of ongoing debate about its credibility since the Renaissance . René Descartes rejected it as false , while modern researchers have attempted to recreate the effect using only the means that would have been available to Archimedes . It has been suggested that a large array of highly polished bronze or copper shields acting as mirrors could have been employed to focus sunlight onto a ship . This would have used the principle of the parabolic reflector in a manner similar to a solar furnace .
A test of the Archimedes heat ray was carried out in 1973 by the Greek scientist Ioannis Sakkas . The experiment took place at the Skaramagas naval base outside Athens . On this occasion 70 mirrors were used , each with a copper coating and a size of around five by three feet ( 1 @.@ 5 by 1 m ) . The mirrors were pointed at a plywood mock @-@ up of a Roman warship at a distance of around 160 feet ( 50 m ) . When the mirrors were focused accurately , the ship burst into flames within a few seconds . The plywood ship had a coating of tar paint , which may have aided combustion . A coating of tar would have been commonplace on ships in the classical era .
In October 2005 a group of students from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology carried out an experiment with 127 one @-@ foot ( 30 cm ) square mirror tiles , focused on a mock @-@ up wooden ship at a range of around 100 feet ( 30 m ) . Flames broke out on a patch of the ship , but only after the sky had been cloudless and the ship had remained stationary for around ten minutes . It was concluded that the device was a feasible weapon under these conditions . The MIT group repeated the experiment for the television show MythBusters , using a wooden fishing boat in San Francisco as the target . Again some charring occurred , along with a small amount of flame . In order to catch fire , wood needs to reach its autoignition temperature , which is around 300 ° C ( 570 ° F ) .
When MythBusters broadcast the result of the San Francisco experiment in January 2006 , the claim was placed in the category of " busted " ( or failed ) because of the length of time and the ideal weather conditions required for combustion to occur . It was also pointed out that since Syracuse faces the sea towards the east , the Roman fleet would have had to attack during the morning for optimal gathering of light by the mirrors . MythBusters also pointed out that conventional weaponry , such as flaming arrows or bolts from a catapult , would have been a far easier way of setting a ship on fire at short distances .
In December 2010 , MythBusters again looked at the heat ray story in a special edition entitled " President 's Challenge " . Several experiments were carried out , including a large scale test with 500 schoolchildren aiming mirrors at a mock @-@ up of a Roman sailing ship 400 feet ( 120 m ) away . In all of the experiments , the sail failed to reach the 210 ° C ( 410 ° F ) required to catch fire , and the verdict was again " busted " . The show concluded that a more likely effect of the mirrors would have been blinding , dazzling , or distracting the crew of the ship .
= = = Other discoveries and inventions = = =
While Archimedes did not invent the lever , he gave an explanation of the principle involved in his work On the Equilibrium of Planes . Earlier descriptions of the lever are found in the Peripatetic school of the followers of Aristotle , and are sometimes attributed to Archytas . According to Pappus of Alexandria , Archimedes ' work on levers caused him to remark : " Give me a place to stand on , and I will move the Earth . " ( Greek : δῶς μοι πᾶ στῶ καὶ τὰν γᾶν κινάσω ) Plutarch describes how Archimedes designed block @-@ and @-@ tackle pulley systems , allowing sailors to use the principle of leverage to lift objects that would otherwise have been too heavy to move . Archimedes has also been credited with improving the power and accuracy of the catapult , and with inventing the odometer during the First Punic War . The odometer was described as a cart with a gear mechanism that dropped a ball into a container after each mile traveled .
Cicero ( 106 – 43 BC ) mentions Archimedes briefly in his dialogue De re publica , which portrays a fictional conversation taking place in 129 BC . After the capture of Syracuse c . 212 BC , General Marcus Claudius Marcellus is said to have taken back to Rome two mechanisms , constructed by Archimedes and used as aids in astronomy , which showed the motion of the Sun , Moon and five planets . Cicero mentions similar mechanisms designed by Thales of Miletus and Eudoxus of Cnidus . The dialogue says that Marcellus kept one of the devices as his only personal loot from Syracuse , and donated the other to the Temple of Virtue in Rome . Marcellus ' mechanism was demonstrated , according to Cicero , by Gaius Sulpicius Gallus to Lucius Furius Philus , who described it thus :
Hanc sphaeram Gallus cum moveret , fiebat ut soli luna totidem conversionibus in aere illo quot diebus in ipso caelo succederet , ex quo et in caelo sphaera solis fieret eadem illa defectio , et incideret luna tum in eam metam quae esset umbra terrae , cum sol e regione . — When Gallus moved the globe , it happened that the Moon followed the Sun by as many turns on that bronze contrivance as in the sky itself , from which also in the sky the Sun 's globe became to have that same eclipse , and the Moon came then to that position which was its shadow on the Earth , when the Sun was in line .
This is a description of a planetarium or orrery . Pappus of Alexandria stated that Archimedes had written a manuscript ( now lost ) on the construction of these mechanisms entitled On Sphere @-@ Making . Modern research in this area has been focused on the Antikythera mechanism , another device built c . 100 BC that was probably designed for the same purpose . Constructing mechanisms of this kind would have required a sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing . This was once thought to have been beyond the range of the technology available in ancient times , but the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism in 1902 has confirmed that devices of this kind were known to the ancient Greeks .
= = Mathematics = =
While he is often regarded as a designer of mechanical devices , Archimedes also made contributions to the field of mathematics . Plutarch wrote : " He placed his whole affection and ambition in those purer speculations where there can be no reference to the vulgar needs of life . " Archimedes was able to use infinitesimals in a way that is similar to modern integral calculus . Through proof by contradiction ( reductio ad absurdum ) , he could give answers to problems to an arbitrary degree of accuracy , while specifying the limits within which the answer lay . This technique is known as the method of exhaustion , and he employed it to approximate the value of π . In Measurement of a Circle he did this by drawing a larger regular hexagon outside a circle and a smaller regular hexagon inside the circle , and progressively doubling the number of sides of each regular polygon , calculating the length of a side of each polygon at each step . As the number of sides increases , it becomes a more accurate approximation of a circle . After four such steps , when the polygons had 96 sides each , he was able to determine that the value of π lay between 31 / 7 ( approximately 3 @.@ 1429 ) and 310 / 71 ( approximately 3 @.@ 1408 ) , consistent with its actual value of approximately 3 @.@ 1416 . He also proved that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle ( πr2 ) . In On the Sphere and Cylinder , Archimedes postulates that any magnitude when added to itself enough times will exceed any given magnitude . This is the Archimedean property of real numbers .
In Measurement of a Circle , Archimedes gives the value of the square root of 3 as lying between 265 / 153 ( approximately 1 @.@ 7320261 ) and 1351 / 780 ( approximately 1 @.@ 7320512 ) . The actual value is approximately 1 @.@ 7320508 , making this a very accurate estimate . He introduced this result without offering any explanation of how he had obtained it . This aspect of the work of Archimedes caused John Wallis to remark that he was : " as it were of set purpose to have covered up the traces of his investigation as if he had grudged posterity the secret of his method of inquiry while he wished to extort from them assent to his results . " It is possible that he used an iterative procedure to calculate these values .
In The Quadrature of the Parabola , Archimedes proved that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4 / 3 times the area of a corresponding inscribed triangle as shown in the figure at right . He expressed the solution to the problem as an infinite geometric series with the common ratio 1 / 4 :
<formula>
If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle , then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines , and so on . This proof uses a variation of the series 1 / 4 + 1 / 16 + 1 / 64 + 1 / 256 + · · · which sums to 1 / 3 .
In The Sand Reckoner , Archimedes set out to calculate the number of grains of sand that the universe could contain . In doing so , he challenged the notion that the number of grains of sand was too large to be counted . He wrote : " There are some , King Gelo ( Gelo II , son of Hiero II ) , who think that the number of the sand is infinite in multitude ; and I mean by the sand not only that which exists about Syracuse and the rest of Sicily but also that which is found in every region whether inhabited or uninhabited . " To solve the problem , Archimedes devised a system of counting based on the myriad . The word is from the Greek μυριάς murias , for the number 10 @,@ 000 . He proposed a number system using powers of a myriad of myriads ( 100 million ) and concluded that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe would be 8 vigintillion , or 8 × 1063 .
= = Writings = =
The works of Archimedes were written in Doric Greek , the dialect of ancient Syracuse . The written work of Archimedes has not survived as well as that of Euclid , and seven of his treatises are known to have existed only through references made to them by other authors . Pappus of Alexandria mentions On Sphere @-@ Making and another work on polyhedra , while Theon of Alexandria quotes a remark about refraction from the now @-@ lost Catoptrica . During his lifetime , Archimedes made his work known through correspondence with the mathematicians in Alexandria . The writings of Archimedes were first collected by the Byzantine Greek architect Isidore of Miletus ( c . 530 AD ) , while commentaries on the works of Archimedes written by Eutocius in the sixth century AD helped to bring his work a wider audience . Archimedes ' work was translated into Arabic by Thābit ibn Qurra ( 836 – 901 AD ) , and Latin by Gerard of Cremona ( c . 1114 – 1187 AD ) . During the Renaissance , the Editio Princeps ( First Edition ) was published in Basel in 1544 by Johann Herwagen with the works of Archimedes in Greek and Latin . Around the year 1586 Galileo Galilei invented a hydrostatic balance for weighing metals in air and water after apparently being inspired by the work of Archimedes .
= = = Surviving works = = =
On the Equilibrium of Planes ( two volumes )
The first book is in fifteen propositions with seven postulates , while the second book is in ten propositions . In this work Archimedes explains the Law of the Lever , stating , " Magnitudes are in equilibrium at distances reciprocally proportional to their weights . "
Archimedes uses the principles derived to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures including triangles , parallelograms and parabolas .
On the Measurement of a Circle
This is a short work consisting of three propositions . It is written in the form of a correspondence with Dositheus of Pelusium , who was a student of Conon of Samos . In Proposition II , Archimedes gives an approximation of the value of pi ( π ) , showing that it is greater than 223 / 71 and less than 22 / 7 .
On Spirals
This work of 28 propositions is also addressed to Dositheus . The treatise defines what is now called the Archimedean spiral . It is the locus of points corresponding to the locations over time of a point moving away from a fixed point with a constant speed along a line which rotates with constant angular velocity . Equivalently , in polar coordinates ( r , θ ) it can be described by the equation
<formula>
with real numbers a and b . This is an early example of a mechanical curve ( a curve traced by a moving point ) considered by a Greek mathematician .
On the Sphere and the Cylinder ( two volumes )
In this treatise addressed to Dositheus , Archimedes obtains the result of which he was most proud , namely the relationship between a sphere and a circumscribed cylinder of the same height and diameter . The volume is 4 / 3πr3 for the sphere , and 2πr3 for the cylinder . The surface area is 4πr2 for the sphere , and 6πr2 for the cylinder ( including its two bases ) , where r is the radius of the sphere and cylinder . The sphere has a volume two @-@ thirds that of the circumscribed cylinder . Similarly , the sphere has an area two @-@ thirds that of the cylinder ( including the bases ) . A sculpted sphere and cylinder were placed on the tomb of Archimedes at his request .
On Conoids and Spheroids
This is a work in 32 propositions addressed to Dositheus . In this treatise Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones , spheres , and paraboloids .
On Floating Bodies ( two volumes )
In the first part of this treatise , Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids , and proves that water will adopt a spherical form around a center of gravity . This may have been an attempt at explaining the theory of contemporary Greek astronomers such as Eratosthenes that the Earth is round . The fluids described by Archimedes are not self @-@ gravitating , since he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall in order to derive the spherical shape .
In the second part , he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids . This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships ' hulls . Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water , similar to the way that icebergs float . Archimedes ' principle of buoyancy is given in the work , stated as follows :
Any body wholly or partially immersed in a fluid experiences an upthrust equal to , but opposite in sense to , the weight of the fluid displaced .
The Quadrature of the Parabola
In this work of 24 propositions addressed to Dositheus , Archimedes proves by two methods that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4 / 3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height . He achieves this by calculating the value of a geometric series that sums to infinity with the ratio 1 / 4 .
( O ) stomachion
This is a dissection puzzle similar to a Tangram , and the treatise describing it was found in more complete form in the Archimedes Palimpsest . Archimedes calculates the areas of the 14 pieces which can be assembled to form a square . Research published by Dr. Reviel Netz of Stanford University in 2003 argued that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the pieces could be assembled into the shape of a square . Dr. Netz calculates that the pieces can be made into a square 17 @,@ 152 ways . The number of arrangements is 536 when solutions that are equivalent by rotation and reflection have been excluded . The puzzle represents an example of an early problem in combinatorics .
The origin of the puzzle 's name is unclear , and it has been suggested that it is taken from the Ancient Greek word for throat or gullet , stomachos ( στόμαχος ) . Ausonius refers to the puzzle as Ostomachion , a Greek compound word formed from the roots of ὀστέον ( osteon , bone ) and μάχη ( machē – fight ) . The puzzle is also known as the Loculus of Archimedes or Archimedes ' Box .
Archimedes ' cattle problem
This work was discovered by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in a Greek manuscript consisting of a poem of 44 lines , in the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel , Germany in 1773 . It is addressed to Eratosthenes and the mathematicians in Alexandria . Archimedes challenges them to count the numbers of cattle in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of simultaneous Diophantine equations . There is a more difficult version of the problem in which some of the answers are required to be square numbers . This version of the problem was first solved by A. Amthor in 1880 , and the answer is a very large number , approximately 7 @.@ 760271 × 10206544 .
The Sand Reckoner
In this treatise , Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand that will fit inside the universe . This book mentions the heliocentric theory of the solar system proposed by Aristarchus of Samos , as well as contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies . By using a system of numbers based on powers of the myriad , Archimedes concludes that the number of grains of sand required to fill the universe is 8 × 1063 in modern notation . The introductory letter states that Archimedes ' father was an astronomer named Phidias . The Sand Reckoner or Psammites is the only surviving work in which Archimedes discusses his views on astronomy .
The Method of Mechanical Theorems
This treatise was thought lost until the discovery of the Archimedes Palimpsest in 1906 . In this work Archimedes uses infinitesimals , and shows how breaking up a figure into an infinite number of infinitely small parts can be used to determine its area or volume . Archimedes may have considered this method lacking in formal rigor , so he also used the method of exhaustion to derive the results . As with The Cattle Problem , The Method of Mechanical Theorems was written in the form of a letter to Eratosthenes in Alexandria .
= = = Apocryphal works = = =
Archimedes ' Book of Lemmas or Liber Assumptorum is a treatise with fifteen propositions on the nature of circles . The earliest known copy of the text is in Arabic . The scholars T. L. Heath and Marshall Clagett argued that it cannot have been written by Archimedes in its current form , since it quotes Archimedes , suggesting modification by another author . The Lemmas may be based on an earlier work by Archimedes that is now lost .
It has also been claimed that Heron 's formula for calculating the area of a triangle from the length of its sides was known to Archimedes . However , the first reliable reference to the formula is given by Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD .
= = Archimedes Palimpsest = =
The foremost document containing the work of Archimedes is the Archimedes Palimpsest . In 1906 , the Danish professor Johan Ludvig Heiberg visited Constantinople and examined a 174 @-@ page goatskin parchment of prayers written in the 13th century AD . He discovered that it was a palimpsest , a document with text that had been written over an erased older work . Palimpsests were created by scraping the ink from existing works and reusing them , which was a common practice in the Middle Ages as vellum was expensive . The older works in the palimpsest were identified by scholars as 10th century AD copies of previously unknown treatises by Archimedes . The parchment spent hundreds of years in a monastery library in Constantinople before being sold to a private collector in the 1920s . On October 29 , 1998 it was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for $ 2 million at Christie 's in New York . The palimpsest holds seven treatises , including the only surviving copy of On Floating Bodies in the original Greek . It is the only known source of The Method of Mechanical Theorems , referred to by Suidas and thought to have been lost forever . Stomachion was also discovered in the palimpsest , with a more complete analysis of the puzzle than had been found in previous texts . The palimpsest is now stored at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore , Maryland , where it has been subjected to a range of modern tests including the use of ultraviolet and x @-@ ray light to read the overwritten text .
The treatises in the Archimedes Palimpsest are : On the Equilibrium of Planes , On Spirals , Measurement of a Circle , On the Sphere and the Cylinder , On Floating Bodies , The Method of Mechanical Theorems and Stomachion .
= = Legacy = =
Galileo praised Archimedes many times , and referred to him as a " superhuman " . Leibniz said " He who understands Archimedes and Apollonius will admire less the achievements of the foremost men of later times . "
There is a crater on the Moon named Archimedes ( 29 @.@ 7 ° N , 4 @.@ 0 ° W ) in his honor , as well as a lunar mountain range , the Montes Archimedes ( 25 @.@ 3 ° N , 4 @.@ 6 ° W ) .
The Fields Medal for outstanding achievement in mathematics carries a portrait of Archimedes , along with a carving illustrating his proof on the sphere and the cylinder . The inscription around the head of Archimedes is a quote attributed to him which reads in Latin : " Transire suum pectus mundoque potiri " ( Rise above oneself and grasp the world ) .
Archimedes has appeared on postage stamps issued by East Germany ( 1973 ) , Greece ( 1983 ) , Italy ( 1983 ) , Nicaragua ( 1971 ) , San Marino ( 1982 ) , and Spain ( 1963 ) .
The exclamation of Eureka ! attributed to Archimedes is the state motto of California . In this instance the word refers to the discovery of gold near Sutter 's Mill in 1848 which sparked the California Gold Rush .
= = = The Works of Archimedes online = = =
Text in Classical Greek : PDF scans of Heiberg 's edition of the Works of Archimedes , now in the public domain
In English translation : The Works of Archimedes , trans . T.L. Heath ; supplemented by The Method of Mechanical Theorems , trans . L.G. Robinson
= Marie Curie =
Marie Skłodowska Curie ( / ˈkjʊri , kjʊˈriː / ; French : [ kyʁi ] ; Polish : [ kʲiˈri ] ; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934 ) , born Maria Salomea Skłodowska [ ˈmarja salɔˈmɛa skwɔˈdɔfska ] , was a Polish and naturalized @-@ French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity . She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize , the first person and only woman to win twice , the only person to win twice in multiple sciences , and was part of the Curie family legacy of five Nobel Prizes . She was also the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris , and in 1995 became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris .
She was born in Warsaw , in what was then the Kingdom of Poland , part of the Russian Empire . She studied at Warsaw 's clandestine Floating University and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw . In 1891 , aged 24 , she followed her older sister Bronisława to study in Paris , where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work . She shared the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics with her husband Pierre Curie and with physicist Henri Becquerel . She won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry .
Her achievements included the development of the theory of radioactivity ( a term that she coined ) , techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes , and the discovery of two elements , polonium and radium . Under her direction , the world 's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms , using radioactive isotopes . She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and in Warsaw , which remain major centres of medical research today . During World War I , she established the first military field radiological centres .
While a French citizen , Marie Skłodowska Curie ( she used both surnames ) never lost her sense of Polish identity . She taught her daughters the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland . She named the first chemical element that she discovered — polonium , which she isolated in 1898 — after her native country .
Curie died in 1934 , aged 66 , at a sanatorium in Sancellemoz ( Haute @-@ Savoie ) , France , due to aplastic anemia brought on by exposure to radiation while carrying test tubes of radium in her pockets during research , and in the course of her service in World War I mobile X @-@ ray units that she had set up .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw , in the Russian partition of Poland , on 7 November 1867 , the fifth and youngest child of well @-@ known teachers Bronisława , née Boguska , and Władysław Skłodowski . The elder siblings of Maria ( nickname : Mania ) were Zofia ( born 1862 , nickname : Zosia ) , Józef ( born 1863 , nickname : Józio ) , Bronisława ( born 1865 , nickname : Bronia ) and Helena ( born 1866 , nickname : Hela ) .
On both the paternal and maternal sides , the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland 's independence ( the most recent had been the January Uprising of 1863 – 65 ) . This condemned the subsequent generation , including Maria , her elder sisters and her brother , to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life .
Maria 's paternal grandfather , Józef Skłodowski , had been a respected teacher in Lublin , where he taught the young Bolesław Prus , who would become a leading figure in Polish literature . Her father , Władysław Skłodowski , taught mathematics and physics , subjects that Maria was to pursue , and was also director of two Warsaw gymnasia for boys . After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools , he brought much of the laboratory equipment home , and instructed his children in its use .
The father was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro @-@ Polish sentiments , and forced to take lower @-@ paying posts ; the family also lost money on a bad investment , and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house . Maria 's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls ; she resigned from the position after Maria was born . She died of tuberculosis in May 1878 , when Maria was ten years old . Less than three years earlier , Maria 's oldest sibling , Zofia , had died of typhus contracted from a boarder . Maria 's father was an atheist ; her mother a devout Catholic . The deaths of Maria 's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become agnostic .
When she was ten years old , Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska ; next she attended a gymnasium for girls , from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal . After a collapse , possibly due to depression , she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father , and the next year with her father in Warsaw , where she did some tutoring . Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman , she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine Flying University , a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students .
Maria made an agreement with her sister , Bronisława , that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława 's medical studies in Paris , in exchange for similar assistance two years later . In connection with this , Maria took a position as governess : first as a home tutor in Warsaw ; then for two years as a governess in Szczuki with a landed family , the Żorawskis , who were relatives of her father . While working for the latter family , she fell in love with their son , Kazimierz Żorawski , a future eminent mathematician . His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative , and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them . Maria 's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both . He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician , becoming a professor and rector of Kraków University . Still , as an old man and a mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic , he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska which had been erected in 1935 before the Radium Institute that she had founded in 1932 .
At the beginning of 1890 , Bronisława — who a few months earlier had married Kazimierz Dłuski , a Polish physician and social and political activist — invited Maria to join them in Paris . Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition ; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds . She was helped by her father , who was able to secure a more lucrative position again . All that time she continued to educate herself , reading books , exchanging letters , and being tutored herself . In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw . She continued working as a governess , and remained there till late 1891 . She tutored , studied at the Flying University , and began her practical scientific training ( 1890 – 91 ) in a chemical laboratory at the Museum of Industry and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66 , near Warsaw 's Old Town . The laboratory was run by her cousin Józef Boguski , who had been an assistant in Saint Petersburg to the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev .
= = = New life in Paris = = =
In late 1891 , she left Poland for France . In Paris , Maria ( or Marie , as she would be known in France ) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother @-@ in @-@ law before renting a garret closer to the university , in the Latin Quarter , and proceeding with her studies of physics , chemistry , and mathematics at the University of Paris , where she enrolled in late 1891 . She subsisted on her meager resources , suffering from cold winters and occasionally fainting from hunger .
Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings , barely earning her keep . In 1893 , she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of Professor Gabriel Lippmann . Meanwhile , she continued studying at the University of Paris , and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894 .
Marie had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels , commissioned by the Society for the Encouragement of National Industry ( Société d 'encouragement pour l 'industrie nationale [ 1 ] ) . That same year Pierre Curie entered her life ; it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together . Pierre was an instructor at the School of Physics and Chemistry , the École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la ville de Paris ( ESPCI ) . They were introduced by the Polish physicist , Professor Józef Wierusz @-@ Kowalski , who had learned that Marie was looking for a larger laboratory space , something that Wierusz @-@ Kowalski thought Pierre had access to . Though Pierre did not have a large laboratory , he was able to find some space for Marie where she was able to begin work .
Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer , and they began to develop feelings for one another . Eventually Pierre proposed marriage , but at first Marie did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country . Pierre , however , declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland , even if it meant being reduced to teaching French . Meanwhile , for the 1894 summer break , Marie returned to Warsaw , where she visited her family . She was still laboring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland , but she was denied a place at Kraków University because she was a woman . A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a Ph.D. At Marie 's insistence , Pierre had written up his research on magnetism and received his own doctorate in March 1895 ; he was also promoted to professor at the School . A contemporary quip would call Marie , " Pierre 's biggest discovery . " On 26 July 1895 they were married in Sceaux ( Seine ) ; neither wanted a religious service . Marie 's dark blue outfit , worn instead of a bridal gown , would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit . They shared two pastimes : long bicycle trips , and journeys abroad , which brought them even closer . In Pierre , Marie had found a new love , a partner , and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend .
= = = New elements = = =
In 1895 , Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the existence of X @-@ rays , though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood . In 1896 , Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X @-@ rays in their penetrating power . He demonstrated that this radiation , unlike phosphorescence , did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself . Influenced by these two important discoveries , Marie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis .
She used an innovative technique to investigate samples . Fifteen years earlier , her husband and his brother had developed a version of the electrometer , a sensitive device for measuring electric charge . Using Pierre 's electrometer , she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity . Using this technique , her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present . She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of molecules but must come from the atom itself . This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the ancient assumption that atoms were indivisible .
In 1897 , her daughter Irène was born . To support her family , Curie began teaching at the École Normale Supérieure . The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory ; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to the School of Physics and Chemistry . The shed , formerly a medical school dissecting room , was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof . They were unaware of the deleterious effects of radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances . The School did not sponsor her research , but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments .
Curie 's systematic studies included two uranium minerals , pitchblende and torbernite ( also known as chalcolite ) . Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself , and chalcolite twice as active . She concluded that , if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct , then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium . She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation , and by 1898 she discovered that the element thorium was also radioactive .
Pierre was increasingly intrigued by her work . By mid @-@ 1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her .
The [ research ] idea [ writes Reid ] was her own ; no one helped her formulate it , and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it . She later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity . It [ is ] likely that already at this early stage of her career [ she ] realized that ... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman could be capable of the original work in which she was involved .
She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her priority . Had not Becquerel , two years earlier , presented his discovery to the Académie des Sciences the day after he made it , credit for the discovery of radioactivity , and even a Nobel Prize , would instead have gone to Silvanus Thompson . Curie chose the same rapid means of publication . Her paper , giving a brief and simple account of her work , was presented for her to the Académie on 12 April 1898 by her former professor , Gabriel Lippmann . Even so , just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel , so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium ; two months earlier , Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his own finding in Berlin .
At that time , no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper , describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself : " The fact is very remarkable , and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium . " She later would recall how she felt " a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible . " On 14 April 1898 , the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100 @-@ gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar . They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tons of the ore .
In July 1898 , Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element which they named " polonium " , in honour of her native Poland , which would for another twenty years remain partitioned among three empires . On 26 December 1898 , the Curies announced the existence of a second element , which they named " radium " , from the Latin word for " ray " . In the course of their research , they also coined the word " radioactivity " .
To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt , the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form . Pitchblende is a complex mineral ; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task . The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy ; chemically it resembles the element bismuth , and polonium was the only bismuth @-@ like substance in the ore . Radium , however , was more elusive ; it is closely related chemically to barium , and pitchblende contains both elements . By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium , but appreciable quantities , uncontaminated with barium , were still beyond reach . The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential crystallization . From a ton of pitchblende , one @-@ tenth of a gram of radium chloride was separated in 1902 . In 1910 , Marie Curie isolated pure radium metal . She never succeeded in isolating polonium , which has a half @-@ life of only 138 days .
Between 1898 and 1902 , the Curies published , jointly or separately , a total of 32 scientific papers , including one that announced that , when exposed to radium , diseased , tumor @-@ forming cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells .
In 1900 , Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure , and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris . In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father 's death .
In June 1903 , supervised by Gabriel Lippmann , Curie was awarded her doctorate from the University of Paris . That month the couple were invited to the Royal Institution in London to give a speech on radioactivity ; being a woman , she was prevented from speaking , and Pierre alone was allowed to . Meanwhile , a new industry began developing , based on radium . The Curies did not patent their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business .
= = = Nobel Prizes = = =
In December 1903 , the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie , Marie Curie , and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize in Physics , " in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel . " At first , the Committee intended to honour only Pierre and Becquerel , but one of the committee members and an advocate of woman scientists , Swedish mathematician Magnus Goesta Mittag @-@ Leffler , alerted Pierre to the situation , and after his complaint , Marie 's name was added to the nomination . Marie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize .
Curie and her husband declined to go to Stockholm to receive the prize in person ; they were too busy with their work , and Pierre , who disliked public ceremonies , was feeling increasingly ill . As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture , the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905 . The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant . Following the award of the Nobel Prize , and galvanized by an offer from the University of Geneva , which offered Pierre a position , the University of Paris gave Pierre a professorship and the chair of physics , although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory . Upon Pierre 's complaint , the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory , but it would not be ready until 1906 .
In December 1904 , Curie gave birth to their second daughter , Ève . She later hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language , and sent or took them on visits to Poland .
On 19 April 1906 , Pierre was killed in a road accident . Walking across the Rue Dauphine in heavy rain , he was struck by a horse @-@ drawn vehicle and fell under its wheels , causing his skull to fracture . Curie was devastated by her husband 's death . On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for Pierre and to offer it to Marie . She accepted it hoping to create a world @-@ class laboratory as a tribute to Pierre . She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris .
Curie 's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris , however . In her later years , she headed the Radium Institute ( Institut du radium , now Curie Institute , Institut Curie ) , a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the Pasteur Institute and the University of Paris . The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from Pierre Paul Émile Roux , director of the Pasteur Institute , who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute . Only then , with the threat of Curie leaving , did the University of Paris relent , and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute .
In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium ; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre : the curie . Nevertheless , in 1911 the French Academy of Sciences did not elect her to be a member by one or two votes . Elected instead was Édouard Branly , an inventor who had helped Guglielmo Marconi develop the wireless telegraph . A doctoral student of Curie , Marguerite Perey , became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy – over half a century later , in 1962 . Despite Curie 's fame as a scientist working for France , the public 's attitude tended toward xenophobia — the same that had led to the Dreyfus affair – which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish . During the French Academy of Sciences elections , she was vilified by the right wing press who criticised her for being a foreigner and an atheist . Her daughter later remarked on the public hypocrisy as the French press often portrayed Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour , but would portray her as a French hero when she received a foreign one such as her Nobel Prizes .
In 1911 it was revealed that in 1910 – 11 Curie had conducted an affair of about a year 's duration with physicist Paul Langevin , a former student of Pierre 's — a married man who was estranged from his wife . This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents . Curie ( then in her mid @-@ 40s ) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home @-@ wrecker . When the scandal broke , she was away at a conference in Belgium ; on her return , she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge , with her daughters , in the home of a friend .
International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights , and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal , honored her a second time , with the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry . This award was " in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium , by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element . " She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes , and remains alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each . A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning , headed by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz , encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country . Curie 's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government into supporting the Radium Institute , built in 1914 , where research was conducted in chemistry , physics , and medicine . A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize , she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment . For most of 1912 she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist , Hertha Ayrton . She returned to her laboratory only in December , after a break of about 14 months .
In 1912 the Warsaw Scientific Society offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined , focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914 , and on a new street named Rue Pierre @-@ Curie . She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities . The Institute 's development was interrupted by the coming war , as most researchers were drafted into the French Army , and it fully resumed its activities in 1919 .
= = = World War I = = =
During World War I , Curie saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons . After a quick study of radiology , anatomy , and automotive mechanics she procured X @-@ ray equipment , vehicles , auxiliary generators , and developed mobile radiography units , which came to be popularly known as petites Curies ( " Little Curies " ) . She became the director of the Red Cross Radiology Service and set up France 's first military radiology centre , operational by late 1914 . Assisted at first by a military doctor and by her 17 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Irène , Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war . Later , she began training other women as aides .
In 1915 Curie produced hollow needles containing ' radium emanation ' , a colorless , radioactive gas given off by radium , later identified as radon , to be used for sterilizing infected tissue . She provided the radium from her own one @-@ gram supply . It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X @-@ ray units . Busy with this work , she carried out very little scientific research during that period . In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort , Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government .
Also , promptly after the war started , she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the French National Bank refused to accept them . She did buy war bonds , using her Nobel Prize money . She was also an active member in committees of Polonia in France dedicated to the Polish cause . After the war , she summarized her war time experiences in a book Radiology in War ( 1919 ) .
= = = Postwar years = = =
In 1920 , for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium , the French government established a stipend for her ; its previous recipient was Louis Pasteur ( 1822 – 95 ) . In 1921 , Marie was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium . Mrs. William Brown Meloney , after interviewing Marie , created a Marie Curie Radium Fund and raised money to buy radium , publicising her trip . In 1921 , US President Warren G. Harding received her at the White House to present her with the 1 gram of radium collected in the United States . Before the meeting , recognising her growing fame abroad , and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public , the French government offered her a Legion of Honour award , but she refused . In 1922 she became a fellow of the French Academy of Medicine . She also travelled to other countries , appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium , Brazil , Spain , and Czechoslovakia .
Led by Curie , the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners , including her daughter Irène Joliot @-@ Curie and her son @-@ in @-@ law , Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie . Eventually , it became one of four major radioactivity research laboratories , the others being the Cavendish Laboratory , with Ernest Rutherford ; the Institute for Radium Research , Vienna , with Stefan Meyer ; and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry , with Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner .
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August 1922 , Marie Curie became a member of the newly created International Commission for Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations . In 1923 , she wrote a biography of Pierre , entitled Pierre Curie . In 1925 , she visited Poland , to participate in the ceremony that laid foundations for the Radium Institute in Warsaw . Her second American tour , in 1929 , succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium ; it was opened in 1932 and her sister Bronisława became its director . These distractions from her scientific labours and the attendant publicity caused her much discomfort but provided resources needed for her work . In 1930 , she was elected a member of the International Atomic Weights Committee where she served until her death .
= = = Death = = =
Curie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934 . A few months later , on 4 July 1934 , she died at the Sancellemoz Sanatorium in Passy , in Haute @-@ Savoie , from aplastic anemia believed to have been contracted from her long @-@ term exposure to radiation . The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work , which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed . She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket , and she stored them in her desk drawer , remarking on the faint light that the substances gave off in the dark . Curie was also exposed to X @-@ rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the war . Although her many decades of exposure to radiation caused chronic illnesses ( including near blindness due to cataracts ) and ultimately her death , she never really acknowledged the health risks of radiation exposure .
She was interred at the cemetery in Sceaux , alongside her husband Pierre . Sixty years later , in 1995 , in honour of their achievements , the remains of both were transferred to the Panthéon , Paris . She became the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits . In 2015 , two other women were also interred on their own merits .
Because of their levels of radioactive contamination , her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle . Even her cookbook is highly radioactive . Her papers are kept in lead @-@ lined boxes , and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing .
In her last year , she worked on a book , Radioactivity , which was published posthumously in 1935 .
= = Legacy = =
The physical and societal aspects of the Curies ' work contributed substantially to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty @-@ first centuries . Cornell University professor L. Pearce Williams observes :
The result of the Curies ' work was epoch @-@ making . Radium 's radioactivity was so great that it could not be ignored . It seemed to contradict the principle of the conservation of energy and therefore forced a reconsideration of the foundations of physics . On the experimental level the discovery of radium provided men like Ernest Rutherford with sources of radioactivity with which they could probe the structure of the atom . As a result of Rutherford 's experiments with alpha radiation , the nuclear atom was first postulated . In medicine , the radioactivity of radium appeared to offer a means by which cancer could be successfully attacked .
If Curie 's work helped overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry , it has had an equally profound effect in the societal sphere . To attain her scientific achievements , she had to overcome barriers that were placed in her way because she was a woman , in both her native and her adoptive country . This aspect of her life and career is highlighted in Françoise Giroud 's Marie Curie : A Life , which emphasizes Marie 's role as a feminist precursor .
She was known for her honesty and moderate life style . Having received a small scholarship in 1893 , she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep . She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends , family , students , and research associates . In an unusual decision , Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium @-@ isolation process , so that the scientific community could do research unhindered . She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her . She and her husband often refused awards and medals . Albert Einstein reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame .
= = Awards , honours , and tributes = =
As one of the most famous women scientists to date , Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe , even in the realm of pop culture . In a 2009 poll carried out by New Scientist , Marie Curie was voted the " most inspirational woman in science " . Curie received 25 @.@ 1 per cent of all votes cast , nearly twice as many as second @-@ place Rosalind Franklin ( 14 @.@ 2 per cent ) .
Poland and France declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie , and the United Nations declared that this would be the International Year of Chemistry . An artistic installation celebrating " Madame Curie " filled the Jacobs Gallery at San Diego 's Museum of Contemporary Art . On 7 November , Google celebrated the anniversary of her birth with a special Google Doodle . On 10 December , the New York Academy of Sciences celebrated the centenary of Marie Curie 's second Nobel prize in the presence of Princess Madeleine of Sweden .
Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel prize , the first person to win two Nobel Prizes , the only woman to win in two fields , and the only person to win in multiple sciences . Awards that she received include :
Nobel Prize in Physics ( 1903 , with Pierre )
Davy Medal ( 1903 , with Pierre )
Matteucci Medal ( 1904 , with Pierre )
Actonian Prize ( 1907 )
Elliott Cresson Medal ( 1909 )
Nobel Prize in Chemistry ( 1911 )
Franklin Medal of the American Philosophical Society ( 1921 )
Marie Curie 's 1898 publication with her husband M. P. Curie and also with M. G. Bémont for their discovery of radium and polonium was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI Paris ( Ecole supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la Ville de Paris ) in 2015 .
In 1995 , she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon , Paris . The curie ( symbol Ci ) , a unit of radioactivity , is named in honour of her and Pierre ( although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre , Marie or both of them ) . The element with atomic number 96 was named curium . Three radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies : curite , sklodowskite , and cuprosklodowskite . She received numerous honorary degrees from universities across the world . The Marie Curie Actions fellowship program of the European Union for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country is named after her . In Poland , she had received honorary doctorates from the Lwów Polytechnic ( 1912 ) , Poznań University ( 1922 ) , Kraków 's Jagiellonian University ( 1924 ) , and the Warsaw Polytechnic ( 1926 ) . In 1921 , she was awarded the Iota Sigma Pi National Honorary Member for her significant contribution .
Numerous locations around the world are named after her . In 2007 , a metro station in Paris was renamed to honour both of the Curies . Polish nuclear research reactor Maria is named after her . The 7000 Curie asteroid is also named after her . A KLM McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 11 ( registration PH @-@ KCC ) is named in her honour .
Several institutions bear her name , starting with the two Curie institutes – the Maria Skłodowska – Curie Institute of Oncology , in Warsaw ; and the Institut Curie in Paris . She is the patron of Maria Curie @-@ Skłodowska University , in Lublin , founded in 1944 ; and of Pierre and Marie Curie University ( Paris VI ) , France 's pre @-@ eminent science university . In Britain , Marie Curie Cancer Care was organized in 1948 to care for the terminally ill .
Two museums are devoted to Marie Curie . In 1967 , the Maria Skłodowska @-@ Curie Museum was established in Warsaw 's " New Town " , at her birthplace on ulica Freta ( Freta Street ) . Her Paris laboratory is preserved as the Musée Curie , open since 1992 .
Several works of art bear her likeness . In 1935 , Michalina Mościcka , wife of Polish President Ignacy Mościcki , unveiled a statue of Marie Curie before Warsaw 's Radium Institute . During the 1944 Second World War Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation , the monument was damaged by gunfire ; after the war it was decided to leave the bullet marks on the statue and its pedestal . In 1955 Jozef Mazur created a stained glass panel of her , the Maria Skłodowska @-@ Curie Medallion , featured in the University at Buffalo Polish Room .
A number of biographies are devoted to her . In 1938 her daughter , Ève Curie , published Madame Curie . In 1987 Françoise Giroud wrote Marie Curie : A Life . In 2005 Barbara Goldsmith wrote Obsessive Genius : The Inner World of Marie Curie . In 2011 Lauren Redniss published Radioactive : Marie and Pierre Curie , a Tale of Love and Fallout .
Greer Garson and Walter Pidgeon starred in the 1943 U.S. Oscar @-@ nominated film , Madame Curie , based on her life . More recently , in 1997 , a French film about Pierre and Marie Curie was released , Les Palmes de M. Schutz . It was adapted from a play of the same name . In the film , Marie Curie was played by Isabelle Huppert .
Curie is the subject of the play False Assumptions by Lawrence Aronovitch , in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life . Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play Manya : The Living History of Marie Curie , a one @-@ woman show performed in 30 US states and nine countries , by 2014 .
Curie 's likeness also has appeared on banknotes , stamps and coins around the world . She was featured on the Polish late @-@ 1980s 20 @,@ 000 @-@ złoty banknote as well as on the last French 500 @-@ franc note , before the franc was replaced by the euro . Marie Curie themed postage stamps from Mali , the Republic of Togo , Zambia , and the Republic of Guinea actually show a picture of Susan Marie Frontczak portraying Curie in a 2001 picture by Paul Schroeder .
On the 2011 centenary of Marie Curie 's second Nobel Prize ( 1911 ) , an allegorical mural was painted on the façade of her Warsaw birthplace . It depicts an infant Maria Skłodowska holding a test tube from which emanate the elements that she would discover as an adult : polonium and radium .
Also in 2011 , a new Warsaw bridge over the Vistula was named after her .
= = = Nonfiction = = =
Eva Hemmungs Wirtén ( 2015 ) . Making Marie Curie : Intellectual Property and Celebrity Culture in an Age of Information . University of Chicago Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 23584 @-@ 4 . Retrieved 15 March 2016 .
Kaczorowska , Teresa ( 2011 ) . Córka mazowieckich równin , czyli , Maria Skłodowska @-@ Curie z Mazowsza [ Daughter of the Mazovian Plains : Maria Skłodowska – Curie of Mazowsze ] ( in Polish ) . Związek Literatów Polskich , Oddz. w Ciechanowie . ISBN 9788389408365 . Retrieved 15 March 2016 .
Pasachoff , Naomi ( 1996 ) . Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 509214 @-@ 1 .
Curie , Eve ( 2001 ) . Madame Curie : A Biography . Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 81038 @-@ 1 .
Curie , Marie ( 1921 ) . The Discovery of Radium . Poughkeepsie : Vassar College .
Quinn , Susan ( 1996 ) . Marie Curie : A Life . Da Capo Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 201 @-@ 88794 @-@ 5 .
Giroud , Françoise ( 1986 ) . Marie Curie , a life . Holmes & Meier . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8419 @-@ 0977 @-@ 9 . , translated by Lydia Davis
Redniss , Lauren ( 2010 ) . Radioactive : Marie & Pierre Curie : A Tale of Love and Fallout . HarperCollins . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 135132 @-@ 7 .
Opfell , Olga S. ( 1978 ) . The Lady Laureates : Women Who Have Won the Nobel Prize . Metuchen , N.J. & London : Scarecrow Press. pp. 147 – 164 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8108 @-@ 1161 @-@ 8 .
= = = Fiction = = =
Olov Enquist , Per ( 2006 ) . The Book about Blanche and Marie . New York : Overlook . ISBN 1 @-@ 58567 @-@ 668 @-@ 3 . A 2004 novel by Per Olov Enquist featuring Maria Skłodowska @-@ Curie , neurologist Jean @-@ Martin Charcot , and his Salpêtrière patient " Blanche " ( Marie Wittman ) . The English translation was published in 2006 .
= You Don 't Know What to Do =
" You Don 't Know What to Do " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey included on her fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse ( 2014 ) , and features rapper Wale . The track was released on June 30 , 2014 , as the fourth single from the album . It was written by Wale , Carey , Jermaine Dupri and Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , with production helmed by the latter three . The song contains an interpolation of " I 'm Caught Up in a One Night Affair " written by Patrick Adams and Terri Gonzalez , both of whom received songwriting credits as a result . The single 's artwork caused controversy when the media criticised Carey for photoshopping and re @-@ using images of herself .
A disco revival song , the lyrics are about Carey being dissatisfied by her lover 's failed attempts at romancing her . Despite being serviced to urban and rhythmic radio in the United States , Belgium and South Korea were the only territories where the song charted , peaking at number 14 on its Ultratip chart , which ranks the top songs that have yet to enter the main Ultratop 50 chart , and number 2 on the South Korea download chart . " You Don 't Know What to Do " garnered critical acclaim amongst music critics : many complimented the disco revival and throwback style , calling it the best track on the album , and compared it to the works of Jocelyn Brown , Daft Punk , Chic and post @-@ revivalist songs produced Pharrell Williams . Carey and Wale performed the song for the first and only time on the Today show in the United States .
= = Background and release = =
" You Don 't Know What to Do " was written by Carey , Jermaine Dupri and Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , with featured artist Wale . The song interpolates a song called " I 'm Caught Up in a One Night Affair " , written by Patrick Adams and Terri Gonzalez and originally performed by Inner Life in 1979 . Adams and Gonzalez are credited as songwriters as a result . In August 2012 , Cox revealed that he , Carey and Dupri had started working on Carey 's then untitled fourteenth studio album , later revealed to be Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , before the singer became pregnant with twins in 2010 , and then resumed working on the project after she gave birth in 2011 . " She was committed to making it before she got pregnant . Then she got pregnant and she took the time off . Then after she came back , we started really vibing again and we picked up right where we left off . I just feel like between Jermaine , myself and her , we came up with a few things that [ are ] really , really a solid body of work " .
In August 2013 , Wale revealed that he had been in the studio with Carey , posting the message " Mariah x Wale x JD = coming soon " on his Twitter account . Then , on May 16 , 2014 , Carey and Wale premiered their collaboration , revealed to be called " You Don 't Know What to Do " , live during a mini @-@ concert for Today held by Carey . Following the performance , Carey premiered the studio version on May 19 on The Russ Parr Morning Show radio show . A solo version which omits Wale 's rap verses was later released in June 2014 . The song was serviced to urban contemporary radio on June 30 , 2014 and rhythmic contemporary radio on July 1 , 2014 , as the fourth single to be released from the album .
= = = Artwork controversy = = =
When Carey released " You Don 't Know What to Do " as the fourth single from the album , fans noticed that it 's accompanying single artwork looked odd . It was later revealed that the single artwork was a cropped version of the album cover for Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , whereby her head had been swapped for another image in favor of one which was forward @-@ facing , as well as an edited background . Various media outlets criticized Carey for continuing to heavily airbrush and " recycle " images of herself . In response , Carey expressed her discontent on Twitter , stating she had nothing to do with the selection of the single 's artwork and in turn asked for fans to send in their artwork designs as alternatives , ending the message with " ' cause at this point IDKWTD ! " , an abbreviation of the song 's title .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" You Don 't Know What to Do " is a disco revival song with elements of gospel , pop and R & B styles . It lasts for a duration of four minutes and 46 seconds . Several critics highlighted the track as following in the recent disco revivalism footsteps of Daft Punk , Justin Timberlake and posthumous Michael Jackson material . The song begins with Carey singing about how she is in a dilemma as to whether or not she wishes to stay in a relationship with her lover , as he is no longer capable of romancing her . In response , Wale raps about how he is trying to woo her and is asking for a second chance . Carey then decides that it has been too long that Wale has not loved her for , and feels liberated for letting him go . Kenneth Partridge of Billboard likened the string arrangement to Chic 's 1979 single " Good Times " . Pitchfork Media writer Jordan Sargent compared " You Don 't Know What to Do " to Carey 's previous singles " Fantasy " ( 1995 ) and " Heartbreaker " ( 1999 ) , but noted that it felt like a " logical extension of post @-@ Pharrell disco revivalism " . Christina Lee for Idolator thought that the 70s disco feel embodied Daft Punk 's 2013 single , " Get Lucky " .
= = Response = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
PopMatters writer Devone Jones described the song as " the most energetic track " on the album , and continued to write that the " skillful " lyrics allow Carey to perform " genuine harmonies " which are reminiscent of seventies dance songs . Both Andy Kellman of AllMusic and Eric Henderson for Slant Magazine noted that Carey appeared to be channeling American dance singer Jocelyn Brown , with the former writer that she sounded like Brown more prominently in the intro , while the latter described " You Don 't Know What to Do " as a " stunning " tribute to Brown 's 1984 single " Somebody Else 's Guy " . Henderson continued to write that " You Don 't Know What to Do " , along with another album track called " Meteorite " , are two of Carey 's " most serious @-@ minded performances " on the album , further describing them as " galaxies away " from her 2008 single " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " .
Billboard writer Kenneth Partridge complimented the song for its dance appeal , adding that the only thing missing was a cameo from Nile Rodgers . Melinda Newman of HitFix praised the song 's " playful " sentiment , writing that it was the best song that had been released from Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse so far . Entertainment Weekly writer Melissa Maerz complimented the interpolation of " I 'm Caught Up in a One Night Affair " , describing it as " nostalgic " , and further stated that Carey embodies the " bravado " of American singer Jennifer Holliday in the broadway musical Dreamgirls . Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner praised Dupri for producing a piano " disco stormer " with throwback appeal . Mike Wass of Idolator thought that " You Don 't Know What to Do " would have been worthy of being recorded by American disco singer Donna Summer .
Jordan Sargent of Pitchfork Media praised its composition and noted that the disco and gospel genres are where middle @-@ aged woman can " thrive " , whereby Carey " fits in unsurprisingly well " . He was , however , critical of the decision to include Wale on the song . Similarly , Aisha Harris of Slate Magazine praised the song 's production and Carey 's vocals too , but also thought that Wale 's rap verses were not required . Conversely , fashion designer Donatella Versace , a friend of Carey 's , told Vogue that she thought Carey 's singing and Wale 's rapping complimented each other on the song , describing it as " poetry " , and that it made her want to get up and dance " all summer " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" You Don 't Know What to Do " debuted at number 45 on the Belgium chart , in the region of Wallonia on August 2 , 2014 . The song broke into the top 40 the following week , charting at number 36 . It peaked at number 14 on September 6 , spending six weeks on the chart in total . The song also entered the South Korea International Digital Singles Chart at number 3 for the week ending May 31 , 2014 , and number two on the Download Chart , with sales of 32 @,@ 945 units . In its second week , the song fell to number seven with sales of 11 @,@ 991 units , and again to number 11 in its third week with sales of 7 @,@ 326 units .
= = Live performance = =
Carey and Wale performed " You Don 't Know What to Do " on the Today show on May 16 , 2014 . The performance also included renditions of Carey 's previous singles " Always Be My Baby " ( 1996 ) and " Touch My Body " ( 2008 ) .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse .
Recording
Recorded at Rapture Studios , Bel Air , CA ; Metrocity Studios , New York , NY ; Studio at the Palms , Las Vegas , NV ; Capital Studios , Hollywood , CA .
Sampling credits
Contains an interpolation of " I 'm Caught Up in a One Night Love Affair " , written by Patrick Adams and Terri Gonzalez .
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Hi @-@ Level =
The Hi @-@ Level is a type of bilevel intercity railroad passenger car built by the Budd Company for the Atchison , Topeka and Santa Fe Railway ( " Santa Fe " ) in the 1950s and 1960s . The first two coaches entered service on the El Capitan in 1954 and found immediate success . Budd built sufficient coaches , dining cars , and lounge cars to fully reequip the El Capitan , with additional coaches seeing use on the San Francisco Chief . Amtrak inherited the entire fleet in 1971 and continued to use the equipment on its western routes . In 1979 , the first Superliners , based on the Hi @-@ Level concept , although built by Pullman @-@ Standard , began entering service . As of 2013 Amtrak continues to operate five Hi @-@ Level lounges , which it calls the " Pacific Parlour Cars " , on the Coast Starlight .
= = Background = =
The Santa Fe introduced the El Capitan in 1938 . The train ran on the Santa Fe 's main line between Chicago and Los Angeles . Unusually for streamliners of the period , the El Capitan carried coaches only , and had no sleeping cars . Passengers flocked to the new train , and the Santa Fe added cars to meet the demand . The train grew from five cars in 1938 to fourteen in 1952 . Sometimes demand was high enough to justify running a second instance ( " section " ) of the train on the same day . The Santa Fe sought a solution to increase the capacity of the train without lengthening it further . Two popular innovations by the Chicago , Burlington and Quincy Railroad ( CB & Q ) suggested a solution . First , in 1945 , the CB & Q introduced the first dome car , in which passengers rode on a second level high above the tracks , affording better views . Second , in 1950 , it placed bilevel rail cars in commuter service in the Chicago area . Taken together , these innovations suggested a new possibility : a long @-@ distance bilevel coach , with greater capacity than single @-@ level cars , and the panoramic views of a dome .
= = Design = =
The Hi @-@ Levels stood 15 @.@ 5 feet ( 4 @.@ 7 m ) high , 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) taller than most conventional equipment . Seating occupied the entire upper level , with restrooms , baggage , and other non @-@ revenue areas on the lower level . In most cars , vestibules connected the upper levels only . A central staircase linked the two levels . Hi @-@ Levels featured a row of windows across the upper level ; on the prototype coaches , this row slanted inwards . The two @-@ level design offered several advantages over conventional single @-@ level equipment . Budd and the Santa Fe expected the upper level , located 8 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 62 m ) above the rails , to provide a smoother , quieter ride for passengers . With the lower level free of passengers , designers could provide larger restrooms and baggage areas . Finally , the lower level contained all the electrical equipment , away from the passengers , and with easy access for maintenance . The cars cost US $ 275 @,@ 000 apiece .
Originally , Budd built the Hi @-@ Levels with steam heating . When Amtrak began converting its inherited fleet to head @-@ end power in 1970s , the Santa Fe handled the conversion of the Hi @-@ Levels in its Topeka , Kansas , shops . Of the 73 Hi @-@ Levels , all but three underwent the conversion .
= = = Coaches = = =
The 61 coaches could carry either 68 or 72 passengers , half again more than the 44 of comparable single @-@ level long @-@ distance coaches . This increased capacity permitted the Santa Fe to run the El Capitan with fewer cars , while increasing the total number of passengers carried . The 68 @-@ seat coaches featured " step down " stairs at one end to permit access to standard @-@ height equipment ; that space was given over to four additional seats on the 72 @-@ seat coaches . The prototypes also featured step @-@ down stairs , but carried one fewer passenger . In the prototypes the upper level had no restrooms ; in response to passenger feedback , Budd added a restroom to the upper level in the production models . The prototypes also included a " step up " from the aisle to the coach seats ; in the production cars , the seats rested flush with the aisle . Each coach weighed 80 short tons ( 73 t ) .
= = = Lounges = = =
Each of the six lounges could seat 60 on the upper level , with additional seating on the lower level . Nicknames for these cars included " Top of the Cap " and " Sky Lounges " . A glass top across two @-@ thirds of the car distinguished it from the rest of the Hi @-@ Levels . The lower level featured the " Kachina Coffee Shop " and a lounge area with seating for 26 . The lounge cars weighed 83 short tons ( 75 t ) .
= = = Dining cars = = =
Six dining cars were built . Each dining car seated 80 ( all on the upper level ) , compared to 36 in a single @-@ level diner . The lower level housed the kitchen ; dumbwaiters carried food to the upper level . The dining cars , the largest single @-@ unit dining cars ever built , weighed 97 short tons ( 88 t ) and rode on six @-@ wheel trucks .
= = History = =
= = = Santa Fe = = =
The Budd Company delivered the Hi @-@ Levels to the Santa Fe in three batches . The original two prototype coaches ( Nos. 526 – 527 ) entered service on the El Capitan in 1954 . Following a positive customer response , the Santa Fe ordered 47 more cars , sufficient to completely re @-@ equip the El Capitan :
10 68 @-@ seat " step down " coaches ( Nos. 528 – 537 )
25 72 @-@ seat coaches ( Nos. 700 – 724 )
6 lounges ( Nos. 575 – 580 )
6 dining cars ( Nos. 650 – 655 )
These constituted five equipment sets ( " consists " ) , sufficient for daily service on the El Capitan beginning on July 8 , 1956 . A typical train comprised two step @-@ down coaches , five standard coaches , a lounge and a dining car . The Hi @-@ Level cars continued in service after the Santa Fe combined the El Capitan and Super Chief in 1958 . The Santa Fe also converted six single @-@ level baggage cars to baggage @-@ dormitories ( 3477 – 3482 ) , with a spoiler at one end to create a visual transition .
By the 1960s , the Santa Fe encountered capacity problems on the San Francisco Chief , which ran between Chicago and San Francisco . Unlike the El Capitan , the Chief carried a mix of sleeping cars and coaches . To augment capacity , the Santa Fe ordered an additional 24 coaches in 1963 – 1964 ; 12 step @-@ down ( 538 – 549 ) and 12 standard ( 725 – 736 ) . Each San Francisco Chief carried four Hi @-@ Level coaches , displacing six single @-@ level coaches .
= = = Amtrak = = =
Amtrak took over operation of most intercity passenger service in the United States in 1971 , including the Santa Fe 's remaining trains . It acquired the entire Hi @-@ Level fleet and continued to operate them . Amtrak used the Hi @-@ Levels as the basis for the design of the Superliners it ordered from Pullman @-@ Standard , which began arriving in 1978 . In the 1980s , Amtrak rebuilt many of the coaches as dormitory @-@ coaches , with half of the car given over to crew space . Several Hi @-@ Level coaches remained in service into the 2000s on the Heartland Flyer . Amtrak refurbished five of the six lounges for use on the Coast Starlight as sleeping car passenger @-@ only lounges , branded as the " Pacific Parlour Car . " As of 2016 , they are the last Hi @-@ Levels in regular service .
= Cory Schneider =
Cory Franklin Schneider ( born March 18 , 1986 ) is a Swiss @-@ American professional ice hockey goaltender currently playing for the New Jersey Devils in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) .
Schneider was selected in the first round , 26th overall , by the Canucks in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft . Following his draft , he began a three @-@ year tenure with the Boston College Eagles , winning two Lamoriello Trophies as Hockey East champions and making two NCAA Final appearances during his college career . Schneider turned professional with Vancouver 's American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , in 2007 and was named the league 's Goaltender of the Year following his second season . After three seasons with the Moose , he became the Canucks ' full @-@ time backup in 2010 – 11 . In his first full season with the Canucks , he won the William M. Jennings Trophy with Roberto Luongo for establishing the best team goals against average ( GAA ) in the NHL . The following campaign , he set Canucks records for best GAA and save percentage in a single season with 1 @.@ 96 and .937 marks , respectively . At the 2013 NHL Entry Draft , Schneider was traded to the New Jersey Devils for the 9th overall selection .
Internationally , Schneider has represented the United States at various junior levels . Early in his career , he won gold and silver medals at the 2003 U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup and 2004 IIHF World U18 Championships , respectively . He later competed in the 2005 and 2006 World Junior Championships , finishing in fourth with the United States each time . Due to his Swiss ancestry , Schneider also holds a Swiss citizenship .
= = Early life = =
Schneider was born to Susan and Richard Schneider in Marblehead , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston . Schneider started training with his goalie coach , Brian Daccord , at age 15 , who now owns Stop It Goaltending , a company of which currently Schneider owns a small percentage . He began playing hockey around the age of six , trying out for the same team as his older brother , Geoff . He did not become a regular goaltender until the age of 11 , as the Marblehead Youth Hockey teams he played with at earlier ages rotated the position . Growing up , Schneider looked up to Mike Richter of the New York Rangers for being a successful American goaltender . Paying homage to Richter , he chose to wear the jersey number 35 .
Schneider earned his secondary education at Marblehead High School in his hometown and Phillips Academy , a prep school in Andover , Massachusetts , where he graduated . In addition to hockey , he was also a varsity baseball player for two years during his time at Phillips Academy . While excelling in sports , Schneider also maintained proficiency in academics . Following his senior year , he received the school 's Yale Bowl and the Boston Bruins ' John Carlton Memorial Trophy , both for achievement in scholarship and athletics . While enrolled at Boston College , Schneider majored in finance in the institution 's Carroll School of Management . He continued to be recognized for academic achievement , being named to two Hockey East All @-@ Academic Teams and earning Paul Patrick Daley Student @-@ Athlete Scholarship in 2006 .
He is a member of his hometown Friends of Marblehead Hockey Hall of Fame . Inducted on August 18 , 2008 , he is the only born @-@ and @-@ raised native to be drafted into the NHL .
He holds both American and Swiss citizenship .
= = Playing career = =
= = = High school and USNTDP ( 2000 – 04 ) = = =
Schneider played with Marblehead High School in his freshman year before moving to Phillips Academy because of their more prestigious hockey team . In his senior year with the school , he was named the team captain . He posted 17 wins and 4 losses with a .960 save percentage , while leading Phillips Academy to the New England Prep School semifinals . Schneider was a two @-@ time All @-@ New England selection in his high school career with Phillips Academy . During his senior year , Schneider also joined the United States National Team Development Program . He appeared in 10 games with the under @-@ 18 club and two games in North American Hockey League play .
Going into the 2004 NHL Entry Draft , Schneider was the second @-@ ranked American goaltender behind Al Montoya and seventh North American goaltender overall by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . He was selected in the first round , 26th overall , by the Vancouver Canucks .
= = = Boston College ( 2004 – 07 ) = = =
With the option of joining the major junior ranks in Canada or staying in the United States to play college hockey , Schneider prioritized getting an education and committed to the Boston College Eagles . He had also considered Harvard and Cornell . Boston College head coach Jerry York had considered delaying Schneider 's debut for another season and have him play Junior A in the United States Hockey League . However , when forward Adam Pineault left Boston College to play in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League , a scholarship was made available and York decided to keep Schneider on the roster .
Schneider made 23 saves in his college debut , a 3 – 2 win against the University of Massachusetts Lowell River Hawks . He was then chosen as the Hockey East Defensive Player of the Week on October 19 , 2004 . He later notched his first college shutout against the Yale Bulldogs on January 11 , 2005 . The following month , he was sidelined for three weeks after tearing the medial collateral ligament of his left knee during a game against the Harvard Crimson on February 14 , 2005 . Splitting the goaltending duties with senior Matti Kaltiainen , he appeared in 18 games with a 1 @.@ 90 goals against average ( GAA ) and a .916 save percentage while finishing with a record of 13 wins , 1 loss and 4 ties . He was named to the Hockey East All @-@ Rookie Team and received Boston College 's Bernie Burke Outstanding Freshman Award .
By the playoffs , York made Schneider his starting goaltender over Kaltiainen . He went on to backstop Boston College to a record @-@ setting sixth Lamoriello Trophy in team history as Hockey East champions . He made 39 saves in a double @-@ overtime semifinal win against the Maine Black Bears , before a 26 @-@ save performance in Boston 's 3 – 1 final win against the New Hampshire Wildcats . He gained Hockey East Rookie of the Week accolades on March 21 , 2005 , for his semifinal and final wins and was named to the All @-@ Tournament Team for his efforts . Advancing to the 2005 NCAA Tournament , Boston College lost their regional final by a 6 – 3 score to the North Dakota Fighting Sioux .
In Schneider 's sophomore season , he posted a college career @-@ high .929 save percentage and two team records of eight shutouts and 1 @,@ 088 saves . He posted 242 : 19 consecutive shutout minutes in the month of January , not allowing a goal for more than 11 periods . His streak was broken on January 27 , 2006 , in a game against Boston University . His 1 @.@ 96 GAA was first among goaltenders in conference play , earning him the Hockey East Goaltending Award ( his overall GAA including inter @-@ conference play was 2 @.@ 11 ) . He was named to the Hockey East Second All @-@ Conference Team and was a co @-@ recipient with teammate Chris Collins for both the Hockey East Three Stars Award and Boston College MVP . At the 2006 Beanpot , he received the Eberly Trophy as the tournament 's best goaltender with a .924 save percentage . His 24 wins in 39 regular season appearances helped Boston College to a successful regular season . In the playoffs , they failed to defend their Hockey East championship , losing to the Boston University Terriers in the final . Qualifying for the 2006 NCAA Tournament , Boston College met Boston University again in the regional final . Shutting the Terriers out to advance to the Frozen Four , Schneider was named the Northeastern Regional Tournament MVP . Boston College then defeated North Dakota in the semifinal before losing the national championship to the Wisconsin Badgers 2 – 1 .
In his third season with Boston College , Schneider recorded a college career @-@ high 29 wins in 42 games , along with a 2 @.@ 15 GAA and .925 save percentage . He led the Eagles to their second Lamoirello Trophy in three years , defeating New Hampshire by a 5 – 2 score in the final . He made his second consecutive appearance in the NCAA final , but lost to the Michigan State Spartans . Following his third college season , Schneider chose to forgo his senior year to turn professional . He left Boston College with a career record of 65 wins , 25 losses and 7 ties in 97 games , as well as a college career mark of 15 shutouts .
= = = Manitoba Moose ( 2007 – 10 ) = = =
Schneider signed an entry @-@ level contract with the Vancouver Canucks on July 3 , 2007 . He was regarded as the Canucks ' third @-@ string goalie behind Roberto Luongo and the newly acquired backup Curtis Sanford . Following his first NHL training camp , he was assigned to the Canucks ' minor league affiliate , the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . After a shaky start to the 2007 – 08 season ( 3 @-@ 7 @-@ 0 record , 3 @.@ 69 GAA and .872 save percentage in 11 games ) , he was privately called out by head coach Scott Arniel in mid @-@ December after being pulled the previous game . In recalling the meeting , Schneider has commented that " [ Arniel ] was one of the first guys to ... tell me I wasn 't good enough , something that I hadn 't really heard a lot growing up . Sometimes it 's something you need to hear . " From that point on , he emerged as Manitoba 's starting goalie over fellow Canucks prospect Drew MacIntyre , and was named the AHL Rookie of the Month for March . He finished the season with a 21 @-@ 12 @-@ 2 record , 2 @.@ 28 GAA and .916 save percentage . Although the Moose were eliminated in the first round by the Syracuse Crunch , Schneider had an impressive playoffs , recording a 1 @.@ 92 GAA and .938 save percentage over six games .
Going into training camp for the 2008 – 09 season , Schneider was expected to compete for the Canucks ' backup position with Sanford , who had been re @-@ signed in the off @-@ season . He was assigned to the Moose for a second consecutive season where he continued as the minor league team 's starting goalie . He received his first NHL call @-@ up from Manitoba on November 22 , 2008 , following an injury to Luongo . At the time of his call @-@ up , he was leading the AHL in both wins and GAA in addition to establishing a team record with 10 straight wins . After sitting on the bench as Sanford 's backup for two games , Schneider made his first NHL appearance and start on November 29 against the Calgary Flames , making 28 saves in a 3 – 1 loss . He subsequently recorded his first NHL win in a 16 @-@ save , 2 – 1 victory against the Minnesota Wild on December 5 . After appearing in eight games for the Canucks , goaltender Jason LaBarbera was acquired in a trade from the Los Angeles Kings and Schneider was sent back to the Moose on January 5 , 2009 .
During his time in Vancouver , Schneider had been named AHL Goalie of the Month for November . Upon returning to Manitoba , he extended his record @-@ setting win streak to 13 games . He was also chosen as the starting goalie for PlanetUSA for the 2009 AHL All @-@ Star Classic . He was named Top Goaltender in the Skills Competition , then helped PlanetUSA to a 15 – 11 win over the Canadian All @-@ Stars . Near the end of the season , he was chosen as AHL Player of the Week on March 30 , 2009 , after allowing five goals in three starts . He completed the campaign with team records of 28 wins , 2 @.@ 04 GAA and .928 save percentage . Additionally the league @-@ leader in GAA and save percentage , Schneider was awarded the Aldege " Baz " Bastien Memorial Award as AHL goaltender of the year . He also received the Harry " Hap " Holmes Memorial Award as the goaltender on the team with the lowest goals against . His award @-@ winning campaign helped the Moose to the best regular season record in the league . In the proceeding 2009 playoffs , Schneider backstopped the Moose to the Calder Cup Finals , losing the championship in six games to the Hershey Bears . He finished the playoffs with a 2 @.@ 15 GAA and .922 save percentage in 22 games .
In September 2009 , Vancouver re @-@ signed Luongo to a 12 @-@ year extension . As such , it was widely speculated that Schneider would inevitably be traded . Despite his success in the AHL , his chances of competing for a starting position with the Canucks were seen as unlikely by the media due to Luongo 's prominence on the team . Regardless , he publicly maintained he was unfazed by his position on the Canucks ' depth chart and that he was focused on competing with the newly acquired Andrew Raycroft for the Canucks ' backup position in 2009 – 10 . Schneider was , however , sent back to the Moose out of training camp .
Less than a month into the season , Schneider received his second NHL call @-@ up with the Canucks to back up Raycroft after Luongo was sidelined with a rib fracture on October 28 , 2009 . He remained with the Canucks for nearly two weeks , earning one start against the Dallas Stars on November 6 , stopping 45 shots in a 2 – 1 loss . He was returned to the Moose on November 10 .
Despite being the reigning goaltender of the year in the AHL and having a comparable season in 2009 – 10 , Schneider was not named to PlanetUSA for the 2010 AHL All @-@ Star Game . The non @-@ selection drew public criticism from Moose head coach Arniel . Amidst a mediocre season as a team , Schneider posted a 2 @.@ 51 GAA and .919 save percentage and topped his previous team record of wins in a season with 35 in 60 games . During the campaign , he also surpassed Alex Auld on the franchise 's all @-@ time wins and games played list , finishing with 84 and 136 , respectively . Manitoba qualified for the 2010 playoffs with the final and eighth seed in the Western Conference . Matching up against the Hamilton Bulldogs in the opening round , they were eliminated in six games . Schneider recorded a 3 @.@ 12 GAA and .905 save percentage in the losing effort .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 2010 – 13 ) = = =
On June 2 , 2010 , Schneider signed a two @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 8 million contract extension with the Vancouver Canucks . Assistant general manager Lawrence Gilman asserted that the new deal should establish him as Luongo 's backup and garner more exposure to potentially facilitate a trade to another NHL team . He made his first start of the 2010 – 11 season on October 18 , 2010 , against the Carolina Hurricanes . He stopped 32 shots in a 5 – 1 win , marking his first NHL victory since December 14 , 2008 . Later in the season , he recorded his first NHL shutout , stopping 26 shots in a 3 – 0 win against the Anaheim Ducks on March 6 , 2011 . Nearing the end of the regular season , the Canucks were leading the league in team GAA , putting Luongo and Schneider in contention for the William M. Jennings Trophy . However , with a week remaining in the regular season , Schneider was two appearances short of the 25 @-@ game minimum to qualify for the Jennings ( had he not reached the requirement , Luongo would have been awarded the trophy by himself ) . While head coach Alain Vigneault initially dismissed the notion of playing Schneider for the sole purpose of sharing the award with Luongo , he sent Schneider in relief of Luongo with 28 seconds remaining in the third @-@ last game of the season , a 2 – 0 loss to the Edmonton Oilers for Schneider 's 24th appearance . Two games later – the Canucks ' last contest of the regular season – Schneider was given the start against the Calgary Flames . Needing to allow seven goals or fewer to secure the Jennings , he helped Vancouver to a 3 – 2 overtime win . It marked the first time in the trophy 's history that it was awarded to Canucks goaltenders . Luongo and Schneider 's combined GAA of 2 @.@ 20 was 0 @.@ 10 better than the Boston Bruins 's second @-@ place goaltending tandem of Tim Thomas and Tuukka Rask . Schneider completed his NHL rookie season with a 2 @.@ 23 GAA and .929 save percentage in 25 games ( 22 starts ) , as well as a 16 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 record . His GAA tied for fourth in the league , while his save percentage ranked third and set a single @-@ season Canucks record .
Schneider made his NHL playoff debut in Game 4 of the opening round against the Chicago Blackhawks . With the Canucks down 6 – 1 , Luongo was pulled in favour of Schneider in the third period . Schneider allowed one goal on seven shots , as the Blackhawks went on to win the game 7 – 2 . After Luongo was pulled again in Game 5 , Schneider was chosen to start for Game 6 . Schneider allowed three goals on 20 shots ; he left the game in the third period after suffering cramps during a failed attempt to stop a penalty shot from Michael Frolik . The Canucks went on to lose the contest 4 – 3 in overtime , but won the following Game 7 with Luongo in net to advance to the second round . The Canucks would advance to the Stanley Cup Finals against the Boston Bruins . Schneider made an appearance in Game 6 , replacing Luongo in the first period after he gave up three goals . Schneider allowed two goals in relief for the remainder of the game as the Canucks went on to lose the contest . With Schneider on the bench , Vancouver then lost Game 7 at home .
Remaining as Luongo 's backup for the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Schneider 's playing time was expanded when Luongo suffered an injury in mid @-@ November 2011 . Despite Luongo 's return to the lineup after missing two games , Schneider continued to earn starts due to his performance . On November 28 , he was named the NHL 's Second Star of the Week after recording three wins in as many contests , a span that included back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts ( on November 23 against the Colorado Avalanche and November 25 against the Phoenix Coyotes ) . Schneider finished his second full NHL season with improved numbers . Of the 33 games he played , he started 28 and compiled 20 wins and 9 losses . His 1 @.@ 96 GAA and .937 save percentage over 33 games ranked third and second in the league , respectively , while also setting Canucks team records . His GAA topped the 2 @.@ 11 mark Luongo had set in 2010 – 11 , while his save percentage bettered the .929 he had achieved , also in the previous season . The latter team record also ranked as the fourth @-@ best ever recorded in the NHL .
During the 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs , Schneider supplanted Luongo as the team 's playoff goalie . After Vancouver lost their first two games against the eighth @-@ seeded Los Angeles Kings in the opening round , Vigneault started Schneider . Despite losing game three , Schneider started for the remainder of the series , which Los Angeles won four @-@ games @-@ to @-@ one . In three games , he recorded a 1 @.@ 31 GAA and .960 save percentage . Vigneault 's decision led many in the media to believe that Schneider would retain the role the following season , while Luongo would be traded . Although Luongo 's contract included a no @-@ trade clause , he told reporters following the Canucks ' defeat to the Kings that he would waive it if the team asked him to . During the off season , Schneider and the Canucks agreed to a three @-@ year contract worth $ 12 million .
During the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout , Schneider played with Swiss team HC Ambrì @-@ Piotta of National League A. He played in eight games and recorded a .914 save percentage . Returning to Vancouver as NHL play resumed , Schneider appeared in 30 games for the Canucks and posted a 17 – 9 – 4 record and was one of five goaltenders to tie for the league lead with five shutouts . He appeared in two playoff games , both losses , as the Canucks were swept out of the first round by the San Jose Sharks .
= = = New Jersey Devils ( 2013 – present ) = = =
The Canucks spent a full year attempting to trade Luongo and his contract before conceding that no team was willing to meet their demands . Instead they agreed to trade Schneider to the New Jersey Devils . The deal , completed on June 30 at the 2013 NHL Entry Draft , saw the ninth overall selection ( Bo Horvat ) sent to Vancouver . Schneider described the trade as " shocking " , adding that after several seasons of expecting to be traded , he had finally begun to believe he would stay in Vancouver . He played his first game against the Pittsburgh Penguins , a 3 @-@ 0 loss .
Schneider had spent his first season with the Devils as a backup to veteran Martin Brodeur , earning a few extra starts due to the 42 @-@ year old Brodeur 's poor performance , but after Brodeur 's departure from New Jersey , Schneider became the Devils starting goaltender .
On July 9 , 2014 , Schneider signed a seven @-@ year , $ 42 million contract extension with the Devils .
In 2014 – 15 , Schneider posted a .925 save percentage ( the sixth best in the league ) and a 2 @.@ 26 GAA . Despite Schneider 's success , the Devils missed the playoffs for the third consecutive season , finishing 32 @-@ 36 @-@ 14 .
Schneider continued to put up reasonable numbers for the Devils in the 2015 – 16 season , including a 2 @.@ 15 GAA and a .924 save percentage . The Devils missed the playoffs for a fourth consecutive season .
= = International play = =
Schneider competed for the United States at the 2003 U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup , held in Břeclav , Czech Republic and Piešťany , Slovakia . He helped the club go undefeated in five games , en route to the country 's first gold medal in the history of the tournament . Sharing goaltending duties with Ian Keserich over the course of the tournament , Schneider was given the start for the gold medal game against Russia , turning aside 32 shots for the 3 – 2 win .
Schneider next appeared for the United States at the 2004 IIHF World U18 Championships in Minsk , Belarus . He recorded the third @-@ best GAA ( 1 @.@ 71 ) and second @-@ best save percentage ( .929 ) of the tournament en route to a silver medal . The United States were defeated in the gold medal game by Russia 3 – 2 . He was later named the David Peterson Goalie of the Year by USA Hockey , having led them to two medals in the 2003 – 04 season .
In August 2004 , Schneider participated in the U.S. National Junior Team Evaluation Camp in Grand Forks , North Dakota . Several months later , he debuted at the under @-@ 20 level at the 2005 World Junior Championships , hosted by the United States in Grand Forks and Thief River Falls , Minnesota . Playing backup to Al Montoya , he was given the start for a preliminary game against Belarus . After just over a period of play , he was pulled for allowing three goals on eight shots . The United States lost the game 5 – 3 in Schneider 's only tournament appearance . After losing to Russia 7 – 2 in the semifinal , the United States lost the bronze medal game 3 – 2 to the Czech Republic in overtime .
After attending the U.S. ' s summer evaluation camp for a second straight year in Lake Placid , New York , Schneider was given the starting position for the 2006 World Junior Championships in British Columbia , Canada . He was named the United States ' player of the game in their third match of the preliminary round , a 2 – 2 tie against Switzerland ; Schneider made 22 saves . He earned his second player of the game selection in the quarterfinal , stopping 30 shots in a
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. Modern studies using DNA analysis , popularised by the geneticist Stephen Oppenheimer and others , increasingly suggest that three @-@ quarters of Britons share a common ancestry with the hunter @-@ gatherers who settled in Atlantic Europe during the Paleolithic era , " after the melting of the ice caps but before the land broke away from the mainland and divided into islands " .
Despite the separation of the British Isles from continental Europe following the last glacial period , the genetic record indicates that the British and Irish broadly share their closest common ancestry with the Basque people , who live in the Basque Country near the Pyrenees . Oppenheimer continues that the majority of the people of the British Isles share genetic commonalities with the Basques , ranging from highs of 90 % in Wales to lows of 66 % in East Anglia .
The genetic difference between western Britain and the East of England is thought to originate from two divergent prehistoric routes of immigration – one up the Atlantic coast , the other from continental Europe . Major immigrant settlement of the British Isles occurred during the Neolithic period , interpreted by Bryan Sykes — professor of human genetics at the University of Oxford — as the arrival of the Celts from the Iberian Peninsula , and the origin of Britain 's and Ireland 's Celtic tribes .
Oppenheimer 's opinion is that " .. by far the majority of male gene types in the British Isles derive from Iberia ( modern Spain and Portugal ) , ranging from a low of 59 % in Fakenham , Norfolk to highs of 96 % in Llangefni , north Wales " . The National Museum Wales states that " it is possible that future genetic studies of ancient and modern human DNA may help to inform our understanding of the subject " but " early studies have , so far , tended to produce implausible conclusions from very small numbers of people and using outdated assumptions about linguistics and archaeology . "
Between the 8th and 11th centuries , " three major cultural divisions " had emerged in Great Britain : the English , the Scots and the Welsh . The English had been unified under a single nation state in 937 by King Athelstan of Wessex after the Battle of Brunanburh . Before then , the English ( known then in Old English as the Anglecynn ) were under the governance of independent Anglo @-@ Saxon petty kingdoms which gradually coalesced into a Heptarchy of seven powerful states , the most powerful of which were Mercia and Wessex . Scottish historian and archaeologist Neil Oliver said that the Battle of Brunanburh would " define the shape of Britain into the modern era " , it was a " showdown for two very different ethnic identities – a Norse Celtic alliance versus Anglo Saxon . It aimed to settle once and for all whether Britain would be controlled by a single imperial power or remain several separate independent kingdoms , a split in perceptions which is still very much with us today " . However , historian Simon Schama suggested that it was Edward I of England who was solely " responsible for provoking the peoples of Britain into an awareness of their nationhood " in the 13th century . Scottish national identity , " a complex amalgam " of Gael , Pict , Norsemen and Anglo @-@ Norman , was not finally forged until the Wars of Scottish Independence against the Kingdom of England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries .
Though Wales was conquered by England , and its legal system replaced by that of the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 – 1542 , the Welsh endured as a nation distinct from the English . Later , with both an English Reformation and a Scottish Reformation , Edward VI of England , under the counsel of Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset , advocated a union with the Kingdom of Scotland , joining England , Wales , and Scotland in a united Protestant Great Britain . The Duke of Somerset supported the unification of the English , Welsh and Scots under the " indifferent old name of Britons " on the basis that their monarchies " both derived from a Pre @-@ Roman British monarchy " .
Following the death of Elizabeth I of England in 1603 , the throne of England was inherited by James VI , King of Scots , so that the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland were united in a personal union under James VI of Scotland and I of England , an event referred to as the Union of the Crowns . King James advocated full political union between England and Scotland , and on 20 October 1604 proclaimed his assumption of the style " King of Great Britain " , though this title was rejected by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland , and so had no basis in either English law or Scots law .
= = = Union and the development of Britishness = = =
Despite centuries of military and religious conflict , the Kingdoms of England and Scotland had been " drawing increasingly together " since the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century and the Union of the Crowns in 1603 . A broadly shared language , island , monarch , religion and Bible ( the Authorized King James Version ) further contributed to a growing cultural alliance between the two sovereign realms and their peoples . The Glorious Revolution of 1688 resulted in a pair of Acts of the English and Scottish legislatures — the Bill of Rights 1689 and Claim of Right Act 1689 respectively — which ensured that the shared constitutional monarchy of England and Scotland was held only by Protestants . Despite this , although popular with the monarchy and much of the aristocracy , attempts to unite the two states by Acts of Parliament in 1606 , 1667 , and 1689 were unsuccessful ; increased political management of Scottish affairs from England had led to " criticism " , and strained Anglo @-@ Scottish relations .
While English maritime explorations during the Age of Discovery gave new @-@ found imperial power and wealth to the English and Welsh at the end of the 17th century , Scotland suffered from a long @-@ standing weak economy . In response , the Scottish kingdom , in opposition to William II of Scotland ( III of England ) , commenced the Darien Scheme , an attempt to establish a Scottish imperial outlet — the colony of New Caledonia — on the isthmus of Panama . However , through a combination of disease , Spanish hostility , Scottish mismanagement and opposition to the scheme by the East India Company and the English government ( who did not want to provoke the Spanish into war ) this imperial venture ended in " catastrophic failure " with an estimated " 25 % of Scotland 's total liquid capital " lost .
The events of the Darien Scheme , and the passing by the English Parliament of the Act of Settlement 1701 asserting the right to choose the order of succession for English , Scottish and Irish thrones , escalated political hostilities between England and Scotland , and neutralised calls for a united British people . The Parliament of Scotland responded by passing the Act of Security 1704 , allowing it to appoint a different monarch to succeed to the Scottish crown from that of England , if it so wished . The English political perspective was that the appointment of a Jacobite monarchy in Scotland opened up the possibility of a Franco @-@ Scottish military conquest of England during the Second Hundred Years ' War and War of the Spanish Succession . The Parliament of England passed the Alien Act 1705 , which provided that Scottish nationals in England were to be treated as aliens and estates held by Scots would be treated as alien property , whilst also restricting the import of Scottish products into England and its colonies ( about half of Scotland 's trade ) . However , the Act contained a provision that it would be suspended if the Parliament of Scotland entered into negotiations regarding the creation of a unified Parliament of Great Britain , which in turn would refund Scottish financial losses on the Darien Scheme .
= = = Union of Scotland and England = = =
Despite opposition from much of the Scottish and English populations , a Treaty of Union was agreed in 1706 and was then ratified by the parliaments of both countries with the passing of the Acts of Union 1707 . With effect from 1 May 1707 , this created a new sovereign state called the " Kingdom of Great Britain " . This kingdom " began as a hostile merger " , but led to a " full partnership in the most powerful going concern in the world " ; historian Simon Schama stated that " it was one of the most astonishing transformations in European history " .
After 1707 , a British national identity began to develop , though it was initially resisted , particularly by the English . The peoples of Great Britain had by the 1750s begun to assume a " layered identity " : to think of themselves as simultaneously British and also Scottish , English , or Welsh .
The terms North Briton and South Briton were devised for the Scots and the English respectively , with the former gaining some preference in Scotland , particularly by the economists and philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment . Indeed , it was the " Scots [ who ] played key roles in shaping the contours of British identity " ; " their scepticism about the Union allowed the Scots the space and time in which to dominate the construction of Britishness in its early crucial years " , drawing upon the notion of a shared " spirit of liberty common to both Saxon and Celt ... against the usurpation of the Church of Rome " . James Thomson was a poet and playwright born to a Church of Scotland minister in the Scottish Lowlands in 1700 who was interested in forging a common British culture and national identity in this way . In collaboration with Thomas Arne , they wrote Alfred , an opera about Alfred the Great 's victory against the Vikings performed to Frederick , Prince of Wales in 1740 to commemorate the accession of George I and the birthday of Princess Augusta . " Rule , Britannia ! " was the climactic piece of the opera and quickly became a " jingoistic " British patriotic song celebrating " Britain 's supremacy offshore " . An island country with a series of victories for the Royal Navy associated empire and naval warfare " inextricably with ideals of Britishness and Britain 's place in the world " .
Britannia , the new national personification of Great Britain , was established in the 1750s as a representation of " nation and empire rather than any single national hero " . On Britannia and British identity , historian Peter Borsay wrote :
Up until 1797 Britannia was conventionally depicted holding a spear , but as a consequence of the increasingly prominent role of the Royal Navy in the war against the French , and of several spectacular victories , the spear was replaced by a trident ... The navy had come to be seen ... as the very bulwark of British liberty and the essence of what it was to be British .
From the Union of 1707 through to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 , Great Britain was " involved in successive , very dangerous wars with Catholic France " , but which " all brought enough military and naval victories ... to flatter British pride " . As the Napoleonic Wars with the First French Empire advanced , " the English and Scottish learned to define themselves as similar primarily by virtue of not being French or Catholic " . In combination with sea power and empire , the notion of Britishness became more " closely bound up with Protestantism " , a cultural commonality through which the English , Scots and Welsh became " fused together , and remain [ ed ] so , despite their many cultural divergences " .
The neo @-@ classical monuments that proliferated at the end of the 18th century and the start of the 19th , such as The Kymin at Monmouth , were attempts to meld the concepts of Britishness with the Greco @-@ Roman empires of classical antiquity . The new and expanding British Empire provided " unprecedented opportunities for upward mobility and the accumulations of wealth " , and so the " Scottish , Welsh and Irish populations were prepared to suppress nationalist issues on pragmatic grounds " . The British Empire was " crucial to the idea of a British identity and to the self @-@ image of Britishness " . Indeed , the Scottish welcomed Britishness during the 19th century " for it offered a context within which they could hold on to their own identity whilst participating in , and benefiting from , the expansion of the [ British ] Empire " . Similarly , the " new emphasis of Britishness was broadly welcomed by the Welsh who considered themselves to be the lineal descendants of the ancient Britons – a word that was still used to refer exclusively to the Welsh " . For the English , however , by the Victorian era their enthusiastic adoption of Britishness had meant that , for them , Britishness " meant the same as ' Englishness ' " , so much so that " Englishness and Britishness " and " ' England ' and ' Britain ' were used interchangeably in a variety of contexts " . Britishness came to borrow heavily from English political history because England had " always been the dominant component of the British Isles in terms of size , population and power " ; Magna Carta , common law and hostility to continental Europe were English factors that influenced British sensibilities .
= = = Union with Ireland = = =
The political union of the predominantly Catholic Kingdom of Ireland with Great Britain in 1800 , coupled with the outbreak of peace with France in the early 19th century , challenged the previous century 's concept of militant Protestant Britishness . The new , expanded United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland meant that the state had to re @-@ evaluate its position on the civil rights of Catholics , and extend its definition of Britishness to the Irish people . Like the terms that had been invented at the time of the Acts of Union 1707 , " West Briton " was introduced for the Irish after 1800 . In 1832 Daniel O 'Connell , an Irish politician who campaigned for Catholic Emancipation , stated in Britain 's House of Commons :
The people of Ireland are ready to become a portion of the British Empire , provided they be made so in reality and not in name alone ; they are ready to become a kind of West Briton if made so in benefits and justice ; but if not , we are Irishmen again .
Ireland , from 1801 to 1923 , was marked by a succession of economic and political mismanagement and neglect , which marginalised the Irish , and advanced Irish nationalism . In the forty years that followed the Union , successive British governments grappled with the problems of governing a country which had , as Benjamin Disraeli put it in 1844 , " a starving population , an absentee aristocracy , and an alien Church , and in addition the weakest executive in the world " . Although the vast majority of Unionists in Ireland proclaimed themselves " simultaneously Irish and British " , even for them there was a strain upon the adoption of Britishness after the Great Famine .
War continued to be a unifying factor for the people of Great Britain : British jingoism re @-@ emerged during the Boer Wars in southern Africa . The experience of military , political and economic power from the rise of the British Empire led to a very specific drive in artistic technique , taste and sensibility for Britishness . In 1887 , Frederic Harrison wrote :
Morally , we Britons plant the British flag on every peak and pass ; and wherever the Union Jack floats there we place the cardinal British institutions — tea , tubs , sanitary appliances , lawn tennis , and churches .
The Catholic Relief Act 1829 reflected a " marked change in attitudes " in Great Britain towards Catholics and Catholicism . A " significant " example of this was the collaboration between Augustus Welby Pugin , an " ardent Roman Catholic " and son of a Frenchman , and Sir Charles Barry , " a confirmed Protestant " , in redesigning the Palace of Westminster — " the building that most enshrines ... Britain 's national and imperial pre @-@ tensions " . Protestantism gave way to imperialism as the leading element of British national identity during the Victorian and Edwardian eras , and as such , a series of royal , imperial and national celebrations were introduced to the British people to assert imperial British culture and give themselves a sense of uniqueness , superiority and national consciousness . Empire Day and jubilees of Queen Victoria were introduced to the British middle class , but quickly " merged into a national ' tradition ' " .
= = = Modern period = = =
The First World War " reinforced the sense of Britishness " and patriotism in the early 20th century . Through war service ( including conscription in Great Britain ) , " the English , Welsh , Scots and Irish fought as British " . The aftermath of the war institutionalised British national commemoration through Remembrance Sunday and the Poppy Appeal . The Second World War had a similar unifying effect upon the British people , however , its outcome was to recondition Britishness on a basis of democratic values and its marked contrast to Europeanism . Notions that the British " constituted an Island race , and that it stood for democracy were reinforced during the war and they were circulated in the country through Winston Churchill 's speeches , history books and newspapers " .
At its international zenith , " Britishness joined peoples around the world in shared traditions and common loyalties that were strenuously maintained " . But following the two world wars , the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation . The secession of the Irish Free State from the United Kingdom meant that Britishness had lost " its Irish dimension " in 1922 , and the shrinking empire supplanted by independence movements dwindled the appeal of British identity in the Commonwealth of Nations during the mid @-@ 20th century .
Since the British Nationality Act 1948 and the subsequent mass immigration to the United Kingdom from the Commonwealth and elsewhere in the world , " the expression and experience of cultural life in Britain has become fragmented and reshaped by the influences of gender , ethnicity , class and region " . Furthermore , the United Kingdom 's membership of the European Economic Community in 1973 eroded the concept of Britishness as distinct from continental Europe . As such , since the 1970s " there has been a sense of crisis about what it has meant to be British " , exacerbated by growing demands for greater political autonomy for Northern Ireland , Scotland , and Wales .
The late 20th century saw major changes to the politics of the United Kingdom with the establishment of devolved national administrations for Northern Ireland , Scotland , and Wales following pre @-@ legislative referendums . Calls for greater autonomy for the four countries of the United Kingdom had existed since their original union with each other , but gathered pace in the 1960s and 1970s . Devolution has led to " increasingly assertive Scottish , Welsh and Irish national identities " , resulting in more diverse cultural expressions of Britishness , or else its outright rejection : Gwynfor Evans , a Welsh nationalist politician active in the late 20th century , rebuffed Britishness as " a political synonym for Englishness which extends English culture over the Scots , Welsh and the Irish " .
In 2004 Sir Bernard Crick , political theorist and democratic socialist tasked with developing the life in the United Kingdom test said :
Britishness , to me , is an overarching political and legal concept : it signifies allegiance to the laws , government and broad moral and political concepts — like tolerance and freedom of expression — that hold the United Kingdom together .
Gordon Brown , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , initiated a debate on British identity in 2006 . Brown 's speech to the Fabian Society 's Britishness Conference proposed that British values demand a new constitutional settlement and symbols to represent a modern patriotism , including a new youth community service scheme and a British Day to celebrate . One of the central issues identified at the Fabian Society conference was how the English identity fits within the framework of a devolved United Kingdom . An expression of Her Majesty 's Government 's initiative to promote Britishness was the inaugural Veterans ' Day which was first held on 27 June 2006 . As well as celebrating the achievements of armed forces veterans , Brown 's speech at the first event for the celebration said :
Scots and people from the rest of the UK share the purpose — that Britain has something to say to the rest of the world about the values of freedom , democracy and the dignity of the people that you stand up for . So at a time when people can talk about football and devolution and money , it is important that we also remember the values that we share in common .
= = Geographic distribution = =
Britons - people with British citizenship or of British descent - have a significant presence in a number of countries other than the United Kingdom , and in particular in those with historic connections to the British Empire . After the Age of Discovery the British were one of the earliest and largest communities to emigrate out of Europe , and the British Empire 's expansion during the first half of the 19th century triggered an " extraordinary dispersion of the British people " , resulting in particular concentrations " in Australasia and North America " .
The British Empire was " built on waves of migration overseas by British people " , who left the United Kingdom and " reached across the globe and permanently affected population structures in three continents " . As a result of the British colonisation of the Americas , what became the United States was " easily the greatest single destination of emigrant British " , but in Australia the British experienced a birth rate higher than " anything seen before " resulting in the displacement of indigenous Australians .
In colonies such as Southern Rhodesia , British East Africa and Cape Colony , permanently resident British communities were established and whilst never more than a numerical minority these Britons " exercised a dominant influence " upon the culture and politics of those lands . In Australia , Canada and New Zealand " people of British origin came to constitute the majority of the population " contributing to these states becoming integral to the Anglosphere .
The United Kingdom Census 1861 estimated the size of the overseas British to be around 2 @.@ 5 million , but concluded that most of these were " not conventional settlers " but rather " travellers , merchants , professionals , and military personnel " . By 1890 , there were over 1 @.@ 5 million further UK @-@ born people living in Australia , Canada , New Zealand and South Africa . A 2006 publication from the Institute for Public Policy Research estimated 5 @.@ 6 million Britons lived outside of the United Kingdom .
= = = Australia = = =
From the beginning of Australia 's colonial period until after the Second World War , people from the United Kingdom made up a large majority of people coming to Australia , meaning that many people born in Australia can trace their origins to Britain . The colony of New South Wales , founded on 26 January 1788 , was part of the eastern half of Australia claimed by the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1770 , and initially settled by Britons through penal transportation . Together with another five largely self @-@ governing Crown Colonies , the federation of Australia was achieved on 1 January 1901 .
Its history of British dominance meant that Australia was " grounded in British culture and political traditions that had been transported to the Australian colonies in the nineteenth century and become part of colonial culture and politics " . Australia maintains the Westminster system of Parliamentary Government and Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia . Until 1987 , the national status of Australian citizens was formally described as " British Subject : Citizen of Australia " . Britons continue to make up a substantial proportion of immigrants .
= = = British overseas territories = = =
The people of the British overseas territories are British by citizenship , via origins or naturalisation . Along with aspects of common British identity , each of them has their own distinct identity shaped in the respective particular circumstances of political , economic , ethnic , social and cultural history . For instance , in the case of the Falkland Islanders , Lewis Clifton the Speaker of the Legislative Council of the Falkland Islands , explains :
British cultural , economic , social , political and educational values create a unique British @-@ like , Falkland Islands . Yet Islanders feel distinctly different from their fellow citizens who reside in the United Kingdom . This might have something to do with geographical isolation or with living on a smaller island — perhaps akin to those Britons not feeling European .
In contrast , for the majority of the Gibraltarians , who live in Gibraltar , there is an " insistence on their Britishness " which " carries excessive loyalty " to Britain . The sovereignty of Gibraltar has been a point of contention in Spain – United Kingdom relations , but an overwhelming number of Gibraltarians embrace Britishness with strong conviction , in direct opposition to Spanish territorial claims .
= = = Canada = = =
Canada traces its statehood to the French , English and Scottish expeditions of North America from the late @-@ 15th century . France ceded nearly all of New France in 1763 after the Seven Years ' War , and so after the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776 , Quebec and Nova Scotia formed " the nucleus of the colonies that constituted Britain 's remaining stake on the North American continent " . British North America attracted the United Empire Loyalists , Britons who migrated out of what they considered the " rebellious " United States , increasing the size of British communities in what was to become Canada .
In 1867 there was a union of three colonies with British North America which together formed the Canadian Confederation , a federal dominion . This began an accretion of additional provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom , highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminating in the Canada Act 1982 , which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the parliament of the United Kingdom . Nevertheless , it is recognised that there is a " continuing importance of Canada 's long and close relationship with Britain " ; large parts of Canada 's modern population claim " British origins " and the cultural impact of the British upon Canada 's institutions is profound .
It was not until 1977 that the phrase " A Canadian citizen is a British subject " ceased to be used in Canadian passports . The politics of Canada are strongly influenced by British political culture . Although significant modifications have been made , Canada is governed by a democratic parliamentary framework comparable to the Westminster system , and retains Elizabeth II as The Queen of Canada and Head of State . English is an official language used in Canada .
= = = Chile = = =
Chile , facing the Pacific Ocean , has a large British presence . Over 50 @,@ 000 British immigrants settled in Chile from 1840 to 1914 . A significant number of them settled in Magallanes Province , especially in the city of Punta Arenas when it flourished as a major global seaport for ships crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Strait of Magellan . Around 32 @,@ 000 English settled in Valparaíso , influencing the port city to the extent of making it virtually a British colony during the last decades of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century . However , the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 and the outbreak of the First World War drove many of them away from the city or back to Europe .
In Valparaíso , they created their largest and most important colony , bringing with them neighbourhoods of British character , schools , social clubs , sports clubs , business organisations and periodicals . Even today their influence is apparent in specific areas , such as the banks and the navy , as well as in certain social activities , such as football , horse racing , and the custom of drinking tea .
During the movement for independence ( 1818 ) , it was mainly the British who formed the Chilean Navy , under the command of Lord Cochrane .
British investment helped Chile become prosperous and British seamen helped the Chilean navy become a strong force in the South Pacific . Chile won two wars , the first against the Peru @-@ Bolivian Confederation and the second , the War of the Pacific , in 1878 – 79 , against an alliance between Peru and Bolivia . The liberal @-@ socialist " Revolution of 1891 " introduced political reforms modelled on British parliamentary practice and lawmaking .
British immigrants were also important in the northern zone of the country during the saltpetre boom , in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua . The " King of Saltpetre " , John Thomas North , was the principal tycoon of nitrate mining . The British legacy is reflected in the streets of the historic district of the city of Iquique , with the foundation of various institutions , such as the Club Hípico ( Racing Club ) . Nevertheless , the British active presence came to an end with the saltpetre crisis during the 1930s .
Some Scots settled in the country 's more temperate regions , where the climate and the forested landscape with glaciers and islands may have reminded them of their homeland ( the Highlands and Northern Scotland ) while English and Welsh made up the rest . The Irish immigrants , who were frequently confused with the British , arrived as merchants , tradesmen and sailors , settling along with the British in the main trading cities and ports .
An important contingent of British ( principally Welsh ) immigrants arrived between 1914 and 1950 , settling in the present @-@ day region of Magallanes . British families were established in other areas of the country , such as Santiago , Coquimbo , the Araucanía , and Chiloé .
The cultural legacy of the British in Chile is notable and has spread beyond the British Chilean community into society at large . Customs taken from the British include afternoon tea ( called onces by Chileans ) , football , rugby union and horse racing . Another legacy is the widespread use of British personal names by Chileans .
Chile has the largest population of descendants of British settlers in Latin America . Over 700 @,@ 000 Chileans may have British ( English , Scottish and Welsh ) origin , amounting to 4 @.@ 5 % of Chile 's population .
= = = New Zealand = = =
A long @-@ term result of James Cook 's voyage of 1768 – 71 , a significant number of New Zealanders are of British descent , for whom a sense of Britishness has contributed to their identity . As late as the 1950s , it was common for British New Zealanders to refer to themselves as British , such as when Prime Minister Keith Holyoake described Sir Edmund Hillary 's successful ascent of Mount Everest as putting " the British race and New Zealand on top of the world " . New Zealand passports described nationals as " British Subject : Citizen of New Zealand " until 1974 , when this was changed to " New Zealand citizen " .
In an interview with the New Zealand Listener in 2006 , Don Brash , the then Leader of the Opposition , said :
British immigrants fit in here very well . My own ancestry is all British . New Zealand values are British values , derived from centuries of struggle since Magna Carta . Those things make New Zealand the society it is .
The politics of New Zealand are strongly influenced by British political culture . Although significant modifications have been made , New Zealand is governed by a democratic parliamentary framework comparable to the Westminster system , and retains Elizabeth II as the head of the monarchy of New Zealand . English is the dominant official language used in New Zealand .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
British nationality law as it pertains to Hong Kong has been unusual ever since Hong Kong became a British colony in 1842 . From its beginning as a sparsely populated trading port to its modern role as a cosmopolitan international financial centre of over seven million people , the territory has attracted refugees , immigrants and expatriates alike searching for a new life . Citizenship matters were complicated by the fact that British nationality law treated those born in Hong Kong as British subjects ( although they did not enjoy full rights and citizenship ) , while the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) did not recognise Hong Kong Chinese as such . The main reason for this was that recognising these people as British was seen as a tacit acceptance of a series of historical treaties that the PRC labelled as " unequal " , including the ones which ceded Hong Kong Island , the Kowloon Peninsula and the New Territories to Britain . The British government , however , recognising the unique political situation of Hong Kong , granted 3 @.@ 4 million Hong Kongers a new type of nationality known as British National ( Overseas ) , which is established in accordance with the Hong Kong Act 1985 . Among those 3 @.@ 4 million people , there are many British Nationals ( Overseas ) who are eligible for full British citizenship . Both British Nationals ( Overseas ) and British citizens are British nationals and Commonwealth citizens according to the British Nationality Law , which enables them to various rights in the United Kingdom and the European Union .
= = = South Africa = = =
The British arrived in the area which would become the modern @-@ day South Africa during the early 18th century , yet substantial settlement only started end of the 18th century , in the Cape of Good Hope ; the British first explored the area for conquests for or related to the Slave Trade . In the late 19th century , the discovery of gold and diamonds further encouraged colonisation of South Africa by the British , and the population of the British @-@ South Africans rose substantially , although there was fierce rivalry between the British and Afrikaners ( descendants of Dutch colonists ) in the period known as the Boer Wars . When apartheid first started most British @-@ South Africans were mostly keen on keeping and even strengthening its ties with the United Kingdom . The latest census in South Africa showed that there are almost 2 million British @-@ South Africans ; they make up about 40 % of the total White South African demographic , and the greatest white British ancestry populations in South Africa are in the KwaZulu @-@ Natal province and in cities such as Johannesburg and Cape Town .
= = = Ireland = = =
Plantations of Ireland introduced large numbers of people from Great Britain to Ireland throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period . The resulting Protestant Ascendancy , the aristocratic class of the Lordship of Ireland , broadly identified themselves as Anglo @-@ Irish . In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries , Protestant British settlers subjugated Catholic , Gaelic inhabitants in the north of Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster and the Williamite War in Ireland ; it was " an explicit attempt to control Ireland strategically by introducing ethnic and religious elements loyal to the British interest in Ireland " .
The Ulster Scots people are an ethnic group of British origin in Ireland , broadly descended from Lowland Scots who settled in large numbers in the Province of Ulster during the planned process of colonisations of Ireland which took place in the reign of James VI of Scotland and I of England . Together with English and Welsh settlers , these Scots introduced Protestantism ( particularly the Presbyterianism of the Church of Scotland ) and the Ulster Scots and English languages to , mainly , northeastern Ireland . With the partition of Ireland and independence for what is now the Republic of Ireland some of these people found themselves no longer living within the United Kingdom .
Northern Ireland itself was , for many years , the site of a violent and bitter ethno @-@ sectarian conflict — The Troubles — between those claiming to represent Irish nationalism , who are predominantly Roman Catholic , and those claiming to represent British unionism , who are predominantly Protestant . Unionists want Northern Ireland to remain part of the United Kingdom , while nationalists desire a united Ireland .
Since the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 , most of the paramilitary groups involved in the Troubles have ceased their armed campaigns , and constitutionally , the people of Northern Ireland have been recognised as " all persons born in Northern Ireland and having , at the time of their birth , at least one parent who is a British citizen , an Irish citizen or is otherwise entitled to reside in Northern Ireland without any restriction on their period of residence " . The Good Friday Agreement guarantees the " recognition of the birthright of all the people of Northern Ireland to identify themselves and be accepted as Irish or British , or both , as they may so choose " .
= = = United States = = =
An English presence in North America began with the Roanoke Colony and Colony of Virginia in the late @-@ 16th century , but the first successful English settlement was established in 1607 , on the James River at Jamestown . By the 1610s an estimated 1 @,@ 300 English people had travelled to North America , the " first of many millions from the British Isles " . In 1620 the Pilgrims established the English imperial venture of Plymouth Colony , beginning " a remarkable acceleration of permanent emigration from England " with over 60 % of trans @-@ Atlantic English migrants settling in the New England Colonies . During the 17th century an estimated 350 @,@ 000 English and Welsh migrants arrived in North America , which in the century after the Acts of Union 1707 was surpassed in rate and number by Scottish and Irish migrants .
The British policy of salutary neglect for its North American colonies intended to minimise trade restrictions as a way of ensuring they stayed loyal to British interests . This permitted the development of the American Dream , a cultural spirit distinct from that of its European founders . The Thirteen Colonies of British America began an armed rebellion against British rule in 1775 when they rejected the right of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them without representation ; they proclaimed their independence in 1776 , and constituted the first thirteen states of the United States of America , which became a sovereign state in 1781 with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation . The 1783 Treaty of Paris represented Great Britain 's formal acknowledgement of the United States ' sovereignty at the end of the American Revolutionary War .
Nevertheless , longstanding cultural and historical ties have , in more modern times , resulted in the Special Relationship , the historically close political , diplomatic , and military co @-@ operation between the United Kingdom and United States . Linda Colley , a professor of history at Princeton University and specialist in Britishness , suggested that because of their colonial influence on the United States , the British find Americans a " mysterious and paradoxical people , physically distant but culturally close , engagingly similar yet irritatingly different " .
Today , 838 @,@ 000 people in the United States identified themselves as born in Britain ..
= = Culture = =
Result from the expansion of the British Empire , British cultural influence can be observed in the language and culture of a geographically wide assortment of countries such as Canada , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa , India , Pakistan , the United States , and the British overseas territories . These states are sometimes collectively known as the Anglosphere . As well as the British influence on its empire , the empire also influenced British culture , particularly British cuisine . Innovations and movements within the wider @-@ culture of Europe have also changed the United Kingdom ; Humanism , Protestantism , and representative democracy have developed from broader Western culture .
As a result of the history of the formation of the United Kingdom , the cultures of England , Scotland , Wales , and Northern Ireland are diverse and have varying degrees of overlap and distinctiveness .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Historically , British cuisine has meant " unfussy dishes made with quality local ingredients , matched with simple sauces to accentuate flavour , rather than disguise it " . It has been " vilified as unimaginative and heavy " , and traditionally been limited in its international recognition to the full breakfast and the Christmas dinner . This is despite British cuisine having absorbed the culinary influences of those who have settled in Britain , resulting in hybrid dishes such as the British Asian Chicken tikka masala , hailed by some as " Britain 's true national dish " .
Celtic agriculture and animal breeding produced a wide variety of foodstuffs for Celts and Britons . The Anglo @-@ Saxons developed meat and savoury herb stewing techniques before the practice became common in Europe . The Norman conquest of England introduced exotic spices into Britain in the Middle Ages . The British Empire facilitated a knowledge of India 's food tradition of " strong , penetrating spices and herbs " . Food rationing policies , imposed by the British government during wartime periods of the 20th century , are said to have been the stimulus for British cuisine 's poor international reputation .
British dishes include fish and chips , the Sunday roast , and bangers and mash . British cuisine has several national and regional varieties , including English , Scottish and Welsh cuisine , each of which has developed its own regional or local dishes , many of which are geographically indicated foods such as Cheddar cheese , Cheshire cheese , the Yorkshire pudding , Arbroath Smokie , Cornish pasty and Welsh cakes .
The British are the second largest per capita tea consumers in the world , consuming an average of 2 @.@ 1 kilograms ( 4 @.@ 6 lb ) per person each year . British tea culture dates back to the 19th century , when India was part of the British Empire and British interests controlled tea production in the subcontinent .
= = = Languages = = =
There is no single British language , though English is by far the main language spoken by British citizens , being spoken monolingually by more than 70 % of the UK population . English is therefore the de facto official language of the United Kingdom . However , under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages , the Welsh , Scottish Gaelic , Cornish , Irish , Ulster Scots and Scots ( or Lowland Scots ) languages are officially recognised as Regional or Minority languages by the UK Government . As indigenous languages which continue to be spoken as a first language by native inhabitants , Welsh and Scottish Gaelic have a different legal status from other minority languages . In some parts of the UK , some of these languages are commonly spoken as a first language ; in wider areas , their use in a bilingual context is sometimes supported and / or promoted by central and / or local government policy . For naturalisation purposes , a competence standard of English , Scottish Gaelic or Welsh is required to pass the life in the United Kingdom test . However , English is used routinely , and although considered culturally important , Scottish Gaelic and Welsh are much less used .
Throughout the United Kingdom there are distinctive spoken expressions and regional accents of English , which are seen to be symptomatic of a locality 's culture and identity . An awareness and knowledge of accents in the United Kingdom can " place , within a few miles , the locality in which a man or woman has grown up " .
= = = Literature = = =
British literature is " one of the leading literatures in the world " . The overwhelming part is written in the English language , but there are also pieces of literature written in Scots , Scottish Gaelic and Welsh .
Britain has a long history of famous and influential authors . It boasts some of the oldest pieces of literature in the Western world , such as the epic poem Beowulf , one of the oldest surviving written work in the English language .
Famous authors include some of the world 's most studied and praised writers . William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe defined England 's Elizabethan period . The British Romantic movement was one of the strongest and most recognisable in Europe . The poets William Blake , Wordsworth and Coleridge were amongst the pioneers of Romanticism in literature . Other Romantic writers that followed these figure further enhanced the profile of Romanticism in Europe , such as John Keats , Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron . Later periods like the Victorian Era saw a further flourishing of British writing , including Charles Dickens and William Thackeray .
Women 's literature in Britain has had a long and often troubled history , with many female writers producing work under a pen name , such as George Eliot . Other great female novelists that contributed to world literature were the Brontë sisters , Emily , Charlotte and Anne .
Non @-@ fiction has also played an important role in the history of British letters , with the first dictionary of the English language being produced and compiled by Samuel Johnson , a graduate of Oxford University and a London resident .
= = = Media and music = = =
Although cinema , theatre , dance and live music are popular , the favourite pastime of the British is watching television . Public broadcast television in the United Kingdom began in 1936 , with the launch of the BBC Television Service ( now BBC One ) . In the United Kingdom and the Crown dependencies , one must have a television licence to legally receive any broadcast television service , from any source . This includes the commercial channels , cable and satellite transmissions , and the Internet . Revenue generated from the television licence is used to provide radio , television and Internet content for the British Broadcasting Corporation , and Welsh language television programmes for S4C . The BBC , the common abbreviation of the British Broadcasting Corporation , is the world 's largest broadcaster . Unlike other broadcasters in the UK , it is a public service based , quasi @-@ autonomous , statutory corporation run by the BBC Trust . Free @-@ to @-@ air terrestrial television channels available on a national basis are BBC One , BBC Two , ITV , Channel 4 ( S4C in Wales ) , and Five .
100 Greatest British Television Programmes was a list compiled by the British Film Institute in 2000 , chosen by a poll of industry professionals , to determine what were the greatest British television programmes of any genre ever to have been screened . Topping the list was Fawlty Towers , a British sitcom set in a fictional Torquay hotel starring John Cleese .
" British musical tradition is essentially vocal " , dominated by the music of England and Germanic culture , most greatly influenced by hymns and Anglican church music . However , the specific , traditional music of Wales and music of Scotland is distinct , and of the Celtic musical tradition . In the United Kingdom , more people attend live music performances than football matches . British rock was born in the mid @-@ 20th century out of the influence of rock and roll and rhythm and blues from the United States . Major early exports were The Beatles , The Rolling Stones , The Who and The Kinks . Together with other bands from the United Kingdom , these constituted the British Invasion ,
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in the case of equal records . The tournament ends with the Super Bowl , the league 's championship game , which matches the two conference champions .
NFL postseason history can be traced to the first NFL Championship Game in 1933 , though in the early years , qualification for the game was based solely on regular season records . From 1933 to 1966 , the NFL postseason generally only consisted of the NFL Championship Game , pitting the league 's two division winners ( pending any one @-@ game playoff matches that needed to be held to break ties in the division standings ) . The NFL playoffs then expanded in 1967 , when four teams qualified for the tournament . When the league merged with the American Football League ( AFL ) in 1970 , the playoffs expanded to eight teams . The playoffs were expanded to 10 teams in 1978 and 12 teams since 1990 .
The NFL is the only one out of the four major professional sports leagues in the United States to use a single @-@ elimination tournament in all four rounds of its playoffs ; Major League Baseball ( MLB ) ( not including their wild @-@ card postseason round ) , the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , and the National Hockey League ( NHL ) all use a " best @-@ of " format instead .
= = Current playoff system = =
The 32 @-@ team league is divided into two conferences : the American Football Conference ( AFC ) and the National Football Conference ( NFC ) , each of which has 16 teams . Since 2002 , each conference has been further divided into four divisions of four teams each . The tournament brackets are made up of six teams from each of the league 's two conferences , following the end of the regular season . Qualification into the playoffs works as follows :
The 4 division champions from each conference ( the team in each division with the best overall record ) , which are seeded 1 through 4 based on their overall won @-@ lost @-@ tied record .
Two wild @-@ card qualifiers from each conference ( the two teams with the best overall records of all remaining teams in the conference ) , which are seeded 5 and 6 .
The names of the first three playoff rounds date back to the postseason format that was first used in 1978 , when the league began using wild @-@ card teams . The first round of the playoffs is dubbed the wild @-@ card playoffs ( or wild @-@ card weekend ) . In this round , the third @-@ seeded division winner hosts the sixth seed wild card , and the fourth seed hosts the fifth . There are no restrictions regarding teams from the same division matching up in any round . The 1 and 2 seeds from each conference receive a bye in the first round , which entitles these teams to automatic advancement to the second round , the divisional playoffs , where they face the wild @-@ card weekend survivors . The NFL does not use a fixed bracket playoff system . The number 1 seed will host the worst surviving seed from the first round ( seed 4 , 5 or 6 ) , while the number 2 seed will play the other team ( seed 3 , 4 or 5 ) . The two surviving teams from each conference 's divisional playoff games then meet in the respective AFC and NFC Conference Championship games ( hosted by the higher seed ) , with the winners of those contests going on to face one another in the Super Bowl . Only twice since 1990 has neither a number one @-@ seeded team nor a number two @-@ seeded team hosted a conference championship game ( in the 2006 AFC Championship the # 3 seeded Indianapolis Colts hosted the # 4 seeded New England Patriots with the Colts winning 38 – 34 and the 2008 NFC Championship the # 4 seeded Arizona Cardinals hosting the # 6 seeded Philadelphia Eagles with the Cardinals winning 32 – 25 ) .
If teams are tied ( having the same regular season won @-@ lost @-@ tied record ) , the playoff seeding is determined by a set of tie @-@ breaking rules .
One potential disadvantage is that the two teams with the best records in a conference could play each other before the conference championship if they are in the same division . The better team would be seeded # 1 , while the lesser team would be seeded # 5 as the top wild @-@ card team , and as shown in the diagram , it is possible for the # 1 division winner to play the top wild @-@ card team in the divisional round . ( See also the " Modification proposals " section below . )
The New York Giants and New York Jets have shared the same home stadium since 1984 ( first Giants Stadium from 1984 to 2009 , and MetLife Stadium since 2010 ) . Thus , if both teams need to host playoff games on the same weekend , they are always required to play on separate days , even during the Conference Championship round . The only time such a scheduling conflict has occurred was during wild @-@ card weekend in 1985 , when only 10 teams qualified for the postseason and there were only two wild @-@ card games ( See the " History " section below ) : Instead of playing both wild @-@ card games on the same day , as was the case when the 10 @-@ team system was used from 1978 to 1989 , the New England Patriots defeated the Jets , 26 – 14 , on Saturday , December 28 , before the Giants beat the San Francisco 49ers , 17 – 3 , on the following day .
= = Breaking ties = =
Often , teams will finish a season with identical records . It becomes necessary , therefore , to devise means to break these ties , either to determine which teams will qualify for the playoffs , or to determine seeding in the playoff tournament . The rules below are applied in order until the tie is broken . If three teams are tied for one playoff spot and the third team is eliminated at any step , the tie breaker reverts to step one for the remaining two teams . If multiple playoff spots are at stake , the rules are applied in order until the first team qualifies , then the process is started again for the remaining teams .
The tie @-@ breaking rules have changed over the years , with the most recent changes being made in 2002 to accommodate the league 's realignment into eight four @-@ team divisions ; record vs. common opponents and most of the other criteria involving wins and losses were moved up higher in the tie @-@ breaking list , while those involving compiled stats such as points for and against were moved to the bottom .
The current tiebreakers are as follows :
= = Overtime rules = =
The NFL introduced overtime for any divisional tiebreak games beginning in 1940 , and for championship games beginning in 1946 . The first postseason game to be played under these rules was the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the Baltimore Colts and New York Giants ( the so @-@ called " Greatest Game Ever Played " ) . Overtime under the original format was sudden death , the first team to score would be declared the winner .
In March 2010 , the NFL amended its rules for postseason overtime , with the rule being extended into the regular season in March 2012 . If a team scores a touchdown ; or if the defense scores a safety on its first possession , it is declared the winner . If it scores a field goal on its first possession , however , it then kicks off to the opposing team , which has an opportunity to score ; if the score is tied again after that possession , true sudden death rules apply and whoever scores next will win .
Since postseason games cannot end in a tie unlike the preseason or regular season , additional overtime periods are played as necessary until a winner is determined . Furthermore , all clock rules apply as if a game had started over . Therefore , if the first overtime period ends with the score still tied , the teams switch ends of the field prior to double overtime . If a game was still tied with two minutes to go in double overtime , there would be a two @-@ minute warning ( but not during the first overtime period as in the regular season ) . And if it were still tied at the end of double overtime , there would be a kickoff to start triple overtime . Although a contest could theoretically last indefinitely , or last multiple overtime periods like several National Hockey League postseason games , no NFL playoff game has ever gone into triple @-@ overtime . The longest NFL game played to date is 82 minutes , 40 seconds : Miami Dolphins kicker Garo Yepremian made the winning 37 @-@ yard field goal after 7 : 40 of double @-@ overtime to defeat the Kansas City Chiefs , 27 – 24 , in the 1971 – 72 NFL playoffs on December 25 , 1971 .
= = Playoff and championship history = =
The NFL 's method for determining its champions has changed over the years .
= = = Early years = = =
From the league 's founding in 1920 until 1932 , there was no scheduled championship game . From 1920 – 1923 , the championship was awarded to a team by a vote of team owners at the annual owners ' meeting . From 1924 – 1932 , the team having the best winning percentage was awarded the championship . As each team played a different number of games , simply counting wins and losses would have been insufficient . Additionally , tie games were not counted in the standings in figuring winning percentage ( under modern rules , ties count as ½ win and ½ loss ) .
= = = 1932 playoff game = = =
In 1932 , the Chicago Bears ( 6 – 1 – 6 ) and the Portsmouth Spartans ( 6 – 1 – 4 ) were tied at the end of the season with the identical winning percentage of .857 ( the Green Bay Packers ( 10 – 3 – 1 ) had more wins , but a lower winning percentage ( .769 ) as calculated under the rules of the day , which omitted ties ) . An additional game was therefore needed to determine a champion . It was agreed that the game would be played in Chicago at Wrigley Field , but severe winter weather and fear of a low turnout forced the game to be moved indoors to Chicago Stadium . The game was played under modified rules on a shortened 80 @-@ yard dirt field , and the Bears won with a final score of 9 – 0 . As a result of the game , the Bears had the better winning percentage ( .875 ) and won the league title . The loss gave the Spartans a final winning percentage of .750 , and moved them to third place behind the Packers . While there is no consensus that this game was a real " championship " game ( or even a playoff game ) , it generated considerable interest and led to the creation of the official NFL Championship Game in 1933 .
= = = Before the Super Bowl = = =
Given the interest of the impromptu " championship game " , and the desire of the league to create a more equitable means of determining a champion , the league divided into two conferences beginning in 1933 . The winners of each conference ( the first place teams in the conferences ) will play in the NFL Championship Game after the season . There was no tie @-@ breaker system in place ; any ties in the final standings of either conference resulted in a playoff game being played in 1941 , 1943 , 1947 , two games in 1950 , and one each in 1952 , 1957 , 1958 , and 1965 . Since the venue and date of the championship game were often not known until the last game of the season had been played , these playoff games sometimes resulted in delaying the end of the season by one week .
The playoff structure used from 1933 to 1966 was considered inequitable by some because of the number of times it failed to match the teams with the two best records in the championship game , as only the conference winners would qualify for playoff contention . Four times between 1950 and 1966 ( in 1951 , 1956 , 1960 , and 1963 ) the team with the second @-@ best win @-@ loss record did not qualify for the playoffs while the team with the best record in the other conference , but only the third @-@ best in the league , would advance to the championship game .
For the 1967 NFL season , the NFL expanded to 16 teams , and split its two conferences into two divisions each , with four teams in each division . The four division champions would advance to the NFL playoffs , and to remain on schedule , a tie @-@ breaker system was introduced . The first round of playoffs determined the conference 's champion and its representative in the NFL Championship Game , played the following week . Thus , 1967 was the first season there was a scheduled playoff tournament to determine the teams to play for the NFL Championship .
During the three years ( 1967 – 69 ) that this playoff structure was in effect , there was one use of the tie @-@ breaker system . In 1967 , the Los Angeles Rams and Baltimore Colts ended the season tied at 11 – 1 – 2 for the lead in the Coastal Division . The Colts came into the last game of the season undefeated , but were beaten by the Rams . Though the Colts shared the best win / loss record in the NFL that year , they failed to advance to the playoffs while three other teams with worse records won their divisions . This event figured into the decision in 1970 to include a wild @-@ card team in the playoff tournament after the AFL @-@ NFL merger .
During the 1960s , a third @-@ place playoff game was played in Miami , called the Playoff Bowl . It was contested in early January following the 1960 – 69 seasons . Though official playoff games at the time they were played , the NFL now officially classifies these ten games ( and statistics ) as exhibitions , not as playoff games .
= = = = AFL and AAFC playoffs = = = =
Since it would eventually merge with the NFL , the history of the AFL 's playoff system merits some explanation . For the 1960 – 68 seasons , the AFL used the two @-@ divisional format identical to the NFL to determine its champion . There was no tie @-@ breaker system in place , so ties atop the Eastern Division final standings in 1963 and Western Division in 1968 necessitated playoff games to determine each division 's representative in the championship .
For the 1969 season , a first round was added whereby each division winner played the second @-@ place team from the other division . The winners of these games met in the AFL Championship Game . In the only year of this format , the AFL Champion Kansas City Chiefs were the second @-@ place team in the Western division . The Chiefs went on to win Super Bowl IV that season , thus becoming the first non @-@ division winner to win a Super Bowl .
During its brief history , the AAFC , who would merge into the NFL for the 1950 season , used an identical playoff format to the NFL from 1946 to 1948 . In 1949 ( its last year ) , the AAFC would merge its two conferences when one of its teams folded , and use a four @-@ team playoff system . In 1948 , the aforementioned issue of playoff inequity came into play when the San Francisco 49ers would miss the playoffs with a 12 – 2 record ; they were in the same conference as the 14 – 0 Cleveland Browns , who would go on to win the Western Conference and then the AAFC 's championship game against the 7 – 7 Buffalo Bills ( AAFC ) .
= = = Super Bowl and merger = = =
The Super Bowl began as an inter @-@ league championship game between the AFL and NFL , an idea first proposed by Kansas City Chiefs owner Lamar Hunt . This compromise was the result of pressures the upstart AFL was placing on the older NFL . The success of the rival league would eventually lead to a full merger of the two leagues .
From the 1966 season to the 1969 season ( Super Bowls I – IV ) the game featured the champions of the AFL and NFL . Since the 1970 season , the game has featured the champions of the National Football Conference ( NFC ) and the American Football Conference ( AFC ) .
When the leagues merged in 1970 , the new NFL ( with 26 teams ) reorganized into two conferences of three divisions each . From the 1970 season to the 1977 season , four teams from each conference ( for a total of eight teams ) qualified for the playoffs each year . These four teams included the three division champions , and a fourth wild @-@ card team .
Originally , the home teams in the playoffs were decided based on a yearly rotation . From 1970 to 1974 , the divisional playoff round rotated which of the three division champions would not have home field advantage , with the wild @-@ card teams and the teams they would face in the divisional playoff game would never have home field advantage throughout the playoffs . Starting in 1970 , the divisional playoff games consisted of the AFC Central champions and the NFC West champions playing their games on the road . Then in 1971 it rotated to the AFC East champions and the NFC East champions playing their games on the road . In the 1972 divisional playoff games , the AFC West champions and the NFC Central champions were the visiting teams . And 1973 it would start all over with the AFC Central and NFC West again , and so on . If the " road " division winners advanced to the conference championship games they would be visiting teams again , unless they played a wild @-@ card winner .
The rotation system led to several playoff inequities , such as :
In 1971 , the top two seeds in each conference met in the divisional round . The teams with the best records in their respective conferences , the Kansas City Chiefs ( AFC ) and Minnesota Vikings ( NFC ) , were ousted by the eventual Super Bowl participants , the Miami Dolphins and Dallas Cowboys .
In 1972 , the Dolphins had to take their perfect record to Three Rivers Stadium to face the Pittsburgh Steelers , who went 10 @-@ 3 @-@ 1 , in the AFC championship game .
In 1973 , the Cowboys finished 10 @-@ 4 but hosted two 12 @-@ 2 teams , the Los Angeles Rams and Minnesota .
The league did not institute a seeding system for the playoffs until 1975 , where the surviving clubs with the higher seeds were made the home teams for each playoff round . Thus , the top seeded division winner played the wild @-@ card team , and the remaining two division winners played at the home stadium of the better seed ( which meant that the lowest @-@ seeded division winner had to open the postseason on the road ) . However , two teams from the same division could not meet prior to the conference championship game . Thus , there would be times when the pairing in the divisional playoff round would be the 1 seed vs. the 3 seed and 2 vs. 4 .
= = = Expansion = = =
Following an expansion of the regular season from 14 to 16 games in the 1978 season , the league added one more wild @-@ card team for each conference . The two wild @-@ card teams played the week before the division winners . The winner of this game played the top seeded division winner as was done from 1970 – 1977 . The league continued to prohibit intra @-@ divisional games in the divisional playoffs , but allowed such contests in the wild @-@ card round . This ten @-@ team playoff format was used through the 1989 season . Under this system , the Oakland Raiders became the first wild @-@ card team to win a Super Bowl following the 1980 season .
During the strike @-@ shortened 1982 season , only nine regular season games were played , and a modified playoff format was instituted . Divisional play was ignored ( there were some cases where division rivals had both games wiped out by the strike , although each division ultimately sent at least one team to the playoffs ) , and the top eight teams from each conference ( based on W @-@ L @-@ T record ) were advanced to the playoffs . As a result , this became the first time that teams with losing records qualified for the playoffs : the 4 – 5 Cleveland Browns and the 4 – 5 Detroit Lions .
Several times between 1978 – 89 , the two wild @-@ card games had to be played on different days . Normally they both would be held on Sunday . In 1983 and 1988 , the games were split between Saturday and Monday because Sunday was Christmas , and the NFL had avoided playing on that day at the time . In 1984 , both games were played in the Pacific Time Zone , so they had to be played on Saturday and Sunday to accommodate for time differences . In 1985 , both the New York Giants and Jets hosted wild @-@ card games . As they have shared a home stadium since 1984 , the games had to be played on different days .
Since the 1990 season , a third wild @-@ card team for each conference was added , expanding the playoffs to the current twelve teams . The lowest @-@ seeded division winner was then " demoted " to the wild @-@ card weekend . Also , the restrictions on intra @-@ divisional games during the divisional playoffs were removed .
The 1990 format continued until the 2002 expansion and reorganization into eight divisions . In this current format , as explained above , the 4 division winners and 2 wild cards are seeded 1 – 6 , with the top 2 seeds receiving byes , and the highest seed in each round guaranteed to play the lowest seed . Also , seeds determine the home @-@ field advantage .
= = Modification proposals = =
There are some limitations that exist in the current 12 @-@ team playoff system . Since being a division winner is a guaranteed playoff berth , there have been many cases in which a team that wins a " weak " division either barely has a winning record ( as with the 2013 Green Bay Packers ) , or has a .500 or losing record altogether ( such as the 2010 Seattle Seahawks ) . At the same time , since a division winner is seeded higher than the wild cards , non @-@ division winners may end up playing a road game during Wild Card Weekend against a team with an inferior record , or may end up outright missing the playoffs . And going on the road during the first postseason round does not guarantee success : the first time that all four road teams won during Wild Card Weekend occurred during the 2015 – 16 season .
This issue has become more prevalent since the aforementioned 2002 realignment . There are three notable examples in which a division winner with a .500 or sub-.500 record ended up winning a playoff game against a team with a superior record :
In the 2008 – 09 season , the San Diego Chargers clinched the AFC West with only an 8 – 8 record , and hosted the 12 – 4 Indianapolis Colts in the wild @-@ card round , while the New England Patriots failed to even secure a wild @-@ card spot at 11 – 5 . The Chargers then went on to defeat the Colts in that playoff game .
In the 2010 – 11 season , the aforementioned 2010 Seahawks won the NFC West with a 7 – 9 record , hosting and defeating the 11 – 5 New Orleans Saints . Failing to make the playoffs were the New York Giants and Tampa Bay Buccaneers , both with 10 – 6 records . The 2010 Seahawks were the first team in NFL history to win both a division championship and a playoff game with a losing regular season record . They currently have the lowest win percentage of any team to ever make the playoffs .
In the 2014 – 15 season , the Carolina Panthers won the NFC South with a 7 – 8 – 1 record . By week 16 , no team in that division could finish with more than seven wins . The Panthers then defeated the Atlanta Falcons , who were 6 – 9 and undefeated within the division entering the game , for the division title . They hosted and defeated the 11 – 5 Arizona Cardinals in the wild card round . The best team to miss the playoffs that year was the Philadelphia Eagles , who finished 10 – 6 . To date , the 2014 Panthers and 2010 Seahawks are the only two teams to win a division , and a playoff game , with a losing record .
As a result of this seeding issue , frequent calls have been made to modify the playoff format even further . One proposal has been to expand the playoffs to 14 teams . Proponents of expansion note the increased revenue that could be gained from an additional two playoff games . They also note that the 12 @-@ team playoff system was implemented when the league only had 28 teams and six divisions ( of 4 to 5 teams each ) . The opposition to such a move notes that an expansion of the playoffs would " water down " the field by giving access to lower @-@ caliber teams . Opponents to expansion further point to the NBA playoffs and the NHL playoffs where 16 of 30 teams qualify for the postseason , and there is often a decreased emphasis on regular season performance as a result .
After the 2007 playoffs saw two wild @-@ card teams with better records ( Jacksonville Jaguars and eventual Super Bowl XLII champions New York Giants ) go on the road to defeat division winners ( Pittsburgh Steelers and Tampa Bay Buccaneers , respectively ) during wild @-@ card weekend , the NFL explored another proposal to change the playoffs so that the team with the better record would host the game , even if that meant a division winner went on the road . The NFL 's Competition Committee withdrew the request later that offseason , with Atlanta Falcons president Rich McKay mentioning that they wanted the idea to simply get a discussion going . New England Patriots owner Robert Kraft was a strong opponent of the rule change , believing that " if you win a division , it 's good for your fans to know you will have a home game . "
Just before the 2010 – 11 Seahawks @-@ Saints playoff game , McKay wanted to revisit the previous proposal to reseed teams during wild @-@ card weekend . However , sportswriter Peter King wrote that he believed league owners were still hesitant on implementing any such changes at this time due to the then @-@ pending 2011 work stoppage , the proposals to extend the regular season from 16 to 18 games and how it will impact the postseason , and the simple fact that not enough teams have been seriously disadvantaged by the current format .
In October 2013 , NFL commissioner Roger Goodell announced plans to revisit the idea to expand the playoffs to 14 teams , with the increased revenue gained from the two additional postseason games being used to offset plans to shorten the preseason . The two extra Wild Card games could also be scheduled on the weekend , creating triple @-@ headers on both Saturday and Sunday . Goodell then suggested that they might instead be played on Friday and / or Monday , which may eventually cause scheduling conflicts with games of the new College Football Playoff .
The 14 @-@ team playoff proposal remained tabled until December 2014 , when no team in the NFC South could finish better than .500 ; Goodell stated that the league would vote on it at the March 2015 Owners ' Meetings . One proposed 14 @-@ club system includes giving first @-@ round byes for the teams with the best record in each conference , two division champions in each conference receiving home games , and the remaining eight teams would be seeded by win @-@ loss record . However , by the following February 2015 , the Washington Post reported that support among team owners has eroded , and league leaders expressed reluctance to make a change until the one @-@ year extension with CBS to televise Thursday Night Football expires at the end of the 2015 season .
= = NFL playoff appearances = =
Correct as of 2015 – 16 NFL playoffs
* Tiebreaker playoff appearances based on the team with the more recent playoff appearance .
= = = Appearances by active teams = = =
= Moog for Love =
Moog for Love is the seventh extended play recorded by British electronic music duo Disclosure , consisting of brothers Howard and Guy Lawrence . The three @-@ track record was released on 15 June 2016 by the labels Island and PMR Records . 2016 was a year where the duo were developing their skills of writing material while on the road . Its title is named after the 1952 Eddie Jefferson song " Moody 's Mood for Love " . They did not have enough material to produce a full @-@ length album , but wanted to have a record released for the summer of that year regardless . Featuring collaborations with Eats Everything and Al Green , the album garnered generally mixed to positive reviews from music critics , some calling it a significant improvement over the duo 's second studio LP Caracal ( 2015 ) . Upon its release , the album landed at number 80 on the Australian Singles Chart .
= = Production = =
In 2016 , Disclosure had developed their skills of writing songs while on tour , but did not have time to produce enough material for a full @-@ length album . Regardless , the duo wanted to release a record for the summer , reasoning that they felt " strange " not issuing any material to the public in that season . Therefore , they created and distributed a three @-@ track " clubby " extended play that went " back to the start . " Moog for Love was Disclosure 's first record not to feature writing contributions from Jimmy Napes , which Howard said also " feels quite strange . " With the EP , Disclosure wanted to use more different track development formulas from what they used for making their previous records , Settle ( 2013 ) and Caracal ( 2015 ) , reasoning that they would be making the same music over and over again if they kept making tracks the same way . However , they still had made songs in one similar way they did for Settle , in that there was some material only one of the members would work on , and after the song was finished , both members of the duo would decide if the track was ready for release and inclusion on the album .
= = Composition = =
Moog for Love 's opening cut , " Boss " , written and arranged in a Los Angeles hotel room for a few days while on the road before being mixed and mastered at home , was the only song on the EP where Disclosure worked on a track together . Driven by a harsh drum loop , the song features singing from Howard Lawrence , his vocal track pitch @-@ shifted down and filtered with EQing effects . The second track on the EP , " Feel Like I Do " , is a remix of Al Green 's 1972 song " I 'm Still in Love with You " . Guy found the song while listening to a batch of vinyl records , and when Disclosure asked Green and the track 's label permission for use of samples of his recording , Green and the label enjoyed the track the duo had worked on and gave them multitrack stems of the original song for a much cleaner sound of the samples in the track . While the vocals are sped up in " Feel Like I Do , " the strings , horns and electric guitar from Green 's recording remain , with the addition electronic drums and " hazy effects " as Rolling Stone described . " Feel Like I Do " is the only track to not resemble the sound that was on Settle due to its slow tempo and feel .
The closing tropical house title track of Moog for Love was analyzed by a NME reviewer to borrow the rich sound that dominated Caracal while having the same tempo that was used for most tracks on Settle . He also noted that the elements of UK garage and house in " Boss " and the title song are similar to those present on tracks from Settle such as " When a Fire Starts to Burn " . Instrumented with " warbled " synthesizers and a pounding bass drum , the song ends with a " hypnotising " sample of the track " Moody 's Mood " , sung and recorded by Brian McKnight . " Moody 's Mood " is a cover of what the EP and its title track is named after , " Moody 's Mood for Love " . A song by Eddie Jefferson , its melody is derived from an improvised solo by jazz saxophonist James Moody . An a cappella group had written lyrics for the melody , and in the recording being sampled by the track , McKnight sings the melody and lyrics . The bassline in the track is also generated by a moog synthesizer .
= = Release and promotion = =
On 11 June 2016 , Disclosure premiered " Boss " at the United Kingdom Wildlife Festival , leading to an estatic reception from the audience according to NME . On 14 June 2016 , " Moog for Love " had a " World Record " premiere on Zane Lowe 's Apple Music show Beats 1 . Both songs became Annie Mac 's " Hottest Record In The World " for 15 June . First available for streaming 14 June 2016 , PMR and Island Records released Moog for Love for digital download the next day . The EP garnered generally positive reviews upon its distribution , some reviewers calling it significantly better than Caracal . Praising it as a less " grown @-@ up " dance release than Caracal , Lary Bartleet of NME wrote that with Moog for Love , " Disclosure are back in the club , where they belong , but … better . "
Wired magazine called Moog for Love one of the " 6 New Albums We Demand You Listen to Immediately " only for " Feel Like I Do " , calling the song " the best Avalanches song the Avalanches didn ’ t make — and the top @-@ down , sun @-@ kissed track you need in your life right now . " Rebecca Haithcoat , who wrote a review for Pitchfork Media , had a more mixed opinion , writing that while the release garners much of the same excitements as the " expert blend of sleek pop and those big , warm and happy belted house hooks of the ‘ 90s " that was on Settle , it was , much like Caracal , not as good as Disclosure 's debut given that it was " uninspired " and that none of the songs on the EP were " immediate or necessary . " Kyle Forward of DIY magazine was also disappointed with the EP , writing that the songs were only " reminders " of their old sound rather than being something much more than " indistinct nothingness " in addition to their previous sound .
= = Track listing and credits = =
All tracks written , mixed , and produced by Guy Lawrence , and mastered by Lewis Hopkin ; additional writing and production credits are noted .
Additional credits
Gus Pirelli – engineer on " Boss "
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= See No Evil ( Homicide : Life on the Street ) =
" See No Evil " is the second episode of the second season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street , and the eleventh overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 13 , 1994 . In the episode , Felton 's friend kills his father in an assisted suicide , and Felton tries to convince Lewis to look the other way . In a subplot , Pembleton investigates what appears to be the police shooting of an unarmed suspect .
The episode was directed by Chris Menaul and written by series creator Paul Attanasio . Wilford Brimley made a guest appearance as Harry Prentice , an ill and bed @-@ ridden man who convinces his son to help him kill himself . Attanasio deliberately wrote the script so it would be morally questionable whether police handling of both the suicide and the police shooting were done in an ethically correct way . Pembleton 's investigation was based on a real @-@ life investigation into a suspicious shooting featured in David Simon 's non @-@ fiction book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , on which the Homicide series was based .
Detectives from the Baltimore Police Department wrote a letter of formal protest to executive producer Barry Levinson over the negative portrayal of police in the episode . According to Nielsen Media Research , " See No Evil " was seen by 12 @.@ 53 million household viewers . Although a drop from the previous episode " Bop Gun " , it was nevertheless considered a strong rating for Homicide , which NBC was still considering whether to renew . The episode received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) visits Harry Prentice ( Wilford Brimley ) , the elderly and bed @-@ ridden father of his friend Chuckie ( Michael Chaban ) . Ill and miserable , the hard @-@ bitten Harry has decided he wants to die and has hired a suicide doctor . Felton believes this is wrong and convinces Chuckie to call it off , much to Harry 's anger . A few days later , however , Harry wears Chuckie down and convinces his son to shoot him to death with a handgun . When Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) and Crosetti ( Jon Polito ) investigate , Chuckie claims Harry shot himself , which Lewis does not believe . Felton talks to Chuckie at the police station and Chuckie admits to the assisted suicide , but Felton tells him to stick to the original suicide story . Lewis realizes what happened and confronts Felton , who admits what Chuckie did and suggests it was the right thing to do , but Lewis adamantly disagrees . Since the bullet evidence is inconclusive , Felton asks Lewis to let Chuckie secretly wash his hands so no gunpowder residue will be found in tests . Lewis initially refuses , but he eventually reluctantly agrees , allowing Chuckie to get away with the shooting .
Meanwhile , the homicide department is requiring all the detectives to take sensitivity training with therapist Carry Westin ( Jennifer Mendenhall ) . While most of them have positive experiences with her , Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) flatly refuses to participate and repeatedly avoids their scheduled sessions . When Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) tells Bolander he will be suspended without pay if he does not meet with her , Bolander chooses the suspension , but later reconsiders after his partner Munch ( Richard Belzer ) harasses him at the bar until he changes his mind . When they finally meet , Bolander explains he does not trust therapists because when going through marriage counseling with his ex @-@ wife , the therapist actively encouraged her to leave Bolander . He feels he was cheated out of $ 7 @,@ 000 in therapy bills , but Westin explains his anger is not from the money , but from feelings of betrayal by his ex @-@ wife . Bolander is ultimately impressed by Westin and even decides to ask her on a date , but she strongly hints she is a lesbian .
Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) and Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) are called to investigate the shooting death of Charles Courtland Cox , a small @-@ time drug peddler shot in the back shortly after a police raid of a crackhouse . When Pembleton suspects a police shooting , Lt. Tyron ( Michael S. Kennedy ) explains Officer Hellriegel ( Jeffrey Mandon ) accidentally shot Cox after falling down and discharging his weapon . However , Hellriegel does not recall details and appears nervous by questioning from Pembleton . Gee is angry with Pembleton 's inquiries into the police , and becomes even angrier when Colonel Granger ( Gerald F. Gough ) and Captain Barnfather ( Clayton LeBouef ) say they will make Hellriegel a scapegoat if the media start suggesting racism or police brutality . Hellriegel is cleared when tests reveal the bullet does not match his gun , but Pembleton requests the firearms of the other officers be tested . Gee refuses to approve the tests , but Pembleton gets Barnfather to order them .
= = Production = =
" See No Evil " was directed by Chris Menaul and written by series creator Paul Attanasio , who had not penned a Homicide script since series premiere " Gone for Goode " . The episode was originally meant to be the second season premiere , but NBC decided to air " Bop Gun " first because it featured a guest appearance by Robin Williams , which the network hoped would lead to increased Nielsen ratings . Like the other three second season episodes , the script for " See No Evil " was already finished by the time the first season ended , but due to poor ratings throughout the duration of the show , NBC executives asked for several refinements – including fewer episode subplots and less camera movements and jump cuts – before approving a second season . Attanasio deliberately wrote the " See No Evil " script so that it would be morally questionable whether the police handling of both main subplots — the assisted suicide and the suspected police shooting — were handled in an ethically correct way . Ultimately , Attanasio wanted it to be up to the audience to interpret for themselves .
Pembleton 's investigation of fellow police officers for a suspicious shooting was based on a real @-@ life investigation chronicled in David Simon 's 1991 non @-@ fiction book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , from which the Homicide series was adapted . Baltimore Police Department Detective Donald Worden , on whom the Bolander character is based , handled the actual real @-@ life investigation in 1988 . Lewis ' agreement to help Felton would later be referenced in the third season episode " Crosetti " , when Lewis reminded Felton of the favor while seeking help in stopping Bolander 's investigation into the death of Crosetti . Several members of the Baltimore Police Department publicly criticized Homicide for its negative portrayal of the police in the episode , and 22 detectives wrote a formal letter of protest to executive producer Barry Levinson over the matter .
" See No Evil " featured a guest performance by Wilford Brimley as the bed @-@ ridden and suicidal Harry Prentice , as well as Michael Chaban as his son Chuckie Prentice and Jennifer Mendenhall as sensitivity training therapist Carry Westin . The Harry Prentice story line includes his service aboard the SS John W. Brown , with the final scene of the episode filmed in front of that Liberty ship in Baltimore harbor . Mendenhall , predominately a stage actress , was a regular performer with the Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company in Washington , D.C. at the time she appeared in this episode . Michael S. Kennedy , an actor from Richmond , Texas , played Lt. Jimmy Tyron , a part he would reprise in the subsequent episode , " Black and Blue " . A struggling actor , Kennedy received a call in the middle of an all @-@ night shoot in Virginia Beach from a casting director he knew , informing him about the audition for Homicide one day in advance . He so enjoyed working on the show that he wrote a Homicide script himself , with Tyron playing a major part in the story , although it was ultimately never used . The songs " Rhythm and Blues " by Benjamin Antin , and " Barkeep " by Lee Currerri " , were featured in " See No Evil " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on January 13 , 1994 , the episode was watched by 12 @.@ 53 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , earning the episode a 13 @.@ 3 rating . It was a drop from the previous episode , " Bop Gun " , which drew 16 @.@ 3 million household viewers , and Homicide dropped from the 10th highest @-@ rated show of the week to the 31st highest @-@ rated . But the ratings dip was expected due to the absence of Robin Williams and the " See No Evil " rating was nevertheless considered a strong one for the show , better than past Homicide episodes and the average rating for L.A. Law , the legal drama which previously occupied that NBC timeslot . " See No Evil " was outperformed in its timeslot by the ABC news series Primetime Live , which was the 11th highest @-@ rated show of the week . Fontana said of the rating , " I hope the numbers level off now . This Thursday night is do @-@ or @-@ die . It will tell the tale , " referring to the subsequent week 's episode , " Black and Blue " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" See No Evil " received generally positive reviews . David Bianculli of The Baltimore Sun said he was surprised and impressed that the writers placed their characters in ethical dilemmas that led them to making illegal decisions . He added of the series , " Please watch this series ; it 's so good , I don 't mind pleading . " Matt Roush of USA Today called it a powerful episode and praised Andre Braugher 's " terrific " performance . Gannett News Service writer Tim Kiska praised the episode and called Yaphet Kotto 's performance a " tour @-@ de @-@ force " . The Miami Herald television critic Hal Boedeker called " See No Evil " equally as strong as " Bop Gun " , of which he was also extremely complimentary . Tom Shales of The Washington Post said both " See No Evil " and " Black and Blue " were better than the critically acclaimed " Bop Gun " , in part because they showcased Andre Braugher , who he called the finest actor in the ensemble cast : " Braugher manages to be utterly compelling whether slamming doors and throwing chairs , reducing a murder suspect to quivering tears , having furious arguments with Lt. Giardello ( rock @-@ solid Yaphet Kotto ) or simply lurking about . "
= = DVD release = =
" See No Evil " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 for $ 69 @.@ 95 .
= Vocabulary development =
Vocabulary development is a process by which people acquire words . Babbling shifts towards meaningful speech as infants grow and produce their first words around the age of one year . In early word learning , infants build their vocabulary slowly . By the age of 18 months , infants can typically produce about 50 words and begin to make word combinations .
In order to build their vocabularies , infants must learn about the meanings that words carry . The mapping problem asks how infants correctly learn to attach words to referents . Constraints theories , domain @-@ general views , social @-@ pragmatic accounts , and an emergentist coalition model have been proposed to account for the mapping problem ...
From an early age , infants use language to communicate . Caregivers and other
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the 1980s , retaining the heavily electronic style that Zapp II had adopted . Zapp III was released in 1983 , but it did not reach the same chart positions as Zapp 's previous efforts . While still gaining a gold certification , it only peaked at 39 on the Billboard 200 and nine on the R & B chart . Zapp III 's poorer commercial performance became a sign that the band 's popularity and impact were beginning to decline toward the mid 1980s , with post @-@ disco music falling out of trend . By the release of The New Zapp IV U on October 25 , 1985 , Zapp 's popularity declined more . The album gained gold status , but only in 1994 , almost a decade after its initial release . Zapp 's presence began to fade in the latter half of the 1980s , and Troutman 's attention was focused on his solo career . The final release by Zapp before Troutman 's death was Zapp V , on September 12 , 1989 , which was met with moderate commercial success and failed to receive an RIAA certification .
= = = 1993 – 96 : Resurgence and brief increase in popularity = = =
The growing and increasingly dominant West Coast hip @-@ hop scene of the early to mid 1990s brought Zapp and Roger back into the spotlight for a brief amount of time as many hip @-@ hop acts began favoring Zapp 's material as a source for sampling in their own music . Troutman gained recognition for providing talk @-@ box backing vocals for both the original and remixed version of Tupac Shakur 's 1995 @-@ 96 comeback single " California Love " ; the alternate version of the music video features Troutman playing the keyboard and talk @-@ box during a party . Roger 's involvement in " California Love " awarded him a Grammy nomination for " Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group " in 1997 .
= = = 1996 – present : Deaths of Roger and Larry Troutman , disbandment , and current activity = = =
On Sunday morning , April 25 , 1999 , Roger Troutman was fatally wounded as a result of an apparent murder @-@ suicide that was orchestrated by his older brother , Larry . Roger was shot several times in the torso by Larry as he exited a recording studio in Dayton , Ohio . Roger was taken to Good Samaritan Hospital , but died shortly after . Larry 's body was found in a car a short distance away from the murder scene . There were no witnesses at the time , and Larry 's motive for the murder of Roger remains unclear , however , there were increasingly large troubles over money surrounding Larry who managed the family run housing company , Troutman Enterprises . The business filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy , owing $ 400 @,@ 000 in delinquent taxes . Larry was also possibly angry over Roger firing him as manager for his music career , of which Larry had been for several years .
During Roger 's funeral , his nephew Clet Troutman performed a talk @-@ box rendition of " Amazing Grace . " Roger was survived by his six sons and five daughters ; his eldest son , Roger Lynch Troutman Jr . , died of head injuries several years after the murder of Roger , ( January 31 , 1970 – January 22 , 2003 ) .
After Troutman 's death , Ice Cube said that " More Bounce To The Ounce " introduced him to hip @-@ hop . " I was in the sixth grade , we 'd stayed after school . We had this dude named Mr. Lock , and he used to bring in his radio with these pop @-@ lockers . He used to teach [ the dance group ] the L.A. Lockers , and he would do community service in after @-@ school programs . He knew a lot of kids and introduced them to all the new dances , he put on that song ' More Bounce ' , and they started pop @-@ locking . And I think from that visual , from seeing that , it was my first introduction into hip @-@ hop . Period . I didn 't know nothing about nothing . I hadn 't heard " Rapper 's Delight " yet . It was the first thing that was really fly to me . They started dancing , and since ' More Bounce ' goes on forever , they just got down . I just think that was a rush of adrenaline for me , like a chemical reaction in my brain . "
The resulting impact of Roger and Larry 's deaths left the band stranded , halting production . Without Roger serving as the creative source , they effectively disbanded , and quietly left the music industry altogether . Warner Bros. Records eventually dropped the band from their label , bringing the professional recording career of Zapp to a close . A few years later , Zapp resurfaced for a short period after the establishment of its own independent label , Zapp Town Records , managed by the Troutman family . The label released its only album , Zapp VI : Back By Popular Demand , in 2003 . Zapp returned to performing only in live concert , touring across the U.S. at various venues .
Lester Troutman Sr. and Terry Troutman confirmed the presence of a new project / album in the works with an expected release date of August 2015 .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Original lineup = = =
Roger Troutman : lead and background vocals , guitar , bass , keyboards , harmonica , vibraphone , percussion , talk box
Larry Troutman : percussion
Lester Troutman : drums
Terry Troutman : keyboards , bass , background vocals
Gregory Jackson : keyboards , lead and background vocals
Bobby Glover : lead and background vocals
= = = Other members = = =
Eddie Barber
Jannetta Boyce
Robert Jones
Jerome Derrickson
Sherman Fleetwood
Michael Warren
Shirley Murdock
Dale DeGroat
Aaron Blackmon ( 1984 - 1990 )
Nicole Cottom
Bart Thomas
Ricardo Bray
Bigg Robb ( from the early / mid 1990s - 2009 )
Rhonda Stevens
Ray Davis
Roger Troutman Jr . ( died of head injury in 2003 )
Thomas Troutman
Rufus Troutman III
Davis Brown ( sound man )
Wanda Rash ( vocalist )
Toika Troutman ( vocalist )
Marchelle Smith ( vocalist )
Eba Glover ( vocalist )
= = Discography = =
= Austria in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 =
Austria participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 with the song " Rise Like a Phoenix " , written by Charlie Mason , Joey Patulka , Ali Zuckowski and Julian Maas . The song was performed by Conchita Wurst , the drag stage persona of Tom Neuwirth , who had risen to fame after taking part in an Austrian talent show in 2011 and attempting to represent Austria at the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 . In September 2013 the Austrian broadcaster Österreichischer Rundfunk ( ORF ) announced that they had internally selected Wurst to compete at the 2014 contest in Copenhagen , Denmark , with her song presented to the public in March 2014 .
After a promotional tour of several European countries , Austria was seen as one of the countries most likely to qualify for the grand final . In the second of the Eurovision semi @-@ finals " Rise Like a Phoenix " came first of the 15 participating countries , securing its place among the 26 other countries in the final . In Austria 's forty @-@ seventh Eurovision appearance on 10 May , " Rise Like a Phoenix " became the sixty @-@ second song to win the Eurovision Song Contest , receiving a total of 290 points and full marks from thirteen countries . This was Austria 's second win in the contest , having previously won in 1966 .
After the show , the song went on to chart in several European countries , reaching number one in Austria and the UK Indie Chart , as well as reaching the top 10 in a further 10 countries . Wurst 's appearance in the contest brought about both criticism and praise : by some of the more socially conservative sections of European society her victory in the contest was condemned as a promotion of LGBT rights ; conversely the international attention received by Wurst 's victory firmly established her among the LGBT community , leading her to take an active role in promoting tolerance and respect , and resulted in several invites to perform at several European pride events , as well as performances at the European Parliament and United Nations Office at Vienna .
= = Background = =
Prior to the 2014 contest , Austria had participated in the Eurovision Song Contest forty @-@ six times since its first entry in 1957 , winning it in 1966 with the song " Merci , Chérie " performed by Udo Jürgens . Following the introduction of semi @-@ finals for the 2004 contest , Austria had featured in only two finals . Austria 's least successful result has been last place , which they have achieved on eight occasions , most recently in the 2012 contest . Austria has also received nul points on three occasions ; in 1962 , 1988 and 1991 .
The Austrian national broadcaster , Österreichischer Rundfunk ( ORF ) , broadcasts the event within Austria and organises the selection process for the nation 's entry . From 2011 to 2013 , ORF had set up national finals with several artists to choose both the song and performer to compete at Eurovision for Austria , with both the public and a panel of jury members involved in the selection . For the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest , ORF held an internal selection to choose the artist and song to represent Austria at the contest . This method had last been used by ORF in 2007 .
= = Before Eurovision = =
= = = Selection procedure = = =
ORF confirmed their intentions to participate at the 2014 Eurovision Song Contest on 6 September 2013 . On 10 September 2013 , the broadcaster announced that they had internally selected Conchita Wurst to represent Austria in Copenhagen . Wurst is the drag stage persona of Tom Neuwirth , who in 2007 finished second in the third season of Austrian talent show Starmania , behind the 2011 Austrian entry Nadine Beiler . Neuwirth went on to join the boy band Jetzt Anders ! along with other contestants from Starmania in 2007 , which disbanded later that year . Following this , Neuwirth , who uses masculine pronouns when referring to himself but feminine pronouns to describe Wurst , went on to developed his new drag persona and appeared on ORF 's talent show Die große Chance ( " The Big Opportunity " ) as Wurst in 2011 , achieving sixth place . Wurst went on to compete in the Austrian selection for the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 with the song " That 's What I Am " , qualifying for the super final and finishing second with 49 percent of the public vote .
ORF confirmed in October 2013 that the song to be performed by Wurst at the contest would also be chosen internally . On 18 March 2014 at a ORF press conference in Vienna , the song " Rise Like a Phoenix " was announced as the Austrian entry for the contest . The song was written by Charlie Mason , Joey Patulka , Ali Zuckowski and Julian Maas . Wurst 's first live performance of the song was on 22 March 2014 , during an episode of Dancing Stars , the Austrian version of international franchise Dancing with the Stars .
As part of the contest 's graphic design , special postcards were commissioned by the Danish host broadcaster DR to introduce each of the participating countries before the acts took to the stage . For the 2014 contest the contestants were asked to take a photo of their country 's flag , made in a creative way . Austria 's postcard was the first to be filmed by DR , and was shot at the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna featuring Wurst and her stylist Tamara Mascara creating the Austrian flag out of 70 baroque @-@ style dresses .
In the run @-@ up to the contest , Wurst asked her fans to take part in a campaign called " Knit for Tolerance " , in which they would wear knitted beards in a display of tolerance and respect , also promising that she would take all beards that she received with her to Copenhagen .
= = = Selection controversy = = =
The selection of Wurst caused some controversy in Austria and the rest of Europe . A Facebook group which amassed approximately 38 @,@ 000 members protested the decision by the publicly funded broadcaster ORF , to internally select the country 's Eurovision act without a public vote . In an interview with Austrian newspaper Kurier , Wurst defended her internal selection by ORF , noting that the broadcaster had the sole responsibility of making decisions regarding the contest and that the 2007 internal selection of Eric Papilaya received no backlash from the Austrian public . Wurst also claimed that the criticism from the group surpassed protest against her as the selected artist and instead " displayed homophobic statements and discrimination " , and she vowed to " continue fighting against discrimination " in response to the Facebook group .
Wurst 's selection for Eurovision also sparked outrage outside of Austria ; in Belarus , a petition by more than 2 @,@ 000 people petitioned the Belarusian Ministry of Information to prevent the contest from being broadcast in the country , claiming it to being " a hotbed of sodomy " and an attempt by European liberals to impose Western values on Belarus and Russia . A similar petition of more than 15 @,@ 000 signatures was also received by the Russian Ministry of Communications and Mass Media from the " All @-@ Russian parenting group " , claiming that Wurst " leads the lifestyle inapplicable [ sic ] for Russians " Wurst also received criticism from the Armenian representative , Aram Mp3 , who claimed that her lifestyle was " not natural " and that she should " eventually decide whether she is a woman or a man " . Aram MP3 later apologised and insisted his statements were " a joke " .
In response to petitions in Russia , Belarus and Ukraine asking for Wurst to be removed from the competition , some of the other 2014 participants gave Wurst their support . Ireland 's representative Kasey Smith , said that " everyone should be allowed in " to Eurovision and that she " totally disagree [ s ] with what they are doing . It 's homophobia . "
= = = Promotion = = =
Before her appearance at the contest , Wurst went on a promotional tour , performing in several European countries . Prior to her song selection , Wurst appeared at a Eurovision fan event in Vienna in October 2013 held by the Austrian branch of OGAE , an international organisation of Eurovision fan clubs across Europe and beyond , where she shared the stage with Anne @-@ Marie David , the 1973 Eurovision winner . On 28 March Wurst appeared at the 2014 Euroschlager Party , held by OGAE Spain , in Madrid . On 29 March 2014 , Wurst was a guest at the " Eurovision Pre @-@ Party Riga " in Latvia , appearing alongside Poland 's 2014 representatives Donatan & Cleo and Latvia 's 2013 representatives PeR . Wurst was also one of 26 acts from the 2014 contest to perform during the 2014 Eurovision in Concert , the largest gathering of Eurovision artists outside of Eurovision itself , held in the Melkweg , a popular music venue in Amsterdam , the Netherlands on 5 April 2014 . This was followed by an appearance at the London Preview Party alongside 15 other participating entries from 2014 , held at the Café de Paris nightclub in London on 13 April . Wurst also took part in several interviews and performances on Irish , Belgian and Dutch television networks .
= = At Eurovision = =
According to Eurovision rules , all nations with the exceptions of the host country and the " Big 5 " ( France , Germany , Italy , Spain and the United Kingdom ) are required to qualify from one of two semi @-@ finals in order to compete for the final ; the top ten countries from each semi @-@ final progress to the final . The European Broadcasting Union ( EBU ) split up the competing countries into six different pots based on voting patterns from previous contests , with countries with favourable voting histories put into the same pot . On 20 January 2014 , a special allocation draw was held which placed each country into one of the two semi @-@ finals , as well as which half of the show they would perform in . Austria was placed into the second semi @-@ final , to be held on 8 May 2014 , and was scheduled to perform in the first half of the show .
Once all the competing songs for the 2014 contest had been released , the running order for the semi @-@ finals was decided by the shows ' producers rather than through another draw , so that similar songs were not placed next to each other . Austria was set to perform in position 6 , following the entry from Poland and before the entry from Lithuania . All three shows were broadcast on ORF eins , with commentary by Andi Knoll . The Austrian spokesperson , who announced the Austrian votes during the final , was Kati Bellowitsch .
= = = Semi @-@ final = = =
Wurst took part in technical rehearsals on 30 April and 3 May , followed by dress rehearsals on 7 and 8 May . This included the jury final where professional juries of each country , responsible for 50 percent of each country 's vote , watched and voted on the competing entries .
The stage show featured Wurst in a cream @-@ covered mermaid @-@ like dress standing on a pedestal in the middle of the stage . The stage appeared dark at the beginning of the song with minimal lighting , before the lighting rose towards the beginning of the first chorus . At the start of the song , the camera appeared at the back of the arena before swooping into centre stage to a close @-@ up of Wurst , followed by it flying off again at the beginning of the chorus . The background LED screens featured at the first chorus flaming rain , followed by flames in the shape of wings , in reference to the phoenix in the title of the song . Pyrotechnic flames also featured at the finale of the song . Wind machines were also used to effect during the performance .
At the end of the show , it was announced that Austria had finished in the top 10 and thus qualifying for the grand final ; it was the last qualifying country to be announced by the show 's hosts , Pilou Asbæk and Nikolaj Koppel . It was later revealed that Austria had won the semi @-@ final , receiving a total of 169 points .
= = = Final = = =
Shortly after the second semi @-@ final , a winner 's press conference was held for the ten qualifying countries . As part of this press conference , the qualifying artists took part in a draw to determine which half of the grand final they would subsequently participate in . This draw was done in the order the countries were announced during the semi @-@ final . Austria was drawn to compete in the first half . Following this draw , the shows ' producers decided upon the running order of the final , as they had done for the semi @-@ finals . Austria was subsequently placed to perform in position 11 , following the entry from Greece and before the entry from Germany . On the day of the grand final , Austria was considered by bookmakers to be the second most likely to win the competition , placed only behind the entry from Sweden .
Wurst once again took part in dress rehearsals on 9 and 10 May before the final , including the jury final where the professional juries casted their final votes before the live show . Wurst performed a repeat of her semi @-@ final performance during the final on 10 May . After a slow start , Austria eventually took the lead in the voting and won the competition with 290 points , beating the Netherlands and Sweden into second and third places respectively . Austria received 12 points , the maximum number of points a country can give to another country , from thirteen countries . The broadcast was watched by an average 1 @.@ 3 million people in Austria , receiving a 54 @.@ 4 percent market share .
= = = = Marcel Bezençon Awards = = = =
The Marcel Bezençon Awards , first awarded during the 2002 contest , are awards honouring the best competing songs in the final each year . Named after the creator of the annual contest , Marcel Bezençon , the awards are divided into 3 categories : the Press Award , given to the best entry as voted on by the accredited media and press during the event ; the Artistic Award , presented to the best artist as voted on by the shows ' commentators ; and the Composer Award , given to the best and most original composition as voted by the participating composers . " Rise Like a Phoenix " was awarded the Press Award , which was accepted at the awards ceremony by Kathrin Zechner , ORF 's Managing Director .
= = = Voting = = =
Voting during the three shows consisted of 50 percent public televoting and 50 percent from a jury deliberation . The jury consisted of five music industry professionals who were citizens of the country they represent , with their names published before the contest to ensure transparency . This jury was asked to judge each contestant based on : vocal capacity ; the stage performance ; the song 's composition and originality ; and the overall impression by the act . In addition , no member of a national jury could be related in any way to any of the competing acts in such a way that they cannot vote impartially and independently . The individual rankings of each jury member were released shortly after the grand final .
Below is a breakdown of points awarded to Austria and awarded by Austria in the second semi @-@ final and grand final of the contest , and the breakdown of the jury voting and televoting conducted during the two shows :
= = = = Points awarded to Austria = = = =
= = = = Points awarded by Austria = = = =
= = = = Split voting results = = = =
The following five members comprised the Austrian jury :
Stella Jones – Chairperson – singer , songwriter , vocal @-@ stagecoach , represented Austria in the 1995 Contest
Michael Dörfler – producer and owner of a sound studio
Dietmar Lienbacher – Division Head Austria Sony Music
Diana Lueger – singer , musician , songwriter
Alexander Kahr – producer
= = After Eurovision = =
As the winners of the 2014 contest , Austria was given the responsibility of hosting the 2015 contest . Shortly after the 2014 final , ORF confirmed the preliminary dates for the 2015 contest , as well as that several cities in Austria were competing to host the 60th edition of the Eurovision Song Contest . After a competition was held to determine the host venue , three cities were short @-@ listed by ORF : Vienna ; Innsbruck ; and Graz . On 6 August it was announced that the Wiener Stadthalle in Vienna would host the 2015 contest , scheduled to be held on 19 , 21 and 23 May 2015 . On 19 December 2014 , the hosts of the contest were announced , with Wurst taking on the role of green room host for the event .
On Wurst 's return to Austria after winning Eurovision , she was greeted at Vienna International Airport by thousands of fans and hundreds journalists celebrating her victory . On 18 May she met with Werner Faymann , the Chancellor of Austria and Josef Ostermayer , the Minister of Arts , Culture , and Media at an official reception , followed by a performance on stage at Vienna 's Ballhausplatz to an audience of thousands of fans . The concert was however criticised by the conservative Austrian People 's Party , a member of the coalition government .
" Rise Like a Phoenix " went on to become a hit across Europe , reaching the top 3 in iTunes download charts in fourteen countries , including both Belarus and Russia , where she had courted controversy before the contest . The song also reached the top 10 in charts in twelve countries , including number one in Austria and the UK Indie Chart .
Wurst received both praise and criticism following her victory . Many celebrities sent their congratulations and support to Wurst via Twitter and other means , including Elton John , Cher , Lady Gaga , Boy George and Robbie Williams , as well as from fellow Eurovision winners Alexander Rybak , Emmelie de Forest , Lena Meyer @-@ Landrut and Charlotte Perrelli . However her victory was also met with negative reaction by some more conservative sections of European society . In Turkey , which had not taken part in the contest since 2012 , the government party AKP criticised Wurst 's win , with then @-@ Prime Minister of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan vowing that Turkey would never take part in the contest again and his colleague Volkan Bozkır proclaiming " Thank god we no longer participate in Eurovision " .
Church leaders in the Balkans have also claimed that Wurst 's win is responsible for floods in south @-@ east Europe in May 2014 , which left over 60 people dead . Metropolitan Amfilohije , the Montenegrin patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church claimed that " this [ flood ] is not a coincidence , but a warning " and a " reminder that people should not join the wild side " , Patriarch Irinej , the spiritual leader of Eastern Orthodox Serbs has reportedly said the floods are " divine punishment for their vices " and that " God is thus washing Serbia of its sins " . Wurst had previously been condemned by the Russian Orthodox Church . However Fr . Michael Unger , Tom Neuwirth 's childhood Catholic priest , condemned the homophobic backlash against him , and said that he is " just happy that he 's happy " .
In the wake of her Eurovision win , Wurst was invited onto several television programmes across Europe . Wurst appeared as a guest on several BBC programmes in the United Kingdom ; including The Graham Norton Show on 16 May , a chat show hosted by British commentator Graham Norton ; and on 23 May 2014 she appeared on The One Show and Newsnight . Wurst was invited onto the German talk show TV total on 4 June 2014 , hosted by former Eurovision contestant and host Stefan Raab , and was in demand by German broadcaster RTL as a new personality for their upcoming reality shows . Wurst also performed on the popular Swedish show Allsång på Skansen in July 2014 .
In June 2014 , Wurst headlined the Vienna Life Ball , Europe 's biggest charity event supporting people with HIV and AIDS , attending the event in a dress designed by Jean Paul Gaultier . Wurst has since modelled for both Gautier and Karl Lagerfeld at several events .
Both before and after her Eurovision win , Wurst had become very involved with the LGBT community . In June 2014 Wurst recorded a message for the It Gets Better Project , an Internet @-@ based project devoted to preventing suicide among LGBT youth by having gay adults convey the message that their lives will improve , and to inspire change required to make life better for them . Wurst was also invited to perform at several pride events in several cities across Europe , including in Stockholm , Zürich , Dublin , Berlin , Madrid , Amsterdam , London and Manchester among others . In October 2014 , British gay lifestyle magazine Attitude awarded Wurst with the ' Moment of the Year ' award for her win at Eurovision as part of the 2014 Attitude Awards .
In October 2014 , Wurst accepted an invitation by Ulrike Lunacek MEP , vice @-@ president of the Austrian Greens , to perform in a special concert at the European Parliament . The concert was organised by MEPs from 5 different parliamentary groups , with the aim to support the adoption of a report against homophobia and sexual discrimination in February . This was followed in November 2014 by a performance at the United Nations Office at Vienna and a meeting with the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Ban Ki @-@ moon . Ban hailed Wurst 's win as a " powerful message " , praising her promotion of respect for diversity , which he called a " core value " of the United Nations and that " discrimination has no place in the United Nations , nor in the world of the 21st century " . Wurst had also extended her CV into voice acting , voicing the character of Eva in the German dub of the computer @-@ animated film Penguins of Madagascar , spin @-@ off of the Madagascar film franchise .
= Margaret Thatcher =
Margaret Hilda Thatcher , Baroness Thatcher , LG , OM , PC , FRS , FRIC ( née Roberts ; 13 October 1925 – 8 April 2013 ) was a British stateswoman and politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and the Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990 . She was the longest @-@ serving British prime minister of the 20th century and the first woman to have held the office . A Soviet journalist dubbed her the " Iron Lady " , a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style . As Prime Minister , she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism .
Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister , Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Finchley in 1959 . Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government . In 1975 , Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election to become Leader of the Opposition and became the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom . She became Prime Minister after winning the 1979 general election .
On moving into 10 Downing Street , Thatcher introduced a series of political and economic initiatives intended to reverse high unemployment and Britain 's struggles in the wake of the Winter of Discontent and an ongoing recession . Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation ( particularly of the financial sector ) , flexible labour markets , the privatisation of state @-@ owned companies , and reducing the power and influence of trade unions . Thatcher 's popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment , until victory in the 1982 Falklands War and the recovering economy brought a resurgence of support , resulting in her re @-@ election in 1983 .
Thatcher was re @-@ elected for a third term in 1987 . During this period her support for a Community Charge ( referred to as the " poll tax " ) was widely unpopular , and her views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet . She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990 , after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership . After retiring from the Commons in 1992 , she was given a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher , of Kesteven in the county of Lincolnshire , which entitled her to sit in the House of Lords . After a series of small strokes in 2002 , she was advised to withdraw from public speaking . Despite this , she managed to prerecord a eulogy to Ronald Reagan prior to his death , which was broadcast at his funeral in 2004 . In 2013 , she died of another stroke in London at the age of 87 .
= = Early life and education = =
Thatcher was born Margaret Hilda Roberts on 13 October 1925 , in Grantham , Lincolnshire . Her father was Alfred Roberts , originally from Northamptonshire , and her mother was Beatrice Ethel ( née Stephenson ) from Lincolnshire . She spent her childhood in Grantham , where her father owned two grocery shops . She and her older sister Muriel ( 1921 – 2004 ) were raised in the flat above the larger of the two , on North Parade . Her father was active in local politics and the Methodist church , serving as an alderman and a local preacher , and brought up his daughter as a strict Wesleyan Methodist attending the Finkin Street Methodist Church . He came from a Liberal family but stood – as was then customary in local government – as an Independent . He was Mayor of Grantham in 1945 – 46 and lost his position as alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950 .
Margaret Roberts attended Huntingtower Road Primary School and won a scholarship to Kesteven and Grantham Girls ' School . Her school reports showed hard work and continual improvement ; her extracurricular activities included the piano , field hockey , poetry recitals , swimming and walking . She was head girl in 1942 – 43 . In her upper sixth year she applied for a scholarship to study chemistry at Somerville College , Oxford , but she was initially rejected and was offered a place only after another candidate withdrew . Roberts arrived at Oxford in 1943 and graduated in 1947 with Second @-@ Class Honours in the four @-@ year Chemistry Bachelor of Science degree , specialising in X @-@ ray crystallography under the supervision of Dorothy Hodgkin . Her dissertation was on the structure of the antibiotic gramicidin . Even while working on chemistry , she was already thinking towards law and politics . She was reportedly more proud of becoming the first Prime Minister with a science degree than the first female Prime Minister .
Roberts became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946 . She was influenced at university by political works such as Friedrich Hayek 's The Road to Serfdom ( 1944 ) , which condemned economic intervention by government as a precursor to an authoritarian state . After graduating , Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics . In 1948 she applied for a job at ICI , but was rejected after the personnel department assessed her as " headstrong , obstinate and dangerously self @-@ opinionated " . Roberts joined the local Conservative Association and attended the party conference at Llandudno in 1948 , as a representative of the University Graduate Conservative Association . One of her Oxford friends was also a friend of the Chair of the Dartford Conservative Association in Kent , who were looking for candidates . Officials of the association were so impressed by her that they asked her to apply , even though she was not on the Conservative Party 's approved list : she was selected in January 1951 , aged 25 , and added to the approved list post ante . At a dinner following her formal adoption as Conservative candidate for Dartford in February 1951 she met Denis Thatcher , a successful and wealthy divorced businessman , who drove her to her Essex train . In preparation for the election Roberts moved to Dartford , where she supported herself by working as a research chemist for J. Lyons and Co. in Hammersmith , part of a team developing emulsifiers for ice cream .
= = Early political career = =
In the 1950 and 1951 general elections , Roberts was the Conservative candidate for the safe Labour seat of Dartford . The local party selected her as its candidate because , though not a dynamic public speaker , Roberts was well @-@ prepared and fearless in her answers ; another prospective candidate recalled that " Once she opened her mouth , the rest of us began to look rather second @-@ rate " . She attracted media attention as the youngest and the only female candidate . She lost on both occasions to Norman Dodds , but reduced the Labour majority by 6 @,@ 000 , and then a further 1 @,@ 000 . During the campaigns , she was supported by her parents and by Denis Thatcher , whom she married in December 1951 . Denis funded his wife 's studies for the bar ; she qualified as a barrister in 1953 and specialised in taxation . Later that same year their twins Carol and Mark were born , delivered by Caesarean section .
The marriage led to her being referred to as " Mrs Denis Thatcher " – now considered dated – by such official sources as selection minutes , travel itineraries , and society publications such as Queen , even after her election as a Member of Parliament , after which she preferred " Mrs Margaret Thatcher " .
= = = Member of Parliament : 1959 – 70 = = =
In 1954 , Thatcher was defeated when she sought selection to be the Conservative party candidate for the Orpington by @-@ election of January 1955 . She chose not to stand as a candidate in the 1955 general election , in later years stating " I really just felt the twins were ... only two , I really felt that it was too soon . I couldn 't do that . " Afterwards , Thatcher began looking for a Conservative safe seat and was selected as the candidate for Finchley in April 1958 ( narrowly beating Ian Montagu Fraser ) . She was elected as MP for the seat after a hard campaign in the 1959 election . Benefiting from her fortunate result in a lottery for backbenchers to propose new legislation , Thatcher 's maiden speech was in support of her private member 's bill ( Public Bodies ( Admission to Meetings ) Act 1960 ) , requiring local authorities to hold their council meetings in public . In 1961 she went against the Conservative Party 's official position by voting for the restoration of birching as a judicial corporal punishment .
Thatcher 's talent and drive caused her to be mentioned as a future Prime Minister in her early 20s although she herself was more pessimistic , stating as late as 1970 that " There will not be a woman prime minister in my lifetime — the male population is too prejudiced . " In October 1961 she was promoted to the front bench as Parliamentary Undersecretary at the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance in Harold Macmillan 's administration . Thatcher was the youngest woman in history to receive such a post , and among the first MPs elected in 1959 to be promoted . After the Conservatives lost the 1964 election she became spokeswoman on Housing and Land , in which position she advocated her party 's policy of allowing tenants to buy their council houses . She moved to the Shadow Treasury team in 1966 and , as Treasury spokeswoman , opposed Labour 's mandatory price and income controls , arguing that they would produce effects contrary to those intended and distort the economy .
By 1966 , party leaders viewed Thatcher as a potential Shadow Cabinet member . James Prior proposed her as a member after the Conservatives ' 1966 defeat , but party leader Edward Heath and Chief Whip Willie Whitelaw chose Mervyn Pike as the shadow cabinet 's sole woman member .
At the Conservative Party Conference of 1966 she criticised the high @-@ tax policies of the Labour Government as being steps " not only towards Socialism , but towards Communism " , arguing that lower taxes served as an incentive to hard work . Thatcher was one of the few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse 's Bill to decriminalise male homosexuality . She voted in favour of David Steel 's bill to legalise abortion , as well as a ban on hare coursing . She supported the retention of capital punishment and voted against the relaxation of divorce laws .
In 1967 , the United States Embassy in London chose Thatcher to take part in the International Visitor Leadership Program ( then called the Foreign Leader Program ) , a professional exchange programme that gave her the opportunity to spend about six weeks visiting various US cities and political figures as well as institutions such as the International Monetary Fund . Although she was not yet a cabinet or shadow cabinet member , the embassy reportedly described her to the State Department as a possible future prime minister . The description helped Thatcher meet with many prominent people during a busy itinerary focused on economic issues , including Paul Samuelson , Walt Rostow , Pierre @-@ Paul Schweitzer , and Nelson Rockefeller . After Pike 's retirement , Heath appointed Thatcher later that year to the Shadow Cabinet as Fuel and Power spokesman . Shortly before the 1970 general election , she was promoted to Shadow Transport spokesman and later to Education .
= = = Education Secretary : 1970 – 74 = = =
The Conservative Party under Edward Heath won the 1970 general election , and Thatcher was subsequently appointed to the Cabinet as Secretary of State for Education and Science . During her first months in office she attracted public attention as a result of the administration 's attempts to cut spending . She gave priority to academic needs in schools . She imposed public expenditure cuts on the state education system , resulting in the abolition of free milk for schoolchildren aged seven to eleven . She held that few children would suffer if schools were charged for milk , but agreed to provide younger children with a third of a pint daily , for nutritional purposes . Cabinet papers later revealed that she opposed the policy but had been forced into it by the Treasury . Her decision provoked a storm of protest from Labour and the press , leading to the moniker " Margaret Thatcher , Milk Snatcher " . She reportedly considered leaving politics in the aftermath and later wrote in her autobiography : " I learned a valuable lesson [ from the experience ] . I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit . "
Thatcher 's term of office was marked by proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and to adopt comprehensive secondary education . Although she was committed to a tiered secondary modern @-@ grammar school system of education and was determined to preserve grammar schools , during her tenure as Education Secretary she turned down only 326 of 3 @,@ 612 proposals for schools to become comprehensives ; the proportion of pupils attending comprehensive schools consequently rose from 32 per cent to 62 per cent .
= = = Leader of the Opposition : 1975 – 79 = = =
The Heath government continued to experience difficulties with oil embargoes and union demands for wage increases in 1973 and lost the February 1974 general election . Labour formed a minority government and went on to win a narrow majority in the October 1974 general election . Heath 's leadership of the Conservative Party looked increasingly in doubt . Thatcher was not initially the obvious replacement , but she eventually became the main challenger , promising a fresh start . Her main support came from the Conservative 1922 Committee , but Thatcher 's time in office gave her the reputation of a pragmatist instead of an ideologue . She defeated Heath on the first ballot and he resigned the leadership . In the second ballot she defeated Whitelaw , Heath 's preferred successor . The vote polarised along right @-@ left lines , with the region , experience and education of the MP also having their effects . Thatcher 's support was stronger among MPs on the right , those from southern England , and those who had not attended public schools or Oxbridge .
Thatcher became party leader and Leader of the Opposition on 11 February 1975 ; she appointed Whitelaw as her deputy . Heath was never reconciled to Thatcher 's leadership .
Thatcher began to attend lunches regularly at the Institute of Economic Affairs ( IEA ) , a think tank founded by the poultry magnate Antony Fisher , a disciple of Friedrich Hayek ; she had been visiting the IEA and reading its publications since the early 1960s . There she was influenced by the ideas of Ralph Harris and Arthur Seldon , and she became the face of the ideological movement opposing the welfare state . Keynesian economics , they believed , was weakening Britain . The institute 's pamphlets proposed less government , lower taxes , and more freedom for business and consumers .
Television critic Clive James , writing in The Observer during the voting for the leadership , compared her voice of 1973 to a cat sliding down a blackboard . Thatcher had already begun to work on her presentation on the advice of Gordon Reece , a former television producer . By chance Reece met the actor Laurence Olivier , who arranged lessons with the National Theatre 's voice coach . Thatcher succeeded in completely suppressing her Lincolnshire dialect except when under stress , notably after provocation from Denis Healey in the House of Commons in April 1983 , when she accused the Labour front bench of being frit .
On 19 January 1976 Thatcher made a speech in Kensington Town Hall in which she made a scathing attack on the Soviet Union :
The Russians are bent on world dominance , and they are rapidly acquiring the means to become the most powerful imperial nation the world has seen . The men in the Soviet Politburo do not have to worry about the ebb and flow of public opinion . They put guns before butter , while we put just about everything before guns .
In response , the Soviet Defence Ministry newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda ( Red Star ) called her the " Iron Lady , " a sobriquet she gladly adopted .
Margaret Thatcher wanted to prevent the creation of a Scottish assembly . She told Conservative MPs to vote against the Scotland and Wales Bill in December 1976 , which was defeated , and then when new Bills were proposed she supported amending the legislation to allow the English to vote in the 1979 referendum on devolution .
Britain 's economy during the 1970s was so weak that Foreign Minister James Callaghan warned his fellow Labour Cabinet members in 1974 of the possibility of " a breakdown of democracy " , telling them that " If I were a young man , I would emigrate . " In mid @-@ 1978 , the economy began to improve and opinion polls showed Labour in the lead , with a general election being expected later that year and a Labour win a serious possibility . Now Prime Minister , Callaghan surprised many by announcing on 7 September that there would be no general election that year and he would wait until 1979 before going to the polls . Thatcher reacted to this by branding the Labour government " chickens " , and Liberal Party leader David Steel joined in , criticising Labour for " running scared " .
The Labour government then faced fresh public unease about the direction of the country and a damaging series of strikes during the winter of 1978 – 79 , dubbed the " Winter of Discontent " . The Conservatives attacked the Labour government 's unemployment record , using advertising with the slogan " Labour Isn 't Working " . A general election was called after Callaghan 's government lost a motion of no confidence in early 1979 . The Conservatives won a 44 @-@ seat majority in the House of Commons , and took charge .
= = Premiership of the United Kingdom : 1979 – 90 = =
Thatcher became Prime Minister on 4 May 1979 . Arriving at 10 Downing Street , she said , in a paraphrase of St. Francis of Assisi 's prayer Make Me an Instrument of Your Peace :
Where there is discord , may we bring harmony . Where there is error , may we bring truth . Where there is doubt , may we bring faith . And where there is despair , may we bring hope .
= = = Relations with the Queen = = =
As Prime Minister , Thatcher met weekly with Queen Elizabeth II to discuss government business , and their relationship came under close scrutiny .
In July 1986 , The Sunday Times reported claims attributed to the Queen 's advisers of a " rift " between Buckingham Palace and Downing Street " over a wide range of domestic and international issues " .
The Palace issued an official denial , heading off speculation about a possible constitutional crisis . After Thatcher 's retirement a senior Palace source again dismissed as " nonsense " the " stereotyped idea " that she had not got along with the Queen , or that they had fallen out over Thatcherite policies . Thatcher later wrote : " I always found the Queen 's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely correct ... stories of clashes between ' two powerful women ' were just too good not to make up . "
= = = = Economy and taxation = = = =
Thatcher 's economic policy was influenced by monetarist thinking and economists such as Milton Friedman and Alan Walters . Together with Chancellor of the Exchequer Geoffrey Howe , she lowered direct taxes on income and increased indirect taxes . She increased interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply and thereby lower inflation , introduced cash limits on public spending , and reduced expenditure on social services such as education and housing . Her cuts in higher education spending resulted in her being the first Oxford @-@ educated post @-@ war Prime Minister not to be awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Oxford , after a 738 to 319 vote of the governing assembly and a student petition . Her new centrally funded City Technology Colleges did not enjoy much success , and the Funding Agency for Schools was set up to control expenditure by opening and closing schools ; the Social Market Foundation , a centre @-@ left think tank , described it as having " an extraordinary range of dictatorial powers " .
Some Heathite Conservatives in the Cabinet , the so @-@ called " wets " , expressed doubt over Thatcher 's policies . The 1981 England riots resulted in the British media discussing the need for a policy U @-@ turn . At the 1980 Conservative Party conference , Thatcher addressed the issue directly , with a speech written by the playwright Ronald Millar that included the lines : " You turn if you want to . The lady 's not for turning ! "
Thatcher 's job approval rating fell to 23 % by December 1980 , lower than recorded for any previous Prime Minister . As the recession of the early 1980s deepened she increased taxes , despite concerns expressed in a statement signed by 364 leading economists issued towards the end of March 1981 .
By 1982 , the UK began to experience signs of economic recovery ; inflation was down to 8 @.@ 6 % from a high of 18 % , but unemployment was over 3 million for the first time since the 1930s . By 1983 overall economic growth was stronger and inflation and mortgage rates were at their lowest levels since 1970 , although manufacturing output had dropped by 30 % since 1978 and unemployment remained high , peaking at 3 @.@ 3 million in 1984 .
By 1987 , unemployment was falling , the economy was stable and strong , and inflation was low . Opinion polls showed a comfortable Conservative lead , and local council election results had also been successful , prompting Thatcher to call a general election for 11 June that year , despite the deadline for an election still being 12 months away . The election saw Thatcher re @-@ elected for a third successive term . Throughout the 1980s revenue from the 90 % tax on North Sea oil extraction was used as a short @-@ term funding source to balance the economy and pay the costs of reform .
Thatcher reformed local government taxes by replacing domestic rates – a tax based on the nominal rental value of a home – with the Community Charge ( or poll tax ) in which the same amount was charged to each adult resident . The new tax was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales the following year , and proved to be among the most unpopular policies of her premiership . Public disquiet culminated in a 70 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 @-@ strong demonstration in London on 31 March 1990 ; the demonstration around Trafalgar Square deteriorated into the Poll Tax Riots , leaving 113 people injured and 340 under arrest . The Community Charge was abolished by her successor , John Major .
= = = = Industrial relations = = = =
Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trade unions , whose leadership she accused of undermining parliamentary democracy and economic performance through strike action . Several unions launched strikes in response to legislation introduced to curb their power , but resistance eventually collapsed . Only 39 % of union members voted for Labour in the 1983 general election . According to the BBC , Thatcher " managed to destroy the power of the trade unions for almost a generation " .
The miners ' strike was the biggest confrontation between the unions and the Thatcher government . In March 1984 the National Coal Board ( NCB ) proposed to close 20 of the 174 state @-@ owned mines and cut 20 @,@ 000 jobs out of 187 @,@ 000 .
Two @-@ thirds of the country 's miners , led by the National Union of Mineworkers ( NUM ) under Arthur Scargill , downed tools in protest . Scargill had refused to hold a ballot on the strike , having previously lost three ballots on a national strike ( January 1982 , October 1982 , and March 1983 ) . This led to the strike being declared illegal .
Thatcher refused to meet the union 's demands and compared the miners ' dispute to the Falklands conflict two years earlier , declaring in a speech in 1984 : " We had to fight the enemy without in the Falklands . We always have to be aware of the enemy within , which is much more difficult to fight and more dangerous to liberty . " After a year out on strike , in March 1985 , the NUM leadership conceded without a deal . The cost to the economy was estimated to be at least £ 1 @.@ 5 billion , and the strike was blamed for much of the pound 's fall against the US dollar . The government closed 25 unprofitable coal mines in 1985 , and by 1992 a total of 97 had been closed ; those that remained were privatised in 1994 . The eventual closure of 150 coal mines , not all of which were losing money , resulted in the loss of tens of thousands of jobs and devastated entire communities . Miners had helped bring down the Heath government , and Thatcher was determined to succeed where he had failed . Her strategy of preparing fuel stocks , appointing a union @-@ busting NCB leader in Ian MacGregor , and ensuring police were adequately trained and equipped with riot gear , contributed to her victory .
The number of stoppages across the UK peaked at 4 @,@ 583 in 1979 , when more than 29 million working days were lost . In 1984 , the year of the miners ' strike , there were 1 @,@ 221 , resulting in the loss of more than 27 million working days . Stoppages then fell steadily throughout the rest of Thatcher 's premiership ; in 1990 there were 630 and fewer than 2 million working days lost , and they continued to fall thereafter . Thatcher 's time in office witnessed a sharp decline in trade union density , with the percentage of workers belonging to a trade union falling from 57 @.@ 3 % in 1979 to 49 @.@ 5 % in 1985 . In 1979 up until Thatcher 's last year in office , trade union membership also fell , from 13 @.@ 5 million in 1979 to fewer than 10 million .
= = = = Privatisation = = = =
The policy of privatisation has been called " a crucial ingredient of Thatcherism " . After the 1983 election the sale of state utilities accelerated ; more than £ 2
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commemorating her visit in 1983 . Thatcher Drive in Stanley is named for her , as is Thatcher Peninsula in South Georgia , where the task force troops first set foot on the Falklands .
She became member of the House of Lords in 1992 with a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher , of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire . She was appointed a Lady Companion of the Order of the Garter ( LG ) , the UK 's highest order of chivalry , in 1995 .
She was a patron of The Heritage Foundation , which established the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom in 2005 .
= 1st SAS Brigade =
The 1st Special Air Service Brigade ( 1st SAS ) was a fictional brigade during the Second World War . It was first formed in Cairo in 1941 , as part of a deception by Brigadier Dudley Clarke , to play on Italian fears of airborne attacks . Clarke used documents , photographs , news reports and even fake SAS soldiers to plant information about the brigade – he even named the Cairo @-@ based deception department , ' A ' Force , to bolster evidence of their existence .
In the summer of 1941 , when David Stirling was pitching his idea for a dedicated airborne commando unit ( which later evolved into the Special Air Service ) he obtained Clarke 's support partly by promising to use the SAS name . From late 1942 , Clarke used the 1st SAS in his major order of battle deception ( codenamed Operation Cascade ) . The brigade formed part of the fictional 4th Airborne Division ; between then and the end of the war it was used to mislead Axis commanders about the strength of Allied forces in North Africa , and as part of several specific tactical deceptions .
= = Formation = =
In late 1940 the Allies recovered the journal of an Italian officer during an operation at Sidi Barrani . The diary referred to fears of British paratroopers being landed to the Italian rear . At the time the Allies had no airborne troops in the North African region . Dudley Clarke , in charge of military deception in the region , decided to play on these fears by creating a fictional airborne unit . Clarke began Operation Abeam in January 1941 by creating a paper trail for the 1st SAS Brigade . The fictional unit was supposedly training for special missions in Transjordan . Clarke established their existence using documentary and physical subterfuge . Photographs of parachutists were printed in local papers , documents were planted with the enemy , Allied airmen were warned to look out for gliders ( Victor Jones mocked up some dummies to support the story ) , and a section of desert was cordoned off for " training " . To aid the rumours , two soldiers were dressed in 1st SAS uniforms and wandered around the Allied @-@ held cities of Cairo , Port Said , and Alexandria , where they were briefed to hint at missions in Crete or Libya .
By March , Clarke 's deception operations had grown and it was decided to create a formal department . He chose the name Advanced Headquarters ' A ' Force - the ' A ' being a subtle reference to airborne - in the hope that it would help support the existence of paratroopers in the area ( as well as hide the true purpose of the department ) . Clarke continued actively promoting the existence of 1st SAS until around June 1941 , and it appears that Axis commanders accepted the brigade as real . Clarke had created the unit with no specific aims , although it did mean that the enemy command had to factor the existence of airborne troops into any battle plan . However , Abeam and the 1st SAS represented his first attempt at inflating the apparent strength of Allied forces , a tactic he would use significantly over the rest of the war . The brigade occasionally featured in Clarke 's tactical deceptions ; such as a March 1941 threat to Axis supply lines near Tripoli .
= = = Stirling 's SAS = = =
In May 1941 , David Stirling , an injured British forces Commando in the North Africa theatre , proposed the idea of small airborne special forces units to operate behind enemy lines . Whilst lobbying for support within Middle East Command it came to Clarke 's attention , who offered his backing provided the force could also be used to help his own deception schemes .
The name SAS came mainly from the fact I was anxious to get the full co @-@ operation of a very ingenious individual called Dudley Clark [ e ] , who was responsible for running a deception operation in Cairo ... Clark [ e ] was quite an influential chap and promised to give me all the help he could if I would use the name of his bogus brigade of parachutists , which is the Special Air Service , the SAS
Stirling 's plan received approval in the summer of 1941 and the unit was designated " L " Detachment , Special Air Service . The name was intended to add further evidence of an airborne presence , specifically 1st SAS , in the region .
= = 4th Airborne = =
Through 1941 and 1942 , 1st SAS formed part of Clarke 's overall strategy to deceive the Axis about the strength of Allied forces in the region . In early 1942 , this ad hoc situation was formalised as Operation Cascade ; an entire fictional order of battle featuring numerous units .
By late 1942 , the Allies had begun to train a number of real airborne units in the North African theatre . Clarke created the fictional 4th Airborne Division out of several units , both real and fictional , including 1st SAS . Under the umbrella of Cascade , the aim was to mislead the Axis that paratroopers , most of whom were still training , posed a realistic threat . The 4th Airborne were utilised in a number of specific operational deceptions over the next few years ( including Operation Zeppelin and Operation Barclay ) , most often to threaten fictional invasions as a distraction from real Allied operations .
= Triangulum Australe =
Triangulum Australe is a small constellation in the far Southern Celestial Hemisphere . Its name is Latin for " the southern triangle " , which distinguishes it from Triangulum in the northern sky and is derived from the almost equilateral pattern of its three brightest stars . It was first depicted on a celestial globe as Triangulus Antarcticus by Petrus Plancius in 1589 , and later with more accuracy and its current name by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria . The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted and gave the brighter stars their Bayer designations in 1756 .
Alpha Trianguli Australis , known as Atria , is a second magnitude orange giant and the brightest star in the constellation , as well as the 42nd @-@ brightest star in the night sky . Completing the triangle are the two white main sequence stars Beta and Gamma Trianguli Australis . Although the constellation lies in the Milky Way and contains many stars , deep @-@ sky objects are not prominent . Notable features include the open cluster NGC 6025 and planetary nebula NGC 5979 .
= = History = =
Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci explored the New World at the beginning of the 16th century . He learnt to recognize the stars in the southern hemisphere and made a catalogue for his patron king Manuel I of Portugal , which is now lost . As well as the catalogue , Vespucci wrote descriptions of the southern stars , including a triangle which may be either Triangulum Australe or Apus . This was sent to his patron in Florence , Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de ' Medici , and published as Mundus Novus in 1504 . The first depiction of the constellation was provided in 1589 by Flemish astronomer and clergyman Petrus Plancius on a 32 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ cm diameter celestial globe published in Amsterdam by Dutch cartographer Jacob Floris van Langren , where it was called Triangulus Antarcticus and incorrectly portrayed to the south of Argo Navis . His student Petrus Keyzer , along with Dutch explorer Frederick de Houtman , coined the name Den Zuyden Trianghel . Triangulum Australe was more accurately depicted in Johann Bayer 's celestial atlas Uranometria in 1603 , where it was also given its current name .
Nicolas Louis de Lacaille portrayed the constellations of Norma , Circinus and Triangulum Australe as a set square and ruler , a compass , and a surveyor 's level respectively in a set of draughtsman 's instruments in his 1756 map of the southern stars . Also depicting it as a surveyor 's level , German Johann Bode gave it the alternate name of Libella in his Uranographia .
German poet and author Philippus Caesius saw the three main stars as representing the Three Patriarchs , Abraham , Isaac and Jacob ( with Atria as Abraham ) . The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia perceived the stars of Triangulum Australe as the tail of the Rainbow Serpent , which stretched out from near Crux across to Scorpius . Overhead in October , the Rainbow Serpent " gives Lightning a nudge " to bring on the wet season rains in November .
= = Characteristics = =
Triangulum Australe is a small constellation bordered by Norma to the north , Circinus to the west , Apus to the south and Ara to the east . It lies near the Pointers ( Alpha and Beta Centauri ) , with only Circinus in between . The constellation is located within the Milky Way , and hence has many stars . A roughly equilateral triangle , it is easily identifiable . Triangulum Australe lies too far south in the celestial southern hemisphere to be visible from Europe , yet is circumpolar from most of the southern hemisphere . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is " TrA " . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 18 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 14h 56.4m and 17h 13.5m , while the declination coordinates are between − 60 @.@ 26 ° and − 70 @.@ 51 ° . Triangulum Australe culminates each year at 9 p.m. on 23 August .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Bright stars = = =
In defining the constellation , Lacaille gave twelve stars Bayer designations of Alpha through to Lambda , with two close stars called Eta ( one now known by its Henry Draper catalogue number ) , while Lambda was later dropped due to its dimness . The three brightest stars , Alpha , Beta and Gamma , make up the triangle . Readily identified by its orange hue , Alpha Trianguli Australis is a bright giant star of spectral type K2 IIb @-@ IIIa with an apparent magnitude of + 1 @.@ 91 that is the 42nd @-@ brightest star in the night sky . It lies 424 light @-@ years ( 130 parsecs ) away and has an absolute magnitude of − 3 @.@ 68 and is 5500 times more luminous than our sun . With a diameter 130 times that of our sun , it would almost reach the orbit of Venus if placed at the centre of the Solar System . The proper name Atria is a contraction of its Bayer designation . Beta Trianguli Australis is a double star , the primary being a F @-@ type main @-@ sequence star with a stellar classification of F1V , and an apparent magnitude of 2 @.@ 85 . Lying only 40 light @-@ years ( 12 parsecs ) away , it has an absolute magnitude of 2 @.@ 38 . Its companion , almost 3 arcminutes away , is a 13th magnitude star which may or may not be in orbit around Beta . The remaining member of the triangle is Gamma Trianguli Australis with an apparent magnitude of 2 @.@ 87 . It is an A @-@ type main sequence star of spectral class A1 V , which lies 180 light @-@ years ( 55 parsecs ) away .
Located outside the triangle near Beta , Delta Trianguli Australis is the fourth brightest star at apparent magnitude + 3 @.@ 8 . It is a yellow giant of spectral type G2Ib @-@ II and lies 606 light years ( 182 parsecs ) away . A binary star , it has a 12th magnitude companion star separated by 30 arcseconds from the primary . Lying halfway between Beta and Gamma , Epsilon Trianguli Australis is another double star . The primary component , Epsilon Trianguli Australis A , is an orange K @-@ type sub @-@ giant of spectral type K1.5III with an apparent magnitude of + 4 @.@ 11 . The companion , Epsilon Trianguli Australis B ( or HD 138510 ) , is a white main sequence star of spectral type A9IV / V which has an apparent magnitude of + 9 @.@ 32 , Zeta Trianguli Australis appears as a star of apparent magnitude + 4 @.@ 91 and spectral class F9V , but is actually a spectroscopic binary with a near companion , probably a red dwarf . The pair orbit each other once every 13 days . A young star , its proper motion indicates it is a member of the Ursa Major moving group . Iota Trianguli Australis shows itself to be a multiple star system composed of a yellow and a white star when seen though a 7 @.@ 5 cm telescope . The brighter star has a spectral type of F4IV and is a spectroscopic binary whose components are two yellow @-@ white stars which orbit each other every 39 @.@ 88 days . The primary is a Gamma Doradus variable , pulsating over a period of 1 @.@ 45 days . The fainter star is not associated with the system , hence the system is an optical double . HD 147018 is a sun @-@ like star of apparent magnitude 8 @.@ 3 and spectral type G9V , which was found to have two exoplanets , HD 147018 b and HD 147018 c , in 2009 .
Of apparent magnitude 5 @.@ 11 , the yellow bright giant Kappa Trianguli Australis of spectral type G5IIa lies around 1207 light years ( 370 parsecs ) distant from the Solar System . Eta Trianguli Australis ( or Eta1 Trianguli Australis ) is a Be star of spectral type B7IVe which is 661 light years ( 203 parsecs ) from earth , with an apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 89 . Lacaille named a close @-@ by star as Eta as well , which was inconsistently followed by Francis Baily , who used the name for the brighter or both stars in two different publications . Despite their faintness , Benjamin Gould upheld their Bayer designation as they were closer than 25 degrees to the south celestial pole . The second Eta is now designated as HD 150550 . It is a variable star of average magnitude 6 @.@ 53 and spectral type A1III .
= = = Variable stars = = =
Triangulum Australe contains several cepheid variables , all of which are too faint to be seen with the naked eye : R Trianguli Australis ranges from apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 9 over a period of 3 @.@ 389 days , S Trianguli Australis varies from magnitude 6 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 8 over 6 @.@ 323 days , and U Trianguli Australis ' brightness changes from 7 @.@ 5 to 8 @.@ 3 over 2 @.@ 568 days . All three are yellow @-@ white giants of spectral type F7Ib / II , F8II , and F8Ib / II respectively . RT Trianguli Australis is an unusual cepheid variable which shows strong absorption bands in molecular fragments of C2 , ⫶ CH and ⋅ CN , and has been classified as a carbon cepheid of spectral type R. It varies between magnitudes 9 @.@ 2 and 9 @.@ 97 over 1 @.@ 95 days . Lying nearby Gamma , X Trianguli Australis is a variable carbon star with an average magnitude of 5 @.@ 63 . It has two periods of around 385 and 455 days , and is of spectral type C5 , 5 ( Nb ) .
EK Trianguli Australis , a dwarf nova of the SU Ursae Majoris type , was first noticed in 1978 and officially described in 1980 . It consists of a white dwarf and a donor star which orbit each other every 1 @.@ 5 hours . The white dwarf sucks matter from the other star onto an accretion disc and periodically erupts , reaching magnitude 11 @.@ 2 in superoutbursts , 12 @.@ 1 in normal outbursts and remaining at magnitude 16 @.@ 7 when quiet . Nova Trianguli Australis 2008 was a slow nova which peaked at magnitude 8 @.@ 4 in April 2008 , before fading to magnitude 12 @.@ 4 by September of that year .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
Triangulum Australe has few deep @-@ sky objects — one open cluster and a few planetary nebulae and faint galaxies . NGC 6025 is an open cluster with about 30 stars ranging from 7th to 9th magnitude . Located 3 degrees north and 1 east of Beta Trianguli Australis , it lies about 2 @,@ 500 light @-@ years ( 770 parsecs ) away and is about 11 light @-@ years ( 3 @.@ 4 parsecs ) in diameter . Its brightest star is MQ Trianguli Australis at apparent magnitude 7 @.@ 1 . NGC 5979 , a planetary nebula of apparent magnitude 12 @.@ 3 , has a blue @-@ green hue at higher magnifications , while Henize 2 @-@ 138 is a smaller planetary nebula of magnitude 11 @.@ 0 . NGC 5938 is a remote spiral galaxy around 300 million light @-@ years ( 90 megaparsecs ) away . It is located 5 degrees south of Epsilon Trianguli Australis . ESO 69 @-@ 6 is a pair of merging galaxies located about 600 million light years ( 185 megaparsecs ) away . Their contents have been dragged out in long tails by the interaction .
= Tyrannosaurus =
Tyrannosaurus ( / tᵻˌrænəˈsɔːrəs / or / taɪˌrænəˈsɔːrəs / , meaning " tyrant lizard " , from the Ancient Greek tyrannos ( τύραννος ) , " tyrant " , and sauros ( σαῦρος ) , " lizard " ) is a genus of coelurosaurian theropod dinosaur . The species Tyrannosaurus rex ( rex meaning " king " in Latin ) , is one of the most well @-@ represented of the large theropods . Tyrannosaurus lived throughout what is now western North America , on what was then an island continent known as Laramidia . Tyrannosaurus had a much wider range than other tyrannosaurids . Fossils are found in a variety of rock formations dating to the Maastrichtian age of the upper Cretaceous Period , 68 to 66 million years ago . It was the last known member of the tyrannosaurids , and among the last non @-@ avian dinosaurs to exist before the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event .
Like other tyrannosaurids , Tyrannosaurus was a bipedal carnivore with a massive skull balanced by a long , heavy tail . Relative to its large and powerful hind limbs , Tyrannosaurus fore limbs were short but unusually powerful for their size and had two clawed digits . The most complete specimen measures up to 12 @.@ 3 m ( 40 ft ) in length , up to 3 @.@ 66 meters ( 12 ft ) tall at the hips , and up to 10 @.@ 2 metric tons ( 11 @.@ 2 short tons ) in weight . Although other theropods rivaled or exceeded Tyrannosaurus rex in size , it is still among the largest known land predators and is estimated to have exerted the largest bite force among all terrestrial animals . By far the largest carnivore in its environment , Tyrannosaurus rex was most likely an apex predator , preying upon hadrosaurs , ceratopsians , and possibly sauropods . Some experts , however , have suggested the dinosaur was primarily a scavenger . The question of whether Tyrannosaurus was an apex predator or a pure scavenger was among the longest ongoing debates in paleontology . It is accepted now that Tyrannosaurus rex acted as a predator , and scavenged as modern mammalian and avian predators do .
More than 50 specimens of Tyrannosaurus rex have been identified , some of which are nearly complete skeletons . Soft tissue and proteins have been reported in at least one of these specimens . The abundance of fossil material has allowed significant research into many aspects of its biology , including its life history and biomechanics . The feeding habits , physiology and potential speed of Tyrannosaurus rex are a few subjects of debate . Its taxonomy is also controversial , as some scientists consider Tarbosaurus bataar from Asia to be a second Tyrannosaurus species while others maintain Tarbosaurus is a separate genus . Several other genera of North American tyrannosaurids have also been synonymized with Tyrannosaurus .
= = Description = =
Tyrannosaurus rex was one of the largest land carnivores of all time ; the largest complete specimen , located at the Field Museum of Natural History under the name FMNH PR2081 and nicknamed Sue , measured 12 @.@ 3 meters ( 40 ft ) long , and was 3 @.@ 66 meters ( 12 ft ) tall at the hips . Mass estimates have varied widely over the years , from more than 7 @.@ 2 metric tons ( 7 @.@ 9 short tons ) , to less than 4 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 5 @.@ 0 short tons ) , with most modern estimates ranging between 5 @.@ 4 metric tons ( 6 @.@ 0 short tons ) and 6 @.@ 7 metric tons ( 7 @.@ 4 short tons ) . One study in 2011 found that the maximum weight of Sue , the largest Tyrannosaurus , was between 9 @.@ 5 and 18 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 9 @.@ 3 – 18 @.@ 2 long tons ; 10 @.@ 5 – 20 @.@ 4 short tons ) , though the authors stated that their upper and lower estimates were based on models with wide error bars and that they " consider [ them ] to be too skinny , too fat , or too disproportionate " . Packard et al . ( 2009 ) tested dinosaur mass estimation procedures on elephants and concluded that those of dinosaurs are flawed and produce over @-@ estimations ; thus , the weight of Tyrannosaurus could have been much less than previously thought . Other estimations have concluded that the largest known Tyrannosaurus specimens had masses approaching or exceeding 9 tonnes .
The neck of Tyrannosaurus rex formed a natural S @-@ shaped curve like that of other theropods , but was short and muscular to support the massive head . The forelimbs had only two clawed fingers , along with an additional small metacarpal representing the remnant of a third digit . In contrast the hind limbs were among the longest in proportion to body size of any theropod . The tail was heavy and long , sometimes containing over forty vertebrae , in order to balance the massive head and torso . To compensate for the immense bulk of the animal , many bones throughout the skeleton were hollow , reducing its weight without significant loss of strength .
The largest known Tyrannosaurus rex skulls measure up to 1 @.@ 45 meters ( 4 @.@ 8 ft ) in length . Large fenestrae ( openings ) in the skull reduced weight and provided areas for muscle attachment , as in all carnivorous theropods . But in other respects Tyrannosaurus 's skull was significantly different from those of large non @-@ tyrannosauroid theropods . It was extremely wide at the rear but had a narrow snout , allowing unusually good binocular vision . The skull bones were massive and the nasals and some other bones were fused , preventing movement between them ; but many were pneumatized ( contained a " honeycomb " of tiny air spaces ) which may have made the bones more flexible as well as lighter . These and other skull @-@ strengthening features are part of the tyrannosaurid trend towards an increasingly powerful bite , which easily surpassed that of all non @-@ tyrannosaurids . The tip of the upper jaw was U @-@ shaped ( most non @-@ tyrannosauroid carnivores had V @-@ shaped upper jaws ) , which increased the amount of tissue and bone a tyrannosaur could rip out with one bite , although it also increased the stresses on the front teeth .
The teeth of Tyrannosaurus rex displayed marked heterodonty ( differences in shape ) . The premaxillary teeth at the front of the upper jaw were closely packed , D @-@ shaped in cross @-@ section , had reinforcing ridges on the rear surface , were incisiform ( their tips were chisel @-@ like blades ) and curved backwards . The D @-@ shaped cross @-@ section , reinforcing ridges and backwards curve reduced the risk that the teeth would snap when Tyrannosaurus bit and pulled . The remaining teeth were robust , like " lethal bananas " rather than daggers , more widely spaced and also had reinforcing ridges . Those in the upper jaw were larger than those in all but the rear of the lower jaw . The largest found so far is estimated to have been 30 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 12 in ) long including the root when the animal was alive , making it the largest tooth of any carnivorous dinosaur yet found .
= = = Skin and feathers = = =
While there is no direct evidence for Tyrannosaurus rex having had feathers , many scientists now consider it likely that T. rex had feathers on at least parts of its body , due to their presence in related species of similar size . Mark Norell of the American Museum of Natural History summarized the balance of evidence by stating that : " we have as much evidence that T. rex was feathered , at least during some stage of its life , as we do that australopithecines like Lucy had hair . "
The first evidence for feathers in tyrannosauroids came from the small species Dilong paradoxus , found in the Yixian Formation of China , and reported in the journal Nature in 2004 . As with many other theropods discovered in the Yixian , the fossil skeleton was preserved with a coat of filamentous structures which are commonly recognized as the precursors of feathers . Because all known skin impressions from larger tyrannosauroids known at the time showed evidence of scales , the researchers who studied Dilong speculated that feathers may correlate negatively with body size — that juveniles may have been feathered , then shed the feathers and expressed only scales as the animal became larger and no longer needed insulation to stay warm . However , subsequent discoveries showed that even some gigantic tyrannosauroids had feathers covering much of their bodies , casting doubt on the hypothesis that they were a size @-@ related feature .
While skin impressions from a Tyrannosaurus rex specimen nicknamed " Wyrex " ( BHI 6230 ) discovered in Montana in 2002 , as well as some other giant tyrannosauroid specimens , show at least small patches of mosaic scales , others , such as Yutyrannus huali ( which was up to 9 meters ( 30 ft ) long and weighed about 1 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 100 lb ) ) , preserve feathers on various sections of the body , strongly suggesting that its whole body was covered in feathers . It is possible that the extent and nature of feather covering in tyrannosauroids may have changed over time in response to body size , a warmer climate , or other factors .
Research has suggested that large theropods like Tyrannosaurus had teeth covered in lips like modern day lizards , rather than having bare teeth like crocodiles . This is based on the presence of enamel , which needs to remain hydrated , an issue not faced by aquatic species like crocodilians or toothless species like birds , which have lipless and toothless beaks . In modern terrestrial animals with bare teeth , the teeth typically lack some or all of the standard amount of tooth enamel . Because Tyrannosaurus and other toothed theropods had enamel @-@ covered teeth , they would have required some sort of lip @-@ like covering to seal the mouth when closed .
= = Classification = =
Tyrannosaurus is the type genus of the superfamily Tyrannosauroidea , the family Tyrannosauridae , and the subfamily Tyrannosaurinae ; in other words it is the standard by which paleontologists decide whether to include other species in the same group . Other members of the tyrannosaurine subfamily include the North American Daspletosaurus and the Asian Tarbosaurus , both of which have occasionally been synonymized with Tyrannosaurus . Tyrannosaurids were once commonly thought to be descendants of earlier large theropods such as megalosaurs and carnosaurs , although more recently they were reclassified with the generally smaller coelurosaurs .
In 1955 , Soviet paleontologist Evgeny Maleev named a new species , Tyrannosaurus bataar , from Mongolia . By 1965 , this species had been renamed Tarbosaurus bataar . Despite the renaming , many phylogenetic analyses have found Tarbosaurus bataar to be the sister taxon of Tyrannosaurus rex , and it has often been considered an Asian species of Tyrannosaurus . A recent redescription of the skull of Tarbosaurus bataar has shown that it was much narrower than that of Tyrannosaurus rex and that during a bite , the distribution of stress in the skull would have been very different , closer to that of Alioramus , another Asian tyrannosaur . A related cladistic analysis found that Alioramus , not Tyrannosaurus , was the sister taxon of Tarbosaurus , which , if true , would suggest that Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus should remain separate . The discovery and description of Qianzhousaurus would later disprove this and revealed that Alioramus belonged to the clade Alioramini . The discovery of the tyrannosaurid Lythronax further indicates that Tarbosaurus and Tyrannosaurus are closely related , forming a clade with fellow Asian tyrannosaurid Zhuchengtyrannus , with Lythronax being their sister taxon . A further study , published in the journal Scientific Reports on February 2 , 2016 by Steve Brusatte , Thomas Carr et al . , also indicates Tyrannosaurus may have been an immigrant from Asia , as well as a possible descendent of Tarbosaurus . The study further indicates the possibility that Tyrannosaurus may have driven other tyrannosaurids that were native to North America extinct through competition .
Other tyrannosaurid fossils found in the same formations as Tyrannosaurus rex were originally classified as separate taxa , including Aublysodon and Albertosaurus megagracilis , the latter being named Dinotyrannus megagracilis in 1995 . However , these fossils are now universally considered to belong to juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex . A small but nearly complete skull from Montana , 60 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) long , may be an exception . This skull was originally classified as a species of Gorgosaurus ( G. lancensis ) by Charles W. Gilmore in 1946 , but was later referred to a new genus , Nanotyrannus . Opinions remain divided on the validity of N. lancensis . Many paleontologists consider the skull to belong to a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex . There are minor differences between the two species , including the higher number of teeth in N. lancensis , which lead some scientists to recommend keeping the two genera separate until further research or discoveries clarify the situation .
Below is the cladogram of Tyrannosauridae based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Loewen et al. in 2013 .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Life history = = =
The identification of several specimens as juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex has allowed scientists to document ontogenetic changes in the species , estimate the lifespan , and determine how quickly the animals would have grown . The smallest known individual ( LACM 28471 , the " Jordan theropod " ) is estimated to have weighed only 30 kg ( 66 lb ) , while the largest , such as FMNH PR2081 ( Sue ) most likely weighed about 5 @,@ 650 kg ( 12 @,@ 460 lb ) . Histologic analysis of Tyrannosaurus rex bones showed LACM 28471 had aged only 2 years when it died , while Sue was 28 years old , an age which may have been close to the maximum for the species .
Histology has also allowed the age of other specimens to be determined . Growth curves can be developed when the ages of different specimens are plotted on a graph along with their mass . A Tyrannosaurus rex growth curve is S @-@ shaped , with juveniles remaining under 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) until approximately 14 years of age , when body size began to increase dramatically . During this rapid growth phase , a young Tyrannosaurus rex would gain an average of 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) a year for the next four years . At 18 years of age , the curve plateaus again , indicating that growth slowed dramatically . For example , only 600 kg ( 1 @,@ 300 lb ) separated the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Sue from a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Canadian specimen ( RTMP 81 @.@ 12 @.@ 1 ) . A 2004 histological study performed by different workers corroborates these results , finding that rapid growth began to slow at around 16 years of age . Another study corroborated the latter study 's results but found the growth rate to be much faster , finding it to be around 1800 kilograms ( 4000 lbs ) . Although these results were much higher than previous estimations , the authors noted that these results significantly lowered the great difference between its actual growth rate and the one which would be expected of an animal of its size . The sudden change in growth rate at the end of the growth spurt may indicate physical maturity , a hypothesis which is supported by the discovery of medullary tissue in the femur of a 16 to 20 @-@ year @-@ old Tyrannosaurus rex from Montana ( MOR 1125 , also known as B @-@ rex ) . Medullary tissue is found only in female birds during ovulation , indicating that B @-@ rex was of reproductive age . Further study indicates an age of 18 for this specimen . In 2016 , it was finally confirmed by Mary Higby Schweitzer and Lindsay Zanno et al that the soft tissue within the femur of MOR 1125 was medullary tissue . This also confirmed the identity of the specimen as a female . The discovery of medullary bone tissue within Tyrannosaurus may prove valuable in determining the sex of other dinosaur species in future examinations , as the chemical makeup of medullary tissue is unmistakable . Other tyrannosaurids exhibit extremely similar growth curves , although with lower growth rates corresponding to their lower adult sizes .
Over half of the known Tyrannosaurus rex specimens appear to have died within six years of reaching sexual maturity , a pattern which is also seen in other tyrannosaurs and in some large , long @-@ lived birds and mammals today . These species are characterized by high infant mortality rates , followed by relatively low mortality among juveniles . Mortality increases again following sexual maturity , partly due to the stresses of reproduction . One study suggests that the rarity of juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex fossils is due in part to low juvenile mortality rates ; the animals were not dying in large numbers at these ages , and so were not often fossilized . However , this rarity may also be due to the incompleteness of the fossil record or to the bias of fossil collectors towards larger , more spectacular specimens . In a 2013 lecture , Thomas Holtz Jr. would suggest that dinosaurs " lived fast and died young " because they reproduced quickly whereas mammals have long life spans because they take longer to reproduce . Gregory S. Paul also writes that Tyrannosaurus reproduced quickly and died young , but attributes their short life spans to the dangerous lives they lived .
= = = Sexual dimorphism = = =
As the number of known specimens increased , scientists began to analyze the variation between individuals and discovered what appeared to be two distinct body types , or morphs , similar to some other theropod species . As one of these morphs was more solidly built , it was termed the ' robust ' morph while the other was termed ' gracile ' . Several morphological differences associated with the two morphs were used to analyze sexual dimorphism in Tyrannosaurus rex , with the ' robust ' morph usually suggested to be female . For example , the pelvis of several ' robust ' specimens seemed to be wider , perhaps to allow the passage of eggs . It was also thought that the ' robust ' morphology correlated with a reduced chevron on the first tail vertebra , also ostensibly to allow eggs to pass out of the reproductive tract , as had been erroneously reported for crocodiles .
In recent years , evidence for sexual dimorphism has been weakened . A 2005 study reported that previous claims of sexual dimorphism in crocodile chevron anatomy were in error , casting doubt on the existence of similar dimorphism between Tyrannosaurus rex sexes . A full @-@ sized chevron was discovered on the first tail vertebra of Sue , an extremely robust individual , indicating that this feature could not be used to differentiate the two morphs anyway . As Tyrannosaurus rex specimens have been found from Saskatchewan to New Mexico , differences between individuals may be indicative of geographic variation rather than sexual dimorphism . The differences could also be age @-@ related , with ' robust ' individuals being older animals .
Only a single Tyrannosaurus rex specimen has been conclusively shown to belong to a specific sex . Examination of B @-@ rex demonstrated the preservation of soft tissue within several bones . Some of this tissue has been identified as a medullary tissue , a specialized tissue grown only in modern birds as a source of calcium for the production of eggshell during ovulation . As only female birds lay eggs , medullary tissue is only found naturally in females , although males are capable of producing it when injected with female reproductive hormones like estrogen . This strongly suggests that B @-@ rex was female , and that she died during ovulation . Recent research has shown that medullary tissue is never found in crocodiles , which are thought to be the closest living relatives of dinosaurs , aside from birds . The shared presence of medullary tissue in birds and theropod dinosaurs is further evidence of the close evolutionary relationship between the two .
= = = Posture = = =
Modern representations in museums , art , and film show Tyrannosaurus rex with its body approximately parallel to the ground and tail extended behind the body to balance the head .
Like many bipedal dinosaurs , Tyrannosaurus rex was historically depicted as a ' living tripod ' , with the body at 45 degrees or less from the vertical and the tail dragging along the ground , similar to a kangaroo . This concept dates from Joseph Leidy 's 1865 reconstruction of Hadrosaurus , the first to depict a dinosaur in a bipedal posture . In 1915 , convinced that the creature stood upright , Henry Fairfield Osborn , former president of the American Museum of Natural History , further reinforced the notion in unveiling the first complete Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton arranged this way . It stood in an upright pose for 77 years , until it was dismantled in 1992 .
By 1970 , scientists realized this pose was incorrect and could not have been maintained by a living animal , as it would have resulted in the dislocation or weakening of several joints , including the hips and the articulation between the head and the spinal column . The inaccurate AMNH mount inspired similar depictions in many films and paintings ( such as Rudolph Zallinger 's famous mural The Age of Reptiles in Yale University 's Peabody Museum of Natural History ) until the 1990s , when films such as Jurassic Park introduced a more accurate posture to the general public .
= = = Arms = = =
When Tyrannosaurus rex was first discovered , the humerus was the only element of the forelimb known . For the initial mounted skeleton as seen by the public in 1915 , Osborn substituted longer , three @-@ fingered forelimbs like those of Allosaurus . However , a year earlier , Lawrence Lambe described the short , two @-@ fingered forelimbs of the closely related Gorgosaurus . This strongly suggested that Tyrannosaurus rex had similar forelimbs , but this hypothesis was not confirmed until the first complete Tyrannosaurus rex forelimbs were identified in 1989 , belonging to MOR 555 ( the " Wankel rex " ) . The remains of Sue also include complete forelimbs . Tyrannosaurus rex arms are very small relative to overall body size , measuring only 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , and some scholars have labelled them as vestigial . However , the bones show large areas for muscle attachment , indicating considerable strength . This was recognized as early as 1906 by Osborn , who speculated that the forelimbs may have been used to grasp a mate during copulation . It has also been suggested that the forelimbs were used to assist the animal in rising from a prone position .
Another possibility is that the forelimbs held struggling prey while it was killed by the tyrannosaur 's enormous jaws . This hypothesis may be supported by biomechanical analysis . Tyrannosaurus rex forelimb bones exhibit extremely thick cortical bone , which have been interpreted as evidence that they were developed to withstand heavy loads . The biceps brachii muscle of a full @-@ grown Tyrannosaurus rex was capable of lifting 199 kilograms ( 439 lb ) by itself ; other muscles such as the brachialis would work along with the biceps to make elbow flexion even more powerful . The M. biceps muscle of T. rex was 3 @.@ 5 times as powerful as the human equivalent . A Tyrannosaurus rex forearm had a limited range of motion , with the shoulder and elbow joints allowing only 40 and 45 degrees of motion , respectively . In contrast , the same two joints in Deinonychus allow up to 88 and 130 degrees of motion , respectively , while a human arm can rotate 360 degrees at the shoulder and move through 165 degrees at the elbow . The heavy build of the arm bones , strength of the muscles , and limited range of motion may indicate a system evolved to hold fast despite the stresses of a struggling prey animal . In the first detailed scientific description of Tyrannosaurus forelimbs , paleontologists Kenneth Carpenter and Matt Smith dismissed notions that the forelimbs were useless or that Tyrannosaurus rex was an obligate scavenger .
= = = Soft tissue = = =
In the March 2005 issue of Science , Mary Higby Schweitzer of North Carolina State University and colleagues announced the recovery of soft tissue from the marrow cavity of a fossilized leg bone from a Tyrannosaurus rex . The bone had been intentionally , though reluctantly , broken for shipping and then not preserved in the normal manner , specifically because Schweitzer was hoping to test it for soft tissue . Designated as the Museum of the Rockies specimen 1125 , or MOR 1125 , the dinosaur was previously excavated from the Hell Creek Formation . Flexible , bifurcating blood vessels and fibrous but elastic bone matrix tissue were recognized . In addition , microstructures resembling blood cells were found inside the matrix and vessels . The structures bear resemblance to ostrich blood cells and vessels . Whether an unknown process , distinct from normal fossilization , preserved the material , or the material is original , the researchers do not know , and they are careful not to make any claims about preservation . If it is found to be original material , any surviving proteins may be used as a means of indirectly guessing some of the DNA content of the dinosaurs involved , because each protein is typically created by a specific gene . The absence of previous finds may be the result of people assuming preserved tissue was impossible , therefore not looking . Since the first , two more tyrannosaurs and a hadrosaur have also been found to have such tissue @-@ like structures . Research on some of the tissues involved has suggested that birds are closer relatives to tyrannosaurs than other modern animals .
In studies reported in Science in April 2007 , Asara and colleagues concluded that seven traces of collagen proteins detected in purified Tyrannosaurus rex bone most closely match those reported in chickens , followed by frogs and newts . The discovery of proteins from a creature tens of millions of years old , along with similar traces the team found in a mastodon bone at least 160 @,@ 000 years old , upends the conventional view of fossils and may shift paleontologists ' focus from bone hunting to biochemistry . Until these finds , most scientists presumed that fossilization replaced all living tissue with inert minerals . Paleontologist Hans Larsson of McGill University in Montreal , who was not part of the studies , called the finds " a milestone " , and suggested that dinosaurs could " enter the field of molecular biology and really slingshot paleontology into the modern world " .
Subsequent studies in April 2008 confirmed the close connection of Tyrannosaurus rex to modern birds . Postdoctoral biology researcher Chris Organ at Harvard University announced , " With more data , they would probably be able to place T. rex on the evolutionary tree between alligators and chickens and ostriches . " Co @-@ author John M. Asara added , " We also show that it groups better with birds than modern reptiles , such as alligators and green anole lizards . "
The presumed soft tissue was called into question by Thomas Kaye of the University of Washington and his co @-@ authors in 2008 . They contend that what was really inside the tyrannosaur bone was slimy biofilm created by bacteria that coated the voids once occupied by blood vessels and cells . The researchers found that what previously had been identified as remnants of blood cells , because of the presence of iron , were actually framboids , microscopic mineral spheres bearing iron . They found similar spheres in a variety of other fossils from various periods , including an ammonite . In the ammonite they found the spheres in a place where the iron they contain could not have had any relationship to the presence of blood . However , Schweitzer has strongly criticized Kaye 's claims and argues that there 's no reported evidence that biofilms can produce branching , hollow tubes like those noted in her study . San Antonio , Schweitzer and colleagues published an analysis in 2011 of what parts of the collagen had been recovered , finding that it was the inner parts of the collagen coil that had been preserved , as would have been expected from a long period of protein degradation . Other research challenges the identification of soft tissue as biofilm and confirms finding " branching , vessel @-@ like structures " from within fossilized bone .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
As of 2014 , it is not clear if Tyrannosaurus was endothermic ( warm @-@ blooded ) . Tyrannosaurus , like most dinosaurs , was long thought to have an ectothermic ( " cold @-@ blooded " ) reptilian metabolism . The idea of dinosaur ectothermy was challenged by scientists like Robert T. Bakker and John Ostrom in the early years of the " Dinosaur Renaissance " , beginning in the late 1960s . Tyrannosaurus rex itself was claimed to have been endothermic ( " warm @-@ blooded " ) , implying a very active lifestyle . Since then , several paleontologists have sought to determine the ability of Tyrannosaurus to regulate its body temperature . Histological evidence of high growth rates in young Tyrannosaurus rex , comparable to those of mammals and birds , may support the hypothesis of a high metabolism . Growth curves indicate that , as in mammals and birds , Tyrannosaurus rex growth was limited mostly to immature animals , rather than the indeterminate growth seen in most other vertebrates .
Oxygen isotope ratios in fossilized bone are sometimes used to determine the temperature at which the bone was deposited , as the ratio between certain isotopes correlates with temperature . In one specimen , the isotope ratios in bones from different parts of the body indicated a temperature difference of no more than 4 to 5 ° C ( 7 to 9 ° F ) between the vertebrae of the torso and the tibia of the lower leg . This small temperature range between the body core and the extremities was claimed by paleontologist Reese Barrick and geochemist William Showers to indicate that Tyrannosaurus rex maintained a constant internal body temperature ( homeothermy ) and that it enjoyed a metabolism somewhere between ectothermic reptiles and endothermic mammals . Other scientists have pointed out that the ratio of oxygen isotopes in the fossils today does not necessarily represent the same ratio in the distant past , and may have been altered during or after fossilization ( diagenesis ) . Barrick and Showers have defended their conclusions in subsequent papers , finding similar results in another theropod dinosaur from a different continent and tens of millions of years earlier in time ( Giganotosaurus ) . Ornithischian dinosaurs also showed evidence of homeothermy , while varanid lizards from the same formation did not . Even if Tyrannosaurus rex does exhibit evidence of homeothermy , it does not necessarily mean that it was endothermic . Such thermoregulation may also be explained by gigantothermy , as in some living sea turtles .
= = = Footprints = = =
Two isolated fossilized footprints have been tentatively assigned to Tyrannosaurus rex . The first was discovered at Philmont Scout Ranch , New Mexico , in 1983 by American geologist Charles Pillmore . Originally thought to belong to a hadrosaurid , examination of the footprint revealed a large ' heel ' unknown in ornithopod dinosaur tracks , and traces of what may have been a hallux , the dewclaw @-@ like fourth digit of the tyrannosaur foot . The footprint was published as the ichnogenus Tyrannosauripus pillmorei in 1994 , by Martin Lockley and Adrian Hunt . Lockley and Hunt suggested that it was very likely the track was made by a Tyrannosaurus rex , which would make it the first known footprint from this species . The track was made in what was once a vegetated wetland mud flat . It measures 83 centimeters ( 33 in ) long by 71 centimeters ( 28 in ) wide .
A second footprint that may have been made by a Tyrannosaurus was first reported in 2007 by British paleontologist Phil Manning , from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana . This second track measures 72 centimeters ( 28 in ) long , shorter than the track described by Lockley and Hunt . Whether or not the track was made by Tyrannosaurus is unclear , though Tyrannosaurus and Nanotyrannus are the only large theropods known to have existed in the Hell Creek Formation .
A set of footprints in Glenrock , Wyoming dating to the Maastrichtian stage of the late cretaceous and hailing from the Lance Formation were recently described by Scott Persons , Phil Currie et al. in January 2016 , and are believed to belong to either a juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex or the dubious tyrannosaurid genus Nanotyrannus lancensis . From measurements and based on the positions of the footprints , the animal was believed to be traveling at a walking speed of around 2 @.@ 8 to 5 miles per hour and was estimated to have a hip height of 1 @.@ 56 m ( 5 @.@ 1 ft ) to 2 @.@ 06 m ( 6 @.@ 8 ft ) . The discovery was described in the journal Cretaceous Research .
= = = Locomotion = = =
There are two main issues concerning the locomotory abilities of Tyrannosaurus : how well it could turn ; and what its maximum straight @-@ line speed was likely to have been . Both are relevant to the debate about whether it was a hunter or a scavenger .
Tyrannosaurus may have been slow to turn , possibly taking one to two seconds to turn only 45 ° — an amount that humans , being vertically oriented and tailless , can spin in a fraction of a second . The cause of the difficulty is rotational inertia , since much of Tyrannosaurus ' mass was some distance from its center of gravity , like a human carrying a heavy timber horizontally — although it might have reduced the average distance by arching its back and tail and pulling its head and forelimbs close to its body , rather like the way ice skaters pull their arms closer in order to spin faster .
Scientists have produced a wide range of maximum speed estimates , mostly around 11 meters per second ( 40 km / h ; 25 mph ) , but a few as low as 5 – 11 meters per second ( 18 – 40 km / h ; 11 – 25 mph ) , and a few as high as 20 meters per second ( 72 km / h ; 45 mph ) . Researchers have to rely on various estimating techniques because , while there are many tracks of very large theropods walking , so far none have been found of very large theropods running — and this absence may indicate that they did not run . Scientists who think that Tyrannosaurus was able to run point out that hollow bones and other features that would have lightened its body may have kept adult weight to a mere 4 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 5 @.@ 0 short tons ) or so , or that other animals like ostriches and horses with long , flexible legs are able to achieve high speeds through slower but longer strides . Additionally , some have argued that Tyrannosaurus had relatively larger leg muscles than any animal alive today , which could have enabled fast running at 40 – 70 kilometers per hour ( 25 – 43 mph ) .
Jack Horner and Don Lessem argued in 1993 that Tyrannosaurus was slow and probably could not run ( no airborne phase in mid @-@ stride ) , because its ratio of femur ( thigh bone ) to tibia ( shin bone ) length was greater than 1 , as in most large theropods and like a modern elephant . However , Holtz ( 1998 ) noted that tyrannosaurids and some closely related groups had significantly longer distal hindlimb components ( shin plus foot plus toes ) relative to the femur length than most other theropods , and that tyrannosaurids and their close relatives had a tightly interlocked metatarsus that more effectively transmitted locomotory forces from the foot to the lower leg than in earlier theropods ( " metatarsus " means the foot bones , which function as part of the leg in digitigrade animals ) . He therefore concluded that tyrannosaurids and their close relatives were the fastest large theropods . Thomas Holtz Jr. would echo these sentiments in his 2013 lecture , stating that the giant allosaurs had shorter feet for the same body size than Tyrannosaurus , whereas Tyrannosaurus had longer , skinnier and more interlocked feet for the same body size ; attributes of faster moving animals .
A study by Eric Snively and Anthony P. Russel published in 2003 would also find that the tyrannosaurid arctometatarsals and elastic ligaments worked together in what he called a ' tensile keystone model ' to strengthen the feet of Tyrannosaurus , increase the animal 's stability and add greater resistance to dissociation over that of other theropod families ; while still allowing resiliency that is otherwise reduced in ratites , horses , giraffids and other animals with metapodia to a single element . The study would also point out that elastic ligaments in larger vertebrates could store and return relatively more elastic strain energy , which could have improved locomotor efficiency and decrease the strain energy transferred to the bones . The study would suggest that this mechanism could have worked efficiently in tyrannosaurids as well . Hence , the study involved identifying the type of ligaments attached to the metatarsals , then how they functioned together and comparing it to those of other theropods and modern day analogs . The scientists would find that arctometatarsals may have enabled tyrannosaurid feet to absorb forces such as linear deceleration , lateral acceleration and torsion more effectively than those of other theropods . It is also stated in their study that this may imply , though not demonstrate , that tyrannosaurids such as Tyrannosaurus had greater agility than other large theropods without an arctometatarsus .
Christiansen ( 1998 ) estimated that the leg bones of Tyrannosaurus were not significantly stronger than those of elephants , which are relatively limited in their top speed and never actually run ( there is no airborne phase ) , and hence proposed that the dinosaur 's maximum speed would have been about 11 meters per second ( 40 km / h ; 25 mph ) , which is about the speed of a human sprinter . But he also noted that such estimates depend on many dubious assumptions .
Farlow and colleagues ( 1995 ) have argued that a Tyrannosaurus weighing 5 @.@ 4 metric tons ( 6 @.@ 0 short tons ) to 7 @.@ 3 metric tons ( 8 @.@ 0 short tons ) would have been critically or even fatally injured if it had fallen while moving quickly , since its torso would have slammed into the ground at a deceleration of 6 g ( six times the acceleration due to gravity , or about 60 meters / s ² ) and its tiny arms could not have reduced the impact . However , giraffes have been known to gallop at 50 kilometers per hour ( 31 mph ) , despite the risk that they might break a leg or worse , which can be fatal even in a " safe " environment such as a zoo . Thus it is possible that Tyrannosaurus also moved fast when necessary and had to accept such risks .
In a study published by Gregory S. Paul in the journal Gaia , he would point out that the flexed kneed and digitigrade adult Tyrannosaurus were much better adapted for running than elephants or humans , pointing out that Tyrannosaurus had a large ilium bone and cnemial crest that would have supported large muscles needed for running . He would also mention that Alexander 's ( 1989 ) formula to calculate speed by bone strength was only partly reliable . He suggests that the formula is overly sensitive to bone length ; making long bones artificially weak . He would also point out that the lowered risk of being wounded in combat may have been worth the risk of Tyrannosaurus falling while running .
Most recent research on Tyrannosaurus locomotion does not support speeds faster than 40 kilometers per hour ( 25 mph ) , i.e. moderate @-@ speed running . For example , a 2002 paper in Nature used a mathematical model ( validated by applying it to three living animals , alligators , chickens , and humans ; later eight more species including emus and ostriches ) to gauge the leg muscle mass needed for fast running ( over 40 km / h or 25 mph ) . They found that proposed top speeds in excess of 40 kilometers per hour ( 25 mph ) were infeasible , because they would require very large leg muscles ( more than approximately 40 – 86 % of total body mass ) . Even moderately fast speeds would have required large leg muscles . This discussion is difficult to resolve , as it is unknown how large the leg muscles actually were in Tyrannosaurus . If they were smaller , only 18 kilometers per hour ( 11 mph ) walking or jogging might have been possible .
A study in 2007 used computer models to estimate running speeds , based on data taken directly from fossils , and claimed that Tyrannosaurus rex had a top running speed of 8 meters per second ( 29 km / h ; 18 mph ) . An average professional football ( soccer ) player would be slightly slower , while a human sprinter can reach 12 meters per second ( 43 km / h ; 27 mph ) . These computer models predict a top speed of 17 @.@ 8 meters per second ( 64 km / h ; 40 mph ) for a 3 @-@ kilogram ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) Compsognathus ( probably a juvenile individual ) .
However , in 2010 , Scott Persons , a graduate student from the University of Alberta proposed that Tyrannosaurus 's speed may have been enhanced by strong tail muscles . He found that theropods such as T rex had certain muscle arrangements that are different from modern day birds and mammals but with some similarities to modern reptiles . He concluded that the caudofemoralis muscles which link the tail bones and the upper leg bones could have assisted Tyrannosaurus in leg retraction and enhanced its running ability , agility and balance . The caudofemoralis muscle would have been a key muscle in femoral retraction ; pulling back the leg at the femur . The study also found that theropod skeletons such as those of Tyrannosaurus had adaptations ( such as elevated transverse processes in the tail vertebrae ) to enable the growth of larger tail muscles and that Tyrannosaurus 's tail muscle mass may have been underestimated by over 25 percent and perhaps as much as 45 percent . The caudofemoralis muscle was found to comprise 58 percent of the muscle mass in the tail of Tyrannosaurus . Tyrannosaurus also had the largest absolute and relative caudofemoralis muscle mass out of the three extinct organisms in the study . This is because Tyrannosaurus also had additional adaptations to enable large tail muscles ; the elongation of its tail 's hemal arches . According to Persons , the increase in tail muscle mass would have moved the center of mass closer to the hindquarters and hips which would have lessened the strain on the leg muscles to support its weight ; improving its overall balance and agility . This would also have made the animal less front @-@ heavy , thus reducing rotational inertia . Persons also notes that the tail is also rich in tendons and septa which could have been stores of elastic energy , and thereby improved locomotive efficiency . Persons adds that this means non @-@ avian
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of modern @-@ day history , philosophy and science add to the grotesque humor of the novel , while his two friends quote classical Roman literature and Chinese sayings . The book was published by Viennese publisher FZA Verlag in October 2008 . Between 2008 and 2010 , several Austrian and German critics and writers published reviews of the novel .
= = Background = =
Ebner first considered writing a novel in which prehistoric characters have present @-@ day knowledge and a modern language in 2006 . Believing that this topic would not suffice for a long novel , he initially did not pursue the idea . In February 2008 Ebner won the Wiener Werkstattpreis in the categories of short story and essay — in addition to the prize money the organizer of the award , the Viennese publishing house FZA , offers to the winner to publish a 100 @-@ page book . Hence Ebner wrote and finalized his narrative within four months . The book was published in the October of the same year with the German title Hominide . The publisher introduced the work to the public with a public reading in Vienna .
The novel consists of seven chapters , " Day 1 " to " Day 7 " , with the action of each chapter occurring on consecutive days . The chapters refer to the seven days of the biblical Creation . In comparison with other works of Ebner , Hominid is the first to be about a prehistoric subject . The author had already addressed topics of religious faith before , in the short stories “ Der Schreiber von Aram ( The Scribe of Aram ) ” and “ Momentaufnahme ( Snapshot ) ” , and frequently used a satirical style for his narratives .
= = Plot synopsis = =
Hominid takes place several million years ago in the Central African transitional region between rainforest and savanna . The main characters are Australopithecus afarenses , an extinct , mostly tree @-@ dwelling hominid that existed before the use of tools and fire . The story is told through first @-@ person narration by the protagonist , Pitar . In deliberating his social and natural environment , Pitar decides to lead his band to civilization : “ Hence I decided to shed some light on the darkness , to light a candle following the motto Let there be light and so on . ” His linguistic capacity , thoughts and speech correspond to those of modern man , and he also is knowledgeable about history , politics , philosophy and literature . Intermittent comments made by Pitar concerning a particular prospect or artifact that has not been invented or developed yet add to the humor of the grotesque scenario . Pitar 's close friends are Carpediem , who enunciates Latin phrases and quotes the writers of Classical Antiquity , and Lao , who frequently refers to Chinese philosophy .
Although it is difficult to convince his fellow Hominidae to follow him , Pitar manages to persuade the patriarchal leader of the clan , Costello , who has taken command from the recently deceased Thorn . The band builds windbreaks to help them descend more often from the trees , thus exposing them to a higher risk of being attacked by predators on the ground . A rivalry emerges between Costello and another band member , Re , who not only questions the leading abilities of the present alpha but also desires Costello 's females . To alleviate the escalating debate of authority , Pitar tries to implement a parliament to settle disputes peacefully . Costello , however , considers the parliament to be a forum in which he can consolidate his power , citing famous speeches by Winston Churchill and Abraham Lincoln ; the other members ruin this noble idea with their lack of discipline and ostentatious indifference .
One of the subplots of the novel details the budding love between Pitar and Maluma , a female member of the band . Costello perceives the group of females as his personal harem , but when Maluma falls in love with Pitar she breaks off her relationship with him . On each day , the characters discover new insights and artefacts , but seek rest from their exhaustion by the seventh day . This repose , however , is disrupted by the attack of a saber @-@ toothed cat . Several members of the band are killed , including Costello , thus enabling Re to assume power . Pitar and Maluma decide to leave the band , stating , " We should leave in time , leave Re and his new Reich , which , when I 'm taking into account Thorn 's previous reign , would be the Third over here . " Pitar and Maluma head toward the savanna , an action which alludes to both the expulsion from paradise and the Out of Africa theory . Only odd @-@ numbered chapters narrate the love story , which bookmarks the novel . Writer Karin Gayer mentions in her review that the love story of Pitar and Maluma , and its positioning within the text , offers " a second interpretation of the beginning and the end " .
= = Characters = =
In a conversation with the Viennese regional leader of publisher Arovell , Ebner revealed the hidden meanings of his characters ' names .
Akshaya : The name originates from Hindi ( specifically Sanskrit ) and signifies “ the indomitable ” . Akshaya is a female character with a firm personality , and belongs to the band although she often acts as an antepole in regard to Costello . In a certain sense she represents the matriarchal form of governance by daring to disagree with the alpha and making her own decisions .
Bongo : Originates from the African people and language and is also used for place names in several African countries , also alluding to Adriano Celentanos film Bingo Bongo and a kind of forest antelope . The novel presents Bongo as a clownish , male juvenile who teases the other members of the band but is protected from backlashes by his youth and humor .
Carpediem : Latin for " seize the day " , literally meaning " pluck the day " , which stems from a poem by Horace . Carpediem is Pitar 's closest friend and uses Latin quotations and expressions .
Costello : English @-@ Italian surname . Costello is the patriarch of the band . Keen on remaining in power , he recognizes that Pitar 's ideas might help him prevail . For this reason he supports Pitar .
Djamila : A female character who belongs to Costello 's harem . Her name stems from the Arabic language meaning " the pretty one " .
Ischa : A female character who belongs to Costello 's harem . Together with Djamila she woos the clan leader . Her name stems from the Semitic languages meaning " woman " .
Konrad : Old High German for " bold or good adviser " . Konrad is a follower of Re and acts as his speaker , also challenging and ridiculing Pitar 's ideas .
Lao : Depending on the intonation , the word is Chinese for " firm , solid " or " old " . It is also an allusion to either or both the philosopher Lao @-@ Tzu , author of the Tao Te Ching , or the Lao people who live in Southeast Asia . The character Lao quotes Chinese philosophers and is a friend of Pitar . When he leaves the band after the attack of the sabre @-@ tooth , he goes in the direction of East Africa and Asia .
Lucy : An allusion to Lucy , the skeleton of an Australopithecus afarensis specimen discovered in 1974 in Ethiopia . Lucy is the mother of most children in the band . At the end of the book she leaves for East Africa with Lao and Maluma .
Maluma : Maluma is an artificial word from synesthesia , representing curvy and smooth shapes . She becomes the loving companion of Pitar . Through Maluma , Pitar discovers the power and the sweets of love .
Manisha : This name stems from the Hindi and Sanskrit languages , signifying " the wise " . In Hinduism , Manisha is the goddess of the mind . Among the clan 's women , Manisha has a similar role as Lao has among the men . She easily holds her own in discussions with the males , and her reasoning is witty and logical .
Pitar The protagonist 's name stems from Sanskrit and means " father " ; its intonation lies on the second syllable : " Pitár " . Pitar narrates the story of which he is the main character .
Re : Italian for " king " , also an allusion to the ancient Egyptian sun god Re or Ra . Re is Costello 's opponent and antagonist . An aggressive character , he perceives Pitar as an enemy because of Pitar 's perceived support for the band 's leader . He repeatedly defies Costello but does not dare to start an open revolt . The attack of the sabre @-@ toothed cat , which kills Costello and some other members of the band , enables Re to become the leader at the end of the novel .
Rhododendron : Greek for " rose tree " , a genus of flowering plants in the family Ericaceae . The character Rhododendron is a male member of the band with an ecological attitude . Rhododendron is only a supporting actor in the story .
Ruth : Hebrew for " companion " . Ruth is a female band member with a distinctive strength of character . When the band is constructing their first windshield , she pushes a fervent discussion about labor law and commences a strike .
Thorn : This name stems from the Germanic languages and is the denomination of the rune Thurisaz “ Þ ” , pronounced as “ θ ” . Thorn is the eldest of the clan and considered a sage . He appears only in the first two chapters , at the end of which he dies . From a dynastic point of view , he was Costello 's predecessor .
= = Major themes = =
The novel addresses hominization from an ironic point of view . Mankind 's evolution from the ape @-@ like Australopithecus afarenses to modern society with history , technology and cultural expression is compressed into only seven days . The strong allusion to faith is contrasted by numerous references to scientific insights . With the evolution of mankind starting in Central Africa , Lucy is the name given to the first skeleton of an Australopitecus afarensis found . The characters mention that Homo erectus would be the hominid species to tame fire . Orrorin and Toumaï represent two of the oldest @-@ known hominin ancestors , while Aegyptopithecus zeuxis is one of the earliest primates . Through scientific references and a distinct ironic tone , Ingrid Reichel makes it clear in her review that the book cannot be taken in by any religion or fundamentalism .
While scholars know of patriarchal and matrifocal ancient societies , very little can be said about a society of a species , which is as remote as Australopithecus . On the basis of examples in today 's chimpanzee and bonobo societies , Klaus Ebner introduced both patriarchal and matriarchal characters in the novel , Costello and Akshaya . Some of the female characters are very strong and self @-@ conscious , such as Akshaya , who is so firm that even Costello retrocedes from her . While political power is controlled by the males , the social structure seems matrifocal and matrilineal , corresponding to the image of prehistoric societies exhibited by scholars .
Another theme is the love story between Pitar and Maluma . While the society of the band is depicted as driven by sexual attraction in a male hierarchy , the relationship between Pitar and Maluma leads them to break away from traditional habitudes . Pitar is not the alpha male , but he starts a love relationship on his own , in which Maluma quits Costello 's harem . The love story demonstrates love as a quite late cultural achievement of mankind . In addition , Karin Gayer emphasizes the significance of Pitar 's and Maluma 's love against the religious component in defining the love story and its positioning within the storyline as another concept " of the beginning and the end " .
= = Style = =
Hominid is a short novel which contains one single and linear storyline . However , it is subdivided into seven chapters , each standing for a narrated day . The satirical character of the book stems from the underlying grotesque scenario , the speeches of Pitar and his fellow hominids , the mentioning of artifacts which have not yet been invented , and the numerous allusions to world history and literature .
Steffen Roye from the German literary magazine Verstärker states in the title of his book review that Ebner has the characters of his story " talk as if they were modern @-@ day juveniles " . When it comes to allusions , a number of them consist of quotes , usually from classical Latin writers .
Ebner 's writing style is rich in detail , as Ingrid Reichel states , and she pinpoints the " artist of the word " . Similar judgments have been made by other critics when they reviewed the preceding works by Ebner , such as Wolfgang Ratz about Auf der Kippe or Julia Rafael about Lose .
= = Reception and criticism = =
Heinz Gerstinger thinks the book is a " history of the awakening of the spirit of mankind " . The author has the events glided " into the playful by his gently irony " . Several reviewers underline the narrative 's ironic and satirical aspect , including the names of the characters , Latin quotations and idioms as well as the parallelism between the seven days of Creation and scientific hominization . Ingrid Reichel points out the perfect publication date , just in time for the 150th anniversary of Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution . Similarly to other reviewers who had written about Ebner 's earlier books , she highlights the sophisticated use of a detail @-@ rich language which is " steeped in subtle and sensitive humor " .
Despite many explicit allusions to several world religions , Ingrid Reichel states that the novel is a book for “ readers with humor , for reasoners ( … ) , for darwinists , on no account for creationists , to a lesser extent for people of faith , but rather for atheists , … and fundamentalists drop out entirely ” . Another aspect is identified by Karin Gayer when pinpointing the parallel evolution of the patriarchal hierarchy in the narrated society and the alluded social matriarchy , the first resembling chimpanzee communities and the second representing those of bonobos . In addition , she points out the strength of the women characters . She declares that at the time of the Australopithecus , neither chimpanzees nor bonobos existed , but " the author is not interested in paleoanthropologic precisenesses — he is interested in mirroring our society , in exposing human behavior " . She compares Costello with the alpha of a community of chimpanzees and a classical manager , and Akshaya with bonobo females and a modern @-@ day career woman . With regard to these underlying comparisons , Gayer says , " On another level we are struck by the permanent notional commingling of the simian and the human , a composition which leaves us pensive and asks the legitimate question where we , who consider ourselves sapiens in a double sense , should finally classify man . "
The multitudinous allusions to well @-@ known and lesser @-@ known books , movies and sayings cause contradicting receptions . While Heinz Gerstinger and Ingrid Reichel explicitly highlight the comical effect of the insinuations , the German critic Steffen Roye regards them as sometimes " exaggerated " and says , " As the story develops , it becomes more and more like a revue . " The numerous expressions in foreign languages , especially in Latin , remain untranslated in the first edition . In her review , Ingrid Reichel invites the publisher to add a glossary to a new edition . The author subsequently released such a glossary on his own website .
= Eisenhower dollar =
The Eisenhower dollar is a one @-@ dollar coin issued by the United States Mint from 1971 to 1978 ; it was the first coin of that denomination issued by the Mint since the Peace dollar series ended in 1935 . The coin depicts President Dwight D. Eisenhower on the obverse , with both sides designed by Frank Gasparro .
In 1965 , the Mint had begun to strike copper @-@ nickel clad coins instead of silver , due to rises in bullion prices . No dollar coins had been struck in thirty years , and none , initially , were minted in the new metal . Beginning in 1969 , legislators sought to reintroduce a dollar coin into commerce . After Eisenhower died in March of that year , there were a number of proposals to honor Eisenhower with the new coin . While these bills generally commanded wide support , enactment was delayed by a dispute over whether the new coin should be in base metal or 40 % silver . In 1970 , a compromise was reached to strike the Eisenhower dollar in base metal for circulation , and in 40 % silver as a collectible . President Richard Nixon signed legislation authorizing the new coin on December 31 , 1970 .
Although the collector 's pieces sold well , the new dollars failed to circulate to any degree , except in and around Nevada casinos , where they took the place of privately issued tokens . There are no dollars dated 1975 ; coins from that year and from 1976 bear a double date 1776 @-@ 1976 , and a special reverse by Dennis R. Williams in honor of the bicentennial of American independence . Beginning in 1977 , the Mint sought to replace the Eisenhower dollar with a smaller @-@ sized piece . Congress authorized the Susan B. Anthony dollar , struck beginning in 1979 , but that piece also failed to circulate . Due to their modest cost and the short length of the series , sets of Eisenhower dollars are becoming more popular among collectors .
= = Background = =
The silver dollar had never been a popular coin , circulating little except in the West ; it served as a means of monetizing metal and generally sat in bank vaults once struck . The Peace dollar , the last circulating dollar made of silver , was not struck after 1935 , and in most years in the quarter century after that , the bullion value of a silver dollar did not exceed 70 cents . In the early 1960s , though , silver prices rose , and the huge stocks of silver dollars in the hands of banks and the government were obtained by the public through the redemption of silver certificates . This caused shortages of silver dollars in the western states where the pieces circulated , and interests there sought the issuance of more dollars .
On August 3 , 1964 , Congress passed legislation providing for the striking of 45 million silver dollars . This legislation was enacted as coins vanished from circulation as the price of silver rose past the $ 1 @.@ 29 per ounce at which silver coins were worth more as bullion than as currency . The new pieces were intended to be used at Nevada casinos and elsewhere in the West where " hard money " was popular . Numismatic periodicals complained that striking the dollars was a waste of resources . The law had been passed at the urging of the Senate Majority Leader , Mike Mansfield ( Democrat – Montana ) , who represented a state that heavily used silver dollars . Despite the efforts of Mint Director Eva Adams and her staff to persuade him , Senator Mansfield refused to consider any cancellation or delay and on May 12 , 1965 , the Denver Mint began striking 1964 @-@ D Peace dollars — the Mint had obtained congressional authorization to continue striking 1964 @-@ dated coins into 1965 .
A public announcement of the new pieces was made on May 15 , 1965 , to be met with a storm of objections . Both the public and many congressmen saw the issue as a poor use of Mint resources at a time of severe coin shortages , which would only benefit coin dealers . On May 24 , one day before a hastily called congressional hearing , Adams announced that the pieces were deemed trial strikes , never intended for circulation . The Mint later stated that 316 @,@ 076 pieces had been struck ; all were reported melted amid heavy security . To ensure that there would be no repetition , Congress inserted a provision in the Coinage Act of 1965 forbidding the coinage of silver dollars for five years . That act also removed silver from the dime and quarter , and reduced the silver content of the half dollar to 40 % .
= = Inception = =
In 1969 , Nixon administration Mint Director Mary Brooks sought the reissuance of the dollar coin . By this time , rising bullion prices threatened the continued use of silver in the Kennedy half dollar , but Brooks hoped to maintain the dollar as a silver coin . Brooks ' proposal for a new silver dollar was opposed by the chairman of the House Banking Committee , Wright Patman , who had been convinced by Nixon 's predecessor , Lyndon Johnson , to support the continued use of silver in the half dollar against his better judgment .
On March 28 , 1969 , former president Dwight D. Eisenhower ( nicknamed " Ike " ) , a former World War II general , died . Soon after his death , New Jersey Representative Florence Dwyer , like Eisenhower a Republican , suggested that the proposed dollar coin bear his likeness . She spoke to Democratic Missouri Representative Leonor Sullivan , who agreed that the dollar should bear a portrait of Eisenhower as " equal time " to the half dollar , which bore the likeness of Democratic president Kennedy . A bill was filed by Connecticut Congressman Robert N. Giaimo to authorize an Eisenhower dollar , to be struck without silver content . The Joint Commission on the Coinage , drawing members from the administration and from Congress , including Giaimo , recommended the dollar in spring 1969 . It also called for the elimination of silver from the half dollar , and for the transfer from the Treasury to the General Services Administration ( GSA ) of quantities of rare silver dollars , so they could be sold . Giaimo noted that the coin would be useful in casinos , which were striking their own tokens in the absence of circulating dollar coins , and in the vending industry , which was starting to sell higher @-@ priced items .
On October 3 , 1969 , the House Banking Committee passed legislation for a silverless Eisenhower dollar , with Patman stating that he hoped to have it approved by the full House in time for the late president 's birthday on October 14 . On October 6 , the bill 's sponsors lost a procedural vote which would have allowed for no amendments . While some representatives spoke against the manner in which the legislation was to be considered , Iowa Congressman H. R. Gross objected to the base @-@ metal composition of the proposed coin : " You would be doing the memory of President Eisenhower no favor to mint a dollar made perhaps of scrap metal . " Both houses voted on October 14 , Eisenhower 's birthday . Although the House passed the administration @-@ backed bill for a base metal dollar , the Senate passed the bill as amended by Colorado Senator Peter Dominick , calling for the piece to be minted in 40 % silver . Instrumental in the passage of the Senate amendment was a letter from Mamie Eisenhower , recalling that her husband had liked to give silver dollars as mementoes , and had gone to some effort to obtain coins struck in the year of his birth , 1890 . Idaho Senator James McClure stated , " It is somehow beneath the dignity of a great president like General Eisenhower to withhold silver from the coin . " On October 29 , 1969 , Texas Representative Robert R. Casey introduced legislation to honor both Eisenhower and the recent Apollo XI Moon landing . These provisions would become part of the enacted bill authorizing the Eisenhower dollar . Casey originally wanted the mission theme of Apollo XI , " We came in peace for all mankind " to appear on the coin ; when the Mint informed him there was not room for that inscription , he settled for requiring that the reverse design be emblematic of that theme .
In March 1970 , the two houses reached a compromise whereby 150 million dollars would be struck in the 40 % silver alloy for collectors and others . The circulating dollar , though , would have no silver and would be struck in larger quantities . The 47 @.@ 4 million troy ounces of silver needed to strike the collectors ' pieces would come from bullion already held by the government . The compromise was worked out by McClure and other congressional Republicans , with the aid of Brooks , an Idahoan . McClure described the deal as " a lot less than the country deserves , but a lot more than it appeared we would get " . The reason for having a collector 's edition with silver was to avoid the hoarding which had driven the Kennedy half dollar from circulation .
Although the compromise passed the Senate in March 1970 , it was blocked in the House by Representative Patman , who was determined to end silver in the coinage . The Senate passed the bill again in September , this time attaching it as a rider to a bank holding company bill sought by Patman . The bill , which also included provisions to eliminate silver from the half dollar and to transfer the rare silver dollars to the GSA , was approved by a conference committee and passed both houses . Nixon had intended to let the bill pass into law without his signature . When aides realized that as Congress had adjourned , not signing the bill would pocket veto it , Nixon hastily signed it just before midnight on December 31 , 1970 , only minutes before the deadline .
= = Design = =
For Mint Chief Engraver Frank Gasparro , the opportunity to put Eisenhower on a coin was the fulfillment of a longtime dream . On June 19 , 1945 , Gasparro had been one of more than 4 million people who gathered in New York to watch a parade in honor of the Allied victory in Europe . Although Gasparro , then an assistant engraver at the Mint , only saw a glimpse of General Eisenhower , he stepped back from the crowd and sketched the general 's features . That sketch served as the basis of his design for the obverse . Gasparro consulted with the late president 's widow , Mamie Eisenhower , as to the designs of both sides of the coin ; the former First Lady was presented with a galvano ( a metallic model used in the coin design process ) by Brooks and Gasparro on January 1 , 1971 . Gasparro wrote in 1991 that he had six weeks to complete the work beginning in mid @-@ November 1970 , that his extensive research into eagles over the years was a great help in creating the reverse , and that his sketches were adopted without change . The chief engraver was not given full freedom of design ; he was instructed to have the layout of the obverse resemble that of the Washington quarter .
Before the legislation passed , Gasparro had prepared two reverses , the one actually used , and a reverse with a more formal heraldic eagle , which numismatic historian and coin dealer Q. David Bowers finds reminiscent of pattern coins prepared in the 1870s . At Congress 's insistence , the chief engraver created a design in commemoration of the Apollo XI lunar landing , based on the mission patch conceived by astronaut Michael Collins and others . Bowers deems the choice of the lunar landing " a stroke of genius " , allowing the dollar , which would be little @-@ used in commerce , to be a commemorative both of Eisenhower and of the Moon mission . The reverse depicts an eagle ( representing the lunar lander , Eagle ) swooping low over the Moon 's surface , holding an olive branch , token of peace , in its claws .
The use of Collins ' mission patch design had initially been opposed by some government officials because of the fierce expression of the eagle ; Gasparro 's initial concept met similar objections . The Mint Director recalled that Gasparro had gone to the Philadelphia Zoo to look at eagles , and on his return had prepared a design which she felt emphasized the eagle 's predatory nature . Brooks informed Gasparro that the eagle was " too fierce , too warlike , a little too aggressive " and asked that the expression be made friendlier . Gasparro , who reportedly was unhappy at having to change the eagle , described the final version as " pleasant looking " . The State Department also feared that the eagle 's expression might offend , and sought a neutral visage . The distant Earth may be seen above the bird , and there are 13 stars in honor of the original states .
Bowers deems the bust of Eisenhower " well modeled " by Gasparro , and notes that the fact that the eagle on the reverse holds only an olive branch , rather than arrows as well ( token of war ) , " meant that the public would like the design " . Nevertheless , he notes that Eisenhower 's stern expression was widely criticized as not typical of a man noted for geniality . Numismatic author David Lange opines that " the Eisenhower dollar is one of the poorest products to emanate from the U.S. Mint " . Lange writes that Gasparro had designed only one side of the coin for the Kennedy half dollar and Lincoln Memorial reverse for the cent , " the Eisenhower dollar was his design alone and should have served as a showcase for his talent . Sadly , it is a mediocre design that reveals his typically unnatural treatment of Ike 's hair and the eagle 's feathers . " Some collectors complained after the release that the Earth was not fully shown , not realizing that Gasparro had carefully followed the mission badge . The chief engraver responded by clarifying the design .
= = Release = =
Two prototype dollars were struck at the Philadelphia Mint on January 25 , 1971 ; they were subsequently destroyed . Striking such large pieces of tough copper @-@ nickel proved destructive to the Mint 's dies , and Gasparro repeatedly used the Janvier reducing lathe to lower the relief to be used on the circulation strikes and the uncirculated silver clad coins . The chief engraver altered the resulting master die directly to restore at least some of the detail which was lost as the relief was lowered . The proof coins struck at San Francisco , nevertheless , remained in high relief . This meant that in 1971 and for much of 1972 ( until better @-@ quality steel was used in the dies ) , the uncirculated strikes had a lower relief , less detailed surface , compared with the proof coins . Proof coins are struck slowly , and generally multiple times , to bring out the full detail . Striking of Eisenhower dollars for circulation began at Denver on February 3 , apparently without any ceremony ; minting at Philadelphia also began early in the year , although Bowers , in his comprehensive encyclopedia of silver and clad dollar coins , does not record a specific date . The first Eisenhower dollars in 40 % silver , with an uncirculated finish , were struck at the San Francisco Assay Office ( today the San Francisco Mint ) on March 31 , 1971 ; Brooks ceremoniously operated the presses . The first coin struck was for presentation to Mamie Eisenhower ; the second to David Eisenhower ( grandson of Dwight and Mamie Eisenhower ) and the third to David Eisenhower 's father @-@ in @-@ law , President Nixon .
On January 29 , 1971 , the Mint announced the prices for the 40 % silver pieces which would be struck at San Francisco : $ 3 for uncirculated specimens and $ 10 for mirror @-@ surfaced proof pieces , with orders to be taken by mail beginning on July 1 , with a limit of five of each per customer . Order forms for the public were shipped to 44 @,@ 000 post offices and 33 @,@ 000 banks , with instructions not to hand them out until June 18 . The Mint returned some orders for being sent in too early . Mint sets of the circulating coinage for 1971 did not include the Eisenhower dollar .
The first proof strikes , at San Francisco , took place in July . The proof pieces were sold in a plastic holder inside a brown box with a gold eagle seal ; the uncirculated silver pieces were encased in pliofilm inside a blue envelope . These were dubbed " brown Ikes " and " blue Ikes " and are still known by those terms . On July 27 , 1971 , President Nixon presented the first piece to be struck to Mamie Eisenhower at a White House ceremony . Sales of the 40 % silver pieces were ended on October 8 ; the first proof coins were mailed to collectors on October 14 , President Eisenhower 's birthday .
The circulation version of the Eisenhower dollar , the largest clad coin ever attempted by the Mint , was released through banks on November 1 , 1971 . Many were obtained by collectors ; there was sufficient demand that many banks imposed a limit of one coin per customer . The clad pieces were struck from coinage strip purchased by the Mint from contractors . Many were not well @-@ struck , causing collectors to search through rolls in search of better specimens . An oil film was found on a large number of specimens ; this was removed by collectors .
From the start , the coin failed to circulate . In 1976 , a Treasury study done in conjunction with a private @-@ sector firm found that the Eisenhower dollar had a near @-@ 100 percent attrition rate , that is , almost always , a coin was used in only one transaction , and then stopped circulating . ( by comparison , the attrition rate of the quarter was close to zero ) This was because of the coin 's large size , its weight , and the lack of potential uses for it . Even so , it was successful in replacing private @-@ issue tokens in Nevada casinos . According to numismatist Randy Camper , about 70 % of Eisenhower dollars were used in casinos . Although the vending machine industry lobbied for the Eisenhower dollar , they converted few machines to take the pieces . Lange recalled , " The fact is that these coins never circulated outside of casinos and nearby areas , and I don 't recall ever seeing a vending machine that accepted them . "
= = Production = =
= = = Early years ( 1971 – 1974 ) = = =
The Mint struck over 125 million of the Eisenhower dollars in 1971 , more than doubling its largest annual production for a dollar coin . Despite an increased mintage in 1972 to over 170 million , and despite what CoinAge magazine termed " near @-@ heroic measures on the part of the Mint " , the piece did not circulate . In a 1974 article for CoinAge , numismatist Clement F. Bailey noted , " the circulation value of the coin has been nil " . Many Eisenhower dollars were put aside as souvenirs by non @-@ collectors . Nevertheless , the silver coins sold so well that in October 1971 , Mint Director Brooks warned that orders for 1971 @-@ S proof dollars would not all be filled until well into 1972 . She ascribed the delay to the large public demand and to production difficulties which she indicated had been corrected . More than 11 million of the 1971 @-@ S silver pieces were sold , in proof and uncirculated , with nearly 7 million in proof . In May 1972 , Treasury Secretary John Connally , testifying before a Senate committee , described the profits the Mint had made on the silver version of the Eisenhower dollar as " just unconscionable " , with the average profit on a silver coin at $ 3 @.@ 89 , and expected to increase as production became more efficient . Mint officials felt that reducing the price would anger those who had already purchased the pieces .
The 1972 silver pieces were again struck at San Francisco . Sales dropped considerably , to just under 2 @.@ 2 million specimens in uncirculated and 1 @.@ 8 million in proof . The part @-@ silver 1972 @-@ S Eisenhower dollars were available for sale by mail order , with the ordering period from May 1 to July 15 for the proof coins and August 1 to October 16 for the uncirculated version .
With ample supplies of Eisenhower dollars , the Federal Reserve had no need to order any in 1973 , and none were struck for circulation . The 1973 and 1973 @-@ D were the first Eisenhower dollars struck for inclusion in mint sets , and were , in theory , only available that way . Many 1973 and 1973 @-@ D are known in circulated condition , leading to speculation that the 230 @,@ 798 pieces which were reported melted after the Mint failed to sell as many mint sets as anticipated , were in fact released into circulation . John Wexler , Bill Crawford , and Kevin Flynn , in their volume on Eisenhower dollars , deny this , citing a 1974 letter from Assistant Director of the Mint for Public Services Roy C. Cahoon , which stated that all 1973 Eisenhower dollars from unsold mint sets were melted . The 1973 @-@ S was struck for inclusion in base @-@ metal proof sets , as well as for the regular " blue Ikes " and " brown Ikes " . Sales of the part @-@ silver pieces dipped to a total of just under 2 @.@ 9 million . The coin was struck again for circulation in 1974 , was included in mint sets and proof sets , and was available in proof and uncirculated silver clad from San Francisco . Congress ordered that some of the money from the sale of 1974 @-@ S silver pieces be used to support Eisenhower College in Seneca Falls , New York . Coin collectors felt that this set a bad precedent , but about $ 9 million was paid to the college between 1974 and 1978 , but despite the infusion of money , the college closed its doors in 1982 .
= = = Bicentennial issue ( 1975 – 1976 ) = = =
The United States had issued commemorative coins between 1892 and 1954 , as a means for fundraising for organizations deemed worthy of federal support . A sponsoring organization would be designated in the authorizing legislation , and was permitted to buy up the issue at face value , selling it to the public at a premium , and pocketing the difference . Various problems with the issues , including mishandling of distributions and complaints that public coins should not be used for private profit , resulted in firm Treasury Department opposition to such issues , and none were struck after 1954 .
The American Revolutionary Bicentennial Commission ( ARBC ) was established by Congress in 1966 as an oversight body for the 1976 two @-@ hundredth anniversary of American independence ( the " Bicentennial " ) . In 1970 , its coins and medals advisory committee recommended the issuance of a special half dollar , and subsequently the committee sought the temporary redesign of circulating American coins . Brooks and the Mint initially opposed legislation to effect these proposals , but eventually Brooks supported legislation to redesign the reverses of the quarter , half dollar and dollar coins , and to issue special collector 's sets in silver clad . Legislation to authorize this was signed by President Nixon on October 18 , 1973 . By the terms of this legislation , coins of these denomination minted for delivery after July 4 , 1975 and before December 31 , 1976 would bear special reverses , and also be dated 1776 – 1976 . A total of 15 million sets ( 45 million ) coins in all would be struck in silver clad for sale to the public at a premium .
The reverse designs for the three Bicentennial coins were determined by a design competition open to the public . This competition closed in January 1974 , and in March , a design submitted by 22 @-@ year @-@ old art student Dennis R. Williams was selected for the dollar . Williams , the youngest person to that point to design a U.S. coin , had submitted a design depicting the Liberty Bell superimposed against the Moon . Gasparro slightly modified the design , simplifying the features visible on the lunar surface , and altering the lettering and the bell . Williams and the designers of the other denominations operated the presses to strike the first coins on August 12 , 1974 ; a set of these prototypes was later given to the new president , Gerald Ford . Williams ' design was liked by the public but attracted criticism in the numismatic community as the Liberty Bell had been previously used on coinage ( for example , on the Franklin half dollar ) . Fearing that a low @-@ mintage 1975 piece would be hoarded , the Mint obtained legislation in December 1974 allowing it to continue coining 1974 @-@ dated pieces until it began coinage of Bicentennial pieces .
The Bicentennial dollars were the first of the three denominations to be struck for distribution to the public ; these were coined beginning in February 1975 . The silver pieces were struck at San Francisco beginning on April 23 , 1975 . The Mint found that the copper nickel dollar was striking indistinctly , a problem not seen with the silver pieces . Brooks called a halt in production to allow Gasparro to modify the dies ; the most noticeable change is that the revised issue , or Type II as it came to be known , have narrower , sharper lettering on the reverse . All silver pieces ( struck only at San Francisco ) are Type I ; all three mints struck both Type I and Type II copper nickel pieces . All dollars included in 1975 proof sets are Type I ; all those included in 1976 proof sets are Type II . The first Bicentennial dollars were released into circulation on October 13 , 1975 . Over 220 million were struck . The Bicentennial design was not used after 1976 ; sets of silver clad Bicentennial coins were sold by the Mint until sales were finally closed at the end of 1986 .
One proof Bicentennial coin in silver clad and lacking a mint mark , similar to the dollar in the prototype set given to President Ford , is known . This piece supposedly came from a cash register drawer at the Woodward & Lothrop department store in Washington , D.C. Thomas K. DeLorey , who was then a reporter for Coin World , spoke to the discoverer and was suspicious of the story , thinking it more likely the coin was surreptitiously obtained from the government . He declined to question the origin then , fearing it might be seized and lost to the numismatic community . The piece brought almost $ 30 @,@ 000 by private sale in 1987 .
= = = Final years and replacement ( 1977 – 1978 ) = = =
By 1975 , the Treasury was concerned about the drain on resources from striking the dollar , which did not circulate . It engaged a private firm to study the six current denominations of U.S. coinage , and make recommendations . The firm concluded in its report that the Eisenhower dollar was too large and heavy to circulate effectively , but if the diameter was reduced by about a third , and the weight by two @-@ thirds , it might be used . That report found that " the Eisenhower dollar has not been widely accepted by the public because of its large size and weight " . In January 1977 , just prior to leaving office , Ford 's Treasury Secretary , William E. Simon , proposed the elimination of the cent and half dollar , and a reduction in size of the dollar . According to Bowers , the Treasury had come to believe that a coin as large as the Eisenhower dollar simply would not circulate in the United States .
The Mint struck pattern pieces of the smaller size , with various shapes and compositions . An 11 @-@ sided coin was considered , which would have differentiated it from the quarter , but the patterns would not work in vending machines . Such exotic metals as titanium were considered before the Mint decided on the standard clad composition . Gasparro prepared , for the circulating pieces , a design showing Liberty with flowing hair , similar to early American coins .
As the Eisenhower dollar awaited its demise , approximately 50 million per year were struck , using the eagle design for the reverse . In both years , the majority coined were at Denver . No silver collector 's edition was issued ; the blue and brown Ikes ended with 1974 .
The new Treasury Secretary , Michael Blumenthal supported Gasparro 's design in testimony before Congress ; Wisconsin Senator William Proxmire dubbed Blumenthal 's position a " cop @-@ out " . Proxmire refused to introduce the bill , which would have left the choice of design up to Blumenthal or his successor , instead introducing his own legislation , to commemorate early women 's rights leader Susan B. Anthony . Many in the new Congress and in the Carter Administration were social progressives , and supported women 's lib . Ohio Representative Mary Rose Oakar also introduced legislation for a Susan B. Anthony dollar in October 1978 ; it proceeded rapidly through Congress and was signed by President Jimmy Carter . Gasparro was given photographs of Anthony and told to reproduce her appearance exactly on the coin . Anthony 's stern expression caused some to dub it the " Susan B. Agony " dollar . The Eisenhower dollar 's reverse was used for the Anthony dollar . Convinced that the public would hoard the new pieces , the Mint Bureau produced half a billion before its official release to the public on July 2 , 1979 . It need not have worried ; the public quickly rejected the new coin as too close in size and weight to the quarter dollar , and production for circulation ceased after 1980 . Mint Director Stella Hackel Sims stated , " people are accustomed to the Eisenhower dollar , but in time , they 'll become accustomed to the Susan " . Attempts were made to give the new smaller dollars out as change in postal transactions , and to force their use by U.S. military personnel in Europe ; both failed .
= = Collecting = =
Collected by date and mint mark , no Eisenhower dollar is rare , and a complete set may be acquired without difficulty . However , many were badly struck , without full detail , especially in 1971 and 1972 , and the pieces acquired nicks , or " bag marks " from contact with each other soon after striking . Although lower @-@ grade silver coins can be melted , this is not practical for Eisenhower dollars due to the lack of precious metal content , and dealers often try to get any premium they can on face value . Completing a set of highest @-@ grade specimens may be difficult and expensive , especially for the 1971 and 1972 from Philadelphia or Denver , which were not sold in mint sets , and thus only came to collectors through banks . A 1973 @-@ D piece , tied with ten other specimens for the finest known of that date and mint mark in near @-@ pristine MS @-@ 67 condition sold in June 2013 for $ 12 @,@ 925 . According to numismatic writer Steve Reach , " as more people submit modern @-@ era coins like Eisenhower dollars for third @-@ party certification , the true rarity of many issues in top @-@ grades is becoming clear . "
Some of the 1971 @-@ D pieces exhibit a variety in which ( among several differences ) the eagle lacks brow lines , these have been dubbed by Eisenhower dollar specialists the " Friendly Eagle Pattern " . The 1972 dollar struck at Philadelphia is broken down into three varieties , which were made as Gasparro adjusted the design to take advantage of better steel being used in the Mint 's dies . A midyear change in the design was announced by Brooks at the American Numismatic Association 's 1972 convention in New Orleans , although she did not state exactly what was being changed . The three varieties may be differentiated by examining the depiction of the Earth on the reverse . Type I dollars show the Earth somewhat flattened , Florida pointing to the southeast , with the islands mostly to the southeast of the tip of the peninsula . The Earth is round and Florida points to the south on the Type II , with a single , large island to the southeast . The Type III is similar to the Type II , except that there are two islands directly to the south of the peninsula . The Type II is from a single reverse die , used in March 1972 , and erroneously placed in service at Philadelphia — it is identical to and should have been used for the silver proof strikes at San Francisco . The Type III was placed in service , replacing the Type I , in September 1972 . The Type I is most common ; the Type III design was used in 1973 and after . The 1972 Type II is expensive in top grades , as is the 1776 – 1976 Type I from Philadelphia , which was only available in mint sets .
Some 1971 @-@ S proof pieces ( and a few uncirculated 1971 @-@ S ) have the serifs at the foot of the " R " in " LIBERTY " missing ; this is dubbed the " peg leg " variety . The serifs are missing on all 1972 @-@ S , both uncirculated and proof . After the Mint obtained better steel for dies , the serifs returned for all of the remaining non @-@ Bicentennial coinage , from all mints , though the leg of the R was shortened , and also for the Type II Bicentennial ( the Type I lacks serifs on the R ) . Gasparro was often trying to improve the detail of Eisenhower 's head during the coin 's tenure , and as the R is the letter closest to it , these changes were most likely made in an effort to improve the flow of metal as the coins were struck .
In 1974 and again in 1977 , the Denver Mint struck a small number of pieces on silver @-@ clad planchets , or blanks . Both times , these came from planchets which had been shipped from the San Francisco Assay Office to Denver . The first ones in 1974 were found independently by two Las Vegas blackjack dealers . The 1974 planchets were initially intended to be used for " brown Ike " proof strikings ; Mint policy then was that rejected silver proof planchets were to be used for uncirculated " blue Ikes " , but these were placed in the bin for rejected copper @-@ nickel proof planchets , intended to be shipped to be coined for circulation at Denver . The 1977 pieces resulted from pieces rejected for Bicentennial silver proof use , which were again placed in the wrong bin ( they should have been melted , as the Mint was no longer striking silver uncirculated Eisenhower dollars ) . Between 10 and 20 of each date are known . Wexler , Crawford , and Flynn report an even rarer 1776 @-@
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( dedicated to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman ) .
The Enchafèd Flood ( New York , 1950 ; London , 1951 ; prose ) ( dedicated to Alan Ansen ) .
Nones ( New York , 1951 ; London , 1952 ; poems ) ( dedicated to Reinhold and Ursula Niebuhr )
The Shield of Achilles ( New York , London , 1955 ; poems ) ( won the 1956 National Book Award for Poetry ) ( dedicated to Lincoln and Fidelma Kirstein ) .
Homage to Clio ( New York , London , 1960 ; poems ) ( dedicated to E. R. and A. E. Dodds ) .
The Dyer 's Hand ( New York , 1962 ; London , 1963 ; essays ) ( dedicated to Nevill Coghill ) .
About the House ( New York , London , 1965 ; poems ) ( dedicated to Edmund and Elena Wilson ) .
Collected Shorter Poems 1927 – 1957 ( London , 1966 ; New York , 1967 ) ( dedicated to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman ) .
Collected Longer Poems ( London , 1968 ; New York , 1969 ) .
Secondary Worlds ( London , New York , 1969 ; prose ) ( dedicated to Valerie Eliot ) .
City Without Walls and Other Poems ( London , New York , 1969 ) ( dedicated to Peter Heyworth ) .
A Certain World : A Commonplace Book ( New York , London , 1970 ; quotations with commentary ) ( dedicated to Geoffrey Grigson ) .
Epistle to a Godson and Other Poems ( London , New York , 1972 ) ( dedicated to Orlan Fox ) .
Forewords and Afterwords ( New York , London , 1973 ; essays ) ( dedicated to Hannah Arendt ) .
Thank You , Fog : Last Poems ( London , New York , 1974 ) ( dedicated to Michael and Marny Yates ) .
Film scripts and opera libretti
Coal Face ( 1935 , closing chorus for GPO Film Unit documentary ) .
Night Mail ( 1936 , narrative for GPO Film Unit documentary , not published separately except as a program note ) .
Paul Bunyan ( 1941 , libretto for operetta by Benjamin Britten ; not published until 1976 ) .
The Rake 's Progress ( 1951 , with Chester Kallman , libretto for an opera by Igor Stravinsky ) .
Elegy for Young Lovers ( 1956 , with Chester Kallman , libretto for an opera by Hans Werner Henze ) .
The Bassarids ( 1961 , with Chester Kallman , libretto for an opera by Hans Werner Henze based on The Bacchae of Euripides ) .
Runner ( 1962 , documentary film narrative for National Film Board of Canada )
Love 's Labour 's Lost ( 1973 , with Chester Kallman , libretto for an opera by Nicolas Nabokov , based on Shakespeare 's play ) .
Musical collaborations
Our Hunting Fathers ( 1936 , song cycle written for Benjamin Britten )
An Evening of Elizabethan Verse and its Music ( 1954 recording with the New York Pro Musica Antiqua , director Noah Greenberg ; Auden spoke the verse texts )
The Play of Daniel ( 1958 , verse narration for a production by the New York Pro Musica Antiqua , director Noah Greenberg )
= There 's a Riot Goin ' On =
There 's a Riot Goin ' On is the fifth studio album by American band Sly and the Family Stone , released on November 20 , 1971 , by Epic Records . It was recorded during 1970 and 1971 at Record Plant Studios in Sausalito , California , with sessions dominated by band frontman Sly Stone during a period of drug use and inter @-@ group tension . The album embraced a darker and more challenging sound than the psychedelic soul style of the group 's previous records , making use of hard funk rhythms , primitive drum machines , and a unconventional mixing techniques . Originally intended to be issued as Africa Talks to You , the record was retitled There 's a Riot Goin ' On in response to Marvin Gaye 's album What 's Going On ( 1971 ) , released five months before .
There 's a Riot Goin ' On entered the Billboard Pop Album and Soul Album charts at number one upon its release , while the album 's lead single , " Family Affair " ( 1971 ) , topped the Pop Singles chart . By 2001 , it had sold one million copies and been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Received with ambivalence upon its release , the album is now praised as one of the greatest and most influential recordings of all @-@ time , and ranked at or near the top of many publications ' " best album " lists . In 2003 it was ranked number 99 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
Having achieved great success with their 1969 album Stand ! and performance at Woodstock , Sly & the Family Stone were due to have submitted an album of new recordings to Epic Records by 1970 . However , Sly Stone , the group 's creative head and multi @-@ instrumentalist , missed several recording deadlines , worrying CBS executive Clive Davis , and a Greatest Hits album was released in an eighteen @-@ month stretch during which the band released no new material . Relationships within the band were deteriorating , with friction between the Stone brothers and bassist Larry Graham . Epic executives requested more product , and the Black Panther Party , with which Stone had become associated , was demanding he make his music more militant and reflective of the black power movement , that he replace Greg Errico and Jerry Martini with black instrumentalists , and replace manager David Kapralik . After moving to Los Angeles , California in late 1969 Stone and his bandmates began to use cocaine and PCP heavily rather than recording music . During this time Sly & the Family Stone released only one single , " Thank You ( Falettinme Be Mice Elf Agin ) " / " Everybody Is a Star " , issued in December 1969 . Although " Star " was a positive song in the vein of their previous hit " Everyday People " ( 1968 ) , " Thank You " featured a darker political theme .
By 1970 Stone had become erratic and moody , missing nearly a third of the band 's concert dates . He hired streetwise friends Hamp " Bubba " Banks and J.B. Brown as his personal managers , and these enlisted gangsters Edward " Eddie Chin " Elliott and Mafioso J.R. Valtrano as his bodyguards . Stone assigned these individuals to handle his business dealings , find drugs and protect him from those he considered enemies , among them his own bandmates and staff . A rift developed between Sly and the rest of the band , which led to drummer Gregg Errico 's departure in early 1971 .
Speculation arose as to the release of new studio material . In a December 24 , 1970 article for Rolling Stone magazine , journalist Jon Landau wrote ;
Stone 's intention of a darker , more conceptual work was influenced by drug use and the events that writer Miles Marshall Lewis called " the death of the sixties " ; political assassinations , police brutality , the decline of the civil rights movement and social disillusionment . According to The Austin Chronicle , " slowed down , [ Sly 's ] quest for post @-@ stardom identity mirrored black America 's quest for post @-@ Sixties purpose . "
= = Recording and production = =
Sly Stone mostly worked on There 's a Riot Goin ' On alone in a studio that he had built for himself at The Plant Studios , also known as The Record Plant , in Sausalito , California , or at his home studio in the loft of his Bel Air mansion . He would often lie down in the bed and record his vocals with a wireless microphone system . According to the other Family Stone members , most of the album was performed by him alone , overdubbing and sometimes using a drum machine . Other band members contributed by overdubbing alone with Sly instead of playing together as before . For " Family Affair " and some other selections Stone enlisted several other musicians including Billy Preston , Ike Turner , and Bobby Womack instead of his bandmates , and several female vocalists mostly omitted from the final mix .
The album 's muddy , gritty sound was due in part to this overdubbing and erasing and mixing techniques nearly drowned out undubbed sounds . Miles Marshall Lewis stated " Never before on a Sly and the Family Stone album were songs open to so much interpretation , and even more so , dripping with cynicism . On the other hand you can hardly hear what he 's saying for most of the album . Like Radiohead 's Kid A or even the Rolling Stones ' Exile on Main St. more recent to the time , a murkiness in the mix of the record inhibits complete comprehension of the words . " Stone felt that the rhythm box made unrealistic sounds if used as designed , so he resorted to overdubbing the drum sounds manually , again contributing to the difficult mix .
In the fall of 1971 Stone delivered the final mixes to the CBS Records offices , relieving the worried Clive Davis . CBS issued " Family Affair " as the first single , the band 's first in nearly two years . It became their fourth and final number @-@ one pop hit . A somber , electric piano @-@ based record , sung by Sly and sister Rose Stone , Sly delivering his part in a low , relaxed tone . It is one of the earliest hit recordings to use a drum machine - the first was probably another Sly Stone production , Little Sister 's " Somebody 's Watching You " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Stone reworked 1969 's " Thank You " single as a slower , closing track , " Thank You For Talking to Me Africa " which , according to Allmusic 's Matthew Greenwald was a blues and gospel influenced examination of urban tension and the end of the 1960s , " perhaps the most frightening recording from the dawn of the 1970s , capturing all of the drama , ennui , and hedonism of the decade to come with almost a clairvoyant feel . " " Africa Talks to You " is a nine @-@ minute funk jam written in response to Sly Stone 's backlash from estranged fans and friends , record industry associates , and the media . According to biographer Eddie Santiago , the lyrics cynically portray " fame and its cold retrogression into perceived insanity " , with a chorus that reflects " Sly 's feelings on being cut down in his prime like a tree in the forest . "
" Smilin ' " is a hymn to getting high , introduced by a " slow , wispy soul that sounds like it 's drifting in from a distant radio somewhere " . Jurek wrote , " Sister Rose 's voice is all sweet , and at first so is Sly 's , but as the horns and bassline come stepping in , Sly 's voice gets heavy and is distorting in places deliberately . The delicate keyboard lines , luxuriant and in the pocket as they are , cannot keep the voice contained . There 's a minimal instrumental break in the tune and it suddenly fades just as it emerged . "
The album 's title track is silent and listed as zero minutes and zero seconds long . For many years it was speculated that this cryptic track listing and the title of the album referred to a July 27 , 1970 riot in Chicago , Illinois for which Sly & the Family Stone had been blamed . The band was to play a free show in Grant Park ( Chicago ) but the crowd became restless before the band began and started rioting . Over a hundred people were injured , including several police officers , and the reason given to the press was that the band was late and / or refused to perform . The original LP jacket featured a photo collage with a picture of the band @-@ shell in Grant Park overlaid with a photo of a police car . However in 1997 Sly Stone said that the " There 's a Riot Goin ' On " track had no running time simply because " I felt there should be no riots . "
= = Artwork = =
The original cover art for Riot featured a red , white , and black American flag with suns in place of the stars . No other text or titles appear on the cover , although Epic executives added a " Featuring the Hit Single ' Family Affair ' " sticker to the LP for commercial viability and identification purposes . Family Stone A & R director Steve Paley took the photograph . Three of the custom flags were created : one for Sly , one for Epic Records , and one for Paley . The album was later reissued with a more conventional cover featuring a photograph of Sly in concert , titles and text .
In an interview with Jonathan Dakss Stone explained the album cover 's concept , stating " I wanted the flag to truly represent people of all colors . I wanted the color black because it is the absence of color . I wanted the color white because it is the combination of all colors . And I wanted the color red because it represents the one thing that all people have in common : blood . I wanted suns instead of stars because stars to me imply searching , like you search for your star . And there are already too many stars in this world . But the sun , that 's something that is always there , looking right at you . Betsy Ross did the best she could with what she had . I thought I could do better . "
The outer album sleeve features a photo collage , by artist Lynn Ames , depicting American cultural images of the early 1970s . Featured on this collage were color photos and black & whites of the Family Stone , the Capitol , a grinning boy in plaid pants , the American flag with a peace sign in place of the stars , the Marina City twin towers of Chicago , a Department of Public Works caution sign , a piece of the Gettysburg Address , the tail end of a gas guzzler , drummer Buddy Miles , the Lincoln Memorial , soul musician Bobby Womack , a bulldog , several anonymous smiling faces , and Sly 's pit bull , Gun .
= = Reception = =
There 's a Riot Goin ' On was met with divided reaction from fans and music critics who were not used to the album 's sound and lyrical content . Los Angeles Times writer Robert Hilburn expressed a mixed response towards the band 's stylistic change from " soulflavored " songs such as " Everyday People " and " Hot Fun in the Summertime " , stating " there is little on the album that is worth your attention " . Other major music publications praised this new direction : in his review for Rolling Stone magazine , music journalist Vince Aletti wrote that " At first I hated it for its weakness and its lack of energy and I still dislike these qualities . But then I began to respect the album 's honesty " . Aletti cited it as " one of the most important fucking albums this year " and " the new urban music ... not about dancing to the music , in the streets . It 's about disintegration , getting fucked up , nodding , maybe dying . There are flashes of euphoria , ironic laughter , even some bright stretches but mostly it 's just junkie death , oddly unoppressive and almost attractive in its effortlessness " . A columnist for Hit Parader magazine gave Riot a favorable review , and stated that the album has " a lot that makes Sly the in @-@ person rave that he is . "
In his consumer guide for The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau gave There 's a Riot Goin ' On an " A- " , which he later revised to " A + " , Christgau noted that " what 's expressed is the bitterest ghetto pessimism " and complimented its " subtle production techniques and jarring song compositions " , while citing it as " one of those rare albums whose whole actually does exceed the sum of its parts " . There 's a Riot Goin ' On was included on several music publications ' " End of the Year " lists and critics ' polls , including The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop albums list at number seven . The album achieved commercial success with two hit singles and debuting at number @-@ one on the Billboard Pop Albums and Soul Albums chart . In his book Mystery Train : Images of America in Rock ' n ' Roll Music , published four years following the album 's release , music critic and writer Greil Marcus called There 's a Riot Goin ' On " Muzak with its finger on the trigger . "
= = Legacy = =
There 's a Riot Goin ' On has since been viewed by critics as one of the greatest and most influential albums . Christgau wrote in 2007 : " Sly Stone had ' Made It ' . But its temptations and contradictions ate him up . The result was the prophetic 1971 There 's a Riot Goin ' On , recorded in anarchic , druggy torpor over a year , or was it two , Stone didn 't know the difference . Its taped @-@ over murk presaging Exile on Main St. , its drum @-@ machine beats throwing knuckleballs at Miles and JB , it was darker than the Velvet Underground and Nico and funkier than shit , yet somehow it produced two smash hits , including the stark , deep " Family Affair " . In a retrospective review , Zeth Lundy of PopMatters called There 's a Riot Goin ' On " a challenging listen , at times rambling , incoherent , dissonant , and just plain uncomfortable " with " some episodic moments of pop greatness to be found " and viewed it as a radical departure from the band 's previous work :
In 1994 There 's a Riot Going On was ranked number 14 in Colin Larkin 's Top 50 Soul Albums . Larkin described the album as " unlike anything heard before in black music " . A 2003 article for Rolling Stone commented ; " Sly and the Family Stone created a musical utopia : an interracial group of men and women who blended funk , rock and positive vibes ... Sly Stone ultimately discovered that his utopia had a ghetto , and he brilliantly tore the whole thing down on There 's a Riot Goin ' On , which does not refute the joy of his earlier music . " In addition to being featured near the top of several major publications ' " best album " lists , There 's a Riot Goin ' On was also ranked at number 99 on Rolling Stone 's 2003 list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , one of four Sly & the Family Stone entries to be included on the list ; it is the second highest of the band 's entries , preceded by Greatest Hits ( # 60 ) , and followed by Stand ! ( # 118 ) and Fresh ( # 186 ) . Pitchfork Media named it the fourth best album of the 1970s
= = Influence = =
Along with its critical recognition , There 's a Riot Goin ' On is considered one of the first instances of the funk music later popularized by George Clinton and Funkadelic , the Ohio Players , and similar acts . There 's a Riot Goin ' On , as well as the follow @-@ ups Fresh and Small Talk , are considered among the first and best examples of the matured version of funk music , after prototypical instances of the sound in Sly & the Family Stone 's 1960s work . The album 's sound also influenced Miles Davis and Herbie Hancock to crossover to jazz @-@ funk . Riot 's songs have been extensively covered and sampled . Artists who have covered or reworked songs from Riot include Iggy Pop , John Legend , Lalah Hathaway , Ultramagnetic MC 's , De La Soul , Beastie Boys and Gwen Guthrie . Funk music genre in general had great influence on pioneering hip hop acts such as Afrika Bambaataa , DJ Kool Herc and many others .
Dave Rosen of Ink Blot magazine said that the album sounds unique , ironically in view of its vast influence ; " Sly employed the unconventional ( and possibly entirely original ) technique of mixing live drums with what was at the time a primitive drum machine ... The introspective , yet political lyrics , the hard and dirty funk grooves , the inspirational , yet depressing songs — all of these elements would come to influence not only peers like Marvin Gaye and James Brown , but two generations of rappers and funkateers who paid homage to Sly 's vision by making his samples and beats an essential backbone of their own innovations . Sly 's Riot is still goin ' on . " In his book There 's a Riot Goin ' On , author Miles Marshall Lewis described There 's a Riot Goin ' On in retrospect as " one of the most powerful and haunting albums to inspire the hip hop movement . "
= = Track listing = =
= = = Original LP = = =
All songs written , produced and arranged by Sylvester Stewart for Stone Flower Productions .
Side one
" Luv n ' Haight " – 4 : 01
" Just Like a Baby " – 5 : 12
" Poet " – 3 : 01
" Family Affair " – 3 : 06
" Africa Talks to You ' The Asphalt Jungle ' " – 8 : 45
" There 's a Riot Goin ' On " – 0 : 00
Side two
" Brave & Strong " – 3 : 28
" ( You Caught Me ) Smilin ' " – 2 : 53
" Time " – 3 : 03
" Spaced Cowboy " – 3 : 57
" Runnin ' Away " – 2 : 51
" Thank You for Talkin ' to Me Africa " – 7 : 14
= = = CD reissue = = =
Bonus tracks for 2007 Epic / Legacy limited edition compact disc reissue . The title track , which was originally no time , was placed at four seconds for the reissue and was accompanied by previously unreleased bonus material .
" Runnin ' Away " ( mono single version ) – 2 : 44
" My Gorilla Is My Butler " ( instrumental ) – 3 : 11
" Do You Know What ? " ( instrumental ) – 7 : 16
" That 's Pretty Clean " ( instrumental ) – 4 : 12
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
Larry Graham – bass , backing vocals
Greg Errico – drums
Gerry Gibson – drums
Bobby Womack – guitar
Freddie Stone – guitar
Ike Turner – guitar
Sly Stone – arrangements , drums , drum programming , keyboard programming , synthesizers , guitar , bass , keyboards , vocals
Billy Preston – keyboards
Jerry Martini – tenor saxophone
Cynthia Robinson – trumpet
Rose Stone – vocals , keyboards
Little Sister – backing vocals
= = = Production = = =
= 31st / 51st Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 31st / 51st Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army , which served during World War II . Raised for service as part of the Militia in 1943 through the amalgamation of two previously existing battalions , the 31st / 51st Battalion undertook garrison duties in Dutch New Guinea in 1943 – 44 before taking part in the Bougainville Campaign in 1944 – 45 . Following the end of the war , the battalion served in the Pacific overseeing the transfer of Japanese prisoners of war and re @-@ establishing law and order until mid @-@ 1946 when it returned to Australia and was disbanded .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
The 31st / 51st Battalion was formed on 12 April 1943 at Yatlee , near Cairns , Queensland , by the amalgamation of two previously existing Queensland @-@ based Militia infantry battalions : the 31st and 51st Battalions . Upon establishment , the battalion adopted the territorial title of the " Kennedy / Far North Queensland Regiment " , in order to perpetuate the designations of its two predecessor units . Although the battalion officially adopted the brown and yellow rectangular Unit Colour Patch of the 31st Battalion , members of the new battalion that had previously served with the 51st were authorised to wear its brown over light blue circular colour patch . Reinforcements to the unit were allocated the colour patch based upon the territorial area from which they had been recruited .
The amalgamation came about due to a shortage of manpower in the Australian economy which had occurred as a result of an over mobilisation of Australia 's military forces in the early years of the war . In an attempt to rectify this situation , the Australian government made the decision to release Militia personnel who had previously been employed in " essential industries " back into the civilian workforce . As a result of this , both the 31st and 51st Battalions , which had large numbers of personnel drawn from the agricultural sector , were well below their authorised establishments , and so it was decided that they would be merged to form a complete battalion .
= = = Merauke = = =
Assigned to the 11th Brigade , 3rd Division , in May the newly formed battalion undertook amphibious training and intensive physical activities such as route marches around Yorkeys Knob , Queensland , in preparation for deployment overseas . In June – July 1943 , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Geoffrey Brock , the battalion was deployed to Merauke , in Dutch New Guinea as part of Merauke Force . They departed from Cairns on board the TSS Canberra on 20 June , arriving at Thursday Island on 24 June . From there they were transferred to Horn Island before boarding the MV Van de Ljin and arriving at Merauke on 16 July 1943 .
From July 1943 until August 1944 the battalion undertook long range patrols in the surrounding area and established outposts along the coast to the north @-@ west . During this time the patrols from the 31st / 51st were involved in two major actions against the Japanese . The first came on 22 December 1943 near Japero , when a small patrol of nine men on board the Rosemary , a small diesel trawler , surprised a Japanese patrol consisting of two 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) barges . In the fighting that followed , between 20 to 30 Japanese were killed for the loss of one Australian killed and five wounded . The second action came on 30 January 1944 when a waterborne force of about 200 Japanese was contacted and engaged by a 14 @-@ man detachment at an outpost near the start of the Eilanden River , about 250 miles ( 400 km ) from Merauke . Anchoring about 150 yards ( 140 m ) from the outpost , the Japanese were engaged with fire from Bren light machine @-@ guns , small arms and anti @-@ tank rifles . Initially taken by surprise , the Japanese lost about men 60 killed before withdrawing about 400 yards ( 370 m ) out to sea and engaging the outpost with heavy machine @-@ guns and mortars . Nevertheless , only three Australians were slightly injured as a result of the contact , receiving burns to their hands from their overheated Bren guns .
On 24 July 1944 , the battalion was gazetted as an Australian Imperial Force unit , meaning that it could be sent outside of the bounds imposed upon Militia units as set out in the Defence Act ( 1903 ) . Shortly afterwards , they received orders that they would be withdrawn back to Australia in preparation for employment in combat elsewhere in the Pacific theatre . In early August 1944 , Lieutenant Colonel Philip Parbury took over command of the battalion , relieving Major Bernard Callinan who had been acting in the role after Brock was taken ill and later died in December 1943 . On 8 August the battalion embarked to return to Australia . Upon arrival , the men were given a brief period of leave before the battalion concentrated at Strathpine , Queensland , where they received reinforcements and undertook further training . They remained there for four months before departing for Bougainville on 6 December 1944 , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Kelly .
= = = Bougainville = = =
The 31st / 51st Battalion arrived at Torokina on Bougainville four days later and , along with the rest of the 11th Brigade , they began an offensive campaign which saw them involved in heavy combat with the Japanese . They were committed to the fighting in three periods . The first , between December 1944 and February 1945 , saw the battalion take Tsimba Ridge , cross the Genga River and capture Downs Ridge . Later , in March and April 1945 , they undertook long range patrols in the central sector of the island in the vicinity of the Numa Numa Trail . Their final commitment came between May and July 1945 when the battalion was switched to the northern sector , where they took part in the fighting around the Bonis Peninsula . As a part of this phase , the battalion fought along the Ratsua front and undertook a disastrous amphibious landing at Porton Plantation .
Conceived as a company @-@ level effort to outflank the significant Japanese defences that were holding up the advance from Ratsua , the operation was plagued by poor planning , inadequate resources , intelligence failures and strategic and tactical errors at all levels . After landing at the wrong beach on 8 June , and finding themselves caught in a tight box of Japanese defensive positions , the 190 men from ' A ' and ' C ' Companies , under Captain Henry Downs , were unable to advance inland . One of the landing craft ran aground and supplies began to dwindle . In an effort to link up with the beleaguered company , ' D ' Company , which was holding the line along the Ratsua front , attempted to breakthrough the Japanese lines . Although some patrols were able to penetrate to within 500 yards ( 460 m ) of Porton , they were unable to get any closer .
Eventually the order to withdraw was given from 11th Brigade headquarters . During the subsequent evacuation , two more landing craft ran aground and although one managed to float free , the other remained stuck hard on a reef . Over the course of the next couple of days , the men in the landing craft were subjected to heavy Japanese attack and it was not until 11 June that rescue efforts were completed . The battalion lost 23 men killed or missing , presumed dead , while a further 106 were wounded in the operation .
Following the failure of the landing at Porton Plantation , the planned Australian advance into the Bonis Peninsula was called off , and the Australians focused their main effort on Bougainville towards the capture of Buin in the south . The effort in the north was reduced to that of a holding action as further resources were transferred out of the sector . Nevertheless , the 31st / 51st Battalion continued to undertake patrols along the Ratsua front , during which they suffered further casualties , until they were withdrawn from combat operations on 28 June . They were subsequently moved back to Torokina .
= = = Disbandment = = =
Following the cessation of hostilities on 15 August 1945 , the battalion undertook garrison duties on Nauru and Ocean Island . In this role they helped to maintain law and order and investigate war crimes , oversaw the transfer of over 4 @,@ 000 Japanese prisoners of war to Bougainville and maintained a military administration until 1 November 1945 when civil control was re @-@ established . A short time later , the detachment on Ocean Island was withdrawn back to Nauru .
In December 1945 , most of the battalion ( except one platoon ) was withdrawn to New Britain to rejoin the 11th Brigade . In February 1946 , the platoon that had remained on Nauru arrived in Rabaul . As the demobilisation process began , the 31st / 51st stayed on New Britain until May when they received orders to return to Australia . On 15 April Lieutenant Colonel Donald Lamb took over as battalion commander . As personnel were discharged or transferred to other units for further service , the battalion 's numbers declined until eventually , on 4 July 1946 , the battalion was disbanded .
Throughout the course of the war , the 31st / 51st Battalion lost 61 men killed and 168 wounded . The majority of these came during the fighting on Bougainville where 41 men were killed in action , seven were posted as missing in action ( presumed killed ) and 12 died of wounds . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Distinguished Service Order , one Distinguished Conduct Medal , three Military Crosses , 10 Military Medals , one British Empire Medal and 27 Mentions in Despatches .
Both the 31st and 51st Battalions were later re @-@ raised as separate units when Australia 's part @-@ time military was re @-@ raised in 1948 under the guise of the Citizen Military Forces . Later , they became company @-@ level formations of the Pentropic 2nd Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment , in 1960 . A further re @-@ organisation saw the units split again in 1965 and re @-@ raised as battalion @-@ level formations under their old numerical designations . They have remained separate since then .
= = Battle honours = =
For their involvement in World War II , the 31st / 51st Battalion received the following battle honours :
Tsimba Ridge , Bonis – Porton , South @-@ West Pacific 1943 – 45 , Liberation of Australian New Guinea .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following officers served as commanding officer of the 31st / 51st Battalion :
Lieutenant Colonel Geoffrey Brock ( 1943 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Philip Parbury ( 1944 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Kelly ( 1944 – 1946 ) ;
Lieutenant Colonel Donald Lamb ( 1946 ) .
= Briton @-@ class corvette =
The Briton class was a group of three wooden screw corvettes built for the Royal Navy in the late 1860s . All three ships of the class only served overseas during their brief service lives . Between them , they were assigned to the China , East Indies , African , North American , and the Pacific Stations . All three were regarded as obsolete 15 years after they were completed , and they were sold in 1886 – 87 .
= = Design and description = =
The Briton @-@ class corvettes were designed by Sir Edward Reed , the Director of Naval Construction , as lengthened versions of the Eclipse @-@ class sloops . Like the smaller ships , they had a ram @-@ style bow to reduce weight forward by elimination of the knee above the stem . Similarly , he shortened the counter at the stern to save weight .
The ships were 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 36 feet ( 11 @.@ 0 m ) . Forward , the ships had a draught of 12 feet 9 inches ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) , but aft they drew 16 ft 3 in ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) . They displaced from 1 @,@ 730 to 1 @,@ 860 long tons ( 1 @,@ 760 to 1 @,@ 890 t ) and had a burthen of 1 @,@ 322 tons . The hull was built entirely from wood except for iron crossbeams . Their crew consisted of 220 officers and enlisted men .
Two different types of engines and boilers were used with this class . HMS Druid , the first ship completed , had a two @-@ cylinder horizontal steam engine driving a single 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) propeller . Four rectangular boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 30 psi ( 207 kPa ; 2 kgf / cm2 ) . The engine produced a total of 2 @,@ 272 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 694 kW ) which gave her a maximum speed of about 13 @.@ 066 knots ( 24 @.@ 198 km / h ; 15 @.@ 036 mph ) during sea trials . In contrast , the two later ships had a two @-@ cylinder horizontal compound expansion steam engine , driving a single 15 @-@ foot or 14 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 50 m ) propeller . Six cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engines at a working pressure of 60 – 64 psi ( 414 – 441 kPa ; 4 – 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced between 2 @,@ 149 and 2 @,@ 275 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 603 and 1 @,@ 696 kW ) which gave the two ships a maximum speed over 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . Briton and Thetis carried 255 long tons ( 259 t ) of coal , while Druid carried an additional 30 long tons ( 30 t ) . Although no information is available on their range , Admiral G. A. Ballard estimated that Druid had only about two @-@ thirds the range of her sisters , despite the additional coal that she carried , due to the greater efficiency of the compound expansion engines .
The class was ship rigged and had a sail area of 15 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 394 m2 ) . The lower masts were made of iron , but the other masts were wood . The ships were poor sailors and their best speed under sail alone was about 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . Ballard attributed their poor performance under sail to the drag of the propeller , which could neither be hoisted out of the water , nor feathered . He also attributed their sluggish steering under sail to interference with the flow of water to the rudder by the fixed propeller . The first two ships were re @-@ rigged as barques after their first commission .
The first two ships were initially armed with a mix of 7 @-@ inch and 64 @-@ pounder 71 cwt rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . The eight 64 @-@ pounder guns were mounted on the broadside while the two 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) guns were mounted on the forecastle and poop as chase guns . The 16 @-@ calibre 7 @-@ inch gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell . It was credited with the nominal ability to penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) armour . After the completion of their first commissions , the two ships were rearmed with a total of fourteen lighter 64 @-@ cwt 64 @-@ pounder guns , two of which replaced the 7 @-@ inch guns as chase guns . Thetis , the last ship completed , was given this armament from the beginning .
= = Ships = =
Druid was the last ship to be built at Deptford Dockyard . The ship was initially assigned to the Cape of Good Hope Station , where she remained for two years before being transferred to the North America and West Indies Station . Druid was refitted upon her return home in December 1876 , which included rearmament . The ship recommissioned in February 1879 and returned to the North American Station . She returned home in September 1882 and was paid off . Druid was laid up in the Medway until she was sold for scrap in 1886 .
Briton was the first of the trio to be commissioned and was assigned to the East Indies Station in 1871 . She remained there for four and a half years , mostly engaged on the suppression of the slave trade . The ship was refitted and rearmed upon her return home and Briton remained in reserve until recommissioned in 1881 for service on the Cape Station . She was transferred back to the East Indies after two years on the Cape . Her crew was relieved in 1884 by another sent out from Britain and the ship remained on station until she was sold , less her armament , in Bombay in 1887 .
The construction of Thetis followed her sisters after a two @-@ year delay and she was initially assigned to the China Station in 1873 . She was transferred to the East Indies after a year on station and returned home in 1877 where she was refitted . Two years later , the ship was assigned to the Pacific Station until she was ordered home in 1883 . Thetis was paid off after her arrival and was sold in 1887 .
= Enamorada de Ti =
Enamorada de Ti ( English : In Love with You ) is the second remix album by American Tejano singer Selena . It was released posthumously on 3 April 2012 through Capitol Latin and Q @-@ Productions . Enamorada de Ti was produced by Sergio Lopes , Leslie Ahrens , Andres Castro , Moggie Canazio , Cesar Lemons and Chilean record producer Humberto Gatica . Gatica had the idea of modernizing songs recorded by Selena into today 's popular music genres . Selena 's family had already been working on a similar idea , but they set it aside in favor of Enamorada de Ti , which had gained the approval of Capitol Latin . The selection of artists to sing duets with Selena began in late summer 2011 . Gatica and Selena 's family chose American singer and actress Selena Gomez , Puerto Rican singer Don Omar , Samuel " Samo " Parra from the Mexican rock band Camila , Mexican singer Cristian Castro , Spanish DJ mixer Juan Magan , and the Carlos Santana band , while the remaining songs selected were remixed .
Recording sessions began shortly after the selected artists had been chosen . Once Selena 's family released confirmation of a duets album in January 2012 , it quickly caught media attention . Gomez used her Twitter account to promote the album 's release , a move that Gatica praised . Castro and Samo performed their respective duets from the album during the 2012 Latin Billboard Music Awards . The duet version of " Amor Prohibido " was released digitally on iTunes on 7 February 2012 . It peaked at number eight on the US Billboard Latin Pop Airplay chart . Other songs on the album , including the title track ( duet with Magan ) , " Como la Flor " ( duet with Castro ) , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " ( duet with Gomez ) , and " Fotos y Recuerdos " ( duet with Omar ) , entered the Billboard Latin digital charts for the first time since their original release in the 1990s .
Enamorada de Ti debuted and peaked at number one on the US Billboard Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts . It remained at number one on the latter for two consecutive weeks . After debuting and peaking at number 135 on the Billboard 200 chart , the recording slipped off the chart and never returned , as sales declined . Enamorada de Ti peaked at number 56 on the Mexican Albums Chart . The album received a mixed response from music critics , many of whom preferred the original recordings . Carlos Quintana of About.com named Enamorada de Ti one of the " Best Latin Music Albums of the Year , So Far " and one of the " Most Popular Albums of the Year " in 2012 .
= = Quintanilla family project = =
In 2008 , Selena 's brother and former principal record producer A.B. Quintanilla III , known as A.B. , was planning to quit music and leave the Kumbia All @-@ Starz , the successor of Kumbia Kings . Their father and manager , Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , told A.B. that he did not want him to quit music , saying that his dream was that his children would continue in the music industry and never give up . In 2009 , after performing to an enthusiastic crowd in Bolivia , A.B. decided to continue recording music .
A.B. and Abraham then planned to release an album featuring Selena , who was murdered in 1995 by her " friend " and ex @-@ employee Yolanda Saldivar . Their aim was to update Selena 's music for the modern music industry . They intended to take vocals from five previously unreleased songs that Selena had recorded before signing a recording contract with Capitol Latin ( then EMI Latin ) in 1989 . The vocals would then be combined into new songs to create a full @-@ length album , as if Selena were still alive .
They announced their forthcoming project in the Spanish media , stating that they were choosing ten songs for the album and that it would be released in the fall of 2011 or early in 2012 . In the end they created several more songs than they had planned . When asked if the album might be released in March 2012 , marking the 17th anniversary of Selena 's death , Abraham said that it was a possibility . Many media outlets called it a remix album . Abraham told the press that it would be released in five volumes , with ten tracks on each .
The projected album was to include five previously unreleased a cappella songs , which were remastered and remixed . Some of the songs in the album were to be duets with Tejano artists , who donated their time to record new tracks featuring Selena . The song " Soy Amiga " ( " I 'm A Friend " ) , which first appeared in 1986 on Selena 's third LP record , Alpha , was transformed from a Spanish ballad into a modern cumbia recording . The album 's central themes would be Abraham 's influence on his children 's love of music , and bringing Selena 's music " back to life " . Abraham began negotiating with Capitol Latin to help distribute and market the album throughout the United States .
= = Production = =
In the fall of 2011 , Chilean record producer Humberto Gatica and Capitol Latin senior vice president Sergio Lopes had the idea of turning Selena 's songs into duets in popular music genres . In contrast to the Quintanilla family project , which had been using only Tejano artists , Gatica and Lopes wanted a diverse group . Forty @-@ six artists and eight producers showed an interest in working on the project , and Gatica held a press conference with the Quintanilla family for their input . Abraham chose Selena Gomez to record " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " because of her live cover of the song during several of her concerts . Selena 's sister Suzette Quintanilla , formerly drummer of Selena y Los Dinos , chose Samuel " Samo " Parra from the Mexican band Camila , saying that she chose him because she was a huge fan of Camila . Puerto Rican reggaeton singer Don Omar , Mexican singer Christian Castro , Spanish DJ mixer Juan Magan , and the Carlos Santana band were chosen by Capitol Latin . Other artists , such as Cuban American rapper Pitbull , Mexican singers Paulina Rubio and Thalía , Colombian singer Carlos Vives , and Cuban singer Gloria Estefan , were rejected for unspecified reasons , and many other artists could not part take in the project because of scheduling conflicts .
After meeting with the Quintanilla family , Lopes observed young fans at the Selena Museum in Corpus Christi , Texas , and their crying became his inspiration for the album . During pre @-@ production , Lopes extracted Selena 's vocals from studio recordings and created a " live album " version using other musicians , such as English singer @-@ songwriter Sting , Mexican guitarist Carlos Santana , American blues rock singer John Mayer , and Puerto Rican singer Luis Miguel . Recording sessions took place in ten different recording studios : Artco Recording Studios in Mexico ; East West Recording Studios in Los Angeles ; Miami Beat Studios in Miami ; Move Studios in Los Angeles ; NRG Studios in Los Angeles ; Ocean Way Recording Studios in Los Angeles ; On the Groove Studios in Miami ; Saai Studios in Miami ; The Village Studios in Los Angeles ; and Vanquish Studios in Davie , Florida .
= = Songs = =
Samo , who sang in " Amor Prohibido " , told the Ecuadoran newspaper El Telégrafo that he had always dreamed of recording a duet with Selena and that " Amor Prohibido " was one of his favorite songs . He said he felt the " presence of Selena " as soon as he put his headphones on and began recording . Joey Guerra of the San Antonio Express @-@ News believed that the lead single " proved a solid preview for the album " and that its " wistful lyrics work nicely as a duet with Samo " . Guerra described the song as a " gentle pop @-@ rock arrangement " and felt that this arrangement might have been how it was intended . Nilan Lovelace of Reporter Magazine called the remix version of " Amor Prohibido " an " album favorite " and believed it to be the type of music that Selena would be recording today .
The duet with Gomez in " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " had a mixed reception . The Belfast Telegraph wrote that Gomez had done an " amazing job " . At the Billboard Latin Music Awards in Miami , A.B. told E ! that Gomez gave a " fantastic vocal performance on the record " . Gomez told JustJared.com , " I was completely honored when they asked me to be on the tribute CD and when I went into the studio to record they actually had her vocals in the booth that she was in , so I felt like she was singing right next to me , it gave me chills ! It was incredible and it was a great experience and it was a great song . " Domingo Banda of the Semana News called " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " a " standout track " . Guerra , however , wrote that the new version of " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " was " virtually the same arrangement as the original . It would have been more effective reshaped as a poppy club track . " He found Gomez ' vocals " curiously lackluster " , as if she was " scared of the song " and " intimidated by her idol " . Lovelace commented that it was " obvious that Spanish isn 't Gomez ' first language , and comes in a distant second " , and that " Gomez ' odd voice " came across as sometimes " much higher and very squeaky when speaking Spanish " , concluding that it " doesn ’ t match the rest of the song and momentarily brings everything to a halt " .
Guerra wrote that the remix of " No Me Queda Más " , which includes a classical piano in its introduction , " is given a soft piano arrangement that highlights [ Selena 's ] rich , throaty delivery but ultimately pales compared to the original " . Guerra noted that Suzette 's vocals had been removed from " Tus Desprecios " and thought that the new , " somber arrangement " failed to complement the " sassy " lyrics . Banda praised the recording 's use of choirs and piano and the way the rhythm of the " Tus Desprecius " remix complemented Selena 's voice .
Banda liked Christian Castro 's interpretation of " Como la Flor " in his duet , as did Carlos Quintana from About.com , who also admired its " bolero @-@ ranchero " arrangements . Guerra described " Como La Flor " as " an elegant mariachi pairing " , praising Castro 's blending and rhythm but finding the duet less emotionally powerful than the original . Lovelace gave a negative assessment of " Como La Flor " , believing Castro to be a poor choice for it .
Enrique Lopetegui of the San Antonio Current described " Fotos y Recuerdos " as a " reggaeton @-@ ish " remix . Guerra saw it as " stuck in a battle between cumbia and reggaeton rhythms " , noticing a slightly faster tempo . He wrote that " Ya No " " exhibits some punch " , but he preferred the original to the new , " Santana @-@ esque " version . Quintana praised the electric guitar of " Ya No " and its " tropical beat " in the background . Banda commented that the track blended Tejano cumbia and electronic sounds , and he praised its new guitar chords . In " Techno Cumbia 2012 " , Guerra liked the " playful guitar " but found nothing else praiseworthy . He found the interpretation of " El Chico del Apartamento 512 " acceptable but lacking in force , and suggested that Gomez might have fared better on this track . Banda called " El Chico del Apartamento 512 " a " relaxed reggae " track .
The title track , " Enamorada de Ti " , received a favorable review from Guerra , who believed that its merengue version " manages to work up a considerable sweat " . Calling it a " tropical rhythm " , Banda noted that it is the earliest @-@ recorded track on the album . Lopetegui considered it " crowd @-@ pleasing " . Lovelace thought it " enjoyable " , saying that
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McCartney wrote for Starr 's album Ringo . McCartney played a kazoo solo on another track from the album , " You 're Sixteen " . Starr appeared ( as a fictional version of himself ) in McCartney 's 1984 film Give My Regards to Broad Street , and played drums on most tracks of the soundtrack album , which includes re @-@ recordings of several McCartney @-@ penned Beatles songs . Starr played drums and sang backing vocals on " Beautiful Night " from McCartney 's 1997 album , Flaming Pie . The pair collaborated again in 1998 , on Starr 's Vertical Man , which featured McCartney 's backing vocals on three songs , and instrumentation on one . In 2009 , the pair performed " With a Little Help from My Friends " at a benefit concert for the David Lynch Foundation . They collaborated on Starr 's album Y Not in 2010 . McCartney played bass on " Peace Dream " , and sang a duet with Starr on " Walk with You " . On 7 July 2010 , Starr was performing at Radio City Music Hall in New York with his All @-@ Starr Band in a concert celebrating his seventieth birthday . After the encores , McCartney made a surprise last @-@ minute appearance , coming out and performing the Beatles ' song " Birthday " backed by members of Starr 's band . On 26 January 2014 McCartney and Starr performed " Queenie Eye " from McCartney 's new album New at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Achievements = = =
McCartney was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988 as a member of the Beatles and again as a solo artist in 1999 . In 1979 , the Guinness Book of World Records recognised McCartney as the " most honored composer and performer in music " , with 60 gold discs ( 43 with the Beatles , 17 with Wings ) and , as a member of the Beatles , sales of over 100 million singles and 100 million albums , and as the " most successful song writer " , he wrote jointly or solo 43 songs which sold one million or more records between 1962 and 1978 . In 2009 , Guinness World Records again recognised McCartney as the " most successful songwriter " having written or co @-@ written 188 charted records in the United Kingdom , of which 91 reached the top 10 and 33 made it to number one .
McCartney has written , or co @-@ written 32 number @-@ one singles on the Billboard Hot 100 : twenty with the Beatles ; seven solo or with Wings ; one as a co @-@ writer of " A World Without Love " , a number @-@ one single for Peter and Gordon ; one as a co @-@ writer on Elton John 's cover of " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " ; one as a co @-@ writer on Stars on 45 's " Medley " ; one as a co @-@ writer with Michael Jackson on " Say Say Say " ; and one as a co @-@ writer with Stevie Wonder on " Ebony and Ivory " . As of 2009 , he has 15 @.@ 5 million RIAA certified units in the United States as a solo artist plus another 10 million with Wings .
Credited with more number ones in the UK than any other artist , McCartney has participated in twenty @-@ four chart topping singles : seventeen with the Beatles , one solo , and one each with Wings , Stevie Wonder , Ferry Aid , Band Aid , Band Aid 20 and " The Christians et al . " He is the only artist to reach the UK number one as a soloist ( " Pipes of Peace " ) , duo ( " Ebony and Ivory " with Wonder ) , trio ( " Mull of Kintyre " , Wings ) , quartet ( " She Loves You " , the Beatles ) , quintet ( " Get Back " , the Beatles with Billy Preston ) and as part of a musical ensemble for charity ( Ferry Aid ) .
" Yesterday " is the most covered song in history with more than 2 @,@ 200 recorded versions , and according to the BBC , " the track is the only one by a UK writer to have been aired more than seven million times on American TV and radio and is third in the all @-@ time list ... [ and ] is the most played song by a British writer [ last ] century in the US " . His 1968 Beatles composition , " Hey Jude " , is also a career highlight . It achieved the highest sales in the UK that year , topping the US charts for nine weeks , longer than any other Beatles single . It was also the longest single released by the band , and at seven minutes eleven seconds , the longest ever number one to that point . " Hey Jude " is the best @-@ selling Beatles single , achieving sales of over five million copies soon after its release .
In July 2005 , McCartney 's performance of " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " with U2 at Live 8 became the fastest @-@ released single in history . Available within forty @-@ five minutes of its recording , hours later it had achieved number one on the UK Official Download Chart .
= = = Awards and honours = = =
1971 Academy Award winner ( as a member of the Beatles )
21 @-@ time Grammy Award winner :
12 as a member of the Beatles
Six as a solo artist
Two as a member of Wings
One as part of a joint collaboration
Two @-@ time inductee – Rock and Roll Hall of Fame :
Class of 1988 as a member of the Beatles
Class of 1999 as a solo artist
Member of the Order of the British Empire .
Planet 4148 named " McCartney " ( International Astronomical Union 's Minor Planet Center ) .
1997 : Knighted by Queen Elizabeth II for services to music .
2000 : Fellowship into the British Academy of Songwriters , Composers and Authors .
2008 : BRIT Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music
2008 : Honorary Doctor of Music degree from Yale University .
2010 : Gershwin Prize for his contributions to popular music .
2010 : Kennedy Center Honors .
2012 : Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
2012 : Légion d 'Honneur for his services to music .
2012 : MusiCares Person of the Year
= = Discography = =
= = Tours = =
= Battle of Fort Washington =
The Battle of Fort Washington was a battle fought in New York on November 16 , 1776 during the American Revolutionary War between the United States and Great Britain . It was a British victory that gained the surrender of the remnant of the garrison of Fort Washington near the north end of Manhattan Island . It was one of the worst Patriot defeats .
After defeating the Continental Army under Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief General George Washington at the Battle of White Plains , the British Army forces under the command of Lieutenant General William Howe planned to capture Fort Washington , the last American stronghold on Manhattan . General Washington issued a discretionary order to General Nathanael Greene to abandon the fort and remove its garrison – then numbered at 1 @,@ 200 men but later to grow to 3 @,@ 000 – to New Jersey . Colonel Robert Magaw , commanding the fort , declined to abandon it as he believed it could be defended from the British . Howe 's forces attacked the fort before Washington reached it to assess the situation .
Howe launched his attack on November 16 . He led an assault from three sides : the north , east and south . Tides in the Harlem River prevented some troops from landing and delayed the attack . When the British moved against the defenses , the southern and western American defenses fell quickly . Patriot forces on the north side offered stiff resistance to the Hessian attack , but they too were eventually overwhelmed . With the fort surrounded by land and sea , Colonel Magaw chose to surrender . A total of 59 Americans were killed and 2 @,@ 837 were taken as prisoners of war .
After this defeat , most of Washington 's army was chased across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania , and the British consolidated their control of New York and eastern New Jersey .
= = Background = =
= = = Construction and defenses = = =
During the American Revolutionary War , Fort Washington was located at the highest point of the island of Manhattan , along a large outcropping of Manhattan schist near its northernmost tip . Along with Fort Lee , located just across the Hudson River atop the New Jersey Palisades , the twin forts were intended to protect the lower Hudson from British warships .
In June 1776 , American Patriot officers Henry Knox , Nathanael Greene , William Heath , and Israel Putnam examined the terrain on which Fort Washington would be located ; they agreed that if the fort was properly fortified , it would be practically impossible to take . Later in June , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Continental Army , George Washington , inspected the location and determined that the area was the key to defense of the lower Hudson . Shortly after Washington 's survey , troops from Pennsylvania began construction on the fort under the supervision of Rufus Putnam .
They first prepared a cheval de frise to prevent British ships from sailing up the Hudson and outflanking the American position . For more than a month , the troops transported boulders from the heights of Manhattan to the edge of the river , where they loaded them into a collection of hulks and cribs made of timber and stretched it across the river . When the cheval de frise was finished , they began work on the fort . Little soil covered the rocky surface , so men had to haul soil up from the low ground . They were unable to dig the customary ditches or trenches around the fort . The fort was built in the shape of a pentagon with five bastions . The main walls were made of earth , constructed with ravelins with openings for guns from every angle . The fort enclosed a total of three to four acres . The troops built an abbattis around the fort . After the barracks were finished in September , all the troops in the area were placed under the command of Major General William Heath . Washington established his headquarters near the fort .
Supporting the fort were numerous defenses . Batteries were placed on Jeffrey 's Hook , which extended into the Hudson , on Cox 's Hill looking over Spuyten Duyvil Creek , at the north end of Manhattan controlling the King 's Bridge and Dyckman 's Bridge over the Harlem River and along Laurel Hill which was to the east of the Fort and went along the Harlem River ( see also Fort Tryon Park ) . To the south of the fort were three lines of defense . The lines went through the hills and were made of trenches and foxholes . The first line was supported by a second line about 0 @.@ 33 mi ( 0 @.@ 5 km ) to the north , and a third line was planned to be built 0 @.@ 25 mi ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) north of the second .
= = = Movements = = =
British General William Howe , after first gaining control of western Long Island in the Battle of Long Island at the end of August 1776 , launched an invasion of Manhattan on September 15 . His northward progress was checked the next day in the Battle of Harlem Heights , after which he sought to flank the strong American position on the north of the island . After an abortive landing attempt on October 11 , Howe began landing troops in southern Westchester County , New York on October 18 , intending to cut off the Continental Army 's avenue of retreat . Washington , aware of the danger , withdrew most of his troops north to White Plains . He left a garrison of 1 @,@ 200 men at Fort Washington under the command of Colonel Robert Magaw ; this force was inadequate to fully defend the extensive works . In order to monitor the American garrison in the fort , Howe left Hugh Percy and a small force below Harlem Heights .
On the morning of October 27 , sentries informed Magaw that Percy 's troops were launching an attack supported by two frigates sailing up the Hudson . Magaw ordered an attack on the frigates , and both British ships were badly damaged by the guns from Fort Lee and Fort Washington . The frigates could not elevate their own guns to the height of the American positions . The British towed away the frigates , but an artillery duel continued for some time between British and American gunners .
On November 8 , about two dozen American soldiers drove off a slightly larger Hessian company from a forward redoubt . The Hessians held higher ground with better cover and had the advantage of artillery support throughout this minor skirmish , but were still unable to maintain their position . The Colonials had a single man wounded while the Hessians lost at least two men killed and others wounded . After burning and looting the temporary structures on the site , the victors occupied it until dark when they returned to their main lines . By the next day the Hessians had reoccupied the spot but were quickly driven off again by a larger American force . This time the Hessians left ten dead with , again , a single American wounded .
Because of these minor successes , Magaw became overconfident ; he boasted of being able to hold the fort through a siege to the end of December . On November 2 , Magaw 's adjutant , William Demont , deserted to the British ; he gave them all of the details of the fort . Percy sent the information on to Howe , who had defeated Washington a few days earlier at the Battle of White Plains . During the weeks between Washington 's northward retreat and the British assault on the fort , reinforcements continued to trickle into the fort , increasing the size of the garrison to nearly 3 @,@ 000 men .
= = = Plans and preparations = = =
Washington had considered abandoning Fort Washington , but he was swayed by Nathanael Greene , who believed the fort could be held and that it was vital to do so . Greene argued that holding the fort would keep open communications across the river and might dissuade the British from attacking New Jersey . Magaw and Putnam concurred with Greene . Washington deferred to Greene and did not abandon the fort .
On November 4 , Howe ordered his army south toward Dobbs Ferry . Rather than pursue the American forces in the highlands , and possibly prompted by the intelligence acquired by the defection of Demont , Howe had decided to attack Fort Washington . Washington responded by dividing his army . Seven thousand troops were to remain east of the Hudson under the command of Charles Lee to prevent a British invasion of New England ; General William Heath with 3 @,@ 000 men was to guard the Hudson Highlands to prevent any further British advance north , and Washington with 2 @,@ 000 men was to go to Fort Lee . On the 13th , Washington and his army reached Fort Lee .
Howe 's plan of attack was to storm the fort from three directions while a fourth force feinted ; by then it had received reinforcements and was garrisoned by 3 @,@ 000 men . Hessian troops under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen would attack the fort from the north , Percy was to lead a brigade of Hessians and several British battalions from the south , and Lord Cornwallis with the 33rd Regiment of Foot and General Edward Mathew with the light infantry were to attack from the east . The feint was to be by the 42nd Highlanders , who were to land on the east side of Manhattan , south of the fort . Before attacking , Howe sent Lieutenant Colonel James Patterson under a flag of truce on November 15 to deliver a message that if the fort did not surrender , the entire garrison would be killed . Magaw said the Patriots would defend the fort to the " last extremity " .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial fighting = = =
Before dawn on November 16 , the British and Hessian troops moved out . Knyphausen and his troops were ferried across the Harlem River on flatboats and landed on Manhattan . The flatboatmen then turned down the river to ferry Mathew 's troops across the river . However , due to the tide , they were unable to get close enough to the shore to bring the British troops across . Thus , Knyphausen 's troops were forced to halt their advance and wait until Mathew could cross . Around 7 : 00 a.m. , Hessian guns opened fire on the American battery on Laurel Hill , and the British frigate Pearl began to fire at the American entrenchments . Also , south of the Fort , Percy had his artillery open fire on the fort itself . Percy 's artillery aimed at Magaw 's guns which had damaged the British ships several weeks before .
By noon , Knyphausen and his Hessians restarted their advance . As soon as the tide was high enough , Mathew and his troops , accompanied by Howe , were ferried across the Harlem River . They landed under heavy fire from the American artillery on the Manhattan shore . The British troops charged up the hillside and dispersed the Americans until they reached a redoubt defended by some Pennsylvania Volunteer companies . After brief fighting , the Americans turned and ran towards the fort .
To the north of the fort , the Hessian right , commanded by Johann Rall , moved up the steep hillside south of Spuyten Duyvil Creek against almost no resistance from the Americans . The Hessians began to bring up their artillery . At this point , the main body of Hessians , 4 @,@ 000 men , under Knyphausen began to advance down the Post Road , which ran between Laurel Hill and the hill Rall was on . The Hessians crossed swampy land and when they approached the wooded hillside near the fort , they were fired upon by 250 riflemen of the Maryland and Virginia Rifle Regiment under the command of Lt. Col. Moses Rawlings . Rawlings ' men hid behind rocks and trees and darted from place to place to shoot at the Hessians as they tried to advance through the fallen trees and rocks . The first and second charges by the Hessians were repulsed by Rawlings ' riflemen .
Around the same time , to the south , Percy advanced with some 3 @,@ 000 men . Percy advanced in two columns with his brigade of Hessians on the left and Percy himself leading the right . About 200 yards from the American lines Percy halted the advance , waiting for the feint by Stirling to take place . Facing Percy was Alexander Graydon and his company . Graydon 's superior was Lambert Cadwalader , Magaw 's second in command , who was in charge of holding the three defensive lines south of Fort Washington . After hearing that there was a landing on the shore in his rear , Cadwalader sent 50 men to oppose it . The 50 men ran into the feint by Col. Stirling 's 42nd Foot of 700 men . Where Stirling landed happened to be the least defended area of the American defenses , and when Cadwalader heard how many men were there , he sent another 100 men to reinforce the 50 he had sent earlier . The British landing parties spread out , looking for a path through the rough terrain on the landing spot . The Americans took up a position on a hilltop and began firing at the British troops who were still crossing the river , killing or wounding 80 men . The British troops charged the American position , dispersing them .
Upon hearing the shooting , Percy ordered his troops to continue their advance . British artillery fire forced Graydon in the first defensive line to fall back to the second line , where Washington , Greene , Putnam and Hugh Mercer were located . The four were encouraged to leave Manhattan , which they did immediately , sailing across the river to Fort Lee . Magaw realized that Cadwalader was in danger of being surrounded and sent orders for him to withdraw toward the fort . Cadwalader 's force was pursued by Percy 's troops at the same time the troops opposing Stirling 's landing were also being chased back to the fort . Stirling 's troops , landed in the rear of Cadwalader , paused , believing that there were troops in the entrenchments . Some of the retreating Americans engaged Stirling , giving most of the rest of the American troops enough time to escape .
= = = Collapse = = =
With the collapse of Magaw 's outer lines to the south and east of the fort , the general American retreat towards the perceived safety of the fort took place . To the south , the third defensive line had never been completed so Cadwalader had nowhere left to retreat to except the fort . To the north , the riflemen under Rawlings still held , but barely , as there were fewer riflemen than before and because the increased amount of firing had jammed some of the men 's weapons , some of the men were forced to push boulders down the hill at the attacking Hessians . The American battery at Fort Washington was silenced by Pearl . By this time , the riflemen 's fire had almost ceased , and the Hessians slowly advanced up the hill and engaged the Americans in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Overpowering the Americans , the Hessians reached the top of the hill and swarmed into the redoubt with a bayonet charge , capturing it quickly .
Washington , who was watching the battle from the other side of the river , sent a note to Magaw asking him to hold out until nightfall , thinking that the troops could be evacuated during the night . By this time , the Hessians had taken the ground between the fort and the Hudson River . Johann Rall was given the honor of requesting the American surrender by Knyphausen . Rall sent Captain Hohenstein , who spoke English and French , under a flag of truce to call for the fort 's surrender . Hohenstein met with Cadwalader , and Cadwalader requested that Magaw be given four hours to consult with his officers . Hohenstein denied the request and gave the Americans a half hour to decide . As Magaw was consulting with his officers , Washington 's messenger , Captain John Gooch arrived , just before the fort was completely surrounded , with Washington 's request to hold out until nightfall . Magaw attempted to get easier terms for his men , who would only be allowed to keep their belongings , but this failed . Magaw announced his decision to capitulate at 3 : 00 pm , and at 4 : 00 pm , the American flag was brought down in the fort , replaced by the British flag . Before the surrender , John Gooch leaped off the side of the fort , tumbled to the bottom of the cliff , evaded musket fire and bayonet stabs , and managed to get onto a boat , arriving at Fort Lee a short while later .
= = Aftermath = =
After the Hessians entered the fort , the American officers attempted to placate the Hessian commander , Captain von Malmburg , who was in charge of the surrender . They invited him into their barracks , and offered him punch , wine , cake , with compliments . As they left the fort , the Hessians stripped the American troops of their baggage and beat some of them . Their officers intervened to prevent further injuries or deaths . The British captured thirty @-@ four cannon , two howitzers , along with many tents , blankets , tools and much ammunition .
The British and Hessians suffered 84 killed and 374 wounded . The Americans lost 59 killed , had 96 wounded casualties , and 2 @,@ 838 men captured . Under the usual treatment of prisoners of war in the American Revolutionary War , only 800 survived their captivity to be released 18 months later in a prisoner exchange ; nearly three @-@ quarters of the prisoners died .
Three days after the fall of Fort Washington , the Patriots abandoned Fort Lee . Washington and the army retreated through New Jersey and crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania northwest of Trenton , pursued as far as New Brunswick , New Jersey by British forces . After about one month , on the night of December 25 – 26 , 1776 , Washington crossed the Delaware and defeated the Hessian garrison under the command of Rall at Trenton . Washington went on to defeat the British next at Princeton , which revived the morale of the American army and the colonies affected by the fall of Fort Washington .
After seven years , on November 25 , 1783 , with the peace treaty signed , General Washington and Governor George Clinton triumphantly reclaimed Fort Washington as they marched toward lower Manhattan after the last British forces had left New York .
The site of Fort Washington is now in Bennett Park in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan , just north of the George Washington Bridge . The location of its walls are demarcated by stones placed in the park , and there is a commemorative plaque .
= Thirty Flights of Loving =
Thirty Flights of Loving is a first @-@ person adventure video game developed by Brendon Chung 's indie video game studio , Blendo Games . It was released in August 2012 for Microsoft Windows , and in November 2012 for OS X. The game employs a modified version of id Software 's 1997 @-@ era id Tech 2 engine — originally used for Quake 2 — and incorporates music composed by Idle Thumbs member Chris Remo . It follows three people as they prepare for an alcohol heist and the aftermath of the operation .
The game is a non @-@ direct sequel to Gravity Bone ( 2008 ) and features the same main character — an unnamed spy . It was developed as part of the Kickstarter campaign for the revival of the Idle Thumbs podcast and included a free copy of its predecessor . Thirty Flights of Loving received generally favorable reviews from video game media outlets , scoring 88 out of 100 on aggregate website Metacritic . A follow @-@ up , Quadrilateral Cowboy , was released on July 25 , 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Thirty Flights of Loving is a first @-@ person adventure video game that is estimated to take about 15 minutes on average to complete . Using the WASD keys and mouse , the player controls the main character , an unnamed spy who participates in an alcohol @-@ smuggling operation . The player works alongside non @-@ playable characters Anita , a demolitions expert , and Borges , a forger . The game follows the group as they prepare for a heist and experience its aftermath . The robbery is omitted from the game , although it is revealed that it went wrong .
Unlike Gravity Bone , Thirty Flights of Loving employs non @-@ linear storytelling , forcing the player to piece together the narrative . During gameplay , objectives and guidance are provided through the player 's interactions with objects . The player has little control over the game mechanics and is only able to move freely and pick up objects as needed to progress . Several optional actions , such as drinking alcohol , are available at several stages of the game .
= = = Story = = =
Thirty Flights of Loving begins with the player walking through a small corridor where individual gameplay elements such as movement and key allocations are explained . After walking through a bar and several more corridors , Anita and Borges are introduced . All three characters then exit on a plane . A smash cut skips the narrative forward to a scene with Anita and Borges lying shot in a room full of crates . The player character lifts Borges and takes him outside to what looks to be an airport . The player is then taken to a dark room with Anita sitting on a chair , peeling and eating oranges . After walking through another corridor , Anita , Borges , and the player join a wedding .
Anita and the player get drunk on a table while the rest of the characters start dancing and flying across the room . Then the player is taken again to the room where Anita was peeling oranges , and then back to the room where both she and Borges were lying shot . The player is then shown leaving the airport carrying Borges on a luggage cart . They arrive at a small place where the gunfight sequence takes place , followed by the motorcycle ride sequence , which ends with a crash that leads the player into a museum . In this area , there are several plaques showing the game 's name and credits . The player leaves the area and goes into a new one where Bernoulli 's principle about low and high air pressures is explained . Then , the player is again moved to the motorcycle sequence , where the game ends .
= = Development = =
Thirty Flights of Loving was developed by Brendon Chung 's video game studio Blendo Games . Chung , who worked as a level designer for Pandemic Studios , has contributed to the development of Full Spectrum Warrior and Lord of the Rings : Conquest . Thirty Flights of Loving was created using a modified version of KMQuake II , a port of id Software 's id Tech 2 , the graphics engine for Quake 2 . It incorporates a gameplay enhancement add @-@ on named Lazarus , developed by David Hyde and Mad Dog . Chung acknowledged that although he has worked with newer , " powerful and flexible " engines , he preferred the older engine because it was released as an open @-@ source platform , " so you can redistribute it for free . "
The game was first conceived as a prototype to Gravity Bone , and was scrapped because it was " too dialogue heavy . " However , Chung revived the idea after being contacted by Idle Thumbs to develop a game for their Kickstarter campaign . The main development phase , in which content creation took place , was finished within three months . Several more months were spent polishing the game and fixing software bugs . Chung brought multiple existing assets from Gravity Bone to develop Thirty Flights of Loving , and used a diverse set of tools to create the elements of the game . Blender was picked for the creation of models , while Audacity and Adobe Photoshop were used for audio and texture work . Another tool , GtkRadiant , was used to create the game 's levels .
Chung developed Thirty Flights of Loving 's environment as a way to present the criminal nature of the group . He intentionally avoided the use of voice @-@ overs , and instead modeled the environment to bridge " the disconnect between the player 's knowledge and the player 's character 's knowledge . " Characters Anita and Borges were to be introduced using dialogue , but this was removed . However , montages were later added after Idle Thumbs ' crew expressed concerns that the characters ' relationships were unclear . Chung included a system to automate the generation of non @-@ playable characters to replace the process of manually scripting every person in the game . He explained that although it allows characters to " randomly wander near waypoints , " the software is " occasionally glitchy and behaves badly around staircases . " This automation code was originally developed for a surveillance game prototype " that never panned out . "
A first @-@ person meal simulator was designed for Thirty Flights of Loving . The sequence included the main characters " enjoy [ ing ] street noddles . " However , the idea was scrapped and replaced with the motorcycle ride featured in the final version . The gunfight scene portrayed in the game was supposed to have a " musical rhythm , " inspired by the film Koyaanisqatsi and Baraka . The last level of the game is modeled from the French National Museum of Natural History . Chung explained that when developing levels , he first spends time researching and " learning how things work . " He elaborated that researching is important in " how it gives specificity and grounding " to a game . Thirty Flights of Loving is the seventh " Citizen Abel " game developed by Chung . The first two games were coded in 1999 , while the following three were written between 2000 and 2004 . The sixth game in the series , Gravity Bone ( 2008 ) , became the first to be published . On the Tone Control podcast , he spoke about how every game he has produced , including Thirty Flights of Loving , takes place in the same shared universe .
Thirty Flights of Loving includes references and Easter eggs , as did Gravity Bone . Films such as Three Days of the Condor and The Conversation , film directors Steven Soderbergh and Quentin Tarantino , games such as Zork and Saints Row : The Third , and animated shows like Animaniacs and TaleSpin are referenced in the campaign . Unlike most of Chung 's previous games , Thirty Flights of Loving was not framed around a certain musical composition . It incorporates music composed by Idle Thumbs member Chris Remo , while additional audio was provided by Jared Emerson @-@ Johnson and A.J. Locascio . It makes use of Soundsnap 's sound library .
= = Release = =
Thirty Flights of Loving was announced in February 2012 as part of the Kickstarter campaign for Idle Thumbs ' podcast . The Idle Thumbs team talked to Chung about a possible sequel to Gravity Bone , which was offered as one of the rewards of their Kickstarter campaign . Those who supported the campaign received Thirty Flights of Loving before its official release on August 2012 . They also gained access to an exclusive " Goldblum mode " that was not part of the general release . It replaced the character model with ones resembling actor Jeff Goldblum . The game , alongside a free copy of Gravity Bone , was made available to early supporters in July 2012 and to the general public a month later via Steam . A Mac OS X release followed in November 2012 .
= = Reception = =
Thirty Flights of Loving received generally favorable reviews upon release . On Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the game received an average score of 88 out of 100 , based on 10 reviews . Destructoid 's Patrick Hancock awarded the game 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , stating that " you 'll never look at linear storytelling the same way again . "
GameSpot 's Carolyn Petit wrote that " the pleasure of Thirty Flights of Loving emerges from the things left unshown " , allowing the player to infer and imagine the events , such as the heist itself , that are not otherwise shown . Graham Smith of PC Gamer extolled the minimalist storytelling , asserting that Thirty Flights of Loving " tells a better story in 13 minutes than most games do in 13 hours " . Mark Brown from Wired UK classified the game as a " brassy , super @-@ short , cubic heist drama , " and stated that Chung " spins a memorable yarn , delivers it with confidence and panache [ ... ] with a 15 year old engine , without voice acting , in 20 minutes . "
IGN 's Nathan Meunier said the game " gets off to a fascinating start before completely throwing any and all expectations you might form during its first few minutes into the wood chipper . " British video game magazine Edge found Thirty Flights of Loving to be " an intriguing psychological thriller that feels like Wes Anderson taking on Hitchcock . " The magazine added that the game had a " wonderfully ambiguous " story , crafted by replacing dialogue with " artful framing and shrewd gestures , and booting out cutscenes in favour of prickly jump @-@ cuts . " Greek magazine PC Master praised the game 's storytelling and stated that Thirty Flights of Loving " attempts to blur the lines between gaming and art . " Thirty Flights of Loving was a Narrative Award finalist at the 2013 Independent Games Festival . However , Richard Hofmeier 's Cart Life ( 2011 ) became the winner .
= = Sequel = =
A follow @-@ up to Thirty Flights of Loving , Quadrilateral Cowboy , is being developed by Chung . The game takes place in the same universe as Gravity Bone and Thirty Flights of Loving but is not a direct sequel . It follows a hacker who oversees agents who infiltrate buildings and steal documents . Unlike its predecessors , Quadrilateral Cowboy uses id Software 's id Tech 4 engine — originally used for Doom 3 . According to Chung , the new engine provides " a lot more modern functionality " than the earlier engine used in the first two games .
= Grey currawong =
The grey currawong ( Strepera versicolor ) is a large passerine bird native to southern Australia and Tasmania . One of three currawong species in the genus Strepera , it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of the family Artamidae . It is a large crow @-@ like bird , around 48 cm ( 19 in ) long on average , with yellow irises , and a heavy bill , and dark plumage with white undertail and wing patches . The male and female are similar in appearance . Six subspecies are recognised and are distinguished by overall plumage colour , which ranges from slate @-@ grey for the nominate from New South Wales and eastern Victoria and subspecies plumbea from Western Australia , to sooty black for the clinking currawong of Tasmania and subspecies halmaturina from Kangaroo Island . All grey currawongs have a loud distinctive ringing or clinking call .
Within its range , the grey currawong is generally sedentary , although it is a winter visitor in the southeastern corner of Australia . Comparatively little studied , much of its behaviour and habits is poorly known . Omnivorous , it has a diet that includes a variety of berries , invertebrates , and small vertebrates . Less arboreal than the pied currawong , the grey currawong spends more time foraging on the ground . It builds nests high in trees , which has limited the study of its breeding habits . Unlike its more common relative , it has adapted poorly to human impact and has declined in much of its range . The habitat includes all kinds of forested areas as well as scrubland in dryer parts of the country .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The grey currawong was first described as Corvus versicolor by ornithologist John Latham in 1801 , who gave it the common name of " variable crow " . The specific name versicolor means ' of variable colours ' in Latin . Other old common names include grey crow @-@ shrike , leaden crow @-@ shrike , mountain magpie , black @-@ winged currawong ( in western Victoria ) , clinking currawong ( in Tasmania ) , and squeaker ( in Western Australia ) . The black @-@ winged currawong was known to the Ramindjeri people of Encounter Bay as wati @-@ eri , the word meaning " to sneak " or " to track " . Kiling @-@ kildi was a name derived from the call used by the people of the lower Murray River .
Together with the pied currawong ( S. graculina ) and black currawong ( S. fuliginosa ) , the grey currawong forms the genus Strepera . Although crow @-@ like in appearance and habits , currawongs are only distantly related to true crows , and are instead closely related to the Australian magpie and the butcherbirds . The affinities of all three genera were recognised early on and they were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature . Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between the woodswallows and the butcherbirds and relatives in 1985 , and combined them into a Cracticini clade , which later became the family Artamidae .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Six subspecies are spread around Australia . They vary extensively in the colour of their plumage , from grey to sooty black , and the amount of white on their wings , and most were at one time considered separate species :
S. v. versicolor , the nominate race , is known as the grey currawong , and is found in New South Wales , the ACT , and eastern and central Victoria , west to Port Phillip on the coast , and to the Grampians inland .
S. v. intermedia , the grey @-@ brown form of South Australia , is also known as the brown currawong . It is found in the Yorke and Eyre Peninsulas , the Gawler and Mount Lofty Ranges and the eastern areas of the Great Australian Bight . The smallest of the six subspecies , it has a shorter wing and tail . Birds in the southern Eyre Peninsula have darker plumage than those in the northern parts . First described by Richard Bowdler Sharpe in 1877 from a specimen collected in Port Lincoln , its specific name is the Latin adjective intermedia " intermediate " .
S. v. arguta , the darkest race , is from eastern Tasmania and is known as the clinking currawong from its call or locally as the black magpie . Sharpe called it the Tasmanian hill @-@ crow . It was first described by John Gould in 1846 . The specific name is the Latin adjective argūtus " shrill / piercing " , " noisy " or " melodious " . Larger and heavier than the nominate subspecies , it has longer wings , tail , bill , and tarsus .
S. v. melanoptera , known as the black @-@ winged currawong , is from western Victoria 's Mallee region and South Australia west to the Mount Lofty Ranges . It can be difficult to distinguish from the black and pied currawongs at any distance . Of similar size and bill @-@ shape to the nominate subspecies , it has a darker blackish @-@ brown plumage and lacks the white wing markings . Birds from much of western Victoria are intermediates between this and the nominate subspecies , often bearing partial white markings on the wings . Similarly , in the western part of its range in South Australia are intermediate with subspecies to the west and also have some paler patches . Named by John Gould in 1846 , its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek words melano- " black " and pteron " wings " . American ornithologist Dean Amadon observed that birds from northwestern Victoria were lighter in plumage than those of South Australia , and tentatively classified them as a separate subspecies howei . However , he noted they warranted further investigation , and subsequent authorities have not recognised the populations as separate .
S. v. halmaturina is restricted to Kangaroo Island . A dark @-@ plumaged subspecies , it has a longer narrower bill than the nominate race , and is lighter in weight . The specific name is the adjective halmaturina " of Kangaroo Island " . It was first named by Gregory Mathews in 1912 .
S. v. plumbea is found from western South Australia and the southwestern corner of the Northern Territory westwards into Western Australia . It is colloquially known as " squeaker " from the sound of its call . Named by Gould in 1846 , its specific name is the Latin adjective plumběus " leaden " . Very similar in plumage to the nominate subspecies , it differs in its thicker , more downward curved bill . The base plumage is variable , but tends to be slightly darker and possibly more brown @-@ tinged than the nominate subspecies . Amadon noted that a specimen from the Everard Ranges in northwestern South Australia was larger and paler than other specimens of plumbea . Although he considered these Central Australian birds as a separate subspecies centralia , he conceded very little was known . They have been considered part of plumbea subsequently .
= = Description = =
A larger and more slender bird than its more common relative the pied currawong , the adult grey currawong ranges from 44 to 57 cm ( 17 to 22 in ) in length , with an average of around 52 cm ( 20 in ) ; the wingspan varies from 72 to 85 cm ( 28 to 33 in ) , averaging around 78 cm ( 31 in ) , with an average weight of around 350 g ( 12 oz ) . Adults of the Tasmanian subspecies average around 440 g ( 16 oz ) . The male is on average slightly larger than the female , but the size and weight ranges mostly overlap . It is generally a dark grey bird with white in the wing , undertail coverts , the base of the tail and most visibly , the tip of the tail . It has yellow eyes . The orbital ( eye @-@ ring ) , legs and feet are black , whereas the bill and gape range from greyish black to black . The overall plumage varies according to subspecies . The nominate race versicolor and plumbea are slate @-@ grey in colour , while melanoptera and intermedia are blackish @-@ brown , and arguta of Tasmania and halmaturina a sooty black . The size of the white patch on the wing also varies , being large and easily spotted in versicolor , plumbea , intermedia and arguta , but non @-@ existent or indistinct in melanoptera and halmaturina .
More specifically , the nominate subspecies has a grey forehead , crown , nape , ear @-@ coverts and throat with the face a darker grey @-@ black . The feathers of the throat are longer , giving rise to hackles there . The upperparts and underparts are a brownish @-@ grey and become more brown with age . Towards the belly , the feathers are a paler grey . The wings are grey @-@ brown , and the blackish primaries have white edges which merge to form the prominent white wing markings .
Birds appear to moult once a year in spring or summer , although observations have been limited . Young birds spend about a year in juvenile plumage before moulting into adult plumage at around a year old . Juvenile birds have more brown @-@ tinged and uniform plumage ; the darker colour around the lores and eyes are less distinct . Their blackish bill is yellow @-@ tipped , and the gape is yellow . Their eyes are brownish , but turn yellow early . The exact timing is unknown but likely to be around four months of age .
= = = Voice = = =
Unlike that of the pied currawong , the grey currawong 's call does not sound like its name . It is best known for making a sound variously transcribed as p 'rink , clink , cling , ker @-@ link or tullock , either in flight or when gathered in any numbers
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been associated with the group Los Infernales ( " The Infernal Ones " ) and later on Los Hijos del Averno ( " The Sons of Hell " ) , especially working closely with Averno as his regular tag team partner for years . Mephisto and Averno are considered one of the top teams in Mexico between 2000 and 2010 .
He is currently the leader of Los Hijos del Infierno ( " The Sons of the Inferno " ) that also includes Ephesto and Luciferno . While working as Mephisto he has won multiple CMLL championships and currently holds part of the Mexican National Trios Championship with the other Hijos del Infierno . Previous he has held the CMLL World Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) , CMLL World Trios Championship , CMLL World Welterweight Championship , Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship , Mexican National Welterweight Championship , NWA World Welterweight Championship and was the first ever holder of the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship
= = Personal life = =
The man who would grow up to wrestle as Mephisto was born on December 12 , 1968 in Mexico City , son of Alberto Leonel Hernández López , better known as the Luchador ( professional wrestler ) " Astro Rey " ( Spanish for " Astro King " ) and later on as " Kahoz " . By 1971 his father had started wrestling which meant that the future Mephisto grew up around wrestlers , wanting to become one himself from a very early age .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
After training under his father , and his uncle the luchador known as " El Gallo Giro " , he made his debut as " Kahoz Jr . " , as a tribute to his father 's final wrestling character . From 1988 until 1993 he wrestled as Kahoz Jr. for various promotions in Mexico . His father , however , urged him to change gimmicks to the one that got his father the most fame " Astro Rey Jr . " . As Astro Rey Jr. or simply " Astro Jr . " he travelled the world and wrestled extensively in Mexico and Japan . On March 22 , 1999 Astro Rey Jr. won the Mexican National Welterweight Championship from Arkangel de la Muerte and defended it several times during his 19 month reign . Astro Rey Jr. finally lost the title to Karloff Lagarde Jr. on October 23 , 2000 .
= = = Los Infernales ( 2001 @-@ 2009 ) = = =
Over the summer of 2001 El Satánico , the leader of a team known as Los Infernales ( " The Infernal ones " ) was involved in a storyline with former Infernales team members Último Guerrero , Rey Bucanero , Tarzan Boy who had turned on him . CMLL decided to expand the storyline , teaming El Satánico up with two other wrestlers , both of whom were repackaged to fit with the " infernal " theme of El Satánico . The storyline was that El Satánico used his supposed " satanic powers " to turn the tecnico ( face ) Rencor Latino into one of his " minions " , the rudo ( heel ) known as " Averno " ( " Hell " ) in a televised segment . After this turn was completed they were joined by Mephisto , formerly Kahoz Jr. and Astro Rey Jr . , but unlike Averno , no references to his previous identities were made at the time . Together the three became the new version of Los Infernales and feuded with the splinter group of Infernales consisting of Guerrero , Bucanero , Tarzan Boy and Máscara Mágica over the following year . A year later , September 2002 at the CMLL 68th Anniversary Show , the two groups faced off in a steel cage match to determine who had the rights to the " Los Infernales " name . In the end Satánico made Máscara Mágica submit gaining the rights for his own group as well as taking the mask of Máscara Mágica . After the steel cage match the feud between the two groups more or less ending , the splinter faction changed their name to Los Guerreros del Infierno ( " The Warriors of the Inferno " ) .
On June 23 , 2002 , Los Infernales won the Mexican National Trios Championship from Olímpico , Mr. Niebla and Safari . After they won the championship they began feuding with La Familia de Tijuana ( Nicho el Millonario , Halloween and Damián 666 ) . The trio lost the title to La Familia on September 27 , 2002 but continued feuding into 2003 . When Nicho stopped appearing for CMLL the trios championship was vacated but Los Infernales refused to take them without a match . This storyline led to an eight @-@ team trios title tournament whichLos Infernales did not win . Instead Los Infernales did win a tournament to become the number one contenders for the CMLL World Trios Championship but lost to champions Black Tiger III , Dr. Wagner Jr. and Universo 2000 on August 1 , 2003 . At the end of the year , Averno and Mephisto turned on Satánico but there was little to feuding afterwards they split from the group and ventured out on their own . On February 4 , 2004 Mephisto defeated El Satánico to win the CMLL World Welterweight Championship at CMLL ’ s home at Arena México .
= = = Triada del Terror / Perros del Mal ( 2006 @-@ 2008 ) = = =
Mephisto and Averno defeated Atlantis and Blue Panther for the CMLL World Tag Team Championship in a heated match on April 2 , 2005 . The team would defend the tag team titles several times over the next year in some very well received matches that led to several reporters labeling them as one of the best Mexican tag teams in the 21st century . Their most prominent defense was on the last Arena México show of 2005 when they defeated El Hijo del Santo and Negro Casas in the main event . In early 2006 , they defended their titles against Místico and Black Warrior twice . In the first match , they won by disqualification when Black Warrior interfered in the match after being pinned . In the second match two weeks later , Black Warrior turned on Místico , starting a long @-@ running storyline between the two . On April 14 , 2006 , they lost the tag team championship to the team of Místico and Negro Casas , ending their year @-@ long reign .
In late @-@ 2006 / early @-@ 2007 Mephisto and Averno began teaming regularly with Ephesto ( named after the Greek god Hephaestus ) , who was formerly known as Safari before . He was given an " underworld " character by CMLL and teamed up with Averno and Mephisto to create a regular trio team . The three came to the ring wearing black , hooded robes and were briefly introduced as Los Ku Klux Klan , but soon after dropped the controversial name to become known as La Triada del Terror ( " The Terror Trio " ) . While the team of Mephisto and Averno had been busy defending the CMLL Tag Team titles Mephisto also found time to defend the CMLL World Welterweight title he had worn for over three years , until he was finally defeated by CMLL ’ s rising star Místico on April 10 , 2007 , ending his title reign after days 1 @,@ 141 days . In 2008 Mephisto and Averno were invited to join Perro Aguayo Jr . ' s Perros del Mal ( " The Bad Dogs " ) faction , while Ephesto was not asked to join them . The duo had only been a part of Los Perros del Mal for a short while before Aguayo Jr. and a number of other Perros members decided to leave CMLL . Mephisto and Averno remained with CMLL and teamed up with Ephesto once more as well as El Texano Jr. and El Terrible to form a group called La Jauria del Terror ( " the Hounds of Terror " , playing off the " Perros " name )
= = = Los Hijos del Averno ( 2009 @-@ 2014 ) = = =
Not long after the group changed their name to Los Hijos del Averno ( " The Sons of Hell " ) . On February 15 , 2009 , Mephisto unsuccessfully challenged Místico for the CMLL World Welterweight Championship on a New Japan Pro Wrestling show in Sumo Hall , Tokyo . On May 27 , 2009 Mephisto defeated La Sombra to win the NWA World Welterweight Championship . During Mephisto 's reign , the title was replaced with the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship . On August 16 , 2010 it was announced that Mephisto was one of 14 men putting their mask on the line in a Luchas de Apuestas steel cage match , the main event of the CMLL 77th Anniversary Show . Mephisto was the second man to leave the steel cage as all three members of Los Hijos del Averno quickly left the cage , keeping their masks safe . The match came down to La Sombra pinning Olímpico to unmask him . On March 13 , 2011 , Mephisto lost the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship to La Sombra .
In April 2011 El Terrible and El Texano , Jr. split from Los Hijos del Averno to form a new faction with Rey Bucanero called La Fuerza TRT ( " The TRT Power " ) . On July 15 , Los Hijos del Averno defeated La Generación Dorada ( " The Golden Generation " ; Máscara Dorada , La Máscara and La Sombra ) to win the CMLL World Trios Championship . They would lose the title to El Bufete del Amor ( Marco Corleone , Máximo and Rush ) on February 19 , 2012 . Mephisto returned to Japan in January 2013 , when he took part in the three @-@ day Fantastica Mania 2013 event , co @-@ promoted by CMLL and New Japan Pro Wrestling in Tokyo . During the first night on January 18 , he teamed with Gedo and Jado to defeat Atlantis , Jushin Thunder Liger and Tiger Mask in a six man tag team match . The following night , Mephisto and Okumura defeated Diamante and Máscara Dorada in a tag team match . During the third and final night , Mephisto teamed with Euforia and Kazuchika Okada in a six man tag team main event , where they were defeated by Atlantis , Hiroshi Tanahashi and Prince Devitt . On August 13 , Mephisto defeated La Máscara for the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship . In January 1 , 2014 , Mephisto defended the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship against Atlantis .
In January 2014 , Mephisto returned to Japan to take part in the five @-@ day Fantastica Mania 2014 tour . In the main event of the fourth show on January 18 , he successfully defended the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship against Místico . Mephisto participated in the 2014 La Copa Junior VIP tournament in the first qualifying round that took place on the September 26 , 2014 Super Viernes show . Mephisto first defeated Guerrero Maya Jr . , then Shocker and finally Volador Jr. to qualify for the finals On October 10 Mephisto lost in the finals to Máximo .
= = = Los Hijos del Infierno ( 2015 @-@ present ) = = =
With Averno 's exit from CMLL in 2014 Mephisto and Ephesto continued to team up , but never used the name " Hijos del Averno " .Months later they began being introduced as " Los Hijos del Infierno " , ( " The Sons of the Infierno " ) where Mephisto became the leader of the team and they and added a third member , Luciferno , ( formerly known as Hooligan ) . In January 2015 , Mephisto returned to Japan to take part in the Fantastica Mania 2015 tour , during which he joined Bullet Club and successfully defended the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship against Stuka Jr . On August 9 , 2015 Los Hijos del Infierno defeated Los Reyes de la Atlantida ( " The Kings of the Atlantis " ; Atlantis , Delta and Guerrero Maya Jr . ) to win the Mexican National Trios Championship , Mephisto 's second Trios title reign and the first team championship for Los Hijos del Infierno . Atlantis defeated Mephisto to win the Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship on August 24 , 2015 , ending Mephisto 's reign after 741 days . In January 2016 , Mephisto returned to NJPW to take part in the Fantastica Mania 2016 tour , during which no reference was made to his previous association with Bullet Club . In the main event of the final show , Mephisto unsuccessfully challenged Volador Jr. for the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship . On May 2 , 2016 Mephisto defeated Máscara Dorada to win the CMLL World Welterweight Championship for the second time .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Demon Driller ( Double underhook facebuster )
Devil 's Wings ( Lifting double underhook facebuster )
Signature moves
Boston crab
Gedo clutch
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
CMLL World Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Averno
CMLL World Trios Championship ( 1 time ) – with Averno and Ephesto
CMLL World Welterweight Championship ( 2 times , current )
Mexican National Light Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Mexican National Trios Championship ( 2 times , current ) – with El Satánico and Averno ( 1 time ) , with Ephesto and Luciferno ( 1 time , current )
Mexican National Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 54 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the PWI 500 in 2006 .
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= Isn 't It a Pity =
" Isn 't It a Pity " is a song by English musician George Harrison from his 1970 solo album All Things Must Pass . It appears in two variations there : one the well @-@ known , seven @-@ minute version ; the other a reprise , titled " Isn 't It a Pity ( Version Two ) " . Harrison wrote the song in 1966 , but it was rejected for inclusion on releases by the Beatles . In many countries around the world , the song was also issued on a double A @-@ side single with " My Sweet Lord " . In America , Billboard magazine listed it with " My Sweet Lord " when the single topped the Hot 100 chart , while in Canada , " Isn 't It a Pity " reached number 1 as the preferred side .
An anthemic ballad and one of Harrison 's most celebrated compositions , " Isn 't It a Pity " has been described as the emotional and musical centrepiece of All Things Must Pass and " a poignant reflection on The Beatles ' coarse ending " . Co @-@ produced by Phil Spector , the recording employs multiple keyboard players , rhythm guitarists and percussionists , as well as orchestration by arranger John Barham . In its extended fadeout , the song references the closing refrain of the Beatles ' 1968 hit " Hey Jude " . Other musicians on the recording include Ringo Starr , Billy Preston , Gary Wright and the band Badfinger , while the reprise version features Eric Clapton on lead guitar .
The song appeared as the closing track on Harrison 's career @-@ spanning compilation Let It Roll ( 2009 ) , and a live version , from his 1991 tour with Clapton , was included on Live in Japan ( 1992 ) . Clapton and Preston performed the song together at the Concert for George tribute in November 2002 . " Isn 't It a Pity " has been covered by numerous artists , including Nina Simone , Matt Monro , Cowboy Junkies , Paul Young , Elliott Smith , Galaxie 500 , Jonathan Wilson and Graham Nash , Tedeschi Trucks Band , and Roberta Flack .
= = Background and composition = =
While no longer the " really tight " social unit they had been throughout the chaos of Beatlemania – or the " four @-@ headed monster " , as Mick Jagger famously called them – the individual Beatles were still bonded by genuine friendship during their final , troubled years as a band , even if it was now more of a case of being locked together at a deep psychological level after such a sustained period of heightened experience . Eric Clapton has described this bond as being just like that of a typical family , " with all the difficulties that entails " . When the band finally split , in April 1970 – a " terrible surprise " for the outside world , in the words of author Mark Hertsgaard , " like the sudden death of a beloved young uncle " – even the traditionally most disillusioned Beatle , George Harrison , suffered a mild bereavement .
Towards the end of May that year , among the dozens of tracks that would be considered and / or recorded for his All Things Must Pass triple album , Harrison returned to a number of unused songs that he had written during the late 1960s . " Isn 't It a Pity " was one of these , having most recently been rejected by the Beatles during the January 1969 Get Back sessions that resulted in their final album , Let It Be . According to Abbey Road engineer Geoff Emerick , however , the song had been offered for inclusion on 1967 's Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , while Mark Lewisohn , the band 's acknowledged recording historian , has stated that it was first presented during sessions for the previous year 's Revolver . Lewisohn 's opinion appears to tally with a bootlegged conversation from the Get Back sessions , where Harrison reveals that John Lennon had vetoed " Isn 't It a Pity " three years before , and that he ( Harrison ) considered offering the song to Frank Sinatra . ( Harrison had recently met Sinatra in Los Angeles while working there with Apple signing Jackie Lomax . )
Despite its relative antiquity by 1970 , the song 's lyrics lent themselves well to the themes of spiritual salvation and friendship that define All Things Must Pass , being consistent with the karmic subject matter of much of the album . In his 1980 autobiography , Harrison explains : " ' Isn 't It a Pity ' is about whenever a relationship hits a down point ... It was a chance to realise that if I felt somebody had let me down , then there 's a good chance I was letting someone else down . " His lyrics adopt a nonjudgmental tone throughout :
Isn 't it a pity , isn 't it a shame
How we break each other 's hearts , and cause each other pain
How we take each other 's love without thinking any more
Forgetting to give back , now isn 't it a pity .
Harrison biographer Ian Inglis has referred to the song 's " surprisingly complex " lyrics , which in one sense can be seen as a personal observation on a " failed love affair " yet at the same time serve as a comment on " the universal love for , and among , humankind " . This theme had featured in previous Harrison songs such as " Within You Without You " and " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and would remain prominent in much of his subsequent compositions . The same parallels regarding the universality of love in Harrison 's work has been noted by Dale Allison , author of the first " spiritual biography " on the ex @-@ Beatle ; " When George asks , ' Isn 't It A Pity ? ' , " Allison writes , " the scope of his question is vast : it embraces almost everything . "
Speaking to Billboard editor @-@ in @-@ chief Timothy White in 2000 , Harrison said of " Isn 't It a Pity " : " It 's just an observation of how society and myself were or are . We take each other for granted – and forget to give back . That was really all it was about . "
= = Recording = =
Two contrasting versions of the song were recorded in London in mid 1970 during the sessions for All Things Must Pass , both of which were intended for release , from the outset . According to Harrison , after recording the first version , he had decided he was unhappy with it , and the second version came about by chance " weeks later " , when one of the backing musicians began playing the song during a session . The so @-@ called " Isn 't It a Pity ( Version Two ) " is noticeably slower than the better known , seven @-@ minute " epic " reading of the song . Eric Clapton 's lead guitar fills , phased piano from Tony Ashton , and John Barham @-@ arranged woodwinds dominate Version Two , which is also more in keeping with the Beatles ' earlier attempts on the track ; as with " Ballad of Sir Frankie Crisp " , it features extensive use of the Leslie speaker sound so familiar from the band 's Abbey Road album .
Like the concurrently recorded " My Sweet Lord " , the album 's other " Isn 't It a Pity " betrays the influence of co @-@ producer Phil Spector more so than the comparatively sedate Version Two . It is also the most extreme example of Harrison 's stated intention to allow some of the songs on All Things Must Pass to run longer and feature instrumentation to a greater degree than had been possible within the confines of the more pop @-@ oriented Beatles approach to recording . " Isn 't It a Pity " ( Version One , in its All Things Must Pass context ) starts small and builds – " and it builds and it builds " , NME 's Alan Smith would soon write . Taping of the backing track took place at Abbey Road Studios on 2 June , and judging by Spector 's comments regarding Harrison 's early mixes , the orchestral arrangement was not added until late August at the earliest . The first slide @-@ guitar break on the released recording , quite possibly overdubbed some time after the June sessions also , would adopt a near @-@ identical melody to the one Harrison had vocalised when routining the song for the other Beatles on 26 January 1969 – reflecting a quality admired by Elton John in the latter 's 2002 tribute to Harrison : " All his solos are very melodic – you can almost sing his solos . " Inglis writes that the effect of Harrison 's " elaborate patterns " on slide guitar is to " counterbalance the underlying atmosphere of pessimism with shafts of beauty " , similar to the " notes of light and dark " provided by Pete Drake 's pedal steel on the song " All Things Must Pass " .
Now in the key of G ( two semitones down from the Get Back performance ) , " Isn 't It a Pity " begins " dirge " -like with a two @-@ note pedal point provided by layers of keyboards and acoustic guitars . Only at the one @-@ minute mark , at the start of verse two , does the rhythm section come in , after which the instruments begin to " break out of their metronomic straitjacket to attain an almost ecstatic release " , as Beatles Forever author Nicholas Schaffner put it in 1977 . The " balmy " slide guitar passage , supported by Barham 's string section , follows this second verse , and from that point on – around 2 : 38 – the same , circular chord structure continues for the remaining four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes of the song . The long fade @-@ out sees what Schaffner termed the " pseudo @-@ symphonic tension " burst into a frenzy of brass and timpani , further bottleneck soloing , and the " What a pity " mantra joined by " Hey Jude " -style " Na @-@ na @-@ na @-@ na " chorus .
One of the most obvious examples of what Rolling Stone magazine 's album reviewer later termed " the music of mountain tops and vast horizons " , " Isn 't It a Pity " featured the largest line @-@ up of musicians found on the album – including three or four keyboard players , a trio of extra rhythm guitarists , the orchestral strings , brass and tympani , and a male choir . Harrison 's former bandmate Ringo Starr and two musicians with well @-@ established links to the Beatles , Klaus Voormann and Billy Preston , were among the participants , on drums , bass and organ , respectively . Members of Apple band Badfinger provided the " felt but not heard " acoustic guitars ( behind Harrison 's ) , consistent with Spector 's criteria for his Wall of Sound technique , while author Bruce Spizer has suggested that Peter Frampton may have been among the rhythm guitarists also . Pianist Gary Wright , who would go on to collaborate regularly with Harrison over the subsequent decades , recalls the session for " Isn 't It a Pity " as being his first with Harrison . Bobby Whitlock , the other main keyboard player on All Things Must Pass , with Wright , recalls playing a " phase @-@ shifted pump organ , or harmonium " on the track . Another possible participant is Maurice Gibb , Starr 's Highgate neighbour at the time , who claimed to have played piano on the song .
= = Release = =
Originally , the intention had been to release " Isn 't It a Pity " as the lead single from All Things Must Pass in October 1970 , until Spector and others persuaded Harrison that " My Sweet Lord " was the most obvious choice . The full , seven @-@ minute " Isn 't It a Pity " was therefore issued as a double A @-@ side with " My Sweet Lord " on 23 November in the United States and Canada ( as Apple 2995 ) , four days before the album 's release there . Reflecting the equal status of the two tracks , both sides of the single 's picture sleeve featured the same Barry Feinstein @-@ shot photo of Harrison , the only differences being the song title below Harrison 's name and the fact that the green Apple Records logo and catalogue number appeared only on the side for " My Sweet Lord " .
The single was phenomenally successful in North America , and around the world . Both songs were listed at number 1 on America 's Billboard Hot 100 chart , for four weeks starting on 26 December . In Canada , " Isn 't It a Pity " was the lead side when the single topped the RPM 100 chart for five weeks , through to mid January 1971 . " Isn 't It a Pity " was issued on All Things Must Pass as the final track on side one of the LP format , providing , in biographer Elliot Huntley 's words , an " elegiac , plaintive song of reconciliation " after the angry " Wah @-@ Wah " . Author Robert Rodriguez writes of the public 's perception of " Isn 't It a Pity " on release : " All Things Must Pass was replete with songs that could easily be interpreted as commentary on the Beatles ' breakup ; though this particular song predated the events of 1969 – 1970 , the subtext [ wasn 't ] diminished in the least . " " Isn 't It a Pity ( Version Two ) " appeared as the penultimate track on side four of the original three @-@ record set , thus serving as what Rodriguez terms " a bookend to a nearly completed journey " .
Despite the song 's commercial success , and its standing as one of the most @-@ covered compositions among Harrison 's post @-@ Beatles output , " Isn 't It a Pity " was omitted from EMI / Capitol 's The Best of George Harrison in November 1976 . It was included on the 2009 compilation Let It Roll : Songs by George Harrison , however . A demo version of the song , recorded during the Get Back sessions , is also available on Let It Roll as an iTunes Store exclusive .
A live version from December 1991 , again with Clapton , appears on the album Live in Japan .
= = Reception = =
" Isn 't It a Pity " remains one of Harrison 's most popular songs with critics and fans alike . AllMusic calls it " deeply moving and powerful " , while in their book on the solo Beatles ' recording history , Eight Arms to Hold You , Chip Madinger and Mark Easter declare : " If any George Harrison song can be called ' majestic ' , ' Isn 't It a Pity ' would be the one . " In his December 1970 album review for the NME , Alan Smith described it as a track that " catches the mood of aching tolerance of pain , which Harrison can do so well " and " a ballad which will stand out from the album with the passing of the years " . While reviewing the song 's pairing with " My Sweet Lord " , Billboard magazine wrote of a " powerhouse two @-@ sided winner " with " equally potent lyric lines and infectious rhythms " .
Simon Leng identifies the song as musically " sumptuous " and praises Harrison 's melody and " unique " use of notes beyond the key signature , as well as John Barham 's " evocative , suspended orchestration " . He notes also the similarity of their combined musical counterbalance with elements of Indian raga , in the number of swaras ( tones ) in both ascending and descending scales . To Leng , " Isn 't It a Pity " is the " pivotal song " , the " essence " of All Things Must Pass , encapsulating the album 's struggle between " gospel ecstasy and the failure of human relationships " . He concludes : " Ever bittersweet , ' Isn 't It a Pity ' records the last dying echoes of the Beatles . "
Writing in the late 1970s , Nicholas Schaffner noted the song 's " towering simplicity " and the " endlessly repetitive fade @-@ out that somehow manages to be hypnotic instead of boring " . Like Leng and Schaffner , a number of commentators have remarked on the significance of " Isn 't It a Pity " in the context of the Beatles ' demise , starting with the song 's length : 7 : 10 – just a second under " Hey Jude " . Ben Gerson , in his 1971 Rolling Stone review , described the song as a " lament ... whose beginning is the broken thirds of John 's ' I Am the Walrus ' and whose end is the decadent , exultant last half of Paul 's ' Hey Jude ' " . Peter Doggett considers " Isn 't It a Pity " a " remarkably non @-@ judgemental commentary on the disintegration of the Beatles ' spirit " .
Elliot Huntley has complained of the song 's enforced period in hibernation : " [ It ] simply beggars belief that the track was rejected by Martin , Lennon and McCartney – three men whose reputations rested on their ability to spot a good tune when they heard one . " Huntley views " Isn 't It a Pity " as worthy of " fully fledged standard " status , with Barham 's " soaring " strings and Harrison 's " sublime " slide guitar combining to take the song " into the heavens , where it stays " . Mojo contributor John Harris highlights the song in his review of one of the few " truly essential " solo albums by a former Beatle , writing : " The faster songs [ on All Things Must Pass ] ( eg Wah Wah ) are delightful ; the slowies ( Isn 't It A Pity , Beware Of Darkness ) simply jaw @-@ dropping . "
Speaking in 2001 during promotion for the 30th anniversary reissue of All Things Must Pass , Harrison named the song among his three favourite tracks on the album , along with " Run of the Mill " and " Awaiting on You All " . In 2010 , AOL Radio listeners voted " Isn 't It a Pity " seventh in a poll to find the ten best post @-@ Beatles George Harrison songs . Both Eric Clapton and Tom Petty have named " Isn 't It a Pity " among their favourite two Harrison compositions , Petty calling the song " a masterpiece " . According to Acclaimed Music , " Isn 't It a Pity " is featured in Bruce Pollock 's 2005 book The 7 @,@ 500 Most Important Songs of 1944 – 2000 , while in 2013 , Holland 's Radio 2 program Het Theater van het Sentiment listed the song at number 1 ( ahead of Lennon 's " Imagine " ) in its " Top 40 Songs by Year " for 1971 .
= = Personnel = =
The musicians who performed on the two All Things Must Pass versions of " Isn 't It a Pity " are believed to be as follows .
= = Cover versions = =
In May 1971 , singer Matt Monro released a UK single of " Isn 't It a Pity " ( produced by George Martin ) .
Nicky Thomas recorded the song for his 1971 album Tell It Like It Is .
Ireland 's 1970 Eurovision Song Contest winner , Dana , covered the song in 1971 , a rendition that has been described as a " poignant " commentary to the political upheaval then gripping Ulster .
The Three Degrees recorded " Isn 't It a Pity " during their period on Roulette Records in 1970 – 72 , later released on the 1995 compilation The Roulette Years .
Nina Simone 's " intense " , eleven @-@ minute reworking of " Isn 't It a Pity " was released on her 1972 album Emergency Ward ! , a statement on the Vietnam War which also includes a cover of " My Sweet Lord " . A six @-@ minute version of " Isn 't It a Pity " was issued on the 51 @-@ track compilation The Essential Nina Simone in 1993 . In his autobiography , Harrison says he was influenced by Simone 's treatment when he came to record his song " The Answer 's at the End " in 1975 .
Galaxie 500 covered the song on their On Fire album in 1989 .
A version by Pete Drake appeared on his eponymous solo album , released in 1997 .
The song appears on Television Personalities ' 1998 album Don 't Cry Baby ... It 's Only a Movie .
In March 2001 , 18th Dye contributed a version of " Isn 't It a Pity " to Snowstorm – A Tribute to Galaxie 500 .
At the Concert for George on 29 November 2002 , a year to the day after Harrison 's death , Eric Clapton and Billy Preston performed the song with backing from Dhani Harrison , Jeff Lynne , Gary Brooker , Jim Keltner , Ray Cooper , Jim Horn , Tom Scott and others .
Jay Bennett and Edward Burch recorded " Isn 't It a Pity " for Songs from the Material World : A Tribute to George Harrison , a multi @-@ artist compilation released in February 2003 .
Classical guitarist Joseph Breznikar recorded a version of the song for his 2003 tribute album George Harrison Remembered : A Touch of Class .
Cowboy Junkies covered the song on their Early 21st Century Blues album in 2005 .
Joel Harrison recorded " Isn 't It a Pity " for his album Harrison on Harrison : Jazz Explanations of George Harrison , released in October 2005 .
A cover version by Les Fradkin was released in 2005 on his Something for George tribute album .
Spanish singer Rafo de la Cuba covered the song in December 2005 .
A version by Paul Young was included on his 2006 album Rock Swings .
Pedro Aznar covered the song as " No Es Una Pena ? " , with Spanish lyrics , on his album Quebrado in 2008 .
In September 2008 , members of Heard of Buffalo performed the song for the Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon .
" Isn 't It a Pity " was among a number of Harrison and Beatle covers recorded or performed by Elliott Smith ; a version appears on the 1998 @-@ 08 @-@ 12 : Hoboken , NJ , USA album .
Soul singer Bettye LaVette covered the song on Interpretations : The British Rock Songbook in 2010 .
David McAlmont and Bernard Butler 's performance of " Isn 't It a Pity " was released on the Live From Leicester Square album in February 2011 .
A version by Jonathan Wilson and Graham Nash appeared on Harrison Covered , a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine .
Also in November 2011 , marking the ten @-@ year anniversary of Harrison 's death , Keane recorded a version of the song .
Roberta Flack covered " Isn 't It a Pity " on her album Let It Be Roberta – Roberta Flack Sings The Beatles , released in February 2012 .
My Morning Jacket have included " Isn 't It a Pity " in their live performances ; when playing the song at the Forecastle Festival in July 2012 , they were joined on stage by Dean Wareham of Galaxie 500 .
Local H covered the song on their 2014 album Local H 's Awesome Mix Tape 2
= = Chart positions = =
= Encounter at Farpoint =
" Encounter at Farpoint " is the first episode and series premiere of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , which premiered in syndication on September 28 , 1987 . It was written by D. C. Fontana and Gene Roddenberry and directed by Corey Allen . Roddenberry was the creator of Star Trek , and Fontana was a writer on the original series .
The series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise . In this episode , the crew of the newly built Enterprise examine the mysterious Farpoint Station which the Bandi people are offering to the Federation , while under the gaze of a powerful alien entity that calls itself " Q " ( John de Lancie ) .
The episode was made as a pilot for the new Star Trek series , and was a double length episode at Paramount Television Group 's insistence . After the show was initially announced on
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half a century later , with palaeontologist David Weishampel suggesting that the skeletons from the lower layers stemmed from a herd that died catastrophically in a mudflow , while those in the upper layers accumulated over time . Weishampel explained the curious monospecific assemblage by theorizing that Plateosaurus were common during this period . This theory was erroneously attributed to Seemann in a popular account of the plateosaurs in the collection of the Institute and Museum for Geology and Palaeontology , University of Tübingen , and has since become the standard explanation on most internet sites and in popular books on dinosaurs . Rieber proposed a more elaborate scenario , which included the animals dying of thirst or starvation , and being concentrated by mudflows .
= = = Mud @-@ miring trap = = =
A detailed re @-@ assessment of the taphonomy by palaeontologist Martin Sander of the University of Bonn , Germany , found that the mud @-@ miring hypothesis first suggested by Fraas is true : animals above a certain body weight sank into the mud , which was further liquefied by their attempts to free themselves . Sander 's scenario , similar to that proposed for the famous Rancho La Brea Tar Pits , is the only one explaining all taphonomic data . The degree of completeness of the carcasses was not influenced by transport , which is obvious from the lack of indications for transport before burial , but rather by how much the dead animals were scavenged . Juveniles of Plateosaurus and other taxa of herbivores were too light to sink into the mud or managed to extract themselves , and were thus not preserved . Similarly , scavenging theropods were not trapped due to their lower body weights , combined with proportionally larger feet . There is no indication of herding , or of catastrophic burial of such a herd , or catastrophic accumulation of animals that previously died isolated elsewhere .
= = Palaeobiology = =
= = = Posture and gait = = =
Practically every imaginable posture has been suggested for Plateosaurus in the scientific literature at some point . Von Huene assumed digitigrade bipedality with erect hind limbs for the animals he excavated at Trossingen , with the backbone held at a steep angle ( at least during rapid locomotion ) . In contrast , Jaekel , the main investigator of the Halberstadt material , initially concluded that the animals walked quadrupedally , like lizards , with a sprawling limb position , plantigrade feet , and laterally undulating the body . Only a year later , Jaekel instead favoured a clumsy , kangaroo @-@ like hopping , a change of heart for which he was mocked by German zoologist Gustav Tornier , who interpreted the shape of the articulation surfaces in the hip and shoulder as typically reptilian . Fraas , the first excavator of the Trossingen lagerstätte , also favoured a reptilian posture . Müller @-@ Stoll listed a number of characters required for an erect limb posture that Plateosaurus supposedly lacked , concluding that the lizard @-@ like reconstructions were correct . However , most of these adaptations are actually present in Plateosaurus .
From 1980 on , a better understanding of dinosaur biomechanics , and studies by palaeontologists Andreas Christian and Holger Preuschoft on the resistance to bending of the back of Plateosaurus , led to widespread acceptance of an erect , digitigrade limb posture and a roughly horizontal position of the back . Many researchers were of the opinion that Plateosaurus could use both quadrupedal gaits ( for slow speeds ) and bipedal gaits ( for rapid locomotion ) , and Wellnhofer insisted that the tail curved strongly downward , making a bipedal posture impossible . However , Moser showed that the tail was in fact straight .
The bipedal @-@ quadrupedal consensus was changed by a detailed study of the forelimbs of Plateosaurus by Bonnan and Senter ( 2007 ) , which clearly showed that Plateosaurus was incapable of pronating its hands . The pronated position in some museum mounts had been achieved by exchanging the position of radius and ulna in the elbow . The lack of forelimb pronation meant that Plateosaurus was an obligate ( i.e. unable to walk in any other way ) biped . Further indicators for a purely bipedal mode of locomotion are the great difference in limb length ( the hind limb is roughly twice as long as the forelimb ) , the very limited motion range of the forelimb , and the fact that the centre of mass rests squarely over the hind limbs .
Plateosaurus shows a number of cursorial adaptations , including an erect hind limb posture , a relatively long lower leg , an elongated metatarsus and a digitigrade foot posture . However , in contrast to mammalian cursors , the moment arms of the limb extending muscles are short , especially in the ankle , where a distinct , moment arm @-@ increasing tuber on the calcaneum is missing . This means that in contrast to running mammals , Plateosaurus probably did not use gaits with aerial , unsupported phases . Instead , Plateosaurus must have increased speed by using higher stride frequencies , created by rapid and powerful limb retraction . Reliance on limb retraction instead of extension is typical for non @-@ avian dinosaurs .
= = = Feeding and diet = = =
Important cranial characteristics ( such as jaw articulation ) of most " prosauropods " are closer to those of herbivorous reptiles than those of carnivorous ones , and the shape of the tooth crown is similar to that of modern herbivorous or omnivorous iguanas . The maximum width of the crown was greater than that of the root for the teeth of most " prosauropods " , including Plateosaurus ; this results in a cutting edge similar to those of extant herbivorous or omnivorous reptiles . Paul Barrett proposed that prosauropods supplemented their herbivorous diets with small prey or carrion .
So far , no fossil of Plateosaurus has been found with gastroliths ( gizzard stones ) in the stomach area . The old , widely cited idea that all large dinosaurs , implicitly also Plateosaurus , swallowed gastroliths to digest food because of their relatively limited ability to deal with food orally has been refuted by a study on gastrolith abundance , weight , and surface structure in fossils compared to alligators and ostriches by Oliver Wings . The use of gastroliths for digestion seems to have developed on the line from basal theropods to birds , with a parallel development in Psittacosaurus .
= = = Growth , metabolism and life span = = =
Similar to all non @-@ avian dinosaurs studied to date , Plateosaurus grew in a pattern that is unlike that of both extant mammals and birds . In the closely related sauropods with their typical dinosaurian physiology , growth was initially rapid , continuing somewhat more slowly well beyond sexual maturity , but was determinate , i.e. the animals stopped growing at a maximum size . Mammals grow rapidly , but sexual maturity falls typically at the end of the rapid growth phase . In both groups , the final size is relatively constant , with humans atypically variable . Extant reptiles show a sauropod @-@ like growth pattern , initially rapid , then slowing after sexual maturity , and almost , but not fully , stopping in old age . However , their initial growth rate is much lower than in mammals , birds and dinosaurs . The reptilian growth rate is also very variable , so that individuals of the same age may have very different sizes , and final size also varies significantly . In extant animals , this growth pattern is linked to behavioural thermoregulation and a low metabolic rate ( i.e. ectothermy ) , and is called " developmental plasticity " . ( Note that is not the same as neural developmental plasticity ) .
Plateosaurus followed a trajectory similar to sauropods , but with a varied growth rate and final size as seen in extant reptiles , probably in response to environmental factors such as food availability . Some individuals were fully grown at only 4 @.@ 8 metres ( 16 ft ) total length , while others reached 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . However , the bone microstructure indicates rapid growth , as in sauropods and extant mammals , which suggests endothermy . Plateosaurus apparently represents an early stage in the development of endothermy , in which endothermy was decoupled from developmental plasticity . This hypothesis is based on a detailed study of Plateosaurus long @-@ bone histology conducted by Martin Sander and Nicole Klein of the University of Bonn . A further indication for endothermy is the avian @-@ style lung of Plateosaurus .
Long @-@ bone histology also allows estimating the age a specific individual reached . Sander and Klein found that some individuals were fully grown at 12 years of age , others were still slowly growing at 20 years , and one individual was still growing rapidly at 18 years . The oldest individual found was 27 years and still growing ; most individuals were between 12 and 20 years old . However , some may well have lived much longer , because the fossils from Frick and Trossingen are all animals that died in accidents , and not from old age . Due to the absence of individuals smaller than 4 @.@ 8 metres ( 16 ft ) long , it is not possible to deduce a complete ontogenetic series for Plateosaurus or determine the growth rate of animals less than 10 years of age .
= = = Daily activity patterns = = =
Comparisons between the scleral rings and estimated orbit size of Plateosaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day and night , possibly avoiding the mid @-@ day heat .
= Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands =
The Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands , fought during 25 – 27 October 1942 , sometimes referred to as the Battle of Santa Cruz or in Japanese sources as the Battle of the South Pacific ( 南太平洋海戦 ) , was the fourth carrier battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II and the fourth major naval engagement fought between the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the lengthy and strategically important Guadalcanal campaign . In similar fashion to the battles of Coral Sea , Midway , and the Eastern Solomons , the ships of the two adversaries were rarely in direct visual range of each other . Instead , almost all attacks by both sides were mounted by carrier or land @-@ based aircraft .
In an attempt to drive Allied forces from Guadalcanal and nearby islands and end the stalemate that had existed since September 1942 , the Imperial Japanese Army planned a major ground offensive on Guadalcanal for 20 – 25 October 1942 . In support of this offensive , and with the hope of engaging Allied naval forces , Japanese carriers and other large warships moved into a position near the southern Solomon Islands . From this location , the Japanese naval forces hoped to engage and decisively defeat any Allied ( primarily U.S. ) naval forces , especially carrier forces , that responded to the ground offensive . Allied naval forces also hoped to meet the Japanese naval forces in battle , with the same objectives of breaking the stalemate and decisively defeating their adversary .
The Japanese ground offensive on Guadalcanal was under way in the Battle for Henderson Field while the naval warships and aircraft from the two adversaries confronted each other on the morning of 26 October 1942 , just north of the Santa Cruz Islands . After an exchange of carrier air attacks , Allied surface ships were forced to retreat from the battle area with one carrier sunk and another heavily damaged . The participating Japanese carrier forces , however , also retired because of high aircraft and aircrew losses plus significant damage to two carriers . Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk and damaged , the loss of many irreplaceable , veteran aircrews would prove to be a long term strategic advantage for the Allies , whose aircrew losses in the battle were relatively low and could be quickly replaced . The high casualties for the Japanese prevented their carrier forces from further significant involvement in the battle for Guadalcanal , contributing to the eventual Allied victory in that campaign .
= = Background = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Japanese @-@ occupied Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of neutralising the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
After the Battle of the Eastern Solomons from 24 – 25 August , in which the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise was heavily damaged and forced to travel to Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , for a month of major repairs , three U.S. carrier task forces remained in the South Pacific area . The task forces included the carriers USS Wasp , Saratoga , and Hornet plus their respective air groups and supporting surface warships , including battleships , cruisers , and destroyers , and were primarily stationed between the Solomons and New Hebrides ( Vanuatu ) islands . At this location , the carriers were charged with guarding the line of communication between the major Allied bases at New Caledonia and Espiritu Santo , supporting the Allied ground forces at Guadalcanal and Tulagi against any Japanese counteroffensives , covering the movement of supply ships to Guadalcanal , and engaging and destroying any Japanese warships , especially carriers , that came within range .
The area of ocean in which the U.S. carrier task forces operated was known as " Torpedo Junction " by U.S. forces because of the high concentration of Japanese submarines in the area .
On 31 August , USS Saratoga was torpedoed by Japanese submarine I @-@ 26 and was out of action for three months for repairs . On 14 September , USS Wasp was hit by three torpedoes fired by Japanese submarine I @-@ 19 while supporting a major reinforcement and resupply convoy to Guadalcanal and almost engaging two Japanese carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku ( which withdrew just before the two adversaries came into range of each other 's aircraft ) . With power knocked out from torpedo damage , Wasp 's damage @-@ control teams were unable to contain the ensuing large fires , and she was abandoned and scuttled .
Although the U.S. now had only one operational carrier ( Hornet ) in the South Pacific , the Allies still maintained air superiority over the southern Solomon Islands because of their aircraft based at Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . However , at night , when aircraft were not able to operate effectively , the Japanese were able to operate their ships around Guadalcanal almost at will . Thus , a stalemate in the battle for Guadalcanal developed , with the Allies delivering supplies and reinforcements to Guadalcanal during the day , and the Japanese doing the same by warship ( called the " Tokyo Express " by the Allies ) at night , with neither side able to deliver enough troops to the island to secure a decisive advantage . By mid @-@ October , both sides had roughly an equal number of troops on the island . The stalemate was briefly interrupted by two large @-@ ship naval actions . On the night of 11 / 12 October , a U.S. naval force intercepted and defeated a Japanese naval force en route to bombard Henderson Field in the Battle of Cape Esperance . But just two nights later , a Japanese force that included the battleships Haruna and Kongō successfully bombarded Henderson Field , destroying most of the U.S. aircraft and inflicting severe damage on the field 's facilities . Although still marginally operational , it took several weeks for the airfield to recover from the damage and replace the destroyed aircraft .
At this time , the U.S. made two moves to try to break the stalemate in the battle for Guadalcanal . First , repairs to Enterprise were expedited so that she could return to the South Pacific as soon as possible . On 10 October , Enterprise received her new air groups ; on 16 October , she left Pearl Harbor ; and on 23 October , she arrived back in the South Pacific and rendezvoused with Hornet and the rest of the Allied South Pacific naval forces on 24 October , 273 nmi ( 506 km ; 314 mi ) northeast of Espiritu Santo .
Second , on 18 October , Admiral Chester Nimitz , Allied Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Pacific Forces , replaced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley with Vice Admiral William Halsey , Jr. as Commander , South Pacific Area : this position commanded Allied forces involved in the Solomon Islands campaign . Nimitz felt that Ghormley had become too myopic and pessimistic to lead Allied forces effectively in the struggle for Guadalcanal . Halsey was reportedly respected throughout the U.S. naval fleet as a " fighter . " Upon assuming command , Halsey immediately began making plans to draw the Japanese naval forces into a battle , writing to Nimitz , " I had to begin throwing punches almost immediately . "
The Japanese Combined Fleet was also seeking to draw Allied naval forces into what was hoped to be a decisive battle . Two fleet carriers — Hiyō and Junyō — and one light carrier — Zuihō — arrived at the main Japanese naval base at Truk Atoll from Japan in early October and joined Shōkaku and Zuikaku . With five carriers fully equipped with air groups , plus their numerous battleships , cruisers , and destroyers , the Japanese Combined Fleet , directed by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , was confident that it could make up for the defeat at the Battle of Midway . Apart from a couple of air raids on Henderson Field in October , the Japanese carriers and their supporting warships stayed in the northwestern area of the Solomon Islands , out of the battle for Guadalcanal and waiting for a chance to approach and engage the U.S. carriers . With the Japanese Army 's next planned major ground attack on Allied forces on Guadalcanal set for 20 October , Yamamoto 's warships began to move towards the southern Solomons to support the offensive and to be ready to engage any Allied ( primarily U.S. ) ships , especially carriers , that approached to support the Allied defenses on Guadalcanal .
= = Prelude = =
From 20 – 25 October , Japanese land forces on Guadalcanal attempted to capture Henderson Field with a large @-@ scale attack against U.S. troops defending the airfield . However , the attack was decisively defeated with heavy casualties for the Japanese during the Battle for Henderson Field .
Incorrectly believing that the Japanese army troops had succeeded in capturing Henderson Field , a force of Japanese warships approached Guadalcanal on the morning of 25 October to provide further support for the army offensive . Aircraft from Henderson Field attacked the convoy throughout the day , sinking the light cruiser Yura and damaging the destroyer Akizuki .
Despite the failure of the Japanese ground offensive and the loss of Yura , the rest of the Combined Fleet continued to maneuver near the southern Solomon Islands on 25 October with the hope of encountering Allied naval forces in battle . The Japanese naval forces now consisted of four carriers , because Hiyō had suffered an accidental , damaging fire in her engine room on October 22 that forced her to return to Truk for repairs .
The Japanese naval forces were divided into three groups : The " Advanced " force consisted of the carrier Jun 'yō , plus two battleships , four heavy cruisers , one light cruiser , and 10 destroyers , and was commanded by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō in heavy cruiser Atago ;
the " Main Body " consisted of Shōkaku , Zuikaku , and Zuihō plus one heavy cruiser and eight destroyers , and was commanded by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo aboard Shōkaku ;
the " Vanguard " force contained two battleships , three heavy cruisers , one light cruiser , and seven destroyers , and was commanded by Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe in battleship Hiei . In addition to commanding the Advanced force , Kondo acted as the overall commander of the three forces .
The U.S. naval forces were deployed as two separate carrier groups , Task Force 16 under command of Rear Admiral Thomas Kinkaid and built around carrier Enterprise , and Task Force 17 under command of Rear Admiral George Murray and built around carrier Hornet . The two groups were under overall command by Kinkaid , and were separated from each other by about 10 nmi ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) . The carriers were supported by one battleship ( USS South Dakota ) , three heavy cruisers ( Portland , Northampton , Pensacola ) , three light anti @-@ aircraft cruisers ( San Juan , San Diego , Juneau ) , and 14 destroyers . A third U.S. task force , Task Force 64 , commanded by Rear Admiral Willis Lee , consisted of battleship USS Washington , heavy cruiser San Francisco , light cruiser Helena , anti @-@ aircraft cruiser Atlanta , and 6 destroyers . This last force , however , had withdrawn to the South East for fueling , and played no part in the upcoming battle .
The two U.S. carrier groups swept around to the north of the Santa Cruz Islands on October 25 searching for the Japanese naval forces . A U.S. PBY Catalina based in the Santa Cruz Islands located the Japanese Main body carriers at 11 : 03 . However , the Japanese carriers were about 355 nmi ( 657 km ; 409 mi ) from the U.S. force , just beyond carrier aircraft range . Kinkaid , hoping to close the range to be able to execute an attack that day , steamed towards the Japanese carriers at top speed and , at 14 : 25 , launched a strike force of 23 aircraft . But the Japanese , knowing that they had been spotted by U.S. aircraft and not knowing where the U.S. carriers were , turned to the north to stay out of range of the U.S. carriers ' aircraft . Thus , the U.S. strike force returned to their carriers without finding or attacking the Japanese warships .
= = Battle = =
= = = Carrier action on 26 October : first strikes = = =
At 02 : 50 on 26 October , the Japanese naval forces reversed direction and the naval forces of the two adversaries closed the distance until they were only 200 nmi ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) away from each other by 05 : 00 . Both sides launched search aircraft and prepared their remaining aircraft to attack as soon as the other side 's ships were located . Although a radar @-@ equipped PBY Catalina sighted the Japanese carriers at 03 : 10 , the report did not reach Kinkaid until 05 : 12 . Therefore , believing that the Japanese ships had probably changed position during the intervening two hours , he decided to withhold launching a strike force until he received more current information on the location of the Japanese ships .
At 06 : 45 , a U.S. scout aircraft sighted the carriers of Nagumo 's main body . At 06 : 58 , a Japanese scout aircraft reported the location of Hornet 's task force . Both sides raced to be the first to attack the other . The Japanese were first to get their strike force launched , with 64 aircraft , including 21 Aichi D3A2 dive bombers , 20 Nakajima B5N2 torpedo bombers , 21 A6M3 Zero fighters , and two Nakajima B5N2 command and control aircraft on the way towards Hornet by 07 : 40 . Also at 07 : 40 , two U.S. SBD @-@ 3 Dauntless scout aircraft , responding to the earlier sighting of the Japanese carriers , arrived and dove on Zuihō . With the Japanese combat air patrol ( CAP ) busy chasing other U.S. scout aircraft away , the two U.S. aircraft were able to hit Zuihō with both their 500 @-@ pound bombs , causing heavy damage and preventing the carrier 's flight deck from being able to land aircraft .
Meanwhile , Kondo ordered Abe 's Vanguard force to race ahead to try to intercept and engage the U.S. warships . Kondo also brought his own Advanced force forward at maximum speed so that Junyō 's aircraft could join in the attacks on the U.S. ships . At 08 : 10 , Shōkaku launched a second wave of strike aircraft , consisting of 19 dive bombers and eight Zeros , and Zuikaku launched 16 torpedo bombers at 08 : 40 . Thus , by 09 : 10 the Japanese had 110 aircraft on the way to attack the U.S. carriers .
The U.S. strike aircraft were running about 20 minutes behind the Japanese . Believing that a speedy attack was more important than a massed attack , and because they lacked fuel to spend time assembling prior to the strike , the U.S. aircraft proceeded in small groups towards the Japanese ships , rather than forming into a single large strike force . The first group — consisting of 15 Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers , six Grumman TBF @-@ 1 Avenger torpedo bombers , and eight Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters , led by Lieutenant Commander R. Eation from Hornet — was on its way by about 08 : 00 . A second group — consisting of three SBDs , seven TBFs , and eight Wildcats from Enterprise — was off by 08 : 10 . A third group — which included nine SBDs , eight TBFs , and seven F4Fs from Hornet — was on its way by 08 : 20 .
At 08 : 40 , the opposing aircraft strike formations passed within sight of each other . Nine Zeros from Zuihō surprised and attacked the Enterprise group , attacking the climbing aircraft from out of the sun . In the resulting engagement , four Zeros , three Wildcats , and two TBFs were shot down , with another two TBFs and a Wildcat forced by heavy damage to return to Enterprise .
At 08 : 50 , the lead U.S. attack formation from Hornet spotted four ships from Abe 's Vanguard force . Pressing on , the U.S. aircraft sighted the Japanese carriers and prepared to attack . Three Zeros from Zuihō attacked the formation 's Wildcats , drawing them away from the bombers they were assigned to protect . Thus , the dive bombers in the first group initiated their attacks without fighter escort . Twenty Zeros from the Japanese carrier CAP attacked the SBD formation and shot down four of them . The remaining 11 SBDs commenced their attack dives on Shōkaku at 09 : 27 , hitting her with three to six bombs , wrecking her flight deck and causing serious damage to the interior of the ship . The final SBD of the 11 lost track of Shōkaku and instead dropped its bomb near the Japanese destroyer Teruzuki , causing minor damage . The six TBFs in the first strike force , having become separated from their strike group , missed finding the Japanese carriers and eventually turned back towards Hornet . On the way back , they attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Tone , missing with all of their torpedoes .
The TBFs of the second U.S. attack formation from Enterprise were unable to locate the Japanese carriers and instead attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Suzuya from Abe 's Vanguard force but caused no damage . At about the same time , the third U.S. attack formation — from Hornet — found Abe 's ships and attacked the Japanese heavy cruiser Chikuma , hitting her with two 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) bombs and causing heavy damage . The three Enterprise SBDs then arrived and also attacked Chikuma , causing more damage with one bomb hit and two near @-@ misses . Finally , the eight TBFs from the third strike group arrived and attacked the smoking Chikuma , scoring one more hit . Chikuma — escorted by two destroyers — withdrew from the battle and headed towards Truk for repairs .
The U.S. carrier forces received word from their outbound strike aircraft at 08 : 30 that Japanese attack aircraft were headed their way . At 08 : 52 , the Japanese strike force commander sighted the Hornet task force ( the Enterprise task force was hidden by a rain squall ) and deployed his aircraft for attack . At 08 : 55 , the U.S. carriers detected the approaching Japanese aircraft on radar — about 35 nmi ( 65 km ; 40 mi ) away — and began to vector the 37 Wildcats of their CAP to engage the incoming Japanese aircraft . However , communication problems , mistakes by the U.S. fighter control directors , and primitive control procedures prevented all but a few of the U.S. fighters from engaging the Japanese aircraft before they began their attacks on Hornet . Although the U.S. CAP was able to shoot down several dive bombers , most of the Japanese aircraft commenced their attacks relatively unmolested by U.S. fighters .
At 09 : 09 , the anti @-@ aircraft guns of Hornet and her escorting warships opened fire as the 20 untouched Japanese torpedo planes and remaining 16 dive bombers commenced their attacks on the carrier . At 09 : 12 , a dive bomber placed its 551 lb ( 250 kg ) , semi @-@ armor @-@ piercing bomb dead center on Hornet 's flight deck , across from the island , which penetrated three decks before exploding , killing 60 men . Moments later , a 534 lb ( 242 kg ) " land " bomb struck the flight deck , detonating on impact and creating an 11 ft ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) hole as well as killing 30 men . A minute or so later , a third bomb hit Hornet near where the first bomb hit , penetrating three decks before exploding , causing severe damage but no direct loss of life . At 09 : 14 , a dive bomber was hit and damaged by Hornet 's anti @-@ aircraft guns ; on fire , the damaged aircraft deliberately crashed into Hornet 's stack , killing seven men and spreading burning aviation fuel over the signal deck .
At the same time that the dive bombers were attacking , the 20 torpedo bombers were also approaching Hornet from two different directions . Despite suffering heavy losses from anti @-@ aircraft fire , the torpedo planes planted two torpedoes into Hornet 's side between 09 : 13 and 09 : 17 , knocking out her engines . As Hornet glided to a stop , a damaged Japanese dive bomber approached and purposely crashed into the carrier 's side , starting a fire near the ship 's main supply of aviation fuel . At 09 : 20 , the surviving Japanese aircraft departed , leaving Hornet dead in the water and burning . Twenty @-@ five Japanese aircraft and six American aircraft were destroyed in this attack .
With the assistance of firehoses from three escorting destroyers , the fires on Hornet were under control by 10 : 00 . Wounded personnel were evacuated from the carrier , and an attempt was made by the heavy cruiser USS Northampton to tow Hornet away from the battle area . However , the effort to rig the towline took some time , and more attack waves of Japanese aircraft were inbound .
= = = Carrier action on October 26 : post @-@ first strike actions = = =
Starting at 09 : 30 , Enterprise landed many of the damaged and fuel @-@ depleted CAP fighters and returning scout aircraft from both carriers . However , with her flight deck full , and the second wave of Japanese aircraft inbound , which was detected on radar at 09 : 30 , Enterprise ceased landing operations at 10 : 00 . Fuel @-@ depleted aircraft then began ditching in the ocean as the carrier 's escorting destroyers rescued the aircrews . One of the ditching aircraft , a damaged TBF from Enterprise 's strike force that had been attacked earlier by Zuihō Zeros , crashed into the water near the destroyer USS Porter . As Porter rescued the TBF 's aircrew , she was struck by a torpedo , perhaps from the ditched aircraft , causing heavy damage and killing 15 crewmen . After the task force commander ordered the destroyer scuttled , the crew was rescued by the destroyer USS Shaw which then sank Porter with gunfire ( 08 ° 32 ′ S 167 ° 17 ′ E ) .
As the first wave of Japanese strike aircraft began returning to their carriers from their attack on Hornet , one of them spotted the Enterprise task force ( which had just emerged from a rain squall ) and reported the carrier 's position . Thus , the second Japanese aircraft strike wave — believing Hornet to be sinking — directed their attacks on the Enterprise task force , beginning at 10 : 08 . Again , the U.S. CAP had trouble intercepting the Japanese aircraft before they attacked Enterprise , shooting down only two of the 19 dive bombers as they began their dives on the carrier . Attacking through the intense anti @-@ aircraft fire put up by Enterprise and her escorting warships , the bombers hit the carrier with two 551 lb ( 250 kg ) bombs and near @-@ missed with another . The bombs killed 44 men and wounded 75 , and caused heavy damage to the carrier , including jamming her forward elevator in the " up " position . Twelve of the 19 Japanese bombers were lost in this attack .
Twenty minutes later , the 16 Zuikaku torpedo planes arrived and split up to attack Enterprise . One group of torpedo bombers was attacked by two CAP Wildcats which shot down three of them and damaged a fourth . On fire , the fourth damaged aircraft purposely crashed into the destroyer Smith , setting the ship on fire and killing 57 of her crew . To make matters worse , the torpedo carried by this aircraft somehow survived the initial impact but detonated shortly afterward , causing even more damage . The fires initially seemed out of control until Smith 's commanding officer ordered the destroyer to steer into the large spraying wake of the battleship USS South Dakota , which helped put out the fires . Smith then resumed her station , firing her remaining anti @-@ aircraft guns at the still attacking torpedo planes .
The remaining torpedo planes attacked Enterprise , South Dakota , and cruiser Portland , but all of their torpedoes missed or were duds , causing no damage . The engagement was over at 10 : 53 ; nine of the 16 torpedo aircraft were lost in this attack . After suppressing most of the onboard fires , at 11 : 15 Enterprise reopened her flight deck to begin landing returning aircraft from the morning U.S. strikes on the Japanese warship forces . However , only a few aircraft landed before the next wave of Japanese strike aircraft arrived and began their attacks on Enterprise , forcing a suspension of landing operations .
Between 09 : 05 and 09 : 14 , Junyō had arrived within 280 nmi ( 320 mi ; 520 km ) of the U.S. carriers and launched a strike of 17 dive bombers and 12 Zeros . As the Japanese Main body and Advanced force maneuvered to try to join formations , Junyō readied follow @-@ up strikes . At 11 : 21 , the Junyō aircraft arrived and dove on the Enterprise task force . The dive bombers scored one near miss on Enterprise , causing more damage , and one hit each on South Dakota and light cruiser San Juan , causing moderate damage to both ships . Eleven of the 17 Japanese dive bombers were destroyed in this attack .
At 11 : 35 , Kinkaid decided to withdraw Enterprise and her screening ships from the field of battle , since Hornet was out of action , Enterprise was heavily damaged , and surmising ( correctly ) that the Japanese had one or two undamaged carriers in the area . Leaving Hornet behind , all Kinkaid could do was to direct the carrier and her task force to retreat as soon as they were able . Between 11 : 39 and 13 : 22 , Enterprise recovered 57 of the 73 airborne U.S. aircraft as she headed away from the battle . The remaining U.S. aircraft ditched in the ocean , and their aircrews were rescued by escorting warships .
Between 11 : 40 and 14 : 00 , the two undamaged Japanese carriers , Zuikaku and Junyō , recovered the few aircraft that returned from the morning strikes on Hornet and Enterprise and prepared follow @-@ up strikes . It was now that the devastating losses sustained during these attacks became all too apparent . Lt. Cmdr. Okumiya Masatake , Junyō 's air staff officer , described the return of the carrier 's first strike groups :
Only one of Junyō 's bomber leaders returned from the first strike , and upon landing he appeared " so shaken that at times he could not speak coherently . "
At 13 : 00 , Kondo 's Advanced force and Abe 's Vanguard force warships together headed directly towards the last reported position of the U.S. carrier task forces and increased speed to try to intercept them for a warship gunfire battle . The damaged carriers Zuihō and Shōkaku , with Nagumo still on board , retreated from the battle area , leaving Rear Admiral Kakuji Kakuta in charge of the Zuikaku and Junyō aircraft forces . At 13 : 06 , Junyō launched her second strike of seven torpedo planes and eight Zeros , and Zuikaku launched her third strike of seven torpedo planes , two dive bombers , and five Zeros . At 15 : 35 , Junyō launched the last Japanese strike force of the day , consisting of four bombers and six Zeros .
After several technical problems , Northampton finally began slowly towing Hornet out of the battle area at 14 : 45 , but only at a speed of five knots . Hornet 's crew was on the verge of restoring partial power but at 15 : 20 , Junyō 's second strike arrived , and the seven torpedo planes attacked the almost stationary carrier . Although six of the torpedo planes missed , at 15 : 23 , one torpedo struck Hornet mid @-@ ship , which proved to be the fatal blow . The torpedo hit destroyed the repairs to the power system and caused heavy flooding and a 14 ° list . With no power to pump out the water , Hornet was given up for lost , and the crew abandoned ship . The third strike from Zuikaku attacked Hornet during this time , hitting the sinking ship with one more bomb . All of the Hornet 's crewmen were off by 16 : 27 . The last Japanese strike of the day dropped one more bomb on the sinking carrier at 17 : 20 .
After being informed that Japanese forces were approaching and that further towing efforts were unfeasible , Admiral Halsey ordered the Hornet sunk . While the rest of the U.S. warships retired towards the southeast to get out of range of Kondo 's and Abe 's oncoming fleet , destroyers USS Mustin and Anderson attempted to scuttle Hornet with multiple torpedoes and over 400 shells , but she still remained afloat . With advancing Japanese naval forces only 20 minutes away , the two U.S. destroyers abandoned Hornet 's burning hulk at 20 : 40 . By 22 : 20 , the rest of Kondo 's and Abe 's warships had arrived at Hornet 's location . Upon finding the carrier that had launched the Doolittle Raid , the Japanese briefly considered taking Hornet as a war trophy , but ultimately decided that she was too damaged to try to capture . The destroyers Makigumo and Akigumo then finished Hornet with four 24 in ( 610 mm ) torpedoes . At 01 : 35 on 27 October 1942 , she finally sank on the approximated position 08 ° 38 ′ S 166 ° 43 ′ E. Several night attacks by radar @-@ equipped Catalinas on Junyō and Teruzuki , knowledge of the head start the U.S. warships had in their retreat from the area , plus a critical fuel situation apparently caused the Japanese to reconsider further pursuit of the U.S. warships . After refueling near the northern Solomon Islands , the ships returned to their main base at Truk on 30 October . During the U.S. retirement from the battle area towards Espiritu Santo and New Caledonia , South Dakota collided with destroyer Mahan , heavily damaging the destroyer .
= = Aftermath = =
The Japanese claimed victory by claiming to have sunk three American carriers , one battleship , one cruiser , one destroyer and one " unidentified large warship " along with 79 American carrier aircraft destroyed ( plus many more sunk on the carriers ) . In fact , the Americans lost one carrier ( Hornet ) and the destroyer Porter . The Enterprise was heavily damaged as was the battleship South Dakota , the light cruiser San Juan , and the destroyers Smith and Mahan . Of the 175 U.S. aircraft at the start of the battle , 81 were lost ( 33 fighters , 28 dive @-@ bombers , and 20 torpedo bombers ) .
For the Japanese , two carriers ( Shōkaku and Zuihō ) and the heavy cruiser Chikuma had been badly damaged and 99 of 203 Japanese carrier aircraft involved in the battle had been lost .
The loss of Hornet was a severe blow for Allied forces in the South Pacific , leaving Enterprise as the one operational , but damaged , Allied carrier in the entire Pacific theater . As she retreated from the battle , the crew posted a sign on the flight deck : " Enterprise vs Japan . "
Enterprise received temporary repairs at New Caledonia and , although still somewhat damaged , returned to the southern Solomons area just two weeks later to support Allied forces during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , playing an important role in what turned out to be the decisive naval engagement in the overall campaign for Guadalcanal .
Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk , it came at a high cost for Japanese naval forces . Both damaged carriers were forced to return to Japan for extensive repairs and refitting . After repair , Zuihō returned to Truk in late January 1943 . Shōkaku was under repair until March 1943 and did not return to the front until July 1943 , when she was reunited with Zuikaku at Truk .
The most significant losses for the Japanese Navy , however , were in aircrew . The U.S. lost 81 aircraft along with 26 pilots and aircrew members in the battle . The Japanese , on the other hand , lost 99 aircraft and 148 pilots and aircrew members including two dive bomber group leaders , three torpedo squadron leaders , and 18 other section or flight leaders . Forty @-@ nine percent of the Japanese torpedo bomber aircrews involved in the battle were killed along with 39 % of the dive bomber crews and 20 % of the fighter pilots . The Japanese lost more aircrew at Santa Cruz than they had lost in each of the three previous carrier battles at Coral Sea ( 90 ) , Midway ( 110 ) , and Eastern Solomons ( 61 ) . By the end of the Santa Cruz battle , at least 409 of the 765 elite Japanese carrier aviators who had participated in the Attack on Pearl Harbor were dead .
Having lost so many of its veteran carrier aircrew , and with no quick way to replace them because of an institutionalized limited capacity in its naval aircrew training programs and an absence of trained reserves , the undamaged Zuikaku and Hiyō were also forced to return to Japan because of a scarcity of trained aircrew to man their air groups . Although the Japanese carriers returned to Truk by the summer of 1943 , they played no further offensive role in the Solomon Islands campaign .
Admiral Nagumo , upon being relieved of command shortly after the battle and reassigned to shore duty in Japan , stated in his report to the Combined Fleet Headquarters : " This battle was a tactical win , but a shattering strategic loss for Japan . Considering the great superiority of our enemy 's industrial capacity , we must win every battle overwhelmingly in order to win this war . This last one , although a victory , unfortunately , was not an overwhelming victory . "
In retrospect , despite being a tactical victory , the battle effectively ended any hope the Japanese navy might have had of scoring a decisive victory before the industrial might of the United States placed that goal out of reach . Historian Eric Hammel summed up the significance of the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands as , " Santa Cruz was a Japanese victory . That victory cost Japan her last best hope to win the war . "
Military historian Dr. John Prados offers a dissenting view : this was not a Pyrrhic Victory for Japan , but a Strategic victory .
" By any reasonable measure the Battle of Santa Cruz marked a Japanese victory -- and a strategic one . At its end the Imperial Navy possessed the only operational carrier force in the Pacific . The Japanese had sunk more ships and more combat tonnage , had more aircraft remaining , and were in physical possession of the battle zone ... Arguments based on aircrew losses or who owned Guadalcanal are about something else -- the campaign , not the battle . "
In his view , the real story of the aftermath is that the Imperial Navy failed to exploit the hard @-@ won victory .
= The Boat Race 1952 =
The 98th Boat Race took place on 29 March 1952 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former Cambridge rower Kenneth Payne , Oxford won by a canvas in a time of 20 minutes 23 seconds . At no point during the contest was there clear water between the boats . The race , described as " one of the closest fought of all time " , was their second win in seven years and took the overall record in the event to 53 – 44 in Cambridge 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues "
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the image reel . Gaumont licensed the technology and briefly put it to commercial use under the name Cinéphone .
Domestic competition , however , eclipsed Phonofilm . By September 1925 , De Forest and Case 's working arrangement had fallen through . The following July , Case joined Fox Film , Hollywood 's third largest studio , to found the Fox @-@ Case Corporation . The system developed by Case and his assistant , Earl Sponable , given the name Movietone , thus became the first viable sound @-@ on @-@ film technology controlled by a Hollywood movie studio . The following year , Fox purchased the North American rights to the Tri @-@ Ergon system , though the company found it inferior to Movietone and virtually impossible to integrate the two different systems to advantage . In 1927 , as well , Fox retained the services of Freeman Owens , who had particular expertise in constructing cameras for synch @-@ sound film .
= = = Advanced sound @-@ on @-@ disc = = =
Parallel with improvements in sound @-@ on @-@ film technology , a number of companies were making progress with systems that recorded movie sound on phonograph discs . In sound @-@ on @-@ disc technology from the era , a phonograph turntable is connected by a mechanical interlock to a specially modified film projector , allowing for synchronization . In 1921 , the Photokinema sound @-@ on @-@ disc system developed by Orlando Kellum was employed to add synchronized sound sequences to D. W. Griffith 's failed silent film Dream Street . A love song , performed by star Ralph Graves , was recorded , as was a sequence of live vocal effects . Apparently , dialogue scenes were also recorded , but the results were unsatisfactory and the film was never publicly screened incorporating them . On May 1 , 1921 , Dream Street was re @-@ released , with love song added , at New York City 's Town Hall theater , qualifying it — however haphazardly — as the first feature @-@ length film with a live @-@ recorded vocal sequence . There would be no others for more than six years .
In 1925 , Sam Warner of Warner Bros. , then a small Hollywood studio with big ambitions , saw a demonstration of the Western Electric sound @-@ on @-@ disc system and was sufficiently impressed to persuade his brothers to agree to experiment with using this system at New York 's Vitagraph Studios , which they had recently purchased . The tests were convincing to the Warner Brothers , if not to the executives of some other picture companies who witnessed them . Consequently , in April 1926 the Western Electric Company entered into a contract with Warner Brothers and W. J. Rich , a financier , giving them an exclusive license for recording and reproducing sound pictures under the Western Electric system . To exploit this license the Vitaphone Corporation was organized with Samuel L. Warner as its president . Vitaphone , as this system was now called , was publicly introduced on August 6 , 1926 , with the premiere of the nearly three @-@ hour @-@ long Don Juan ; the first feature @-@ length movie to employ a synchronized sound system of any type throughout , its soundtrack contained a musical score and added sound effects , but no recorded dialogue — in other words , it had been staged and shot as a silent film . Accompanying Don Juan , however , were eight shorts of musical performances , mostly classical , as well as a four @-@ minute filmed introduction by Will H. Hays , president of the Motion Picture Association of America , all with live @-@ recorded sound . These were the first true sound films exhibited by a Hollywood studio . Warner Bros. ' The Better ' Ole , technically similar to Don Juan , followed in October .
Sound @-@ on @-@ film would ultimately win out over sound @-@ on @-@ disc because of a number of fundamental technical advantages :
Synchronization : no interlock system was completely reliable , and sound could fall out of synch due to disc skipping or minute changes in film speed , requiring constant supervision and frequent manual adjustment
Editing : discs could not be directly edited , severely limiting the ability to make alterations in their accompanying films after the original release cut
Distribution : phonograph discs added expense and complication to film distribution
Wear and tear : the physical process of playing the discs degraded them , requiring their replacement after approximately twenty screenings
Nonetheless , in the early years , sound @-@ on @-@ disc had the edge over sound @-@ on @-@ film in two substantial ways :
Production and capital cost : it was generally less expensive to record sound onto disc than onto film and the exhibition systems — turntable / interlock / projector — were cheaper to manufacture than the complex image @-@ and @-@ audio @-@ pattern @-@ reading projectors required by sound @-@ on @-@ film
Audio quality : phonograph discs , Vitaphone 's in particular , had superior dynamic range to most sound @-@ on @-@ film processes of the day , at least during the first few playings ; while sound @-@ on @-@ film tended to have better frequency response , this was outweighed by greater distortion and noise
As sound @-@ on @-@ film technology improved , both of these disadvantages were overcome .
The third crucial set of innovations marked a major step forward in both the live recording of sound and its effective playback :
= = = Fidelity electronic recording and amplification = = =
In 1913 , Western Electric , the manufacturing division of AT & T , acquired the rights to the de Forest audion , the forerunner of the triode vacuum tube . Over the next few years they developed it into a predictable and reliable device that made electronic amplification possible for the first time . Western Electric then branched @-@ out into developing uses for the vacuum tube including public address systems and an electrical recording system for the recording industry . Beginning in 1922 , the research branch of Western Electric began working intensively on recording technology for both sound @-@ on @-@ disc and sound @-@ on film synchronised sound systems for motion @-@ pictures .
The engineers working on the sound @-@ on @-@ disc system were able to draw on expertise that Western Electric already had in electrical disc recording and were thus able to make faster initial progress . The main change required was to increase the playing time of the disc so that it could match that of a standard 1 @,@ 000 ft ( 300 m ) reel of 35 mm film . The chosen design used a disc measuring 16 inches ( 410 mm ) rotating at 33 1 / 3 rpm . This could play for 11 minutes , the running time of 1000 ft of film at 90 ft / min ( 24 frames / s ) . Because of the larger diameter the minimum groove velocity of 70 ft / min ( 14 inches or 356 mm / s ) was only slightly less than that of a standard 10 @-@ inch 78 rpm commercial disc . In 1925 , the company publicly introduced a greatly improved system of electronic audio , including sensitive condenser microphones and rubber @-@ line recorders ( named after the use of a rubber damping band for recording with better frequency response onto a wax master disk ) . That May , the company licensed entrepreneur Walter J. Rich to exploit the system for commercial motion pictures ; he founded Vitagraph , in which Warner Bros. acquired a half interest , just one month later . In April 1926 , Warners signed a contract with AT & T for exclusive use of its film sound technology for the redubbed Vitaphone operation , leading to the production of Don Juan and its accompanying shorts over the following months . During the period when Vitaphone had exclusive access to the patents , the fidelity of recordings made for Warners films was markedly superior to those made for the company 's sound @-@ on @-@ film competitors . Meanwhile , Bell Labs — the new name for the AT & T research operation — was working at a furious pace on sophisticated sound amplification technology that would allow recordings to be played back over loudspeakers at theater @-@ filling volume . The new moving @-@ coil speaker system was installed in New York 's Warners Theatre at the end of July and its patent submission , for what Western Electric called the No. 555 Receiver , was filed on August 4 , just two days before the premiere of Don Juan .
Late in the year , AT & T / Western Electric created a licensing division , Electrical Research Products Inc . ( ERPI ) , to handle rights to the company 's film @-@ related audio technology . Vitaphone still had legal exclusivity , but having lapsed in its royalty payments , effective control of the rights was in ERPI 's hands . On December 31 , 1926 , Warners granted Fox @-@ Case a sublicense for the use of the Western Electric system ; in exchange for the sublicense , both Warners and ERPI received a share of Fox 's related revenues . The patents of all three concerns were cross @-@ licensed . Superior recording and amplification technology was now available to two Hollywood studios , pursuing two very different methods of sound reproduction . The new year would finally see the emergence of sound cinema as a significant commercial medium .
= = Triumph of the " talkies " = =
In February 1927 , an agreement was signed by five leading Hollywood movie companies : Famous Players Lasky ( soon to be part of Paramount ) , Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , Universal , First National , and Cecil B. DeMille 's small but prestigious Producers Distributing Corporation ( PDC ) . The five studios agreed to collectively select just one provider for sound conversion . The alliance then sat back and waited to see what sort of results the forerunners came up with . In May , Warner Bros. sold back its exclusivity rights to ERPI ( along with the Fox @-@ Case sublicense ) and signed a new royalty contract similar to Fox 's for use of Western Electric technology . As Fox and Warners pressed forward with sound cinema in different directions , both technologically and commercially — Fox with newsreels and then scored dramas , Warners with talking features — so did ERPI , which sought to corner the market by signing up the five allied studios .
The big sound film sensations of the year all took advantage of preexisting celebrity . On May 20 , 1927 , at New York 's Roxy Theater , Fox Movietone presented a sound film of the takeoff of Charles Lindbergh 's celebrated flight to Paris , recorded earlier that day . In June , a Fox sound newsreel depicting his return welcomes in New York and Washington , D.C. , was shown . These were the two most acclaimed sound motion pictures to date . In May , as well , Fox had released the first Hollywood fiction film with synchronized dialogue : the short They 're Coming to Get Me , starring comedian Chic Sale . After rereleasing a few silent feature hits , such as Seventh Heaven , with recorded music , Fox came out with its first original Movietone feature on September 23 : Sunrise , by acclaimed German director F. W. Murnau . As with Don Juan , the film 's soundtrack consisted of a musical score and sound effects ( including , in a couple of crowd scenes , " wild " , nonspecific vocals ) .
Then , on October 6 , 1927 , Warner Bros. ' The Jazz Singer premiered . It was a smash box office success for the mid @-@ level studio , earning a total of $ 2 @.@ 625 million in the United States and abroad , almost a million dollars more than the previous record for a Warners film . Produced with the Vitaphone system , most of the film does not contain live @-@ recorded audio , relying , like Sunrise and Don Juan , on a score and effects . When the movie 's star , Al Jolson , sings , however , the film shifts to sound recorded on the set , including both his musical performances and two scenes with ad @-@ libbed speech — one of Jolson 's character , Jakie Rabinowitz ( Jack Robin ) , addressing a cabaret audience ; the other an exchange between him and his mother . The " natural " sounds of the settings were also audible . Though the success of The Jazz Singer was due largely to Jolson , already established as one of America 's biggest music stars , and its limited use of synchronized sound hardly qualified it as an innovative sound film ( let alone the " first " ) , the movie 's profits were proof enough to the industry that the technology was worth investing in .
The development of commercial sound cinema had proceeded in fits and starts before The Jazz Singer , and the film 's success did not change things overnight . Not until May 1928 did the group of four big studios ( PDC had dropped out of the alliance ) , along with United Artists and others , sign with ERPI for conversion of production facilities and theaters for sound film . Initially , all ERPI @-@ wired theaters were made Vitaphone @-@ compatible ; most were equipped to project Movietone reels as well . However , even with access to both technologies , most of the Hollywood companies remained slow to produce talking features of their own . No studio besides Warner Bros. released even a part @-@ talking feature until the low @-@ budget @-@ oriented Film Booking Offices of America ( FBO ) premiered The Perfect Crime on June 17 , 1928 , eight months after The Jazz Singer . FBO had come under the effective control of a Western Electric competitor , General Electric 's RCA division , which was looking to market its new sound @-@ on @-@ film system , Photophone . Unlike Fox @-@ Case 's Movietone and De Forest 's Phonofilm , which were variable @-@ density systems , Photophone was a variable @-@ area system — a refinement in the way the audio signal was inscribed on film that would ultimately become the standard . ( In both sorts of systems , a specially @-@ designed lamp , whose exposure to the film is determined by the audio input , is used to record sound photographically as a series of minuscule lines . In a variable @-@ density process , the lines are of varying darkness ; in a variable @-@ area process , the lines are of varying width . ) By October , the FBO @-@ RCA alliance would lead to the creation of Hollywood 's newest major studio , RKO Pictures .
Meanwhile , Warner Bros. had released three more talkies , all profitable , if not at the level of The Jazz Singer : In March , Tenderloin appeared ; it was billed by Warners as the first feature in which characters spoke their parts , though only 15 of its 88 minutes had dialogue . Glorious Betsy followed in April , and The Lion and the Mouse ( 31 minutes of dialogue ) in May . On July 6 , 1928 , the first all @-@ talking feature , Lights of New York , premiered . The film cost Warner Bros. only $ 23 @,@ 000 to produce , but grossed $ 1 @.@ 252 million , a record rate of return surpassing 5 @,@ 000 % . In September , the studio released another Al Jolson part @-@ talking picture , The Singing Fool , which more than doubled The Jazz Singer 's earnings record for a Warners movie . This second Jolson screen smash demonstrated the movie musical 's ability to turn a song into a national hit : inside of nine months , the Jolson number " Sonny Boy " had racked up 2 million record and 1 @.@ 25 million sheet music sales . September 1928 also saw the release of Paul Terry 's Dinner Time , among the first animated cartoons produced with synchronized sound . Soon after he saw it , Walt Disney released his first sound picture , the Mickey Mouse short Steamboat Willie .
Over the course of 1928 , as Warner Bros. began to rake in huge profits due to the popularity of its sound films , the other studios quickened the pace of their conversion to the new technology . Paramount , the industry leader , put out its first talkie in late September , Beggars of Life ; though it had just a few lines of dialogue , it demonstrated the studio 's recognition of the new medium 's power . Interference , Paramount 's first all @-@ talker , debuted in November . The process known as " goat glanding " briefly became widespread : soundtracks , sometimes including a smatter of post @-@ dubbed dialogue or song , were added to movies that had been shot , and in some cases released , as silents . A few minutes of singing could qualify such a newly endowed film as a " musical . " ( Griffith 's Dream Street had essentially been a " goat gland . " ) Expectations swiftly changed , and the sound " fad " of 1927 became standard procedure by 1929 . In February 1929 , sixteen months after The Jazz Singer 's debut , Columbia Pictures became the last of the eight studios that would be known as " majors " during Hollywood 's Golden Age to release its first part @-@ talking feature , Lone Wolf 's Daughter . In late May , the first all @-@ color , all @-@ talking feature , Warner Bros. ' On with the Show ! , premiered .
Yet most American movie theaters , especially outside of urban areas , were still not equipped for sound : while the number of sound cinemas grew from 100 to 800 between 1928 and 1929 , they were still vastly outnumbered by silent theaters , which had actually grown in number as well , from 22 @,@ 204 to 22 @,@ 544 . The studios , in parallel , were still not entirely convinced of the talkies ' universal appeal — through mid @-@ 1930 , the majority of Hollywood movies were produced in dual versions , silent as well as talking . Though few in the industry predicted it , silent film as a viable commercial medium in the United States would soon be little more than a memory . Points West , a Hoot Gibson Western released by Universal Pictures in August 1929 , was the last purely silent mainstream feature put out by a major Hollywood studio .
= = = Transition : Europe = = =
The Jazz Singer had its European sound premiere at the Piccadilly Theatre in London on September 27 , 1928 . According to film historian Rachael Low , " Many in the industry realized at once that a change to sound production was inevitable . " On January 16 , 1929 , the first European feature film with a synchronized vocal performance and recorded score premiered : the German production Ich küsse Ihre Hand , Madame ( I Kiss Your Hand , Madame ) . Dialogueless , it contains only a few songs performed by Richard Tauber . The movie was made with the sound @-@ on @-@ film system controlled by the German @-@ Dutch firm Tobis , corporate heirs to the Tri @-@ Ergon concern . With an eye toward commanding the emerging European market for sound film , Tobis entered into a compact with its chief competitor , Klangfilm , a joint subsidiary of Germany 's two leading electrical manufacturers . Early in 1929 , Tobis and Klangfilm began comarketing their recording and playback technologies . As ERPI began to wire theaters around Europe , Tobis @-@ Klangfilm claimed that the Western Electric system infringed on the Tri @-@ Ergon patents , stalling the introduction of American technology in many places . Just as RCA had entered the movie business to maximize its recording system 's value , Tobis also established its own production operations .
During 1929 , most of the major European filmmaking countries began joining Hollywood in the changeover to sound . Many of the trend @-@ setting European talkies were shot abroad as production companies leased studios while their own were being converted or as they deliberately targeted markets speaking different languages . One of Europe 's first two feature @-@ length dramatic talkies was created in still a different sort of twist on multinational moviemaking : The Crimson Circle was a coproduction between director Friedrich Zelnik 's Efzet @-@ Film company and British Sound Film Productions ( BSFP ) . In 1928 , the film had been released as the silent Der Rote Kreis in Germany , where it was shot ; English dialogue was apparently dubbed in much later using the De Forest Phonofilm process controlled by BSFP 's corporate parent . It was given a British trade screening in March 1929 , as was a part @-@ talking film made entirely in the UK : The Clue of the New Pin , a British Lion production using the sound @-@ on @-@ disc British Photophone system . In May , Black Waters , a British and Dominions Film Corporation promoted as the first UK all @-@ talker , received its initial trade screening ; it had been shot completely in Hollywood with a Western Electric sound @-@ on @-@ film system . None of these pictures made much impact .
The first successful European dramatic talkie was the all @-@ British Blackmail . Directed by twenty @-@ nine @-@ year @-@ old Alfred Hitchcock , the movie had its London debut June 21 , 1929 . Originally shot as a silent , Blackmail was restaged to include dialogue sequences , along with a score and sound effects , before its premiere . A British International Pictures ( BIP ) production , it was recorded on RCA Photophone , General Electric having bought a share of AEG so they could access the Tobis @-@ Klangfilm markets . Blackmail was a substantial hit ; critical response was also positive — notorious curmudgeon Hugh Castle , for example , called it " perhaps the most intelligent mixture of sound and silence we have yet seen . "
On August 23 , the modest @-@ sized Austrian film industry came out with a talkie : G ’ schichten aus der Steiermark ( Stories from Styria ) , an Eagle Film – Ottoton Film production . On September 30 , the first entirely German @-@ made feature @-@ length dramatic talkie , Das Land ohne Frauen ( Land Without Women ) , premiered . A Tobis Filmkunst production , about one @-@ quarter of the movie contained dialogue , which was strictly segregated from the special effects and music . The response was underwhelming . Sweden 's first talkie , Konstgjorda Svensson ( Artificial Svensson ) , premiered on October 14 . Eight days later , Aubert Franco @-@ Film came out with Le Collier de la reine ( The Queen 's Necklace ) , shot at the Épinay studio near Paris . Conceived as a silent film , it was given a Tobis @-@ recorded score and a single talking sequence — the first dialogue scene in a French feature . On October 31 , Les Trois masques debuted ; a Pathé @-@ Natan film , it is generally regarded as the initial French feature talkie , though it was shot , like Blackmail , at the Elstree studio , just outside London . The production company had contracted with RCA Photophone and Britain then had the nearest facility with the system . The Braunberger @-@ Richebé talkie La Route est belle , also shot at Elstree , followed a few weeks later .
Before the Paris studios were fully sound @-@ equipped — a process that stretched well into 1930 — a number of other early French talkies were shot in Germany . The first all @-@ talking German feature , Atlantik , had premiered in Berlin on October 28 . Yet another Elstree @-@ made movie , it was rather less German at heart than Les Trois masques and La Route est belle were French ; a BIP production with a British scenarist and German director , it was also shot in English as Atlantic . The entirely German Aafa @-@ Film production It 's You I Have Loved ( Dich hab ich geliebt ) opened three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks later . It was not " Germany 's First Talking Film " , as the marketing had it , but it was the first to be released in the United States .
In 1930 , the first Polish talkies premiered , using sound @-@ on @-@ disc systems : Moralność pani Dulskiej ( The Morality of Mrs. Dulska ) in March and the all @-@ talking Niebezpieczny romans ( Dangerous Love Affair ) in October . In Italy , whose once vibrant film industry had become moribund by the late 1920s , the first talkie , La Canzone dell 'amore ( The Song of Love ) , also came out in October ; within two years , Italian cinema would be enjoying a revival . The first movie spoken in Czech debuted in 1930 as well , Tonka Šibenice ( Tonka of the Gallows ) . Several European nations with minor positions in the field also produced their first talking pictures — Belgium ( in French ) , Denmark , Greece , and Romania . The Soviet Union 's robust film industry came out with its first sound features in December 1930 : Dziga Vertov 's nonfiction Entuziazm had an experimental , dialogueless soundtrack ; Abram Room 's documentary Plan velikikh rabot ( The Plan of the Great Works ) had music and spoken voiceovers . Both were made with locally developed sound @-@ on @-@ film systems , two of the two hundred or so movie sound systems then available somewhere in the world . In June 1931 , the Nikolai Ekk drama Putevka v zhizn ( The Road to Life or A Start in Life ) , premiered as the Soviet Union 's first true talking picture .
Throughout much of Europe , conversion of exhibition venues lagged well behind production capacity , requiring talkies to be produced in parallel silent versions or simply shown without sound in many places . While the pace of conversion was relatively swift in Britain — with over 60 percent of theaters equipped for sound by the end of 1930 , similar to the U.S. figure — in France , by contrast , more than half of theaters nationwide were still projecting in silence by late 1932 . According to scholar Colin G. Crisp , " Anxiety about resuscitating the flow of silent films was frequently expressed in the [ French ] industrial press , and a large section of the industry still saw the silent as a viable artistic and commercial prospect till about 1935 . " The situation was particularly acute in the Soviet Union ; as of May 1933 , fewer than one out of every hundred film projectors in the country was as yet equipped for sound .
= = = Transition : Asia = = =
During the 1920s and 1930s , Japan was one of the world 's two largest producers of motion pictures , along with the United States . Though the country 's film industry was among the first to produce both sound and talking features , the full changeover to sound proceeded much more slowly than in the West . It appears that the first Japanese sound film , Reimai ( Dawn ) , was made in 1926 with the De Forest Phonofilm system . Using the sound @-@ on @-@ disc Minatoki system , the leading Nikkatsu studio produced a pair of talkies in 1929 : Taii no musume ( The Captain 's Daughter ) and Furusato ( Hometown ) , the latter directed by Kenji Mizoguchi . The rival Shochiku studio began the successful production of sound @-@ on @-@ film talkies in 1931 using a variable @-@ density process called Tsuchibashi . Two years later , however , more than 80 percent of movies made in the country were still silents . Two of the country 's leading directors , Mikio Naruse and Yasujiro Ozu , did not make their first sound films until 1935 and 1936 , respectively . As late as 1938 , over a third of all movies produced in Japan were shot without dialogue .
The enduring popularity of the silent medium in Japanese cinema owed in great part to the tradition of the benshi , a live narrator who performed as accompaniment to a film screening . As director Akira Kurosawa later described , the benshi " not only recounted the plot of the films , they enhanced the emotional content by performing the voices and sound effects and providing evocative descriptions of events and images on the screen .... The most popular narrators were stars in their own right , solely responsible for the patronage of a particular theatre . " Film historian Mariann Lewinsky argues ,
The end of silent film in the West and in Japan was imposed by the industry and the market , not by any inner need or natural evolution .... Silent cinema was a highly pleasurable and fully mature form . It didn 't lack anything , least in Japan , where there was always the human voice doing the dialogues and the commentary . Sound films were not better , just more economical . As a cinema owner you didn 't have to pay the wages of musicians and benshi any more . And a good benshi was a star demanding star payment .
By the same token , the viability of the benshi system facilitated a gradual transition to sound — allowing the studios to spread out the capital costs of conversion and their directors and technical crews time to become familiar with the new technology .
The Mandarin @-@ language Gēnǚ hóng mǔdān ( 歌女紅牡丹 , Singsong Girl Red Peony ) , starring Butterfly Wu , premiered as China 's first feature talkie in 1930 . By February of that year , production was apparently completed on a sound version of The Devil 's Playground , arguably qualifying it as the first Australian talking motion picture ; however , the May press screening of Commonwealth Film Contest prizewinner Fellers is the first verifiable public exhibition of an Australian talkie . In September 1930 , a song performed by Indian star Sulochana , excerpted from the silent feature Madhuri ( 1928 ) , was released as a synchronized @-@ sound short , the country 's first . The following year , Ardeshir Irani directed the first Indian talking feature , the Hindi @-@ Urdu Alam Ara , and produced Kalidas , primarily in Tamil with some Telugu . Nineteen @-@ thirty @-@ one also saw the first Bengali @-@ language film , Jamai Sasthi , and the first movie fully spoken in Telugu , Bhakta Prahlada . In 1932 , Ayodhyecha Raja became the first movie in which Marathi was spoken to be released ( though Sant Tukaram was the first to go through the official censorship process ) ; the first Gujarati @-@ language film , Narsimha Mehta , and all @-@ Tamil talkie , Kalava , debuted as well . The next year , Ardeshir Irani produced the first Persian @-@ language talkie , Dukhtar @-@ e @-@ loor . Also in 1933 , the first Cantonese @-@ language films were produced in Hong Kong — Sha zai dongfang ( The Idiot 's Wedding Night ) and Liang xing ( Conscience ) ; within two years , the local film industry had fully converted to sound . Korea , where pyonsa ( or byun @-@ sa ) held a role and status similar to that of the Japanese benshi , in 1935 became the last country with a significant film industry to produce its first talking picture : Chunhyangjeon ( 春香傳 / 춘향전 ) is based on the seventeenth @-@ century pansori folktale " Chunhyangga " , of which as many as fifteen film versions have been made through 2009 .
= = Consequences = =
= = = Technology = = =
In the short term , the introduction of live sound recording caused major difficulties in production . Cameras were noisy , so a soundproofed cabinet was used in many of the earliest talkies to isolate the loud equipment from the actors , at the expense of a drastic reduction in the ability to move the camera . For a time , multiple @-@ camera shooting was used to compensate for the loss of mobility and innovative studio technicians could often find ways to liberate the camera for particular shots . The necessity of staying within range of still microphones meant that actors also often had to limit their movements unnaturally . Show Girl in Hollywood ( 1930 ) , from First National Pictures ( which Warner Bros. had taken control of thanks to its profitable adventure into sound ) , gives a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes look at some of the techniques involved in shooting early talkies . Several of the fundamental problems caused by the transition to sound were soon solved with new camera casings , known as " blimps " , designed to suppress noise and boom microphones that could be held just out of frame and moved with the actors . In 1931 , a major improvement in playback fidelity was introduced : three @-@ way speaker systems in which sound was separated into low , medium , and high frequencies and sent respectively to a large bass " woofer " , a midrange driver , and a treble " tweeter . "
There were consequences , as well , for other technological aspects of the cinema . Proper recording and playback of sound required exact standardization of camera and projector speed . Before sound , 16 frames per second ( fps ) was the supposed norm , but practice varied widely . Cameras were often undercranked or overcranked to improve exposures or for dramatic effect . Projectors were commonly run too fast to shorten running time and squeeze in extra shows . Variable frame rate , however , made sound unlistenable , and a new , strict standard of 24 fps was soon established . Sound also forced the abandonment of the noisy arc lights used for filming in studio interiors . The switch to quiet incandescent illumination in turn required a switch to more expensive film stock . The sensitivity of the new panchromatic film delivered superior image tonal quality and gave directors the freedom to shoot scenes at lower light levels than was previously practical .
As David Bordwell describes , technological improvements continued at a swift pace : " Between 1932 and 1935 , [ Western Electric and RCA ] created directional microphones , increased the frequency range of film recording , reduced ground noise ... and extended the volume range . " These technical advances often meant new aesthetic opportunities : " Increasing the fidelity of recording ... heightened the dramatic possibilities of vocal timbre , pitch , and loudness . " Another basic problem — famously spoofed in the 1952 film Singin ' in the Rain — was that some silent @-@ era actors simply did not have attractive voices ; though this issue was frequently overstated , there were related concerns about general vocal quality and the casting of performers for their dramatic skills in roles also requiring singing talent beyond their own . By 1935 , rerecording of vocals by the original or different actors in postproduction , a process known as " looping " , had become practical . The ultraviolet recording system introduced by RCA in 1936 improved the reproduction of sibilants and high notes .
With Hollywood 's wholesale adoption of the talkies , the competition between the two fundamental approaches to sound @-@ film production was soon resolved . Over the course of 1930 – 31 , the only major players using sound @-@ on @-@ disc , Warner Bros. and First National , changed over to sound @-@ on @-@ film recording . Vitaphone 's dominating presence in sound @-@ equipped theaters , however , meant that for years to come all of the Hollywood studios pressed and distributed sound @-@ on @-@ disc versions of their films alongside the sound @-@ on @-@ film prints . Fox Movietone soon followed Vitaphone into disuse as a recording and reproduction method , leaving two major American systems : the variable @-@ area RCA Photophone and Western Electric 's own variable @-@ density process , a substantial improvement on the cross @-@ licensed Movietone . Under RCA 's instigation , the two parent companies made their projection equipment compatible , meaning films shot with one system could be screened in theaters equipped for the other . This left one big issue — the Tobis @-@ Klangfilm challenge . In May 1930 , Western Electric won an Austrian lawsuit that voided protection for certain Tri @-@ Ergon patents , helping bring Tobis @-@ Klangfilm to the negotiating table . The following month an accord was reached on patent cross @-@ licensing , full playback compatibility , and the division of the world into three parts for the provision of equipment . As a contemporary report describes :
Tobis @-@ Klangfilm has the exclusive rights to provide equipment for : Germany , Danzig , Austria , Hungary , Switzerland , Czechoslovakia , Holland , the Dutch Indies , Denmark , Sweden , Norway , Bulgaria , Romania , Yugoslavia , and Finland . The Americans have the exclusive rights for the United States , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , India , and Russia . All other countries , among them Italy , France , and England , are open to both parties .
The agreement did not resolve all the patent disputes , and further negotiations were undertaken and concords signed over the course of the 1930s . During these years , as well , the American studios began abandoning the Western Electric system for RCA Photophone 's variable @-@ area approach — by the end of 1936 , only Paramount , MGM , and United Artists still had contracts with ERPI .
= = = Labor = = =
While the introduction of sound led to a boom in the motion picture industry , it had an adverse effect on the employability of a host of Hollywood actors of the time . Suddenly those without stage experience were regarded as suspect by the studios ; as suggested above , those whose heavy accents or otherwise discordant voices had previously been concealed were particularly at risk . The career of major silent star Norma Talmadge effectively came to an end in this way . The celebrated German actor Emil Jannings returned to Europe . Moviegoers found John Gilbert 's voice an awkward match with his swashbuckling persona , and his star also faded . Audiences now seemed to perceive certain silent @-@ era stars as old @-@ fashioned , even those who had the talent to succeed in the sound era . The career of Harold Lloyd , one of the top screen comedians of the 1920s , declined precipitously . Lillian Gish departed , back to the stage , and other leading figures soon left acting entirely : Colleen Moore , Gloria Swanson , and Hollywood 's most famous performing couple , Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford . As actress Louise Brooks suggested , there were other issues as well :
Studio heads , now forced into unprecedented decisions , decided to begin with the actors , the least palatable , the most vulnerable part of movie production . It was such a splendid opportunity , anyhow , for breaking contracts , cutting salaries , and taming the stars .... Me , they gave the salary treatment . I could stay on without the raise my contract called for , or quit , [ Paramount studio chief B. P. ] Schulberg said , using the questionable dodge of whether I 'd be good for the talkies . Questionable , I say , because I spoke decent English in a decent voice and came from the theater . So without hesitation I quit .
Similarly , Clara Bow 's speaking voice was sometimes blamed for the demise of her Hollywood career , though the real issues involved her clashes with studio executives and what film historian David Thomson describes as the " backlash of bourgeois hypocrisy " against a lifestyle that would have been unremarkable for a male star . Buster Keaton was eager to explore the new medium , but when his studio , MGM , made the changeover to sound , he was quickly stripped of creative control . Though a number of Keaton 's early talkies made impressive profits , they were artistically dismal .
Several of the new medium 's biggest attractions came from vaudeville and the musical theater , where performers such as Jolson , Eddie Cantor , Jeanette MacDonald , and the Marx Brothers were accustomed to the demands of both dialogue and song . James Cagney and Joan Blondell , who had teamed on Broadway , were brought west together by Warner Bros. in 1930 . A few actors were major stars during both the silent and the sound eras : Richard Barthelmess , Clive Brook , Bebe Daniels , Norma Shearer , the comedy team of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy , and the incomparable Charlie Chaplin , whose City Lights ( 1931 ) and Modern Times ( 1936 ) employed sound almost exclusively for music and effects . Janet Gaynor became a top star with the synch @-@ sound but dialogueless Seventh Heaven and Sunrise , as did Joan Crawford with the technologically similar Our Dancing Daughters ( 1928 ) . Greta Garbo was the one non – native English speaker to retain Hollywood stardom on both sides of the great sound divide . The new emphasis on speech also caused producers to hire many novelists , journalists , and playwrights with experience writing good dialogue . Among those who became Hollywood scriptwriters during the 1930s were Nathanael West , William Faulkner , Robert Sherwood , Aldous Huxley , and Dorothy Parker .
As talking pictures emerged , with their prerecorded musical tracks , an increasing number of moviehouse orchestra musicians found themselves out of work . More than just their position as film accompanists was usurped ; according to historian Preston J. Hubbard , " During the 1920s live musical performances at first @-@ run theaters became an exceedingly important aspect of the American cinema . " With the coming of the talkies , those featured performances — usually staged as preludes — were largely eliminated as well . The American Federation of Musicians took out newspaper advertisements protesting the replacement of live musicians with mechanical playing devices . One 1929 ad that appeared in the Pittsburgh Press features an image of a can labeled " Canned Music / Big Noise Brand / Guaranteed to Produce No Intellectual or Emotional Reaction Whatever " and reads in part :
Canned Music on Trial
This is the case of Art vs. Mechanical Music in theatres . The defendant stands accused in front of the American people of attempted corruption of musical appreciation and discouragement of musical education . Theatres in many cities are offering synchronised mechanical music as a substitute for Real Music . If the theatre @-@ going public accepts this vitiation of its entertainment program a deplorable decline in the Art of Music is inevitable . Musical authorities know that the soul of the Art is lost in mechanisation . It cannot be otherwise because the quality of music is dependent on the mood of the artist , upon the human contact , without which the essence of intellectual stimulation and emotional rapture is lost .
By the following year , a reported 22 @,@ 000 U.S. moviehouse musicians had lost their jobs .
= = = Commerce = = =
In September 1926 , Jack L. Warner , head of Warner Bros. , was quoted to the effect that talking pictures would never be viable : " They fail to take into account the international language of the silent pictures , and the unconscious share of each onlooker in creating the play , the action , the plot , and the imagined dialogue for himself . " Much to his company 's benefit , he would be proven very wrong — between the 1927 – 28 and 1928 – 29 fiscal years , Warners ' profits surged from $ 2 million to $ 14 million . Sound film , in fact , was a clear boon to all the major players in the industry . During that same twelve @-@ month span , Paramount 's profits rose by $ 7 million , Fox 's by $ 3 @.@ 5 million , and Loew 's / MGM 's by $ 3 million . RKO , which hadn 't even existed in September 1928 and whose parent production company , FBO , was in the Hollywood minor leagues , by the end of 1929 was established as one of America 's leading entertainment businesses . Fueling the boom was the emergence of an important new cinematic genre made possible by sound : the musical . Over sixty Hollywood musicals were released in 1929 , and more than eighty the following year .
Even as the Wall Street crash of October 1929 helped plunge the United States and ultimately the global economy into depression , the popularity of the talkies at first seemed to keep Hollywood immune . The 1929 – 30 exhibition season was even better for the motion picture industry than the previous , with ticket sales and overall profits hitting new highs . Reality finally struck later in 1930 , but sound had clearly secured Hollywood 's position as one of the most important industrial fields , both commercially and culturally , in the United States . In 1929 , film box @-@ office receipts comprised 16 @.@ 6 percent of total spending by Americans on recreation ; by 1931 , the figure had reached 21 @.@ 8 percent . The motion picture business would command similar figures for the next decade and a half . Hollywood ruled on the larger stage , as well . The American movie industry — already the world 's most powerful — set an export record in 1929 that , by the applied measure of total feet of exposed film , was 27 percent higher than the year before . Concerns that language differences would hamper U.S. film exports turned out to be largely unfounded . In fact , the expense of sound conversion was a major obstacle to many overseas producers , relatively undercapitalized by Hollywood standards . The production of multiple versions of export @-@ bound talkies in different languages ( known as " Foreign Language Version " ) , as well as the production of the cheaper " International Sound Version " , a common approach at first , largely ceased by mid @-@ 1931 , replaced by post @-@ dubbing and subtitling . Despite trade restrictions imposed in most foreign markets , by 1937 , American films commanded about 70 percent of screen time around the globe .
Just as the leading Hollywood studios gained from sound in relation to their foreign competitors , they did the same at home . As historian Richard B. Jewell describes , " The sound revolution crushed many small film companies and producers who were unable to meet the financial demands of sound conversion . " The combination of sound and the Great Depression led to a wholesale shakeout in the business , resulting in the hierarchy of the Big Five integrated companies ( MGM , Paramount , Fox , Warners , RKO ) and the three smaller studios also called " majors " ( Columbia , Universal , United Artists ) that would predominate through the 1950s . Historian Thomas Schatz describes the ancillary effects :
Because the studios were forced to streamline operations and rely on their own resources , their individual house styles and corporate personalities came into much sharper focus . Thus the watershed period from the coming of sound into the early Depression saw the studio system finally coalesce , with the individual studios coming to terms with their own identities and their respective positions within the industry .
The other country in which sound cinema had an immediate major commercial impact was India . As one distributor of the period said , " With the coming of the talkies , the Indian motion picture came into its own as a definite and distinctive piece of creation . This was achieved by music . " From its earliest days , Indian sound cinema has been defined by the musical — Alam Ara featured seven songs ; a year later , Indrasabha would feature seventy . While the European film industries fought an endless battle against the popularity and economic muscle of Hollywood , ten years after the debut of Alam Ara , over 90 percent of the films showing on Indian screens were made within the country .
Most of India 's early talkies were shot in Bombay , which remains the leading production center , but sound filmmaking soon spread across the multilingual nation . Within just a few weeks of Alam Ara 's March 1931 premiere , the Calcutta @-@ based Madan Pictures had released both the Hindi Shirin Farhad and the Bengali Jamai Sasthi . The Hindustani Heer Ranjha was produced in Lahore , Punjab , the following year . In 1934 , Sati Sulochana , the first Kannada talking picture to be released , was shot in Kolhapur , Maharashtra ; Srinivasa Kalyanam became the first Tamil talkie actually shot in Tamil Nadu . Once the first talkie features appeared , the conversion to full sound production happened as rapidly in India as it did in the United States . Already by 1932 , the majority of feature productions were in sound ; two years later , 164 of the 172 Indian feature films were talking pictures . Since 1934 , with the sole exception of 1952 , India has been among the top three movie @-@ producing countries in the world every single year .
= = = Aesthetic quality = = =
In the first , 1930 edition of his global survey The Film Till Now , British cinema pundit Paul Rotha declared , " A film in which the speech and sound effects are perfectly synchronised and coincide with their visual image on the screen is absolutely contrary to the aims of cinema . It is a degenerate and misguided attempt to destroy the real use of the film and cannot be accepted as coming within the true boundaries of the cinema . " Such opinions were not rare among those who cared about cinema as an art form ; Alfred Hitchcock , though he directed the first commercially successful talkie produced in Europe , held that " the silent pictures were the purest form of cinema " and scoffed at many early sound films as delivering little beside " photographs of people talking " . In Germany , Max Reinhardt , stage producer and movie director , expressed the belief that the talkies , " bringing to the screen stage plays ... tend to make this independent art a subsidiary of the theater and really make it only a substitute for the theater instead of an art in itself ... like reproductions of paintings . "
In the opinion of many film historians and aficionados , both at the time and subsequently , silent film had reached an aesthetic peak by the late 1920s and the early years of sound cinema delivered little that was comparable to the best of the silents . For instance , despite fading into relative obscurity once its era had passed , silent cinema is represented by eleven films in Time Out 's Centenary of Cinema Top One Hundred poll , held in 1995 . The first year in which sound film production predominated over silent film — not only in the United States , but also in the West as a whole — was 1929 ; yet the years 1929 through 1933 are represented by three dialogueless pictures ( Pandora 's Box [ 1929 ] , Zemlya [ 1930 ] , City Lights [ 1931 ] ) and zero talkies in the Time Out poll . ( City Lights , like Sunrise , was released with a recorded score and sound effects , but is now customarily referred to by historians and industry professionals as a " silent " — spoken dialogue regarded as the crucial distinguishing factor between silent and sound dramatic cinema . ) The earliest sound film to place is the French L 'Atalante ( 1934 ) , directed by Jean Vigo ; the earliest Hollywood sound film to qualify is Bringing Up Baby ( 1938 ) , directed by Howard Hawks .
The first sound feature film to receive near @-@ universal critical approbation was Der Blaue Engel ( The Blue Angel ) ; premiering on April 1 , 1930 , it was directed by Josef von Sternberg in both German and English versions for Berlin 's UFA studio . The first American talkie to be widely honored was All Quiet on the Western Front , directed by Lewis Milestone , which premiered April 21 . The other internationally acclaimed sound drama of the year was Westfront 1918 , directed by G. W. Pabst for Nero @-@ Film of Berlin . Historian Anton Kaes points to it as an example of " the new verisimilitude [ that ] rendered silent cinema 's former emphasis on the hypnotic gaze and the symbolism of light and shadow , as well as its preference for allegorical characters , anachronistic . " Cultural historians consider the French L 'Âge d 'Or , directed by Luis Buñuel , which appeared late in 1930 , to be of great aesthetic import ; at the time , its erotic , blasphemous , anti @-@ bourgeois content caused a scandal . Swiftly banned by Paris police chief Jean Chiappe , it was unavailable for fifty years . The earliest sound movie now acknowledged by most film historians as a masterpiece is Nero @-@ Film 's M , directed by Fritz Lang , which premiered May 11 , 1931 . As described by Roger Ebert , " Many early talkies felt they had to talk all the time , but Lang allows his camera to prowl through the streets and dives , providing a rat 's @-@ eye view . "
= = = Cinematic form = = =
" Talking film is as little needed as a singing book . " Such was the blunt proclamation of critic Viktor Shklovsky , one of the leaders of the Russian formalist movement , in 1927 . While some regarded sound as irreconcilable with film art , others saw it as opening a new field of creative opportunity . The following year , a group of Soviet filmmakers , including Sergei Eisenstein , proclaimed that the use of image and sound in juxtaposition , the so @-@ called contrapuntal method , would raise the cinema to " ... unprecedented power and cultural height . Such a method for constructing the sound @-@ film will not confine it to a national market , as must happen with the photographing of plays , but will give a greater possibility than ever before for the circulation throughout the world of a filmically expressed idea . " So far as one segment of the audience was concerned , however , the introduction of sound brought a virtual end to such circulation : Elizabeth C. Hamilton writes , " Silent films offered people who were deaf a rare opportunity to participate in a public discourse , cinema , on equal terms with hearing people . The emergence of sound film effectively separated deaf from hearing audience members once again . "
On March 12 , 1929 , the first feature @-@ length talking picture made in Germany had its premiere . The inaugural Tobis Filmkunst production , it was not a drama , but a documentary sponsored by a shipping line : Melodie der Welt ( Melody of the World ) , directed by Walter Ruttmann . This was also perhaps the first feature film anywhere to significantly explore the artistic possibilities of joining the motion picture with recorded sound . As described by scholar William Moritz , the movie is " intricate , dynamic , fast @-@ paced ... juxtapos [ ing ] similar cultural habits from countries around the world , with a superb orchestral score ... and many synchronized sound effects . " Composer Lou Lichtveld was among a number of contemporary artists struck by the film : " Melodie der Welt became the first important sound documentary , the first in which musical and unmusical sounds were composed into a single unit and in which image and sound are controlled by one and the same impulse . " Melodie der Welt was a direct influence on the industrial film Philips Radio ( 1931 ) , directed by Dutch avant @-@ garde filmmaker Joris Ivens and scored by Lichtveld , who described its audiovisual aims :
To render the half @-@ musical impressions of factory sounds in a complex audio world that moved from absolute music to the purely documentary noises of nature . In this film every intermediate stage can be found : such as the movement of the machine interpreted by the music , the noises of the machine dominating the musical background , the music itself is the documentary , and those scenes where the pure sound of the machine goes solo .
Many similar experiments were pursued by Dziga Vertov in his 1931 Entuziazm and by Chaplin in Modern Times , a half @-@ decade later .
A few innovative commercial directors immediately saw the ways in which sound could be employed as an integral part of cinematic storytelling , beyond the obvious function of recording speech . In Blackmail , Hitchcock manipulated the reproduction of a character 's monologue so the word " knife " would leap out from a blurry stream of sound , reflecting the subjective impression of the protagonist , who is desperate to conceal her involvement in a fatal stabbing . In his first film , the Paramount Applause ( 1929 ) , Rouben Mamoulian created the illusion of acoustic depth by varying the volume of ambient sound in proportion to the distance of shots . At a certain point , Mamoulian wanted the audience to hear one character singing at the same time as another prays ; according to the director , " They said we couldn 't record the two things — the song and the prayer — on one mike and one channel . So I said to the sound man , ' Why not use two mikes and two channels and combine the two tracks in printing ? ' " Such methods would eventually become standard procedure in popular filmmaking .
One of the first commercial films to take full advantage of the new opportunities provided by recorded sound was Le Million , directed by René Clair and produced by Tobis 's French division . Premiering in Paris in April 1931 and New York a month later , the picture was both a critical and popular success . A musical comedy with a barebones plot , it is memorable for its formal accomplishments , in particular , its emphatically artificial treatment of sound . As described by scholar Donald Crafton ,
Le Million never lets us forget that the acoustic component is as much a construction as the whitewashed sets . [ It ] replaced dialogue with actors singing and talking in rhyming couplets . Clair created teasing confusions between on- and off @-@ screen sound . He also experimented with asynchronous audio tricks , as in the famous scene in which a chase after a coat is synched to the cheers of an invisible football ( or rugby ) crowd .
These and similar techniques became part of the vocabulary of the sound comedy film , though as special effects and " color " , not as the basis for the kind of comprehensive , non @-@ naturalistic design achieved by Clair . Outside of the comedic field , the sort of bold play with sound exemplified by Melodie der Welt and Le Million would be pursued very rarely in commercial production . Hollywood , in particular , incorporated sound into a reliable system of genre @-@ based moviemaking , in which the formal possibilities of the new medium were subordinated to the traditional goals of star affirmation and straightforward storytelling . As accurately predicted in 1928 by Frank Woods , secretary of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences , " The talking pictures of the future will follow the general line of treatment heretofore developed by the silent drama .... The talking scenes will require different handling , but the general construction of the story
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threshold , and tics ( a type of movement disorder ) . Dangerous physical side effects are rare at typical pharmaceutical doses .
Amphetamine stimulates the medullary respiratory centers , producing faster and deeper breaths . In a normal person at therapeutic doses , this effect is usually not noticeable , but when respiration is already compromised , it may be evident . Amphetamine also induces contraction in the urinary bladder sphincter , the muscle which controls urination , which can result in difficulty urinating . This effect can be useful in treating bed wetting and loss of bladder control . The effects of amphetamine on the gastrointestinal tract are unpredictable . If intestinal activity is high , amphetamine may reduce gastrointestinal motility ( the rate at which content moves through the digestive system ) ; however , amphetamine may increase motility when the smooth muscle of the tract is relaxed . Amphetamine also has a slight analgesic effect and can enhance the pain relieving effects of opioids .
USFDA @-@ commissioned studies from 2011 indicate that in children , young adults , and adults there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events ( sudden death , heart attack , and stroke ) and the medical use of amphetamine or other ADHD stimulants .
= = = Psychological = = =
Common psychological effects of therapeutic doses can include increased alertness , apprehension , concentration , decreased sense of fatigue , mood swings ( elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood ) , increased initiative , insomnia or wakefulness , self @-@ confidence , and sociability . Less common side effects include anxiety , change in libido , grandiosity , irritability , repetitive or obsessive behaviors , and restlessness ; these effects depend on the user 's personality and current mental state . Amphetamine psychosis ( e.g. , delusions and paranoia ) can occur in heavy users . Although very rare , this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long @-@ term therapy . According to the USFDA , " there is no systematic evidence " that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility .
Amphetamine has also been shown to produce a conditioned place preference in humans taking therapeutic doses , meaning that individuals acquire a preference for spending time in places where they have previously used amphetamine .
= = Overdose = =
An amphetamine overdose can lead to many different symptoms , but is rarely fatal with appropriate care . The severity of overdose symptoms increases with dosage and decreases with drug tolerance to amphetamine . Tolerant individuals have been known to take as much as 5 grams of amphetamine in a day , which is roughly 100 times the maximum daily therapeutic dose . Symptoms of a moderate and extremely large overdose are listed below ; fatal amphetamine poisoning usually also involves convulsions and coma . In 2013 , overdose on amphetamine , methamphetamine , and other compounds implicated in an " amphetamine use disorder " resulted in an estimated 3 @,@ 788 deaths worldwide ( 3 @,@ 425 – 4 @,@ 145 deaths , 95 % confidence ) .
Pathological overactivation of the mesolimbic pathway , a dopamine pathway that connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens , plays a central role in amphetamine addiction . Individuals who frequently overdose on amphetamine during recreational use have a high risk of developing an amphetamine addiction , since repeated overdoses gradually increase the level of accumbal ΔFosB , a " molecular switch " and " master control protein " for addiction . Once nucleus accumbens ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed , it begins to increase the severity of addictive behavior ( i.e. , compulsive drug @-@ seeking ) with further increases in its expression . While there are currently no effective drugs for treating amphetamine addiction , regularly engaging in sustained aerobic exercise appears to reduce the risk of developing such an addiction . Sustained aerobic exercise on a regular basis also appears to be an effective treatment for amphetamine addiction ; exercise therapy improves clinical treatment outcomes and may be used as a combination therapy with cognitive behavioral therapy , which is currently the best clinical treatment available .
= = = Addiction = = =
Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use but is unlikely to arise from typical long @-@ term medical use at therapeutic doses . Drug tolerance develops rapidly in amphetamine abuse ( i.e. , a recreational amphetamine overdose ) , so periods of extended use require increasingly larger doses of the drug in order to achieve the same effect .
= = = = Biomolecular mechanisms = = = =
Current models of addiction from chronic drug use involve alterations in gene expression in certain parts of the brain , particularly the nucleus accumbens . The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB , cAMP response element binding protein ( CREB ) , and nuclear factor kappa B ( NF @-@ κB ) . ΔFosB plays a crucial role in the development of drug addictions , since its overexpression in D1 @-@ type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for most of the behavioral and neural adaptations that arise from addiction . Once ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed , it induces an addictive state that becomes increasingly more severe with further increases in ΔFosB expression . It has been implicated in addictions to alcohol , cannabinoids , cocaine , methylphenidate , nicotine , opioids , phencyclidine , propofol , and substituted amphetamines , among others .
ΔJunD , a transcription factor , and G9a , a histone methyltransferase enzyme , both directly oppose the induction of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens ( i.e. , they oppose increases in its expression ) . Sufficiently overexpressing ΔJunD in the nucleus accumbens with viral vectors can completely block many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug abuse ( i.e. , the alterations mediated by ΔFosB ) . ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards , such as palatable food , sex , and exercise . Since both natural rewards and addictive drugs induce expression of ΔFosB ( i.e. , they cause the brain to produce more of it ) , chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological state of addiction . Consequently , ΔFosB is the most significant factor involved in both amphetamine addiction and amphetamine @-@ induced sex addictions , which are compulsive sexual behaviors that result from excessive sexual activity and amphetamine use . These sex addictions are associated with a dopamine dysregulation syndrome which occurs in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs .
The effects of amphetamine on gene regulation are both dose- and route @-@ dependent . Most of the research on gene regulation and addiction is based upon animal studies with intravenous amphetamine administration at very high doses . The few studies that have used equivalent ( weight @-@ adjusted ) human therapeutic doses and oral administration show that these changes , if they occur , are relatively minor . This suggests that medical use of amphetamine does not significantly affect gene regulation .
= = = = Pharmacological treatments = = = =
As of May 2014 , there is no effective pharmacotherapy for amphetamine addiction . Reviews from 2015 and 2016 indicated that TAAR1 @-@ selective agonists have significant therapeutic potential as a treatment for psychostimulant addictions ; however , as of February 2016 , the only compounds which are known to function as TAAR1 @-@ selective agonists are experimental drugs . Amphetamine addiction is largely mediated through increased activation of dopamine receptors and co @-@ localized NMDA receptors in the nucleus accumbens ; magnesium ions inhibit NMDA receptors by blocking the receptor calcium channel . One review suggested that , based upon animal testing , pathological ( addiction @-@ inducing ) psychostimulant use significantly reduces the level of intracellular magnesium throughout the brain . Supplemental magnesium treatment has been shown to reduce amphetamine self @-@ administration ( i.e. , doses given to oneself ) in humans , but it is not an effective monotherapy for amphetamine addiction .
= = = = Behavioral treatments = = = =
Cognitive behavioral therapy is currently the most effective clinical treatment for psychostimulant addictions . Additionally , research on the neurobiological effects of physical exercise suggests that daily aerobic exercise , especially endurance exercise ( e.g. , marathon running ) , prevents the development of drug addiction and is an effective adjunct therapy ( i.e. , a supplemental treatment ) for amphetamine addiction . Exercise leads to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment , particularly for psychostimulant addictions . In particular , aerobic exercise decreases psychostimulant self @-@ administration , reduces the reinstatement ( i.e. , relapse ) of drug @-@ seeking , and induces increased dopamine receptor D2 ( DRD2 ) density in the striatum . This is the opposite of pathological stimulant use , which induces decreased striatal DRD2 density . One review noted that exercise may also prevent the development of a drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or c @-@ Fos immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of the reward system .
= = = Dependence and withdrawal = = =
According to another Cochrane Collaboration review on withdrawal in individuals who compulsively use amphetamine and methamphetamine , " when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue amphetamine use , many report a time @-@ limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24 hours of their last dose . " This review noted that withdrawal symptoms in chronic , high @-@ dose users are frequent , occurring in up to 87 @.@ 6 % of cases , and persist for three to four weeks with a marked " crash " phase occurring during the first week . Amphetamine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety , drug craving , depressed mood , fatigue , increased appetite , increased movement or decreased movement , lack of motivation , sleeplessness or sleepiness , and lucid dreams . The review indicated that withdrawal symptoms are associated with the degree of dependence , suggesting that therapeutic use would result in far milder discontinuation symptoms . Manufacturer prescribing information does not indicate the presence of withdrawal symptoms following discontinuation of amphetamine use after an extended period at therapeutic doses .
= = = Toxicity and psychosis = = =
In rodents and primates , sufficiently high doses of amphetamine cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity , or damage to dopamine neurons , which is characterized by reduced transporter and receptor function . There is no evidence that amphetamine is directly neurotoxic in humans . However , large doses of amphetamine may cause indirect neurotoxicity as a result of increased oxidative stress from reactive oxygen species and autoxidation of dopamine .
A severe amphetamine overdose can result in a stimulant psychosis that may involve a variety of symptoms , such as paranoia and delusions . A Cochrane Collaboration review on treatment for amphetamine , dextroamphetamine , and methamphetamine psychosis states that about 5 – 15 % of users fail to recover completely . According to the same review , there is at least one trial that shows antipsychotic medications effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis . Psychosis very rarely arises from therapeutic use .
= = Interactions = =
Many types of substances are known to interact with amphetamine , resulting in altered drug action or metabolism of amphetamine , the interacting substance , or both . Inhibitors of the enzymes that metabolize amphetamine ( e.g. , CYP2D6 and flavin @-@ containing monooxygenase 3 ) will prolong its elimination half @-@ life , meaning that its effects will last longer . Amphetamine also interacts with MAOIs , particularly monoamine oxidase A inhibitors , since both MAOIs and amphetamine increase plasma catecholamines ( i.e. , norepinephrine and dopamine ) ; therefore , concurrent use of both is dangerous . Amphetamine modulates the activity of most psychoactive drugs . In particular , amphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of stimulants and antidepressants . Amphetamine may also decrease the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics due to its effects on blood pressure and dopamine respectively . In general , there is no significant interaction when consuming amphetamine with food , but the pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of amphetamine , respectively . Acidic substances reduce the absorption of amphetamine and increase urinary excretion , and alkaline substances do the opposite . Due to the effect pH has on absorption , amphetamine also interacts with gastric acid reducers such as proton pump inhibitors and H2 antihistamines , which increase gastrointestinal pH ( i.e. , make it less acidic ) .
= = Pharmacology = =
= = = Pharmacodynamics = = =
Amphetamine exerts its behavioral effects by altering the use of monoamines as neuronal signals in the brain , primarily in catecholamine neurons in the reward and executive function pathways of the brain . The concentrations of the main neurotransmitters involved in reward circuitry and executive functioning , dopamine and norepinephrine , increase dramatically in a dose @-@ dependent manner by amphetamine due to its effects on monoamine transporters . The reinforcing and task saliency effects of amphetamine are mostly due to enhanced dopaminergic activity in the mesolimbic pathway .
Amphetamine has been identified as a potent full agonist of trace amine @-@ associated receptor 1 ( TAAR1 ) , a Gs @-@ coupled and Gq @-@ coupled G protein @-@ coupled receptor ( GPCR ) discovered in 2001 , which is important for regulation of brain monoamines . Activation of TAAR1 increases cAMP production via adenylyl cyclase activation and inhibits monoamine transporter function . Monoamine autoreceptors ( e.g. , D2 short , presynaptic α2 , and presynaptic 5 @-@ HT1A ) have the opposite effect of TAAR1 , and together these receptors provide a regulatory system for monoamines . Notably , amphetamine and trace amines bind to TAAR1 , but not monoamine autoreceptors . Imaging studies indicate that monoamine reuptake inhibition by amphetamine and trace amines is site specific and depends upon the presence of TAAR1 co @-@ localization in the associated monoamine neurons . As of 2010 , co @-@ localization of TAAR1 and the dopamine transporter ( DAT ) has been visualized in rhesus monkeys , but co @-@ localization of TAAR1 with the norepinephrine transporter ( NET ) and the serotonin transporter ( SERT ) has only been evidenced by messenger RNA ( mRNA ) expression .
In addition to the neuronal monoamine transporters , amphetamine also inhibits both vesicular monoamine transporters , VMAT1 and VMAT2 , as well as SLC1A1 , SLC22A3 , and SLC22A5 . SLC1A1 is excitatory amino acid transporter 3 ( EAAT3 ) , a glutamate transporter located in neurons , SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in astrocytes , and SLC22A5 is a high @-@ affinity carnitine transporter . Amphetamine is known to strongly induce cocaine- and amphetamine @-@ regulated transcript ( CART ) gene expression , a neuropeptide involved in feeding behavior , stress , and reward , which induces observable increases in neuronal development and survival in vitro . The CART receptor has yet to be identified , but there is significant evidence that CART binds to a unique Gi / Go @-@ coupled GPCR . Amphetamine also inhibits monoamine oxidase at very high doses , resulting in less dopamine and phenethylamine metabolism and consequently higher concentrations of synaptic monoamines . In humans , the only post @-@ synaptic receptor at which amphetamine is known to bind is the 5 @-@ HT1A receptor , where it acts as an agonist with micromolar affinity .
The full profile of amphetamine 's short @-@ term drug effects in humans is mostly derived through increased cellular communication or neurotransmission of dopamine , serotonin , norepinephrine , epinephrine , histamine , CART peptides , acetylcholine , endogenous opioids , adrenocorticotropic hormone , corticosteroids , and glutamate , which it effects through interactions with CART , 5 @-@ HT1A , EAAT3 , TAAR1 , VMAT1 , VMAT2 , and possibly other biological targets .
Dextroamphetamine is a more potent agonist of TAAR1 than levoamphetamine . Consequently , dextroamphetamine produces greater CNS stimulation than levoamphetamine , roughly three to four times more , but levoamphetamine has slightly stronger cardiovascular and peripheral effects .
= = = = Dopamine = = = =
In certain brain regions , amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft . Amphetamine can enter the presynaptic neuron either through DAT or by diffusing across the neuronal membrane directly . As a consequence of DAT uptake , amphetamine produces competitive reuptake inhibition at the transporter . Upon entering the presynaptic neuron , amphetamine activates TAAR1 which , through protein kinase A ( PKA ) and protein kinase C ( PKC ) signaling , causes DAT phosphorylation . Phosphorylation by either protein kinase can result in DAT internalization ( non @-@ competitive reuptake inhibition ) , but PKC @-@ mediated phosphorylation alone induces reverse transporter function ( dopamine efflux ) . Amphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium , an effect which is associated with DAT phosphorylation through an unidentified Ca2 + / calmodulin @-@ dependent protein kinase ( CAMK ) -dependent pathway , in turn producing dopamine efflux . Through direct activation of G protein @-@ coupled inwardly @-@ rectifying potassium channels , TAAR1 reduces the firing rate of postsynaptic dopamine neurons , preventing a hyper @-@ dopaminergic state .
Amphetamine is also a substrate for the presynaptic vesicular monoamine transporter , VMAT2 . Following amphetamine uptake at VMAT2 , the synaptic vesicle releases dopamine molecules into the cytosol in exchange . Subsequently , the cytosolic dopamine molecules exit the presynaptic neuron via reverse transport at DAT .
= = = = Norepinephrine = = = =
Similar to dopamine , amphetamine dose @-@ dependently increases the level of synaptic norepinephrine , the direct precursor of epinephrine . Based upon neuronal TAAR1 mRNA expression , amphetamine is thought to affect norepinephrine analogously to dopamine . In other words , amphetamine induces TAAR1 @-@ mediated efflux and non @-@ competitive reuptake inhibition at phosphorylated NET , competitive NET reuptake inhibition , and norepinephrine release from VMAT2 .
= = = = Serotonin = = = =
Amphetamine exerts analogous , yet less pronounced , effects on serotonin as on dopamine and norepinephrine . Amphetamine affects serotonin via VMAT2 and , like norepinephrine , is thought to phosphorylate SERT via TAAR1 . Like dopamine , amphetamine has low , micromolar affinity at the human 5 @-@ HT1A receptor .
= = = = Other neurotransmitters , peptides , and hormones = = = =
Amphetamine has no direct effect on acetylcholine neurotransmission , but several studies have noted that acetylcholine release increases after its use . In lab animals , amphetamine increases acetylcholine levels in certain brain regions as a downstream effect . In humans , a similar phenomenon occurs via the ghrelin @-@ mediated cholinergic – dopaminergic reward link in the ventral tegmental area . Acute amphetamine administration in humans also increases endogenous opioid release in several brain structures in the reward system . Extracellular levels of glutamate , the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain , have been shown to increase upon exposure to amphetamine . This cotransmission effect was found in the mesolimbic pathway , an area of the brain implicated in reward , where amphetamine is known to affect dopamine neurotransmission .
Amphetamine also induces the selective release of histamine from mast cells and efflux from histaminergic neurons through VMAT2 . Acute amphetamine administration can also increase adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosteroid levels in blood plasma by stimulating the hypothalamic – pituitary – adrenal axis .
= = = Pharmacokinetics = = =
The oral bioavailability of amphetamine varies with gastrointestinal pH ; it is well absorbed from the gut , and bioavailability is typically over 75 % for dextroamphetamine . Amphetamine is a weak base with a pKa of 9 – 10 ; consequently , when the pH is basic , more of the drug is in its lipid soluble free base form , and more is absorbed through the lipid @-@ rich cell membranes of the gut epithelium . Conversely , an acidic pH means the drug is predominantly in a water @-@ soluble cationic ( salt ) form , and less is absorbed . Approximately 15 – 40 % of amphetamine circulating in the bloodstream is bound to plasma proteins .
The half @-@ life of amphetamine enantiomers differ and vary with urine pH . At normal urine pH , the half @-@ lives of dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine are 9 – 11 hours and 11 – 14 hours , respectively . An acidic diet will reduce the enantiomer half @-@ lives to 8 – 11 hours ; an alkaline diet will increase the range to 16 – 31 hours . The immediate @-@ release and extended release variants of salts of both isomers reach peak plasma concentrations at 3 hours and 7 hours post @-@ dose respectively . Amphetamine is eliminated via the kidneys , with 30 – 40 % of the drug being excreted unchanged at normal urinary pH . When the urinary pH is basic , amphetamine is in its free base form , so less is excreted . When urine pH is abnormal , the urinary recovery of amphetamine may range from a low of 1 % to a high of 75 % , depending mostly upon whether urine is too basic or acidic , respectively . Amphetamine is usually eliminated within two days of the last oral dose . Apparent half @-@ life and duration of effect increase with repeated use and accumulation of the drug .
The prodrug lisdexamfetamine is not as sensitive to pH as amphetamine when being absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract ; following absorption into the blood stream , it is converted by red blood cell @-@ associated enzymes to dextroamphetamine via hydrolysis . The elimination half @-@ life of lisdexamfetamine is generally less than one hour .
CYP2D6 , dopamine β @-@ hydroxylase , flavin @-@ containing monooxygenase 3 , butyrate @-@ CoA ligase , and glycine N @-@ acyltransferase are the enzymes known to metabolize amphetamine or its metabolites in humans . Amphetamine has a variety of excreted metabolic products , including 4 @-@ hydroxyamphetamine , 4 @-@ hydroxynorephedrine , 4 @-@ hydroxyphenylacetone , benzoic acid , hippuric acid , norephedrine , and phenylacetone . Among these metabolites , the active sympathomimetics are 4 ‑ hydroxyamphetamine , 4 ‑ hydroxynorephedrine , and norephedrine . The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para @-@ hydroxylation , aliphatic alpha- and beta @-@ hydroxylation , N @-@ oxidation , N @-@ dealkylation , and deamination . The known pathways and detectable metabolites in humans include the following :
= = = Related endogenous compounds = = =
Amphetamine has a very similar structure and function to the endogenous trace amines , which are naturally occurring neurotransmitter molecules produced in the human body and brain . Among this group , the most closely related compounds are phenethylamine , the parent compound of amphetamine , and N @-@ methylphenethylamine , an isomer of amphetamine ( i.e. , it has an identical molecular formula ) . In humans , phenethylamine is produced directly from L @-@ phenylalanine by the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase ( AADC ) enzyme , which converts L @-@ DOPA into dopamine as well . In turn , N ‑ methylphenethylamine is metabolized from phenethylamine by phenylethanolamine N @-@ methyltransferase , the same enzyme that metabolizes norepinephrine into epinephrine . Like amphetamine , both phenethylamine and N ‑ methylphenethylamine regulate monoamine neurotransmission via TAAR1 ; unlike amphetamine , both of these substances are broken down by monoamine oxidase B , and therefore have a shorter half @-@ life than amphetamine .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
Amphetamine is a methyl homolog of the mammalian neurotransmitter phenethylamine with the chemical formula C9H13N . The carbon atom adjacent to the primary amine is a stereogenic center , and amphetamine is composed of a racemic 1 : 1 mixture of two enantiomeric mirror images . This racemic mixture can be separated into its optical isomers : levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine . Physically , at room temperature , the pure free base of amphetamine is a mobile , colorless , and volatile liquid with a characteristically strong amine odor , and acrid , burning taste . Frequently prepared solid salts of amphetamine include amphetamine aspartate , hydrochloride , phosphate , saccharate , and sulfate , the last of which is the most common amphetamine salt . Amphetamine is also the parent compound of its own structural class , which includes a number of psychoactive derivatives . In organic chemistry , amphetamine is an excellent chiral ligand for the stereoselective synthesis of 1 @,@ 1 ' -bi @-@ 2 @-@ naphthol .
= = = Substituted derivatives = = =
The substituted derivatives of amphetamine , or " substituted amphetamines " , are a broad range of chemicals that contain amphetamine as a " backbone " ; specifically , this chemical class includes derivative compounds that are formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in the amphetamine core structure with substituents . The class includes amphetamine itself , stimulants like methamphetamine , serotonergic empathogens like MDMA , and decongestants like ephedrine , among other subgroups .
= = = Synthesis = = =
Since the first preparation was reported in 1887 , numerous synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed . The most common route of both legal and illicit amphetamine synthesis employs a non @-@ metal reduction known as the Leuckart reaction ( method 1 ) . In the first step , a reaction between phenylacetone and formamide , either using additional formic acid or formamide itself as a reducing agent , yields N @-@ formylamphetamine . This intermediate is then hydrolyzed using hydrochloric acid , and subsequently basified , extracted with organic solvent , concentrated , and distilled to yield the free base . The free base is then dissolved in an organic solvent , sulfuric acid added , and amphetamine precipitates out as the sulfate salt .
A number of chiral resolutions have been developed to separate the two enantiomers of amphetamine . For example , racemic amphetamine can be treated with d @-@ tartaric acid to form a diastereoisomeric salt which is fractionally crystallized to yield dextroamphetamine . Chiral resolution remains the most economical method for obtaining optically pure amphetamine on a large scale . In addition , several enantioselective syntheses of amphetamine have been developed . In one example , optically pure ( R ) -1 @-@ phenyl @-@ ethanamine is condensed with phenylacetone to yield a chiral Schiff base . In the key step , this intermediate is reduced by catalytic hydrogenation with a transfer of chirality to the carbon atom alpha to the amino group . Cleavage of the benzylic amine bond by hydrogenation yields optically pure dextroamphetamine .
A large number of alternative synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed based on classic organic reactions . One example is the Friedel – Crafts alkylation of chlorobenzene by allyl chloride to yield beta chloropropylbenzene which is then reacted with ammonia to produce racemic amphetamine ( method 2 ) . Another example employs the Ritter reaction ( method 3 ) . In this route , allylbenzene is reacted acetonitrile in sulfuric acid to yield an organosulfate which in turn is treated with sodium hydroxide to give amphetamine via an acetamide intermediate . A third route starts with ethyl 3 @-@ oxobutanoate which through a double alkylation with methyl iodide followed by benzyl chloride can be converted into 2 @-@ methyl @-@ 3 @-@ phenyl @-@ propanoic acid . This synthetic intermediate can be transformed into amphetamine using either a Hofmann or Curtius rearrangement ( method 4 ) .
A significant number of amphetamine syntheses feature a reduction of a nitro , imine , oxime or other nitrogen @-@ containing functional groups . In one such example , a Knoevenagel condensation of benzaldehyde with nitroethane yields phenyl @-@ 2 @-@ nitropropene . The double bond and nitro group of this intermediate is reduced using either catalytic hydrogenation or by treatment with lithium aluminium hydride ( method 5 ) . Another method is the reaction of phenylacetone with ammonia , producing an imine intermediate that is reduced to the primary amine using hydrogen over a palladium catalyst or lithium aluminum hydride ( method 6 ) .
= = = Detection in body fluids = = =
Amphetamine is frequently measured in urine or blood as part of a drug test for sports , employment , poisoning diagnostics , and forensics . Techniques such as immunoassay , which is the most common form of amphetamine test , may cross @-@ react with a number of sympathomimetic drugs . Chromatographic methods specific for amphetamine are employed to prevent false positive results . Chiral separation techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source of the drug , whether prescription amphetamine , prescription amphetamine prodrugs , ( e.g. , selegiline ) , over @-@ the @-@ counter drug products that contain levomethamphetamine , or illicitly obtained substituted amphetamines . Several prescription drugs produce amphetamine as a metabolite , including benzphetamine , clobenzorex , famprofazone , fenproporex , lisdexamfetamine , mesocarb , methamphetamine , prenylamine , and selegiline , among others . These compounds may produce positive results for amphetamine on drug tests . Amphetamine is generally only detectable by a standard drug test for approximately 24 hours , although a high dose may be detectable for two to four days .
For the assays , a study noted that an enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique ( EMIT ) assay for amphetamine and methamphetamine may produce more false positives than liquid chromatography – tandem mass spectrometry . Gas chromatography – mass spectrometry ( GC – MS ) of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the derivatizing agent ( S ) - ( − ) -trifluoroacetylprolyl chloride allows for the detection of methamphetamine in urine . GC – MS of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the chiral derivatizing agent Mosher 's acid chloride allows for the detection of both dextroamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine in urine . Hence , the latter method may be used on samples that test positive using other methods to help distinguish between the various sources of the drug .
= = History , society , and culture = =
Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist Lazăr Edeleanu who named it phenylisopropylamine ; its stimulant effects remained unknown until 1927 , when it was independently resynthesized by Gordon Alles and reported to have sympathomimetic properties . Amphetamine had no pharmacological use until 1934 , when Smith , Kline and French began selling it as an inhaler under the trade name Benzedrine as a decongestant . Benzedrine sulfate was introduced three years later and found a wide variety of medical applications , including narcolepsy . During World War II , amphetamine and methamphetamine were used extensively by both the Allied and Axis forces for their stimulant and performance @-@ enhancing effects . As the addictive properties of the drug became known , governments began to place strict controls on the sale of amphetamine . For example , during the early 1970s in the United States , amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act . In spite of strict government controls , amphetamine has been used legally or illicitly by people from a variety of backgrounds , including authors , musicians , mathematicians , and athletes .
Amphetamine is still illegally synthesized today in clandestine labs and sold on the black market , primarily in European countries . Among European Union ( EU ) member states , 1 @.@ 2 million young adults used illicit amphetamine or methamphetamine in 2013 . During 2012 , approximately 5 @.@ 9 metric tons of illicit amphetamine were seized within EU member states ; the " street price " of illicit amphetamine within the EU ranged from € 6 – 38 per gram during the same period . Outside Europe , the illicit market for amphetamine is much smaller than the market for methamphetamine and MDMA .
= = = Legal status = = =
As a result of the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances , amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance , as defined in the treaty , in all ( 183 ) state parties . Consequently , it is heavily regulated in most countries . Some countries , such as South Korea and Japan , have banned substituted amphetamines even for medical use . In other nations , such as Canada ( schedule I drug ) , the Netherlands ( List I drug ) , the United States ( schedule II drug ) , Australia ( schedule 8 ) , Thailand ( category 1 narcotic ) , and United Kingdom ( class B drug ) , amphetamine is in a restrictive national drug schedule that allows for its use as a medical treatment .
= = = Pharmaceutical products = = =
Several currently prescribed amphetamine formulations contain both enantiomers , including Adderall , Dyanavel XR , and Evekeo , the last of which is racemic amphetamine sulfate . Amphetamine is also prescribed in enantiopure and prodrug form as dextroamphetamine and lisdexamfetamine respectively . Lisdexamfetamine is structurally different from amphetamine , and is inactive until it metabolizes into dextroamphetamine . The free base of racemic amphetamine was previously available as Benzedrine , Psychedrine , and Sympatedrine . Levoamphetamine was previously available as Cydril . Many current amphetamine pharmaceuticals are salts due to the comparatively high volatility of the free base . However , oral suspension and orally disintegrating tablet ( ODT ) dosage forms composed of the free base were introduced in 2015 and 2016 . Some of the current brands and their generic equivalents are listed below .
= = Reference notes = =
= Mikengreg =
Mikengreg is an independent video game development team of Mike Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend . Their games include Solipskier , Gasketball , and TouchTone . The two met in a game development class at Iowa State University and later began to collaborate on the Adobe Flash game Dinowaurs . When the project was funded , they founded Intuition Games with other college friends in Ames , Iowa , where they worked on small Flash games such as Gray , Lifecraft , and Fig . 8 for Flash game sites such as Kongregate . Dinowaurs was one of the first games signed for the Kongregate platform . Their other games involved controlling the weather , influencing individuals in a riot , and riding a bicycle . Boxleiter and Wohlwend worked on several additional games that were put on hiatus .
They later became Mikengreg in 2010 and released Solipskier in August for both Flash and iOS later that year . Its success let them take a more experimental approach towards their next game , the free @-@ to @-@ play Gasketball . Mikengreg ran out of money during the game 's development and the two lived on friends ' couches . The game was reviewed favorably upon its August 2012 launch , but did not earn near the developers ' estimates . Their next game , TouchTone ( 2015 ) , spent two years in development .
= = Intuition Games = =
Boxleiter and Wohlwend met in an experimental video game development class at Iowa State University . Wohlwend had attempted to help Boxleiter with a project , but quit after drawing a few aliens . Boxleiter said he " didn 't like [ Wohlwend ] much after that " . They met again as coworkers at the university 's Virtual Reality Application Center during Boxleiter 's final year of college ( Wohlwend 's penultimate year ) . Upon discovering their close interests , they began to work on an Adobe Flash game named Dinowaurs while they completed college . Boxleiter graduated in 2007 with a degree in computer science , and Wohlwend a year later with a degree in graphic design . They concluded that they needed a company to make money while they worked on the game with collaborators , and around May 2007 , founded Intuition Games at the university 's Research Park . They decided to stay in Ames , Iowa due to its financial feasibility and local connections , but two other members of the team , Josh Larson and Ted Martens , lived in Des Moines and Chicago , respectively . The team met as students at Iowa State through work and game development circles . They saw Flash games as an easy entry point into full @-@ time self @-@ employment , but planned to eventually work on console platforms such as WiiWare . Before Dinowaurs , the team made a game about a destructive porpoise , which was abandoned when Dinowaurs received funding .
In their development process , Boxleiter and Wohlwend both proposed and worked on each other 's ideas , and would drop the ideas they found unexciting . The two also built games from keywords and brainstorming , and would flesh out the game mechanics through " heated " argument . Their labor as a team was divided in that Wohlwend always did the art and Boxleiter the programming , as reflective of their skills at the time . The pair agreed to an assessment of their partnership as " left @-@ brain right @-@ brain " , and agreed that " editing " — the process of iterating through revisions — was central to their joint work . As they worked , they always retained their prototypes . They both appreciated the " creative freedom " of being self @-@ employed , though they struggled with the business aspects , relative workplace " isolation " , low salaries , and lack of job stability . Both were motivated to do their own work instead of contracted tasks . They thought of themselves as artists and of their work as experimental . Boxleiter and Wohlwend worked long hours when making the Flash games , which they found exciting and unsustainable . At Intuition , they worked on games such as Dinowaurs , Gray , Fig . 8 , and Liferaft and participated in at least six game jams . As of April 2010 , they had created 10 games together .
= = = Dinowaurs = = =
Intuition 's first game , Dinowaurs , is a strategy and action game where two players compete as dinosaurs to seize the most cavemen settlements on a single screen . Captured settlements provide resources for upgrades to the players ' dinosaurs . The object of this arms race is to kill the other dinosaur . It features online matchmaking . The game was built from an unfinished Flash @-@ based multiplayer strategy game started by Boxleiter and an image of a stegosaurus with a jetpack drawn by Martens . The team combined the concepts for a strategy game about dinosaurs fighting for food . They struggled with long @-@ distance communication , but used a project management website and Skype to stay in touch . When looking for a platform , Intuition originally pitched the game with a clay dinosaur to Adult Swim — who was funding Flash games — but was declined for not being " edgy enough " . In June , they then tried then @-@ new Flash site Kongregate via a connection Larson had made with its CEO Jim Greer at the 2007 Game Developers Conference . He asked the team to wait for their new Director of Games to be hired , who ended up being Intuition 's contact at Adult Swim . The contact had liked the idea and thought the game worked better for Kongregate than did for Adult Swim , and so funded the game by November 2007 as one of the first five for the Kongregate platform . The package was a one @-@ year browser exclusivity agreement that let Intuition keep the intellectual property .
Dinowaurs was finished in two years for a 2009 release . Their later games would only take a few months apiece in comparison . They abandoned the use of design documents after Dinowaurs , and instead chose to refine and experiment in process . IndieGames.com reported mixed reviews from players and recommended the game as " good solid fun " for newcomers and veterans . The Escapist described the game as similar to Scorched Earth and " surprisingly complex " with its need for three tutorials . He complimented its " faux @-@ retro " soundtrack and aesthetics , which he felt outweighed the learning curve 's difficulty .
= = = Other games = = =
Intuition released Effing Hail and Gray around April 2009 . Players in action game Effing Hail control hail and wind to destroy the most buildings and midair objects within a time limit . The hail grows in size when the wind is used to suspend it in air . The game was published through Kongregate . As an example of their more experimental games , Intuition built Gray — a game about " political consciousness " — as a result of their frustrations during the 2008 U.S. presidential election . Players control a single character and try to end a riot by influencing other individuals in the crowd . The game was featured at IndieCade in 2009 .
Fig . 8 @.@ is based on one of Wohlwend 's college art projects . It went unused on their whiteboard for four months until they needed an idea , whereupon Boxleiter added game mechanics to the visuals . It took about ten hours to prototype the controls , and they tested a ten @-@ wheel bike before deciding on two . The scrolling camera was inspired by a game Boxleiter had been playing called String Theory , and they added the soundtrack last . Fig . 8 was funded by a sponsor . Boxleiter considers Gray and Fig . 8 to be " small games " . As projects , he considered them " more like vacations ... than actual work " .
Intuition attempted to fund their next game , Liferaft , via crowdfunding site Kickstarter . The game is set in a single day within an " abandoned testing facility ... in a post @-@ apocalyptic sci
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, covered with wounds , in the middle of a Russian square into which he had flung himself almost alone .
The Emperor ordered the best surgeons to attend to d 'Hautpoul . These disagreed on the method of treatment . Against the advice of military surgeon , Larrey , d 'Hautpoul refused to have his leg amputated and he died a few days later .
There is some disagreement in the records about his actual date of death : the original death record of the parish at Eylau indicates he died of wounds on 1 February 1807 , but this was before the battle , and it is possible that the pastor simply left off a digit in his record , or , more likely , that the record was transcribed incorrectly . Other records suggest that he died the day after the battle ( 8 February ) , on 11 February , or on 14 February . Originally buried at Worienen , His son , Alexandre Joseph Napoléon , brought his remains to France in 1840 to be buried in the family crypt at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris . D 'Hautpoul 's heart is conserved in a vault in Les Invalides , and his name is inscribed on Column 16 of the Arc de Triomphe , among the first 384 names to be inscribed at the Arc .
= Australia Day =
Australia Day is the official National Day of Australia . Celebrated annually on 26 January , it marks the anniversary of the 1788 arrival of the First Fleet of British Ships at Port Jackson , New South Wales , and the raising of the Flag of Great Britain at Sydney Cove by Governor Arthur Phillip . In present @-@ day Australia , celebrations reflect the diverse society and landscape of the nation , and are marked by community and family events , reflections on Australian history , official community awards , and citizenship ceremonies welcoming new immigrants into the Australian community .
The meaning and significance of Australia Day has evolved over time . Unofficially , or historically , the date has also been variously named " Anniversary Day " , " Foundation Day " , and " ANA Day " . 26 January 1788 marked the proclamation of British sovereignty over the eastern seaboard of Australia ( then known as New Holland ) . Although it was not known as Australia Day until over a century later , records of celebrations on 26 January date back to 1808 , with the first official celebration of the formation of New South Wales held in 1818 . On New Year 's Day 1901 , the British colonies of Australia formed a Federation , marking the birth of modern Australia . A national day of unity and celebration was looked for . It was not until 1935 that all Australian states and territories had adopted use of the term " Australia Day " to mark the date , and not until 1994 that the date was consistently marked by a public holiday on that day by all states and territories .
In contemporary Australia , the holiday is marked by the presentation of the Australian of the Year Awards on Australia Day Eve , announcement of the Australia Day Honours list and addresses from the Governor @-@ General and Prime Minister . It is an official public holiday in every state and territory of Australia , unless it falls on a weekend in which case the following Monday becomes a public holiday instead . With community festivals , concerts and citizenship ceremonies , the day is celebrated in large and small communities and cities around the nation . Australia Day has become the biggest annual civic event in Australia .
Since at least 1938 , Australia Day has also been marked by Indigenous Australians protesting the invasion of their land by Europeans and its celebration as a national holiday .
= = History = =
= = = Arrival of the First Fleet = = =
On 13 May 1787 a fleet of 11 ships , which came to be known as the First Fleet , was sent by the British Admiralty from England to Australia . Under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip , the fleet sought to establish a penal colony at Botany Bay on the coast of New South Wales , which had been explored and claimed by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770 . The settlement was seen as necessary because of the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America . The Fleet arrived between 18 and 20 January 1788 , but it was immediately apparent that Botany Bay was unsuitable .
On 21 January , Phillip and a few officers travelled to Port Jackson , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) to the north , to see if it would be a better location for a settlement . They stayed there until 23 January ; Phillip named the site of their landing Sydney Cove , after the Home Secretary , Thomas Townshend , 1st Viscount Sydney . They also made contact with the local Aboriginal people .
They returned to Botany Bay on the evening of 23 January , when Phillip gave orders to move the fleet to Sydney Cove the next morning , 24 January . That day , there was a huge gale blowing , making it impossible to leave Botany Bay , so they decided to wait till the next day , 25 January . However , during 24 January , they spotted the ships Astrolabe and Boussole , flying the French flag , at the entrance to Botany Bay ; they were having as much trouble getting into the bay as the First Fleet was having getting out .
On 25 January the gale was still blowing ; the fleet tried to leave Botany Bay , but only HMS Supply made it out , carrying Arthur Phillip , Philip Gidley King , some marines and about 40 convicts ; they anchored in Sydney Cove in the afternoon . On 26 January , early in the morning , Phillip along with a few dozen marines , officers and oarsmen , rowed ashore and took possession of the land in the name of King George III . The remainder of the ship 's company and the convicts watched from on board Supply .
Meanwhile , back at Botany Bay , Captain John Hunter of HMS Sirius made contact with the French ships , and he and the commander , Captain de Clonard , exchanged greetings . Clonard advised Hunter that the fleet commander was Jean @-@ François de Galaup , comte de Lapérouse . Sirius successfully cleared Botany Bay , but the other ships were in great difficulty . Charlotte was blown dangerously close to rocks ; Friendship and Prince of Wales became entangled , both ships losing booms or sails ; Charlotte and the Friendship actually collided ; and Lady Penrhyn nearly ran aground . Despite these difficulties , all the remaining ships finally managed to clear Botany Bay and sail to Sydney Cove on 26 January . The last ship anchored there at about 3 pm .
The formal establishment of the Colony of New South Wales did not occur on 26 January as is commonly assumed . It did not occur until 7 February 1788 , when the formal proclamation of the colony and of Arthur Phillip 's governorship were read out . The vesting of all land in the reigning monarch King George III also dates from 7 February 1788 .
= = = First fifty years : 1788 to 1838 = = =
Although there was no official recognition of the colony 's anniversary , with the New South Wales Almanacks of 1806 and 1808 placing no special significance on 26 January , by 1808 the date was being used by the colony 's immigrants , especially the emancipated convicts , to " celebrate their love of the land they lived in " with " drinking and merriment " . The 1808 celebrations followed this pattern , beginning at sundown on 25 January , and lasted into the night , the chief toast of the occasion being Major George Johnston . Johnston had the honour of being the first officer ashore from the First Fleet , having been carried from the landing boat on the back of convict James Ruse . Despite suffering the ill @-@ effects of a fall from his gig on the way home to Annandale , Johnston led the officers of the New South Wales Corps in arresting Governor William Bligh on the following day , 26 January 1808 , in what became known as the " Rum Rebellion " .
In 1817 The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser reported on one of these unofficial gatherings at the home of Isaac Nichols :
On Monday the 27th ult. a dinner party met at the house of Mr. Isaac Nichols , for the purpose of celebrating the Anniversary of the Institution of this Colony under Governor Philip , which took place on 26 Jan. 1788 , but this year happening upon a Sunday , the commemoration dinner was reserved for the day following . The party assembled were select , and about 40 in number . At 5 in the afternoon dinner was on the table , and a more agreeable entertainment could not have been anticipated . After dinner a number of loyal toasts were drank , and a number of festive songs given ; and about 10 the company parted , well gratified with the pleasures that the meeting had afforded .
1818 was the 30th anniversary of the founding of the colony , and Governor Lachlan Macquarie chose to acknowledge the day with the first official celebration . The Governor declared that the day would be a holiday for all government workers , granting each an extra allowance of " one pound of fresh meat " , and ordered a 30 gun salute at Dawes Point – one for each year that the colony had existed . This began a tradition that was retained by the Governors that were to follow .
Foundation Day , as it was known at the time , continued to be officially celebrated in New South Wales , and in doing so became connected with sporting events . One of these became a tradition that is still continued today : in 1837 the first running of what would become the Australia Day regatta was held on Sydney Harbour . Five races were held for different classes of boats , from first class sailing vessels to watermen 's skiffs , and people viewed the festivities from both onshore and from the decks of boats on the harbour , including the steamboat Australian and Francis Freeling – the second of whom ran aground during the festivities and had to be refloated the next day . Happy with the success of the regatta , the organisers resolved to make in an annual event . However , some of the celebrations had gained an air of elitism , with the " United Australians " dinner being limited to those born in Australia . In describing the dinner , the Sydney Herald justified the decision , saying :
The parties who associated themselves under the title of " United Australians " have been censured for adopting a principle of exclusiveness . It is not fair so to censure them . If they invited emigrants to join them they would give offence to another class of persons – while if they invited all they would be subject to the presence of persons with whom they might not wish to associate . That was a good reason . The " Australians " had a perfect right to dine together if they wished it , and no one has a right to complain .
The following year , 1838 , was the 50th anniversary of the founding of the colony , and as part of the celebrations Australia 's first public holiday was declared . The regatta was held for a second time , and people crowded the foreshores to view the events , or joined the five steamers ( Maitland , Experiment , Australia , Rapid , and the miniature steamer Firefly ) to view the proceedings from the water . At midday 50 guns were fired from Dawes ' Battery as the Royal Standard was raised , and in the evening rockets and other fireworks lit the sky . The dinner was a smaller affair than the previous year , with only 40 in attendance compared to the 160 from 1837 , and the anniversary as a whole was described as a " day for everyone " .
= = = Centenary celebration : 1839 to 1888 = = =
Prior to 1888 , 26 January was very much a New South Wales affair , as each of the colonies had their own commemorations for their founding . In Tasmania , Regatta Day occurred in December , South Australia had Proclamation Day 28 December , and Western Australia had their own Foundation Day ( now Western Australia Day ) on 1 June .
In 1888 , all colonial capitals except Adelaide celebrated ' Anniversary Day ' . In 1910 , South Australia adopted Australia Day , followed by Victoria in 1931 . By 1935 , all states of Australia were celebrating 26 January as Australia Day ( although it was still known as Anniversary Day in New South Wales ) . The name ' Foundation Day ' persisted in local usage .
= = = Sesquicentenary = = =
The 150th anniversary of British settlement in Australia in 1938 was widely celebrated . Preparations began in 1936 with the formation of a Celebrations Council . In that year , New South Wales was the only state to abandon the traditional long weekend , and the annual Anniversary Day public holiday was held on the actual anniversary day – Wednesday 26 January . The Commonwealth and state governments agreed to unify the celebrations on 26 January as ' Australia Day ' in 1946 , although the public holiday was instead taken on the Monday closest to the actual anniversary .
= = = Bicentennial year = = =
In 1988 , the celebration of 200 years since the arrival of the First Fleet was organised on a large scale , with many significant events taking place in all major cities . Over 2 @.@ 5 million people attended the event in Sydney . These included street parties , concerts , including performances on the steps and forecourt of the Sydney Opera House and at many other public venues , art and literary competitions , historic re @-@ enactments , and the opening of the Powerhouse Museum at its new location . A re @-@ enactment of the arrival of the First Fleet took place in Sydney Harbour , with ships that had sailed from Portsmouth a year earlier taking part .
= = Contemporary celebrations = =
Since 1988 participation in Australia Day has increased and in 1994 all states and territories began to celebrate a unified public holiday on the actual day for the first time . Research conducted in 2007 reported that 27 @.@ 6 % of Australians polled attended an organised Australia Day event and a further 25 @.@ 6 % celebrated with family and friends making Australia Day the largest annual public event in the nation . This reflected the results of an earlier research project where 66 % of respondents anticipated that they would actively celebrate Australia Day 2005 .
Outdoor concerts , community barbecues , sports competitions , festivals and fireworks are some of the many events held in communities across Australia . These official events are presented by the National Australia Day Council , an official council or committee in each state and territory , and local committees .
In Sydney the harbour is a focus and boat races are held , such as a ferry race and the tall ships race . In Adelaide the key celebrations are ' Australia Day in the City ' which is a parade , concert and fireworks display held in Elder park and the traditional International Cricket match played at the Adelaide Oval . Featuring the People 's March and the Voyages Concert , Melbourne 's events focus strongly on the celebration of multiculturalism . Despite a drop in attendance in 2010 , but with audiences still estimated at 400 @,@ 000 , the Perth Skyworks is the largest single event presented each Australia Day .
Citizenship ceremonies are also commonly held with Australia Day now the largest occasion for the acquisition of Australian citizenship . On 26 January 2011 , more than 300 citizenship ceremonies took place and 13 @,@ 000 people from 143 countries took Australian citizenship . In recent years many citizenship ceremonies have included an affirmation by existing citizens . Research conducted in 2007 reported that 78 @.@ 6 % of respondents thought that citizenship ceremonies were an important feature of the day .
The official Australia Day Ambassador Program supports celebrations in communities across the nation by facilitating the participation of high @-@ achieving Australians in local community celebrations . In 2011 , 385 ambassadors participated in 384 local community celebrations . The Order of Australia awards are also a feature of the day . The Australia Day Achievement Medallion is awarded to citizens by local governments based on excellence in both government and non @-@ government organisations . The Governor @-@ General and Prime Minister both address the nation . On the eve of Australia Day each year , the Prime Minister announces the winner of the Australian of the Year award , presented to an Australian citizen who has shown a " significant contribution to the Australian community and nation " and is an " inspirational role model for the Australian community " . Subcategories of the award include Young Australian of the Year and Senior Australian of the Year , and an award for Australia 's Local Hero .
Various music festivals are held on Australia Day , such as the Big Day Out , the Triple J Hottest 100 , and the Australia Day Live Concert which is televised nationally . For many years an international cricket match has been held on Australia Day at the Adelaide Oval . These matches have included both Test matches and One Day Internationals .
Research in 2009 indicated that Australians reflect on history and future fairly equally on Australia Day . Of those polled , 43 % agreed that history is the most important thing to think about on Australia Day and 41 % said they look towards " our future " , while 13 % thought it was important to " think about the present at this time " and 3 % were unsure . Despite the date reflecting the arrival of the First Fleet , contemporary celebrations are not particularly historical in their theme . There are no large @-@ scale re @-@ enactments and the national leader 's participation is focused largely on events such as the Australian of the Year Awards announcement and Citizenship Ceremonies .
Possibly reflecting a shift in Australians ' understanding of the place of Indigenous Australians in their national identity , Newspoll research in November 2009 reported that ninety percent of Australians polled believed " it was important to recognise Australia 's indigenous people and culture " as part of Australia Day celebrations . A similar proportion ( 89 % ) agreed that " it is important to recognise the cultural diversity of the nation " . Despite the strong attendance at Australia Day events and a positive disposition towards the recognition of Indigenous Australians , the date of the celebrations remains a source of challenge and national discussion .
= = Criticism = =
For some Australians , particularly Indigenous Australians , Australia Day has become a symbol of the adverse impacts of British settlement on Australia 's Indigenous people . The celebrations in 1938 were accompanied by an Aboriginal Day of Mourning . A large gathering of Aboriginal people in Sydney in 1988 led an " Invasion Day " commemoration marking the loss of Indigenous culture . The anniversary is also known as " Survival Day " and marked by events such as the Survival Day concert first held in Sydney in 1992 , celebrating the fact that the Indigenous people and culture have not been completely wiped out .
In response , official celebrations have tried to include Indigenous people , holding ceremonies such as the Woggan @-@ ma @-@ gule ceremony , which was held in Sydney in 2006 and honoured the past and celebrated the present ; it involved Indigenous Australians and the Governor of New South Wales .
= = = Invasion Day = = =
Invasion Day is a term used by some Indigenous figures and their supporters to refer to 26 January , and protests occur almost every year , sometimes at Australia Day events .
In January 1988 , members of various Indigenous groups collectively made an effort to promote an awareness among other Australians of their presence , their needs and their desire that there should be communication , reconciliation and co @-@ operation over the land rights issues . To this purpose , during January they set up a highly visible Tent Embassy at a shoreside location at a point called Mrs Macquarie 's Chair , adjacent to the Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens . The embassy , consisting of several large marquees and smaller tents , was manned by a group of Aboriginal people from Eveleigh Street , Redfern , and was organised with the co @-@ operation of the local council 's department of parks and gardens . It became a gathering place for Aboriginal people from all over Sydney . One of the aims of the embassy was to be seen by the many thousands of Sydneysiders whom the organisers claimed did not know , and rarely even saw , any Aboriginal people .
= = Suggested changes to the date = =
Both prior to the establishment of Australia Day as the national day of Australia , and in the years subsequent to its creation , several dates have been proposed for its celebration and , at various times , the possibility of moving Australia Day to an alternative date has been mooted . While the reasons for such a move have been varied , concerns with the current arrangement have included :
The current date , celebrating the foundation of the Colony of New South Wales , can be seen as lacking national significance .
Australia Day falls during the school holidays , limiting the ability of schools to engage children in the event .
The date can be perceived as being intrinsically connected to Australia 's convict past , celebrating " Britain 's driving ashore of Australia 's first white citizens in chains " .
It fails to encompass all Australians , including members of the indigenous community and others who see it as commemorating the date of the invasion of their land . Connected to this is the suggestion that moving the date would be seen as a significant symbolic act .
Amongst those calling for change have been Tony Beddison , then chairman of the Australia Day Committee ( Victoria ) , who argued for change and requested debate on the issue in 1999 ; and Mick Dodson , who was Australian of the Year in 2009 , called for debate in regard to when Australia Day was held .
= = = Proposed alternative dates = = =
= = = = Federation of Australia , 1 January = = = =
As early as 1957 , 1 January was suggested as a possible alternative day , to commemorate the Federation of Australia . In 1902 , the year after Federation , 1 January was named " Commonwealth Day " . However , New Year 's Day was already a public holiday , and Commonwealth Day did not gather much support .
= = = = Day before British settlement , 25 January = = = =
The day before Arthur Phillip 's landing at Sydney Cove has been suggested as an alternative day , as it would commemorate the last date when the Australian continent was solely occupied by its indigenous peoples . Moving the holiday by only one day would also have the advantage of being in the summer months . Such a small change would also have little impact on retailers , and ensure public holidays remain distributed as they are currently .
= = = = Anzac Day , 25 April = = = =
There has been a degree of support in recent years for making Anzac Day , 25 April , Australia 's national day , although the suggestions have also encountered strong opposition . In 1999 , prompted by Tony Beddison 's call for the date to be changed , a merger with Anzac Day found support with Peter Hollingworth ( Anglican Archbishop of Brisbane , Queensland ) , and the Federal Leader of the Opposition , Kim Beazley .
The suggestion was raised again in 2001 , when the national president of the Returned and Services League of Australia ( RSL ) , Major @-@ General ( retired ) Peter Phillips , suggested that the merger may be possible in the future . Phillips was in the process of planning a major review into the future of Anzac Day , and the combination of the two caused considerable concern in the RSL . Although he subsequently stated that he was misrepresented , and that the review was not considering a merger of the two dates , the suggestion sparked controversy . The idea was strongly opposed , with both Prime Minister John Howard and Opposition Leader Kim Beazley speaking against the concept . ( Beazley clarified his earlier stance by stating that he did not support a merger , but that he nevertheless saw Anzac Day as the true national day of Australia . )
Counter arguments to merging the two holidays include the belief that many war veterans view Anzac Day as their day ; that Anzac Day is also a public holiday in New Zealand , Cook Islands , Niue , Samoa and Tonga ; and that a merger would detract from the core purpose of Anzac Day – to honour the war dead .
= = = = Opening of the first Federal Parliament , 9 May = = = =
The date 9 May is also sometimes suggested , being not only the date on which the first Federal Parliament was opened in Melbourne in 1901 , but also the date of the opening of the Provisional Parliament House in Canberra in 1927 , and the date of the opening of the New Parliament House in 1988 . The date has , at various times , won the support of Queensland Premier Peter Beattie , Tony Beddison , and Geoffrey Blainey . However , as with the Eureka Stockade , the date has been seen by some as being too closely connected with Victoria , and its location close to the start of winter has been described as an impediment .
= = = = Anniversary of the 1967 referendum , 27 May = = = =
The anniversary of the 1967 referendum to amend the constitutional status of Aborigines has also been suggested as an alternative . The day of the referendum was 27 May and the resulting amendments to the constitution were made on 10 August . The changes made enabled Aborigines to be accounted for under federal law , and to be included in the national census . The public vote in favour was 90 @.@ 77 % . The event was a milestone in the recognition of Indigenous rights in Australia .
= = = = Eureka Stockade , 3 December = = = =
The Eureka Stockade on 3 December has had a long history as an alternative choice for Australia Day , having been proposed by The Bulletin in the 1880s . The Eureka uprising occurred in 1854 during the Victorian gold rush , and saw a failed rebellion by the miners against the Victorian colonial government . Although the rebellion was crushed , it led to significant reforms , and has been described as being the birthplace of Australian democracy . Supporters of the date have included senator Don Chipp and Victorian Premier Steve Bracks . Nevertheless , the idea failed to gain traction in the 1880s , possibly due to the loyalty of the colonialists to Britain , for " even in Ballarat Eureka had to be forgotten . " The Eureka Stockade idea has opposed after being claimed by both " hard @-@ left unions " and " right @-@ wing nationalist groups " , and amongst some it is still seen as an essentially Victorian event .
= = = = Other recommended dates = = = =
Wattle Day on 1 September has been proposed as a unifying national patriotic holiday by the Wattle Day Association , and has been raised as an alternative date for Australia Day . There is a degree of historical precedent to the suggestion : Wattle Day was celebrated as Australia Day in South Australia for many years , though from 1915 to 1918 , Australia Day was celebrated there on 26 July .
Constitution Day , 9 July is also suggested as a possible alternative , commemorating the day in 1900 when Queen Victoria gave her assent to the Constitution of Australia .
The 3 March anniversary of the Australia Acts coming into force has been raised as an option , having been referred to as Australian Independence Day . These Acts removed the United Kingdom 's ability to legislate for the Australian States , the Queen 's ability to disallow or suspend State legislation , as well as severing the remaining appeal channels from the State Supreme Courts and the High Court of Australia to the Privy Council of the United Kingdom . Queen Elizabeth II signed a proclamation at Government House in Canberra on 2 March 1986 for the Acts to take effect 5 @.@ 00 am Greenwich Mean Time the next day .
= = = Opposition to change = = =
Any decision to change the date of Australia Day would have to be made by a combination of the Australian Federal and State Governments . In recent years such a move has lacked sufficient support , with both Prime Ministers and Leaders of the Opposition speaking against the idea . In 2001 the Prime Minister John Howard stated that he acknowledged Aboriginal concerns with the date , but that it was nevertheless a significant day in Australia 's history , and thus he was in favour of retaining the current date . He also noted that 1 January , which was being discussed in light of the Centenary of Federation , was inappropriate as it coincided with New Year 's Day . Prime Minister Kevin Rudd gave a " straightforward no " to a change of date , speaking in response to Mick Dodson 's suggestion to reopen the debate . The Leader of the Opposition , Malcolm Turnbull , echoed Rudd 's support of 26 January , but , along with Rudd , supported the right of Australians to raise the issue . In regard to State leaders , New South Wales Premier Nathan Rees stated that he was yet to hear a " compelling argument " to support change ; and Queensland Premier Anna Bligh expressed her opposition to a change of date in spite of any controversy .
In 2004 , a Newspoll that asked if the date of Australia Day should be moved to one that is not associated with European settlement found 79 per cent of respondents favoured no change , 15 per cent favoured change and 6 per cent were uncommitted . Historian Geoffrey Blainey said he believed 26 January worked well as Australia Day and that : " My view is that it is much more successful now than it 's ever been . "
= Kain ( Legacy of Kain ) =
Kain is a fictional character , and the main protagonist and title character of the Legacy of Kain video game series . First introduced in Blood Omen : Legacy of Kain in 1996 , he was created by Denis Dyack and Silicon Knights , and has appeared in all subsequent Legacy of Kain games under the direction of developer Crystal Dynamics . Between games , he serves as either the central playable character , or as an antagonist , but in all his depictions he has consistently been described as an antihero .
Drawing inspiration from the morally @-@ ambiguous character of William Munny from Clint Eastwood 's 1992 film Unforgiven , Silicon Knights conceived Kain as a nobleman murdered and revived as a vampire to take revenge on his assassins . He gradually embraces his new existence , and learns of his birthright to maintain balance in Nosgoth ( the fictional setting of the series ) . Crystal Dynamics later portrayed Kain as an Oedipus @-@ like figure , seeking to thwart the fate determined for him before his birth .
Beyond his role in the series , Kain has also featured in tie @-@ in comics , and in Crystal Dynamics ' Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light . In all of his voiced appearances , he has been played by actor Simon Templeman . He has been favorably received by video game critics and enthusiasts , with praise attributed to his antagonistic role in Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver , and his status as a strong example of a memorable , nuanced antihero in the medium .
= = Concept and creation = =
Kain 's character was originally conceived circa 1993 by Silicon Knights ' president , Denis Dyack , as the protagonist of The Pillars of Nosgoth , an initial video game concept for what would become 1996 's Blood Omen : Legacy of Kain . He was modeled in part on William Munny , the protagonist of Clint Eastwood 's 1992 Western film , Unforgiven . The developers set out to craft an antihero to suit " a game where the player is put in the position where everyone believes you are evil " , feeling that the industry required a story addressing issues of moral ambiguity and wondering how players would react when " everyone in the world was your enemy ( including yourself ) [ ... ] where you had to kill innocents to survive [ and ] you are the ultimate pawn " . Other influences which helped to define Kain 's character arc included The Wheel of Time , Necroscope , and cover art from The Pillars of the Earth . In comparison to Count Dracula , Dyack commented in an interview that he believed Kain would " kick his ass " in a fight . He and writer Ken McCulloch considered Simon Templeman 's voiceover for the character superlative , despite initial apprehensions that the actors they had hired might not be able to convey the game 's complicated dialogue .
After a legal dispute with Silicon Knights , Blood Omen publisher Crystal Dynamics obtained the rights to the Legacy of Kain intellectual property , with Amy Hennig directing Kain 's characterization for the sequel , 1999 's Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver . In this game , which built upon the Blood Omen ending in which he damns the world , Kain adopted the role of antagonist , with new character Raziel serving as the lead . Hennig justified this choice , believing that it would prove interesting to see what his decision had engendered after a few millennia . She emphasized , though , that she did not consider him a monster or mustache @-@ twirling villain , remarking that " in many ways , he 's a more complex and sympathetic character than Raziel himself " . Sources which helped to formulate his role in the plot ranged from Biblical lore to Eastern myth and mysticism .
In interviews preceding the release of 2001 's Soul Reaver 2 , Hennig said that Crystal Dynamics had a huge investment in Kain as a character . His portrayal in this game extrapolated further from Blood Omen 's story , and was influenced by Joseph Campbell 's ideals . No longer acting as a pure villain , Kain was intended to function as a " steadfast character " , coming to the story from a position of knowledge in contrast to Raziel 's relative ignorance . Hennig expressed that , by Soul Reaver 2 , her personal perception of Kain 's character had changed over the years , and that she now considered him a somewhat more attractive and interesting individual than Raziel due to his complexity . She dubbed him a tragic hero , " screwed by his own character flaws " , and argued that this hamartia added to his depth . Since joining Naughty Dog , when asked whether Raziel or Kain is closest to her heart , Hennig has said that while Raziel is a sympathetic protagonist , she probably prefers Kain as a character .
For 2002 's Blood Omen 2 , developed by a different team within Crystal Dynamics , Kain returned as the playable protagonist . The development staff chose to focus on his rise to power as a younger vampire , combining aspects of his Blood Omen and Soul Reaver incarnations . He was marketed as a more powerful and ruthless character than traditional video game heroes , with lead designer Mike Ellis inviting comparison to Final Fantasy VI 's Kefka Palazzo and Revolver Ocelot of the Metal Gear series . Design issues , raised by the wealth of abilities and equipment he accumulated in Blood Omen , prompted the team to add to his backstory and convincingly deprive him of these powers . Producer Sam Newman described him as " a very unique character " who " doesn 't fit to the generic character molds you find in many other games , books and movies [ ... ] not good , he 's not necessarily evil -- Kain does as Kain believes " .
Legacy of Kain : Defiance , released in 2003 , returned to the aged , elder Kain from Soul Reaver and Soul Reaver 2 , now controllable alongside Raziel . The prospect of making this incarnation of Kain playable left the development team " very excited " , and was agreed upon very early in pre @-@ production . Recognizing that he is " the most important character in the series " , designer Kyle Mannerberg named several parallels and influences concerning his development up to that point , citing Neo and John Murdoch ( the protagonists of The Matrix and Dark City respectively ) , the archetypal Fisher King of Arthurian legend , the story of Oedipus , and Gnostic myth as inspirations ( with both latter sources being reaffirmed as strong influences by Hennig in a later interview ) . The spells he obtains over the course of his levels were intended to pay homage to the original Blood Omen .
= = Characteristics = =
Kain 's appearance undergoes " pretty dramatic changes " throughout the games as he ages , but core personality attributes cited by Defiance 's developers include his intelligence and cynicism , arrogance and regality , and his defiant nature . In the series ' fictional universe , he is described as the guardian of balance , a being responsible for preserving the health and integrity of Nosgoth ( the games ' setting ) , but left incapable of realizing this duty due to spiritual corruption he inherited at birth .
The character 's transformation into a vampire , and the visceral nature this trait lends the series , was derived from William Shakespeare 's classical models : " for the drunken commoners in the front rows he would insert dirty jokes to keep them entertained but for the aristocracy in the balconies he would write very cerebral metaphors " . According to Silicon Knights , the gore and vampirism in Blood Omen served as their " dirty jokes " , supplemented by a complex story .
As the story progresses , Kain evolves from a directionless young nobleman , to a lithe and devious vampire , to a " craggy " figure . As a playable character , he frequently narrates his thoughts through the dramatic device of soliloquy . In Blood Omen and Defiance , his battle cry and catchphrase is Vae victis , a Latin phrase attributed to Brennus meaning " woe to the conquered " .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Debut = = =
In Blood Omen : Legacy of Kain , Kain is introduced as a young human noble . In the game 's prologue , he is murdered by assassins , and resurrected as a vampire by Mortanius , a necromancer . He is promised both vengeance and a cure to his vampirism if he can restore the nine Pillars of Nosgoth , edifices whose state dictates the vitality of the world ; the nine guardians who symbiotically represent the Pillars were corrupted prior to his birth , and must be killed before the land can recover . During his quest , he meets the ancient vampire Vorador , who influences him to forsake his former humanity and accept his vampirism , and discovers the Soul Reaver , a legendary soul @-@ devouring sword . Using the Reaver , he tries to alter the course of Nosgoth 's history to prevent the Nemesis — a tyrant king — from coming to power . Tricked by Moebius , the guardian of time , Kain succeeds in destroying the Nemesis , but the temporal paradox this triggers results in a new timeline in which vampires have been hunted to extinction ; Kain is left the last surviving vampire in Nosgoth . After systematically tracking down and killing most of the guardians , he confronts Mortanius — revealed as the guardian of death , and the orchestrator of Kain 's assassination — and realizes that he himself is the final guardian , and that the cure to his curse entails his own destruction . Faced with the obligation of self @-@ sacrifice — thereby restoring the world , but ensuring the annihilation of the vampire race — or the alternative of destroying the Pillars to rule over the world in its miasmatic state , Kain opts for the latter choice , embracing vampirism as a blessing as the Pillars collapse .
= = = Soul Reaver games = = =
Legacy of Kain : Soul Reaver features Kain as the main antagonist and a recurring boss character , narratively following him centuries after his decision . Since the first game , Kain has revived the vampire race , and has become the despotic ruler of the land . When the game 's protagonist , his lieutenant Raziel , surpasses Kain , Raziel is executed for his transgression . Resurrected by The Elder God , Raziel returns to destroy his former brethren and Kain , and eventually confronts Kain at the ruins of the Pillars . Kain attacks Raziel with the Soul Reaver , but the blade shatters when it strikes him , and Kain escapes , strangely satisfied . Raziel discovers , to his horror , that Kain created him and his other lieutenants from the corpses of the Sarafan , an ancient order of vampire hunters . He fights Kain a second time in Moebius 's abandoned time machine , the Chronoplast , where Kain explains the nature of free will and rationalizes his actions . Narrowly escaping , Kain activates the Chronoplast and travels into the past , with Raziel pursuing him as the game ends .
In Soul Reaver 2 , Kain acts as a non @-@ player character encountered by Raziel in several cutscenes . As the game 's plot progresses , his agenda and motives become clearer . He seeks a third option to the dilemma prescribed for him at the end of Blood Omen , hoping to both restore Nosgoth and return the Pillars to vampire control . Having viewed the timestream , he learned that history is predestined , and seeks to change his fate by triggering more temporal paradoxes , an objective which demanded Raziel 's temporary destruction . It is revealed that Raziel is destined to be consumed by the Soul Reaver , thus becoming the soul @-@ devouring entity trapped within the weapon . With Raziel 's help , Kain is able to defy history and prevent his own pre @-@ ordained death , and , in return , he saves Raziel from being consumed by the Reaver at the story 's climax . However , this alteration putatively changes history for the worse , leading into the events of Blood Omen 2 and Legacy of Kain : Defiance .
= = = Blood Omen 2 and Defiance = = =
Blood Omen 2 pursues a younger Kain during his early conquests of Nosgoth , in the altered timeline triggered by the changes to Raziel 's destiny at the end of Soul Reaver 2 . Legacy of Kain : Defiance takes place in the same altered timeline , periodically switching between the characters of the elder Kain and Raziel from Soul Reaver 2 , with both acting as playable protagonists . Over the course of the game , Moebius manipulates Kain into believing he is a champion prophesied to fight against and destroy Raziel , culminating in a final battle between the two characters which Raziel wins . It is discovered that The Elder God is malevolent , and he and Moebius — his servant — had conspired against Kain from the outset of the series , considering vampires an abomination . Kain , after being presumed dead , returns , and reconciles with Raziel , who willingly enters the Soul Reaver . As he does so , he uses his powers to cleanse Kain of the corruption he inherited at birth as a Pillar guardian . Armed with the ancient sword once again , Kain is able to see and battle The Elder God for the first time , but is unable to destroy him . The story ends as he looks out at the Nosgoth landscape ; though uncertain that he can ever restore the world , he contemplates Raziel 's sacrifice and the " first bitter taste " of hope it has given him .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise and promotion = = =
Several action figures and figurines of Kain have been created by Blue Box Interactive and the National Entertainment Collectibles Association in partnership with Eidos . He featured extensively in marketing for the Legacy of Kain series , including a $ 1 million advertising campaign for Soul Reaver . Beyond the games , he also appeared in Top Cow 's promotional comics for Soul Reaver and Defiance , and was included alongside Raziel as a playable character in downloadable content for 2010 's Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light .
= = = Reception = = =
Opinion on Kain 's character has been largely positive in critical reviews of the Legacy of Kain games . Praise has frequently been directed towards Simon Templeman 's voice acting , with IGN , Game Revolution and Adrenaline Vault citing Kain 's soliloquies as " both gruesome and entertaining " , " the best part [ of the game 's audio ] " and " one of the best stints of voice acting ever recorded " respectively in their assessments of his debut in the original Blood Omen . For Blood Omen 2 , although critics expressed disappointment with the game itself , they praised Kain 's character nevertheless ; GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin branded him " a very intriguing protagonist " and " as memorable of a main character as they come " , while IGN 's Douglass C. Perry felt he was " incredibly likeable " , and " in a very true sense [ ... ] a great videogame character " . GameZone 's Michael Knutson opined that he was a " wicked cool character " , and Game Revolution 's Johnny Liu named him a " great anti @-@ hero " . Kasavin again praised him in a review for Defiance , writing that " it 's rare enough to find a truly memorable main character in a game , let alone two " , and that the game 's ensemble cast " [ to some extent superseded ] the problems in the gameplay " . Ian Dransfield of Play has stated that " we totally and completely fell in love with [ Kain ] " and highlighted him as a " character who [ needs ] to be revived " .
Kain has also appeared in contention on several lists comparing video game characters , both critical and user @-@ decided . A 2000 GameSpot readers ' choice poll to determine the top ten video game villains ranked him at # 10 , and the same site 's 2010 All @-@ Time Greatest Game Villain contest included him as one of 64 candidates . He featured in IGN 's 2005 Battle of the Badasses , surviving to the " Elite Eight " stage before being eliminated . A 2008 IGN Reader 's Choice poll determined that he ranked among ten heroes most desired to appear in a Soulcalibur game , and he appeared in an IGN list of gaming 's most notorious anti @-@ heroes , sharing both honors with Raziel . He ranked as # 34 in IGN 's top 100 videogame villains list , was showcased as # 2 on a 1UP.com list of the top five videogame characters named Kain / Kane , and ranked as # 4 on the latter site 's list of top ten vampires . GameDaily ranked him as # 17 out of their top 25 anti @-@ heroes , and GamingBolt listed him as one of " 35 Characters We Want To See In Sony 's Super Smash Bros " . Joystick Division included him as # 2 on their list of the top ten best vampires in video @-@ game history , while Diehard GameFAN named him # 8 on theirs . GamesRadar praised Kain 's role as an antagonist , putting him in their 2013 list of the best villains in video game history at # 59 , but noted that he " lives in more of a grey area than most of the villains on this list . "
Some reviewers were less enthusiastic about aspects of the character , with IGN 's Perry commenting that his Soul Reaver 2 dialogue was haughty and " overwritten " , and Ivan Sulic considering his Blood Omen 2 incarnation " nothing more than an arrogant jerk with little to latch on to and care about " while expressing preference for Raziel . Also relating to Blood Omen 2 , IGN 's Aaron Boulding regarded his pompous nature as his " one personality trait " , and considered it comedic , while Matt Casamassina felt Kain was " cool " , but decried his visual design as " flamboyant to the point of being comical " .
= Drizzt Do 'Urden =
Drizzt Do 'Urden / ˈdrɪtst doʊˈɜːrdɪn / is a fictional character in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting for the Dungeons & Dragons fantasy role @-@ playing game . Drizzt was created by author R. A. Salvatore as a supporting character in the Icewind Dale Trilogy . Salvatore created him on a whim when his publisher needed to replace another character in Salvatore 's first novel , The Crystal Shard . Drizzt has since become a popular heroic character of the Forgotten Realms setting , and has been featured as the main character of a long series of books , starting chronologically with The Dark Elf Trilogy . As an atypical drow ( dark elf ) , Drizzt has forsaken both the evil ways of his people and their home in the Underdark , in the drow city of Menzoberranzan .
Drizzt 's story is told in Salvatore 's fantasy novels in The Icewind Dale Trilogy , The Dark Elf Trilogy , the Legacy of the Drow series , the Paths of Darkness series , The Hunter 's Blades Trilogy , the Transitions series , and the Neverwinter Saga
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than 1 kg ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) , although a weight of 700 g ( 1 @.@ 5 lb ) was deemed desirable ; it was to have a magazine capacity of at least 20 rounds .
Both weapons were to be sufficiently compact to be carried hands @-@ free on the user 's person at all times , whether in the cab of a vehicle or the cockpit of an aircraft , and were to perform effectively in all environments and weather conditions .
FN Herstal was the first small arms manufacturer to respond to NATO 's requirement ; FN started by developing a shoulder @-@ fired personal defense weapon , the P90 , along with a small caliber , high velocity 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge type . The original 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge , called the SS90 , went into production with the P90 in 1990 . The SS90 propelled a 1 @.@ 5 g ( 23 grain ) plastic @-@ core projectile from the P90 at a muzzle velocity of roughly 850 m / s ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . Shortly after its introduction , the P90 was adopted and used in service with the Belgian special forces group in the 1991 Gulf War .
Following the P90 's introduction , FN revised the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition . The new variation , designated the SS190 , used a projectile 2 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) shorter in length than that of the SS90 . This allowed it to be used more conveniently in the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm FN Five @-@ seven pistol , which was under development at that time . The SS190 projectile had a greater weight , and a more conventional construction with an aluminium and steel core . The first prototypes of the SS190 were created in 1992 , and the design was finalized in 1993 , replacing the SS90 . A modified version of the P90 , with a magazine adapted to use the shortened ammunition , was then introduced in the same year . Several special cartridge variations were developed , such as the L191 tracer round and the SB193 subsonic round for use with a sound @-@ suppressed P90 .
= = = NATO evolution = = =
In 2002 and 2003 , NATO conducted a series of tests with the intention of standardizing a PDW cartridge as a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge . The tests compared the relative merits of the FN 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge and the HK 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm cartridge , which was created by German small arms manufacturer Heckler & Koch as a competitor to the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm . The results of the NATO tests were analyzed by a group formed of experts from Canada , France , the United Kingdom , and the United States , and the group 's conclusion was that the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm was " undoubtedly " the more efficient cartridge . However , the German delegation and others rejected the NATO recommendation that 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm be standardized , halting the standardization process indefinitely . As a result , both the 4 @.@ 6 × 30mm and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridges ( and the associated weapons ) have been independently adopted by various NATO countries , according to preference ; the P90 is currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 countries throughout the world .
= = = Present = = =
Further development of the P90 platform led to the creation of the P90 TR model , which has a MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 triple rail interface for mounting accessories . This model was introduced in late 1999 and continues to be offered alongside the standard P90 . More recently , the P90 has been offered to civilian shooters as the PS90 , a semi @-@ automatic carbine intended for personal protection and sporting use .
= = Design = =
The P90 is a selective fire , straight blowback @-@ operated weapon with a cyclic rate of fire of 900 RPM ( rounds per minute ) . The weapon is chambered for FN 's 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition . Its unusual shape is based on extensive ergonomic research . The weapon is grasped by means of a thumbhole in the frame that acts as a pistol grip , as well as an oversized trigger guard that acts as a foregrip for the shooter 's support hand . The P90 fires from a closed bolt for maximum accuracy , and its design makes extensive use of polymers for reduced weight and cost . Overall , the weapon is relatively lightweight , weighing 2 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 6 lb ) empty , or 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) with a loaded 50 @-@ round magazine .
The P90 is notable for being fully ambidextrous — it can be operated by right or left @-@ handed shooters with equal ease , and without making any modifications to the weapon . FN Herstal has described it as the " first fully ambidextrous individual automatic weapon . " The charging handle , magazine release and backup iron sights are symmetrically distributed on both sides of the weapon , and the firing selector is located directly at the foot of the trigger , where it can be operated from either side by the shooter 's trigger finger or support hand thumb . When fired , the P90 ejects spent cartridge casings downward through a chute located behind the grip , so spent cases are kept out of the shooter 's line of sight .
The P90 can be fitted with a sling for greater ease of carry , and since the weapon has a fixed stock ( as opposed to having a collapsing or folding stock ) , it can be quickly deployed when needed . The weapon 's smooth , rounded contours prevent it from snagging on the shooter 's clothing or equipment , and a small vertical protrusion is provided at the front end of the weapon 's frame to prevent the shooter 's hand from accidentally slipping in front of the muzzle while shooting . A hollow compartment inside the rear of the weapon 's frame — accessed by removing the buttplate — allows for convenient storage of a cleaning kit .
The P90 was designed to have a length no greater than a man 's shoulder width , to allow it to be easily carried and maneuvered in tight spaces , such as the inside of an armored vehicle . To achieve this , the weapon 's design uses the unconventional bullpup configuration , in which the action and magazine are located behind the trigger and alongside the shooter 's face so that there is no wasted space in the stock . The P90 's dimensions are minimized by its unique horizontally mounted feeding system , wherein the box magazine sits parallel to the barrel on top of the weapon 's frame . The weapon overall has an extremely compact profile — it is the most compact fixed @-@ stock submachine gun to be made . The standard version of the weapon has an overall length of 500 mm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) , a height of 210 mm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) , and a width of 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) .
The P90 requires minimal maintenance , and it can be disassembled quickly and easily . It is a modular firearm , consisting of four main component groups : the barrel and optical sight group , the moving parts group , the frame and trigger group , and the hammer group . The P90 's barrel is cold hammer @-@ forged and chrome @-@ lined , with an overall length of 263 mm ( 10 @.@ 4 in ) . The barrel has eight rifling grooves with a right @-@ hand twist rate of 1 : 231 mm ( 1 : 9 @.@ 1 in ) , and it is equipped with a diagonally cut flash suppressor that also acts as a recoil compensator . The stated service life of the barrel is 20 @,@ 000 rounds .
The P90 uses an internal hammer striking mechanism and a trigger mechanism with a three @-@ position rotary dial fire control selector , located at the foot of the trigger . The dial has three settings : S – safe , 1 – semi @-@ automatic fire , and A – fully automatic fire . When set on A , the P90 's fire selector provides a two @-@ stage trigger operation similar to that of the Steyr AUG assault rifle — pulling the trigger back slightly produces semi @-@ automatic fire , and pulling the trigger fully to the rear produces fully automatic fire .
= = = Ammunition = = =
Particularly significant to the design of the P90 is the small @-@ caliber , high @-@ velocity bottlenecked cartridge it uses . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge was created by FN Herstal in response to a NATO requirement that called for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge , which is commonly used in pistols and submachine guns . The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge weighs 6 @.@ 0 g ( 93 grains ) — roughly half as much as a typical 9 × 19mm cartridge — allowing the same number of rounds to be carried for less weight , or allowing more rounds to be carried for the same weight . Since the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge has a relatively small diameter , an unusually high number of cartridges can be contained in a magazine . The cartridge has a loud report and produces considerable muzzle flash ( when fired from a pistol ) , but it produces roughly 30 percent less recoil than the 9 × 19mm cartridge , improving controllability . Due to its high velocity , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm exhibits an exceptionally flat trajectory .
One of the design intents for the standard 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge type , the SS190 , was that it have the ability to penetrate Kevlar protective vests — such as the NATO CRISAT vest — that will stop conventional pistol bullets . Fired from the P90 , the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm SS190 has a muzzle velocity of roughly 716 m / s ( 2 @,@ 350 ft / s ) and is capable of penetrating the CRISAT vest at a range of 200 m ( 219 yd ) , or a Level IIIA Kevlar vest at the same range . FN states an effective range of 200 m ( 219 yd ) and a maximum range of 1 @,@ 800 m ( 1 @,@ 969 yd ) for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge when fired from the P90 .
In testing conducted by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police ( RCMP ) in 1999 , the SS190 fired from the P90 at a distance of 25 m ( 27 yd ) exhibited an average penetration depth of 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 85 in ) in ballistic gelatin covered with a Level II vest . The SS190 exhibited penetration depths ranging from 28 to 34 cm ( 11 to 13 @.@ 5 in ) when fired from the P90 into bare ballistic gelatin , in tests conducted by Houston Police Department SWAT . In testing , the SS190 and similar 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectiles consistently turn base over point ( " tumble " ) as they pass through ballistic gelatin and other media , using the 21 @.@ 6 @-@ mm ( .85 in ) projectile length to create a larger wound cavity . However , some are skeptical of the bullet 's terminal performance , and it is a subject of debate among civilian shooters in the United States .
The 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm projectile potentially poses less risk of collateral damage than conventional pistol bullets , because the projectile design limits overpenetration , as well as risk of ricochet . The lightweight projectile loses much of its kinetic energy after traveling only 400 m ( 437 yd ) , whereas a conventional pistol bullet such as the 9 × 19mm retains significant energy beyond 800 m ( 875 yd ) , posing greater risk of collateral damage in the event of a miss . This range exceeds the engagement distances expected for the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm cartridge 's intended applications , so the cartridge 's limited energy at long range is not considered to be disadvantageous . Since the SS190 projectile does not rely on fragmentation or the expansion of a hollow point , the cartridge ( and 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm weapons ) is considered suitable for military use under the Hague Convention of 1899 , which prohibits the use of expanding bullets in warfare .
= = = Feeding = = =
The P90 uses a unique horizontally mounted feeding system — patented in the United States — that contributes to the weapon 's compact profile and unusual appearance . U.S. Patent 4 @,@ 905 @,@ 394 ( " Top mounted longitudinal magazine " ) was awarded in 1990 , naming René Predazzer as the sole inventor . The detachable box magazine is mounted parallel to the P90 's barrel , fitting flush with the top of the weapon 's frame , and it contains 50 rounds of ammunition which lie in two rows facing left , offset 90 ° from the bore axis . As the cartridges are pushed back by spring pressure and arrive at the rear end of the magazine , they are fed as a single row into a spiral feed ramp and rotated 90 degrees , aligning them with the chamber . The magazine body is composed of polymer , and it is semi @-@ transparent to allow the shooter to see the amount of ammunition remaining at any time .
= = = Sights and accessories = = =
The P90 was originally equipped with the Ring Sights HC @-@ 14 @-@ 62 reflex sight , but the current weapon is instead fitted with the Ring Sights MC @-@ 10 @-@ 80 sight , which was specifically designed for it . The HC @-@ 14 @-@ 62 has a polymer housing and uses a forward @-@ aimed fiber optic collector to illuminate the white daytime reticle , which consists of a large circle of about 180 minutes of arc ( MOA ) , with a 20 MOA circle surrounding a 3 @.@ 5 MOA dot in the center . The MC @-@ 10 @-@ 80 has an anodized aluminium housing , and has a similar black reticle . The night reticle for both the HC @-@ 14 @-@ 62 and the MC @-@ 10 @-@ 80 consists of an open T that is primarily illuminated by a tritium module , and , in the HC @-@ 14 @-@ 62 , ambient light drawn in by an upward @-@ facing collector . The sight is adjustable for both windage and elevation , and it can be used in conjunction with night vision equipment . As backup in case the reflex sight is damaged , a set of fixed iron sights is provided on each side of the reflex sight housing .
The P90 has provisions for mounting a number of different types of accessories , including tactical lights and laser aiming devices . A sling can be attached to the P90 for greater ease of carry , or it can be fitted with various sound suppressors such as the Gemtech SP90 , which was designed specifically for the weapon in cooperation with FN Herstal . This stainless steel suppressor with a black oxide finish is built according to MIL @-@ SPECs , including saltwater corrosion resistance . It has a length of 184 mm ( 7 @.@ 2 in ) , a diameter of 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) and a weight of 680 g ( 1 @.@ 5 lb ) . When subsonic ammunition is used in conjunction with the suppressor , it reduces the sound signature of the P90 by 33 dB . A small case collector pouch for the P90 is available which fits over the ejection port and collects spent cases as they are ejected downward ; the pouch will collect up to one hundred cases before filling .
= = Variants = =
= = = Military models = = =
P90 TR
The P90 TR ( Triple Rail ) model , also known as the " flat @-@ top , " was introduced in late 1999 . It features a receiver @-@ mounted triple MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail interface system , or " Triple Rail , " for mounting accessories . There is one full @-@ length accessory rail integrated into the top of the receiver , and two rail stumps are included on the sides of the receiver . The top rail will accept various optical sights with no tools or additional mounting hardware required , and the side rails serve to mount secondary accessories , such as tactical lights or laser aiming devices .
P90 USG
The P90 USG ( United States Government ) model is similar to the standard P90 , except the reflex sight housing is aluminium , and the sight has a revised reticle . The black reticle consists of a tiny dot inside of a small ring , which is joined by three posts that glow red in low light conditions due to tritium @-@ illumination . The USG reflex sight can be removed and replaced with a special MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail mount for attaching a different sight .
P90 Laserex models
The P90 LV ( Laser Visible ) and P90 IR ( InfraRed ) models , both of which were introduced in late 1995 , have an integrated laser sight manufactured by Laserex Technologies in Australia . The P90 LV model projects an 8 mW visible laser intended to be used as a low @-@ light shooting aid or for dissuasive effect , while the P90 IR model projects a 4 @.@ 5 mW infrared laser that can only be seen with night vision equipment . Both laser systems are compact , consisting of a small , flat panel integrated into the front end of the weapon 's frame .
The Laserex P90 laser systems have a weight of 131 g ( 0 @.@ 29 lb ) , and they are activated by means of a green pressure switch located on the underside of the weapon 's pistol grip . The lasers can be configured for three different internal settings : Off – disabled to prevent accidental activation , Training – low intensity for eye safety and extended battery life in training , or Combat – high intensity for maximum visibility . The Laserex P90 laser systems have a battery life of 250 hours when used on the Training setting , or a life of 50 hours when used on the Combat setting .
= = = Semi @-@ automatic models = = =
The PS90 is a carbine version of the P90 , intended for civilian shooters for personal protection and sporting use ; it was introduced in 2005 , and continues to be offered in several configurations . The PS90 will accept the standard 50 @-@ round P90 magazines , but the gun is supplied with a magazine that is blocked to a capacity of 10 or 30 rounds , allowing it to be sold in jurisdictions where magazine capacities are restricted by law .
In order to be legal for purchase by civilians without obtaining a tax stamp for a Short Barreled Rifle ( SBR ) as defined by the United States National Firearms Act , the PS90 carbine has an extended 407 mm ( 16 in ) barrel and is semi @-@ automatic , with a trigger pull of approximately 31 – 36 newtons ( 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 1 lbf ) . The lengthened barrel has eight rifling grooves , with a right @-@ hand twist rate of 1 : 229 mm ( 1 : 9 in ) and a rifled length of 376 mm ( 14 @.@ 8 in ) ; the muzzle is equipped with a fixed " birdcage " type flash suppressor .
Despite the added barrel length , the PS90 is relatively compact and lightweight , with an overall length of 667 mm ( 26 @.@ 3 in ) , and a weight of 3 @.@ 4 kg ( 7 @.@ 5 lb ) with a fully loaded 50 @-@ round magazine . Due to the added barrel length , the PS90 can achieve a muzzle velocity of up to 777 m / s ( 2 @,@ 550 ft / s ) with SS195LF ammunition , or up to 930 m / s ( 3 @,@ 050 ft / s ) with third @-@ party ammunition .
PS90 Standard
The PS90 Standard is the current model of the PS90 offered by FN Herstal . It features a MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail fitted to the top of the receiver , which allows the shooter to mount their preferred optical sight . The rail includes a set of integrated iron sights , as backup in case the primary sight is damaged . The PS90 Standard is available with either an olive drab or black frame .
PS90 TR
The PS90 TR is now discontinued . It featured a " Triple Rail " receiver assembly identical to that of the P90 TR . The top of the receiver consisted of an MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail , allowing the shooter to mount his or her preferred optical sight . Two polymer side rails — one on each side of the receiver — were included for mounting secondary accessories , such as lasers or tactical lights . Like the PS90 Standard , the PS90 TR was available with either an olive drab or black frame . As of 2013 , the PS90 TR model is no longer listed by FNH USA .
PS90 USG
The PS90 USG is now discontinued . In the same fashion as the P90 USG , this model has an aluminium reflex sight housing with a revised reticle . The black reticle consists of a tiny dot inside of a small ring , which is joined by three posts that glow red in low light conditions due to tritium @-@ illumination . The USG reflex sight can be removed and replaced with a special MIL @-@ STD @-@ 1913 ( Picatinny ) rail mount for attaching a different sight , and like other models of the PS90 , the USG is available with either an olive drab or black frame . As of 2011 , the PS90 USG model is no longer listed by FNH USA , but the USG reflex sight is still offered as a standalone accessory .
= = Users = =
Despite being originally intended as a defensive weapon for military personnel whose primary role is not fighting with small arms ( such as vehicle drivers ) , most sales of the P90 have been to special forces and counter @-@ terrorist groups who use it for offensive roles . The P90 first saw operational use in the 1991 Gulf War , where it was used by the Belgian special forces group .
In 1997 , suppressed P90s were used in combat by the Peruvian special forces group ( Grupo de Fuerzas Especiales ) in Operation Chavín de Huantar , the hostage rescue siege that ended the Japanese embassy hostage crisis . The operation was a success : all 14 MRTA revolutionaries were killed , and 71 hostages were rescued . The MRTA revolutionaries who had taken the hostages were equipped with body armor , but it was defeated by the Peruvian special forces ' P90s . In 2011 , P90s were used by Muammar Gaddafi 's military forces in the 2011 Libyan civil war , and some of these examples were captured and used in the war by Libyan rebel forces .
By 2009 , the P90 was in service with military and police forces in over 40 countries . In the United States , Houston Police Department was the first local law enforcement agency to adopt the P90 , acquiring it for their SWAT team in 1999 . In 2003 , the Houston SWAT team became one of the first agencies in the country to use the weapon in a shootout . By 2009 , the P90 was in use with over 200 law enforcement agencies in the United States , including the Secret Service and Federal Protective Service . In response , the National Rifle Association added the P90 and PS90 to its NRA Tactical Police Competition standards , allowing law enforcement agencies to compete in the event using either weapon .
Military and law enforcement organizations using the P90 include :
= Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall =
Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall is the sixth album ( and first live album ) by the Canadian @-@ American singer @-@ songwriter Rufus Wainwright , released through Geffen Records in December 2007 . The album consists of live recordings from his sold @-@ out June 14 – 15 , 2006 , tribute concerts at Carnegie Hall to the legendary American actress and singer Judy Garland . Backed by a 36 @-@ piece orchestra conducted by Stephen Oremus , Wainwright recreated Garland 's April 23 , 1961 , concert , often considered " the greatest night in show business history " . Garland 's 1961 double album , Judy at Carnegie Hall , a comeback performance with more than 25 American pop and jazz standards , was highly successful , initially spending 95 weeks on the Billboard charts and garnering five Grammy Awards ( including Album of the Year , Best Album Cover , Best Solo Vocal Performance – Female and Best Engineering Contribution – Popular Recording ) .
For his album , Wainwright was also recognized by the Grammy Awards , earning a 2009 nomination for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album . While the tribute concerts were popular and the album was well received by critics , album sales were limited . Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall managed to chart in three nations , peaking at number 84 in Belgium , number 88 in the Netherlands and number 171 on the United States ' Billboard 200 .
Guests on the album include Wainwright 's sister Martha Wainwright ( " Stormy Weather " ) , his mother Kate McGarrigle ( piano , " Over the Rainbow " ) , along with one of Garland 's daughters , Lorna Luft ( " After You 've Gone " ) . Related to the album , the February 25 , 2007 tribute concert filmed at the London Palladium was released on DVD as Rufus ! Rufus ! Rufus ! Does Judy ! Judy ! Judy ! : Live from the London Palladium on December 4 , 2007 .
= = Conception and development = =
According to Pitchfork Media , Wainwright " started listening to the Carnegie Hall album in the weeks and months after September 11 , craving some cheap showbiz cheer , but wound up discovering something deeper " . The subsequent War on Terrorism and invasion of Iraq caused Wainwright to become " traumatized and disillusioned with anything American " . Claiming he was reminded of how great " the US used to be " , Wainwright said the following of his appreciation for the album during that turbulent time in American history :
Somehow that album , no matter how dark things seemed , made everything brighten . She had this capacity to lighten the world through the innocence of her sound . Her anchor to the material was obviously through her devotion to music . You never feel that she didn 't believe every word of every song she ever sang .
I find the political and socioeconomic environment we live in very oppressive and very worrying , but every time I put on that live album , I was immediately put in a better mood . I was given a sense of hope and a sense of escape , only because so much of modern @-@ day culture and radio — and what 's prized by our society — is so empty . And then of course I would sing along .
Wainwright observed while driving in his car that " it [ would ] be funny to redo this as a song cycle " . Soon afterwards , he took the idea to New York @-@ based theatrical producer Jared Geller ( who would later co @-@ produce the tribute concert with David Foster ) , hoping to turn a dream into a reality . Geller initially thought the idea was " insane " , but he and Wainwright continued discussing options . Eventually , Geller agreed to assist with the production and the two found space in Wainwright 's schedule to book Carnegie Hall a year in advance . Once the venue was booked , staging elements such as lighting , microphone location and amplification were discussed . Stephen Oremus signed on as the conductor of the 36 @-@ piece orchestra and Phil Ramone took charge of the recording . Rehearsals began in April 2006 , and while it would have been easier to practice in rehearsal rooms , large theaters such as the Lynch at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice and the Museum of Jewish Heritage were utilized because " Rufus wanted a feel for performing this material on a stage " . As a result of financial restrictions , full orchestra rehearsals took place only two days before the show and the day of each performance ( practice with smaller groups of instruments began a few months before the concerts ) .
= = Tribute concerts = =
Due to popular demand , Wainwright 's tribute was performed a total of six times . After tickets for the first show ( June 14 , 2006 at Carnegie Hall in New York City ) sold out , a second show was added at the same venue for the following night ( June 15 ) . Increased demand resulted in three concerts in Europe : February 18 , 2007 at the London Palladium in London , February 20 at L 'Olympia in Paris and February 25 once again at the London Palladium . The final performance was on September 23 , 2007 at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles , California .
= = = Promotion , celebrity participation = = =
Part of the success of the tribute concerts can be attributed to the amount of press attention received and the eagerness of other artists to participate in the event . As written by Gaby Wood of The Guardian , Wainwright " sparkled on the cover of Time Out New York " and was " adored in the pages of The New York Times " following the Carnegie Hall shows . In fashion designer Marc Jacobs ' menswear boutique in Greenwich Village , " virtually nothing was for sale except T @-@ shirts advertising the show " ( the bright orange shirts contained the text " RUFUS RUFUS RUFUS " and " world 's greatest entertainer " , mimicking promotional material used for Garland 45 years earlier ) . Film director Sam Mendes planned to create a documentary about Wainwright 's re @-@ creation and the work leading up to it , though the project fell through . Dutch designers Viktor & Rolf outfitted Wainwright and his family members for the concerts . To return the favor Wainwright wrote the song " Ode to Antidote " and allowed its use in the promotion of the design duo 's cologne , " Antidote " . He also helped premiere the cologne at the after @-@ party for his first Garland tribute and later performed " Over the Rainbow " at the premiere of their Spring 2007 fashion line . Wainwright wore clothing by Tom Ford at the Hollywood Bowl concert . To promote the album , Wainwright 's website linked to an online store where fans could purchase merchandise , including several shirt designs , concert posters , programs and other collectibles . Like the shirts sold by Marc Jacobs , much of the promotional material mimicked posters used for Garland 's concert years before .
Celebrities attending the Carnegie Hall shows included Justin Bond ( " Kiki " of Kiki and Herb ) , Patricia Field , Gina Gershon , Joel Grey , Marc Jacobs , Michael Kors , Tony Kushner , Ann Magnuson , Sarah Jessica Parker , Kate Pierson , Fred Schneider , the Proenza Schouler boys , Chloë Sevigny , John Waters and Viktor & Rolf . Famous faces turned out at the concerts in Europe as well , including Julian Barratt , Keane frontman Tom Chaplin , Julia Davis , David Furnish , Mark Gatiss , Richard E. Grant , Jeremy Irons , Lulu , Paul Morley , Siân Phillips , Imogen Stubbs and Teddy Thompson . Celebrities at the Hollywood Bowl show included Jamie Lee Curtis , Jimmy Fallon , Jake Gyllenhaal , Debbie Reynolds and Rod Stewart .
= = Music = =
= = = Songs = = =
The songs on the album are identical to those performed on Garland 's 1961 album , Judy at Carnegie Hall , except Wainwright 's album included " Get Happy " as a bonus track in the UK and on iTunes in the US . " Hail [ ing ] from a golden era dotted with trolley cars , Cadillacs , and glitzy jazz clubs " , the set list included more than 25 American swing tunes , jazz and pop standards , including two Rodgers and Hart classics ( " This Can 't Be Love " , " You 're Nearer " ) , three from brothers George and Ira Gershwin ( " Who Cares ? ( As Long as You Care for Me ) " , " How Long Has This Been Going On ? " and " A Foggy Day " ) , two from duo Howard Dietz and Arthur Schwartz ( " Alone Together " , " That 's Entertainment ! " ) , Harold Arlen , Irving Berlin , Noël Coward and more . Wainwright performed the songs nearly identically to Garland , even " flubb [ ing ] " the lyrics purposely on " You Go to My Head " to mimic the mistake made by Garland years before .
= = = Orchestrations = = =
Stephen Oremus , musical director for the tribute concerts , faced the task of resurrecting Mort Lindsey 's original arrangements written for a 36 @-@ piece orchestra . Although it is no longer common to have orchestras so large ( Oremus acknowledged that even Wicked on Broadway only had 22 pieces ) , Wainwright and Oremus insisted the full 36 @-@ piece ensemble should be utilized to create " as exact a replica as [ they could ] muster " . Some of the arrangements had to be reconstructed , since the music was not available , and most of the songs had to be transposed , since Wainwright was performing them in a different key .
= = Gay elements = =
Garland was a gay icon , even before Wainwright was born . Gay identification with Garland was being discussed in the mainstream as early as 1967 . Time magazine , in reviewing Garland 's 1967 Palace Theatre engagement , disparagingly noted that a " disproportionate part of her nightly claque seems to be homosexual " . It goes on to say that " [ t ] he boys in the tight trousers " would " roll their eyes , tear at their hair and practically levitate from their seats " during Garland 's performances . Time then attempted to explain Garland 's appeal to the homosexual , consulting psychiatrists who opined that " the attraction [ to Garland ] might be made considerably stronger by the fact that she has survived so many problems ; homosexuals identify with that kind of hysteria " and that " Judy was beaten up by life , embattled , and ultimately had to become more masculine . She has the power that homosexuals would like to have , and they attempt to attain it by idolizing her . "
Garland always had a large base of fans in the gay community , which includes Wainwright , who identifies as gay and came out to his parents at the age of 14 . A connection is frequently drawn between the timing of Garland 's death and funeral , in June 1969 , and the Stonewall riots , the flashpoint of the modern Gay Liberation movement . Coincidental or not , the proximity of Garland 's death to Stonewall has become a part of LGBT history and lore . Wainwright , having been called the " first post @-@ liberation era gay pop star " , was obsessed with The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) as a child and would dress in his mother 's gown , " pretend [ ing ] to be either the Wicked Witch – melting for hours on end – or the Good Witch , depending on his mood " . Wainwright also claims his mother ( Canadian folk musician Kate McGarrigle ) forced him to perform " Over the Rainbow " for guests while growing up , a song he often included in his concert repertoire as an adult .
Wainwright never intended to impersonate Garland or create a drag act , but rather to inhabit the songs and expose them to a new generation . However , there was a certain camp style present , of which Wainwright stated the following : " I think that any gay person in the world would be seduced at one point by a certain kind of camp . For certain people it 's kind of a saving grace . " Regarding the tribute concerts and homosexuality , Wainwright admitted :
I don 't think it would have been possible for anyone other than a gay male to do this concert . In a weird way , a gay man has some sort of perspective on it , I believe .
While Wainwright did not dress in drag at any of the tribute shows in New York or Europe , he did return to the stage in " Judy drag " for an encore at the Hollywood Bowl performance , " bedecked in a double @-@ breasted tuxedo jacket sans pants , black stockings , high heels , earrings , lipstick and a tilted fedora " . He also took " Get Happy " from the set and performed the tune " Summer Stock " -style during part of his Release the Stars tour to mimic the look of Garland during her performance ( pictured on right ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Overall , reception of the album was positive . Stephen Holden of Blender called Wainwright 's tribute " a fabulous stunt in which a gay singer channeled the spirit of the ultimate gay icon " , and declared the album was " as good an introduction to the great American songbook as any " . Pitchfork Media 's Stephen Troussé wrote that Wainwright " elegantly outdoes [ Garland ] on a couple of the ballads " and also compliments guest performer Martha Wainwright , " who turns in a stunning , showstopping ' Stormy Weather ' in an appropriately brazen bid to steal the show " . In his review for Rolling Stone , Robert Christgau stated it was " a relief to hear him essay the show tunes and Tin Pan Alley chestnuts of this tribute album " . Furthermore , he wrote that the songs " expand [ Wainwright 's ] melodic compass " , allowing him to " bring something new to them too – namely , sexuality in the sensuality as opposed to gender @-@ preference sense " . Dave Hughes of Slant Magazine had positive comments about the album : " That Wainwright has the temerity to cover such a bona fide classic — and the chops to pull it off without breaking a limb or his brain — speaks both to his ambition and to his prodigious abilities . "
The album did receive some criticism . After noting Garland 's lifelong attempt to master pitch and articulation , Christgau claimed Wainwright 's habit of " slid [ ing ] past notes and draw [ ing ] out the final syllables of lines are signatures indistinguishable from tics " . Entertainment Weekly 's Chris Willman wrote that Wainwright 's " delicate upper range is nicely attuned to some of the ballads , but anything that requires belting is pretty much a loss " . Mark Edwards of The Times called Wainwright 's performance an acquired taste , stating his " trademark delivery " is " lazy and somewhat slurred " . Dave Hughes ' review pointed out Wainwright 's " problem with the brassy high notes in an otherwise energetic take on ' That 's Entertainment ' " , but admits it would be unfair to hold this against him since Garland 's live performance was not perfect either . Hughes appropriately notes , " Ain 't nobody perfect " .
= = Chart performance and recognition = =
Despite the popularity of Wainwright 's tribute concerts , an abundance of press regarding the album , and generally favorable critical reception , album sales were limited . However , Rufus Does Judy at Carnegie Hall reached a peak position of number 84 in Belgium , number 88 in the Netherlands and number 171 on the United States ' Billboard 200 . The album was nominated for a 2009 Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album , but lost to Natalie Cole 's Still Unforgettable . In 2012 , AfterElton.com included the album on its list of " 10 Great Pop Culture Moments from Famous Canadians " .
= = Track listing = =
Disc 1
Overture : " The Trolley Song " / " Over the Rainbow " / " The Man That Got Away "
( Ralph Blane , Hugh Martin ) / ( Harold Arlen , Yip Harburg ) / ( Arlen , Ira Gershwin ) – 4 : 15
" When You 're Smiling ( The Whole World Smiles With You ) " ( Mark Fisher , Joe Goodwin , Larry Shay ) – 3 : 44
Medley : " Almost Like Being in Love " / " This Can 't Be Love " ( Alan Jay Lerner , Frederick Loewe ) / ( Richard Rodgers , Lorenz Hart ) – 6 : 10
" Do It Again " ( George Gershwin , Buddy DeSylva ) – 5 : 15
" You Go to My Head " ( J. Fred Coots , Haven Gillespie ) – 2 : 40
" Alone Together " ( Howard Dietz , Arthur Schwartz ) – 3 : 21
" Who Cares ? ( As Long as You Care for Me ) " ( G. Gershwin , I. Gershwin ) – 2 : 08
" Puttin ' on the Ritz " ( Irving Berlin ) – 1 : 56
" How Long Has This Been Going On ? " ( G. Gershwin , I. Gershwin ) – 5 : 46
" Just You , Just Me " ( Jesse Greer , Raymond Klages ) – 2 : 03
" The Man That Got Away " ( Arlen , I. Gershwin ) – 4 : 59
" San Francisco " ( Walter Jurmann , Gus Kahn , Bronisław Kaper ) – 4 : 53
Disc 2
" That 's Entertainment ! " ( Dietz , Schwartz ) – 2 : 27
" I Can 't Give You Anything But Love " ( Dorothy Fields , Jimmy McHugh ) – 8 : 11
" Come Rain or Come Shine " ( Arlen , Johnny Mercer ) – 3 : 56
" You 're Nearer " ( Rodgers , Hart ) – 1 : 58
" A Foggy Day " ( G. Gershwin , I. Gershwin ) – 2 : 55
" If Love Were All " ( Noël Coward ) – 2 : 33
" Zing ! Went the Strings of My Heart " – ( James F. Hanley ) – 3 : 48
" Stormy Weather " ( Arlen , Ted Koehler ) – 6 : 45 ( performed by Martha Wainwright )
Medley : " You Made Me Love You " / " For Me and My Gal " / " The Trolley Song " ( Joseph McCarthy , James V. Monaco , Roger Edens ) / ( George W. Meyer , Edgar Leslie , E. Ray Goetz ) / ( Blane , Martin ) – 4 : 37
" Rock @-@ a @-@ Bye Your Baby with a Dixie Melody " ( Sam M. Lewis , Fred Schwartz , Joe Young ) – 5 : 45
" Over the Rainbow " ( Arlen , Harburg ) – 4 : 47 ( featuring Kate McGarrigle )
" Swanee " ( Irving Caesar , G. Gershwin ) – 1 : 54
" After You 've Gone " ( Henry Creamer , Turner Layton ) – 2 : 57 ( featuring Lorna Luft )
" Chicago " ( Fred Fisher ) – 4 : 30
Bonus track
" Get Happy " ( Arlen , Koehler ) – 3 : 12 ( offered in the UK and on the US iTunes version )
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= Macintosh Classic =
The Macintosh Classic is a personal computer manufactured by Apple Inc .. Introduced on October 15 , 1990 , it was the first Apple Macintosh to sell for less than US $ 1 @,@ 000 . Production of the Classic was prompted by the success of the Macintosh Plus and the Macintosh SE . The system specifications of the Classic were very similar to its predecessors , with the same 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) monochrome CRT display , 512 × 342 pixel resolution , and 4 megabyte ( MB ) memory limit of the older Macintosh computers . Apple 's decision to not update the Classic with newer technology such as a 68010 CPU , higher RAM capacity or color display ensured compatibility with the Mac 's by @-@ then healthy software base as well as enabled it to fit the lower price Apple intended for it . Nevertheless , the Classic featured several improvements over the aging Macintosh Plus , which it replaced as Apple 's low @-@ end Mac computer . It was up to 25 percent faster than the Plus and included an Apple SuperDrive 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 9 cm ) floppy disk drive as standard .
The Classic was an adaptation of Jerry Manock 's and Terry Oyama 's 1984 Macintosh 128K industrial design , as had been the earlier Macintosh SE . Apple released two versions that ranged in price from $ 1 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 500 . Reviewer reactions were mixed ; most focused on the slow processor performance and lack of expansion slots . The consensus was that the Classic was only useful for word processing , spreadsheets and databases . The price and the availability of education software led to the Classic 's popularity in education . It was sold alongside the more powerful Macintosh Classic II in 1991 until its discontinuation the next year .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
After Apple co @-@ founder Steve Jobs left Apple in 1985 , product development was handed to Jean @-@ Louis Gassée , formerly the manager of Apple France . Gassée consistently pushed the Apple product line in two directions , towards more " openness " in terms of expandability and interoperability , and towards higher price . Gassée long argued that Apple should not market their computers towards the low end of the market , where profits were thin , but instead concentrate on the high end and higher profit margins . He illustrated the concept using a graph showing the price / performance ratio of computers with low @-@ power , low @-@ cost machines in the lower left and high @-@ power high @-@ cost machines in the upper right . The " high @-@ right " goal became a mantra among the upper management , who said " fifty @-@ five or die " , referring to Gassée 's goal of a 55 percent profit margin .
The high @-@ right policy led to a series of machines with ever @-@ increasing prices . The original Macintosh plans called for a system around $ 1 @,@ 000 , but by the time it had morphed from Jef Raskin 's original vision of an easy @-@ to @-@ use machine for composing text documents to Jobs ' concept incorporating ideas gleaned during a trip to Xerox PARC , the Mac 's list price had ballooned to $ 2 @,@ 495 . From there , the price of Mac systems continued to climb : the Macintosh Plus was slightly more expensive at $ 2 @,@ 599 , the SE was $ 2 @,@ 900 or $ 3 @,@ 900 depending on the model , and a basic Macintosh II with a 40 MB hard drive was at least $ 5 @,@ 500 ( at launch , with the price increasing in late 1988 ) . More modern machines cost even more : the Macintosh IIcx was $ 5 @,@ 369 , the IIci $ 6 @,@ 269 , and the IIfx $ 9 @,@ 900 - all without monitors or keyboards . Color CRTs were relatively expensive in the late 1980s ; Apple 's 14 @-@ inch 640 × 480 monitor had a list price of $ 999 and Apple 's ADB keyboards , while high quality , were similarly expensive . The only inexpensive machine in the lineup by the late 1980s was the several @-@ year @-@ old Mac Plus , which was now selling for around $ 1 @,@ 800 .
With the " low @-@ left " of the market it had abandoned years earlier booming with Turbo XTs , and being ignored on the high end for UNIX workstations from the likes of Sun and SGI , Apple 's fortunes of the 1980s quickly reversed . The Christmas season of 1989 drove this point home , with the first decrease in sales in years , and an accompanying 20 percent drop in Apple 's stock price for the quarter .
In January 1990 , Gassée resigned and his authority over product development was divided among several successors . Many Apple engineers had long been pressing for lower @-@ cost options in order to build market share and increase demand across the entire price spectrum . With Gassée out , a rush started to quickly introduce a series of low @-@ cost machines . Three market points were identified , a very low @-@ cost machine aimed at costing $ 1 @,@ 000 , a low @-@ cost machine with color graphics , and a more upscale color machine for small business use . In time , these would develop as the Classic , Macintosh LC , and Macintosh IIsi . Unlike the ' 020 and ' 030 based models , the Macintosh Classic has the original Macintosh startup sound .
= = = Release = = =
MacWEEK magazine reported on July 10 , 1990 , that Apple had paid $ 1 million to Modular Computer Systems Inc . , a subsidiary of Daimler @-@ Benz AG , for the right to use the " Classic " name as part of a five @-@ year contract . Apple did not renew the contract when it ended . MacWEEK speculated the Macintosh Classic would use the same 8 megahertz ( MHz ) Motorola 68000 microprocessor and 9 @-@ inch ( 23 cm ) display as its predecessors and that the Classic would be priced from $ 1 @,@ 500 to $ 2 @,@ 150 .
On December 12 , 1990 , John Sculley ( then Apple CEO ) introduced the Classic at a press conference , announcing that pricing would start at $ 1 @,@ 000 and saying , " To reach new customers , we didn 't just lower the prices of our existing products . We redesigned these computers from the ground up with the features customers have told us they value most . " Apple 's new pricing strategy caused concern among investors , who thought it would reduce profit margins . Brodie Keast , an Apple product marketing manager , said , " We are prepared to do whatever it takes to reach more people with Macintosh .... The plan is to get as aggressive on price as we need to be . " After the release of the Classic , Apple 's share price closed at $ 27 @.@ 75 per share , down 50 cents from October 12 , 1990 , and far below its previous 12 @-@ month high of $ 50 @.@ 37 .
The Classic was released in Europe and Japan concurrently with the United States release . In Japan , the Classic retailed for 198 @,@ 000 yen ( $ 1 @,@ 523 ) , more than in the US but matching the price of the Toshiba Dynabook laptop computer .
After spending $ 40 million marketing the Classic to first @-@ time buyers , Apple had difficulty meeting the high demand . Apple doubled its manufacturing space in 1990 by expanding its Singapore and Cork , Ireland factories , where the Classic was assembled . Air freight , rather than sea shipping , was used to speed delivery . The shortage caused concern among dealers , who blamed Apple 's poor business planning .
Macintosh Classics and LCs had been given to Scholastic Software 12 weeks before they were officially announced , and Scholastic planned to release 16 new Macintosh products in 1991 . Peter Kelman , Scholastic 's publisher , predicted that the Macintosh would become " the school machine of the nineties . " The Classic was sold to schools for $ 800 . This and the availability of education software led to the Classic 's popularity in the education sector .
= = Features = =
The low @-@ end model had 1 MB memory , no hard disk , and cost $ 999 , while the $ 1 @,@ 499 model contained an additional 1 MB memory expansion card and a 40 MB hard disk . The Classic featured several improvements over the Macintosh Plus , which it replaced as Apple 's low @-@ end Mac computer : it was up to 25 percent faster than the Plus and included an Apple SuperDrive 3 @.@ 5 " floppy disk drive as standard . The SuperDrive could read and write to Macintosh , MS @-@ DOS , OS / 2 , and ProDOS disks . Also , the Classic was the last compact Mac to use the Motorola 68000 central processing unit ( CPU ) .
The Classic used the System 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 7 operating system with support for all versions up to System 7 @.@ 5 @.@ 5 . A hidden Hierarchical File System ( HFS ) disk volume contained in the read @-@ only memory ( ROM ) included System 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 . The Mac Classic could be booted into System 6 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 by holding down the Command + Option + X + O keys during boot .
Some dealers included a software bundle called Smartbundle with the Classic . Also sold separately for $ 349 , this included T / Maker 's WriteNow word processor , Ashton @-@ Tate 's Full Impact spreadsheet program , RecordHolderPlus database , and Silicon Beach Software 's SuperPaint 2 @.@ 0 paint and draw program .
= = Design = =
The Macintosh Classic was the final adaptation of Jerry Manock 's and Terry Oyama 's Macintosh 128K industrial design , bringing back some elements of the original , while retaining little of the Snow White design language used in the Macintosh SE 's design . The only remnant of the SE was the stripe across the front panel ( bezel ) for the floppy drive ; the distinctive front bezel lines of the SE were not used on the Classic , and the vertical lines around its base were replaced by four horizontal vent lines , more reminiscent of the original design . Also , the curve of the front bezel was increased to the same 50 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) radial curve as on the front of both the Macintosh LC and Macintosh IIsi . The screen brightness dial on this bezel was also removed in favor of a software control . This broad , curved front bezel became a signature of Apple product design for much of the 1990s .
The logic board , the central circuit board of the computer , was based on the Macintosh SE design . Its size , however , was reduced using surface mount technology to 9 × 5 inches ( 23 × 13 cm ) , half the size of the SE board . This redesign , and the absence of expansion slots , kept manufacturing costs low . This lack of expansion abilities , along with the small screen size and Macintosh 's popularity in the burgeoning field of desktop publishing led to such oddities as video displays which connected through the SCSI port by users seeking to connect a larger full- or dual @-@ page display to their Mac . The Classic design was used once more in 1991 for the Classic II , which succeeded the Classic and replaced the Macintosh SE / 30 .
= = Reception = =
Some reviewers of the Macintosh Classic focused on the processor performance and lack of expansion slots . Liza Schafer of Home Office Computing praised the Classic 's ease of use and price , but criticized the 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) display because a full US letter page ( 8 1 ⁄ 2 × 11 inches ) would not fit at full size , and warned those who required high @-@ end graphics and desktop publishing capabilities against buying the Classic . Schafer concluded : " The Classic 's value is more impressive than its performance , but its performance will get you working on that novel , database , or spreadsheet . " PC Week criticized the lack of a faster processor , stating , " The 7 @.@ 8 MHz speed is adequate for text applications and limited graphics work , but it is not suitable for power users . As such , the Classic is appropriate as a home computer or for limited computing on the road . " Similarly , PC User 's review concluded , " The slow processor and lack of expansion slots on the Macintosh Classic offset the low prices " . MacWEEK described it as a " fine , inexpensive replacement for the Macintosh Plus that best embodies the original Macintosh vision six and a half years later " . Computer Gaming World was more skeptical , doubting that consumers would purchase a black @-@ and @-@ white computer with no hard drive that was only slightly faster than the Mac Plus .
In the February 1991 edition of Electronic Learning , Robert McCarthy wrote : " Teachers , educational administrators and software developers are enthusiastic about the new , lower cost Apple Macintosh computers " . Steve Taffe , manager of instructional strategy at MECC , a developer and publisher of educational software , explained his excitement about the Classic : " [ it ] is terrific – both because it 's a Mac and because of that low price . Everyone can now afford a Macintosh . " Scholastic , an education software developer , was also confident of Apple 's ability to compete with MS @-@ DOS machines , stating : " They are just as cost @-@ effective and as powerful as MS @-@ DOS computers , but the Apples will have a superior comfort @-@ level . " Sue Talley , Apple 's manager of strategic planning in education , said of the Classic : " we see it going into applications where you need a fair number of powerful stations , but where color is not a big issue . " Tal
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ley mentioned that it was most suited for writing labs and other basic productivity uses . Many schools decided not to buy the Macintosh Classic because of the lack of a color monitor , an option which the higher priced Macintosh LC had .
= = Specifications = =
= = Timeline of compact Macintosh models = =
= Hippolyte De La Rue =
Air Commodore Hippolyte Ferdinand ( Frank ) De La Rue , CBE , DFC ( 13 March 1891 – 18 May 1977 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Joining the Mercantile Marine as a youth , he became a pilot in Britain 's Royal Naval Air Service during World War I. In 1918 , he was given command of No. 223 Squadron in the newly formed Royal Air Force . The following year he took charge of No. 270 Squadron RAF in Egypt . Returning to Australia , De La Rue joined the short @-@ lived Australian Air Corps in 1920 , and became a founding member of the RAAF in March 1921 . Specialising in maritime aviation , he led seaplane formations based at Point Cook , Victoria , during the 1920s and early 1930s .
De La Rue was appointed commanding officer of No. 1 Flying Training School at Point Cook in 1933 . He was promoted to group captain in 1937 and took command of RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , the following year . At the outbreak of World War II , De La Rue was slated to lead an air expeditionary force to Great Britain , but this plan was abandoned after Australia committed itself to the Empire Air Training Scheme . Promoted to temporary air commodore , he served as Air Officer Commanding Western Area from 1941 to 1943 , and finished the war as Inspector of Administration at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . Nicknamed " Kanga " , De La Rue retired from the Air Force in 1946 , and died in 1977 at the age of eighty @-@ six .
= = Early life and World War I = =
Born on 13 March 1891 in Auburn , a suburb of Sydney , De La Rue was the son of jeweller Edmond Emile De La Rue and his wife Ellen . Following a " limited " education , he joined the Merchant Navy in 1908 , becoming a second officer by 1914 . De La Rue transferred to the Royal Navy 's Transport Service shortly after the outbreak of World War I , operating on troop ships between England and France . He saw service at Gallipoli as navigator on Huntsgreen , from the Allied landings on 25 April 1915 until the withdrawal in December . In July 1916 , he transferred once again , to the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) as a temporary flight sub @-@ lieutenant , and was awarded his wings in November .
Training as a seaplane pilot in Hampshire , De La Rue was posted to Wales in February 1917 . Later that year , he claimed an unconfirmed sinking of a German submarine while on coastal patrol . Promoted flight lieutenant in January 1918 , De La Rue became an honorary captain in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) that April , following the merger of the RNAS and the Royal Flying Corps . He was posted to No. 223 Squadron in Otranto , Italy , later taking command of the unit . While piloting a Short seaplane escorting Allied bombers on a raid against the port city of Durrës , Albania , he rescued the crew of another seaplane that had been forced down in the Austrian @-@ held harbour . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his actions , as well as the Italian Silver Medal of Military Valor .
= = Between the wars = =
De La Rue was posted to Alexandria , Egypt , in January 1919 to command No. 270 ( Seaplane ) Squadron . Offered a permanent commission in the RAF that August , he nevertheless returned to Australia and sought employment through Lieutenant Colonel Stanley Goble , an ex @-@ RNAS pilot then seconded to the Navy Office . Goble , desiring a specialist seaplane pilot for naval cooperation work , arranged a captain 's commission in the recently established Australian Air Corps , successor to the wartime Australian Flying Corps . On 17 June 1920 , in an Airco DH.9 , De La Rue accompanied Captain Adrian Cole on a flight to an altitude of 27 @,@ 000 feet ( 8 @,@ 200 m ) , setting an Australian record that stood for more than ten years . Later that month , flying an Avro 504L floatplane , he became the first person to land an aircraft on the Yarra River in Victoria . In July he was put in charge of trials of the Avro 504L aboard the Royal Australian Navy 's flagship , HMAS Australia . De La Rue joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as a flight lieutenant in 1921 , becoming one of the original twenty @-@ one officers on its strength when it was formed ( as the Australian Air Force ) that March . Going by the first name of Frank , he was also popularly known throughout the service as " Kanga " . In August 1921 , he underwent the RAAF 's " No. 1 Course " at the Australian Army 's Central Training Depot in Holsworthy , New South Wales ; his fellow inductees included Flying Officers George Jones , Arthur Murphy , and Raymond Brownell .
During the 1920s , De La Rue held a series of postings at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , and at Air Force Headquarters , Melbourne . In May 1922 , then in charge of the Seaplane Flight , he crashed an Avro 504L into Port Phillip ; his rescuers claimed that his main concern following the mishap was the state of the corduroy trousers he was wearing . He lost the RAAF 's sole Bristol Scout in another accident less than a year later . De La Rue married Clara Stone in a Presbyterian ceremony at Scots Church , Melbourne , on 1 October 1923 ; the couple would have a daughter . He had another escape in August 1925 when he crashed a Sopwith Pup into a hangar ; a witness said that De La Rue , who was " renowned for his fiery Gallic temper " , strode from the wreckage and began to violently abuse the aircraft . By 1926 , he was the examining officer on the flight instructors course at No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , Point Cook . On exchange in Britain during 1929 – 30 , De La Rue underwent familiarisation with aircraft carriers , and served on the staff of No. 201 ( Flying Boat ) Squadron , based on the south coast of England . Upon his return to Australia in 1931 , he was given command of the RAAF 's Seaplane Squadron at Point Cook . Promoted wing commander in December 1932 , De La Rue led No. 1 FTS from early 1933 . He was promoted group captain in January 1937 , and took over as commanding officer ( CO ) of Headquarters RAAF Station Richmond , New South Wales , from Group Captain Cole in January the following year .
= = World War II = =
De La Rue and his staff at Headquarters Richmond worked " flat out " in the days prior the outbreak of World War II to get the base to a fit state of readiness and , immediately after hostilities were declared on 3 September , to liaise with the Central War Room in Melbourne passing instructions to squadrons . The following day , Richmond 's first wartime sortie took place , a flight of three Avro Ansons and three Supermarine Seagulls patrolling the ocean off Sydney . Within a month the Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) , Air Vice Marshal Goble , proposed despatching a six @-@ squadron air expeditionary force to Great Britain , with De La Rue , then the RAAF 's seventh most senior officer , in charge . Air Marshal Richard Williams , Goble 's long @-@ time rival for leadership of the Air Force in the 1920s and ' 30s , later contended that the CAS was unduly favouring his fellow RNAS veteran and seaplane specialist to lead what would have been the RAAF 's largest formation to date , particularly considering that other contenders for the role such as Group Captains Cole , Frank McNamara , and Henry Wrigley had greater landplane experience than De La Rue . The concept was in any case abandoned soon after , as Australia concentrated on participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme . Some time in the latter half of 1940 , De La Rue was seeing dinner guests off the base at RAAF Richmond , and attempted to re @-@ enter the perimeter via the main gate . Wearing civilian clothes and without his security pass , he was challenged and then locked up by the guards , who did not recognise him or believe his assurances that he was their commander . De La Rue was finally released by the orderly officer but was still fuming the next morning ; only the advice of the base warrant officer ( disciplinary ) , who had congratulated the guards on their diligence , prevented the CO from taking action against all concerned .
After completing his tenure at Richmond , De La Rue briefly took the role of senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at Central Area Command in October 1940 . The following month , his name was put forward to establish an RAAF depot in London to look after the interests of the many thousands of Australian airmen disembarking there , but financial considerations led to the plan being scuppered temporarily . In fact , RAAF Overseas Headquarters would be formed on 1 December 1941 , with Air Marshal Williams appointed Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) . Meanwhile , De La Rue also missed out on a potential posting to the Middle East that was suggested by the British but turned down by the Australian government . Promoted acting air commodore , he became the inaugural AOC Western Area , headquartered in Perth , on 9 January 1941 . Among the units he controlled in this position were No. 14 ( General Reconnaissance ) Squadron , No. 25 ( General Purpose ) Squadron , No. 35 ( Transport ) Squadron , and No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron . De La Rue worked assiduously to prepare the latter for operations , as it was the only fighter squadron able to defend Perth and Fremantle . He also lobbied RAAF Headquarters for a force of long @-@ range PBY Catalina flying boats to augment the Lockheed Hudsons of No. 14 Squadron , but none were offered to him . De La Rue was made a temporary air commodore in July 1941 . By February 1942 , he was the eighth most senior officer in the RAAF . Handing over Western Area Command to Air Commodore Ray Brownell in January 1943 , De La Rue became Inspector of Administration at RAAF Headquarters , in which post he saw out the rest of the war . On 8 June 1944 , he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire .
= = Later life = =
De La Rue was summarily retired from the RAAF after the war , along with a number of other senior commanders and veterans of World War I , partly to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers , and also due to his suspect health . In recommending early retirement , the CAS , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , noted that De La Rue possessed " fairly good Service knowledge " and was of strong character , but that " sometimes his efforts [ were ] ill @-@ directed " . De La Rue was , furthermore , above the statutory retiring age for his substantive rank of group captain . He was officially discharged on 1 April 1946 . An honorary air commodore from 1956 , his chief hobby in retirement was painting in water colours . On 31 March 1971 , he was among a select group of surviving foundation members who attended a celebratory dinner at the Hotel Canberra to mark the RAAF 's Golden Jubilee ; his fellow guests included Air Marshal Sir Richard Williams , Air Vice Marshals Henry Wrigley and Bill Anderson , and Wing Commander Sir Lawrence Wackett . Frank De La Rue died at his home in Kew , a suburb of Melbourne , on 18 May 1977 . He was survived by his daughter , and cremated .
= Final Fantasy =
Final Fantasy ( ファイナルファンタジー , Fainaru Fantajī ) is a science fiction and fantasy media franchise created by Hironobu Sakaguchi , and developed and owned by Square Enix ( formerly Square ) . The franchise centers on a series of fantasy and science fantasy role @-@ playing video games ( RPGs ) . The eponymous first game in the series , published in 1987 , was conceived by Sakaguchi as his last @-@ ditch effort in the game industry ; the title was a success and spawned sequels . The video game series has since branched into other genres such as tactical role @-@ playing , action role @-@ playing , massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing , racing , third @-@ person shooter , fighting , rhythm and anime .
Although most Final Fantasy installments are stand @-@ alone stories with different settings and main characters , they feature identical elements that define the franchise . Recurring elements include plot themes , character names , and game mechanics . Plots center on a group of heroes battling a great evil while exploring the characters ' internal struggles and relationships . Character names are frequently derived from the history , languages , pop culture , and mythologies of cultures worldwide .
The series has been commercially and critically successful ; it is Square Enix 's best selling video game franchise , with more than 115 million units sold , and is one of the best @-@ selling video game franchises of all time . The series is well known for its innovation , visuals , and music , such as the inclusion of full motion videos , photo @-@ realistic character models , and orchestrated music by Nobuo Uematsu . Final Fantasy has been a driving force in the video game industry , and the series has affected Square Enix 's business practices and its relationships with other video game developers . It has also introduced many features now common in role @-@ playing video games and has been credited with helping to popularize console @-@ based RPGs in markets outside Japan .
= = Titles = =
= = = Games = = =
The first installment of the series premiered in Japan on December 18 , 1987 . Subsequent titles are numbered and given a story unrelated to previous games ; consequently , the numbers refer more to volumes than to sequels . Many Final Fantasy games have been localized for markets in North America , Europe , and Australia on numerous video game consoles , personal computers ( PC ) , and mobile phones . Future installments will appear on seventh and eighth generation consoles ; upcoming titles include Final Fantasy XV . As of January 2014 , the series includes the main installments from Final Fantasy to Final Fantasy XIV , as well as direct sequels and spin @-@ offs , both released and confirmed as being in development . Most of the older titles have been remade or re @-@ released on multiple platforms .
= = = = Main series = = = =
Three Final Fantasy installments were released on the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . Final Fantasy was released in Japan in 1987 and in North America in 1990 . It introduced many concepts to the console RPG genre , and has since been remade on several platforms . Final Fantasy II , released in 1988 in Japan , has been bundled with Final Fantasy in several re @-@ releases . The last of the NES installments , Final Fantasy III , was released in Japan in 1990 ; however , it was not released elsewhere until a Nintendo DS remake in 2006 .
The Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) also featured three installments of the main series , all of which have been re @-@ released on several platforms . Final Fantasy IV was released in 1991 ; in North America , it was released as Final Fantasy II . It introduced the " Active Time Battle " system . Final Fantasy V , released in 1992 in Japan , was the first game in the series to spawn a sequel : a short anime series titled Final Fantasy : Legend of the Crystals . Final Fantasy VI was released in Japan in 1994 , but it was titled Final Fantasy III in North America .
The PlayStation console saw the release of three main Final Fantasy games . The 1997 title Final Fantasy VII moved away from the two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) graphics used in the first six games to three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) computer graphics ; the game features polygonal characters on pre @-@ rendered backgrounds . It also introduced a more modern setting , a style that was carried over to the next game . It was also the second in the series to be released in Europe , with the first being Final Fantasy Mystic Quest . Final Fantasy VIII was published in 1999 , and was the first to consistently use realistically proportioned characters and feature a vocal piece as its theme music . Final Fantasy IX , released in 2000 , returned to the series ' roots by revisiting a more traditional Final Fantasy setting rather than the more modern worlds of VII and VIII .
Three main installments , as well as one online game , were published for the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) . The 2001 title Final Fantasy X introduced full 3D areas and voice acting to the series , and was the first to spawn a direct video game sequel ( Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , published in 2003 ) . The first massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing game ( MMORPG ) in the series , Final Fantasy XI , was released on the PS2 and PC in 2002 , and later on the Xbox 360 . It introduced real @-@ time battles instead of random encounters . Final Fantasy XII , published in 2006 , also includes real @-@ time battles in large , interconnected playfields . The game is also the first in the main series to utilize a world used in a previous game , namely the land of Ivalice , which had previously featured in Final Fantasy Tactics and Vagrant Story .
In 2009 , Final Fantasy XIII was released in Japan , and in North America and Europe the following year , for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . It is the flagship installment of the Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy series and became the first mainline game to spawn two direct sequels ( XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns ) . It was also the first game released in Chinese & High Definition along with being released on two consoles at once . Final Fantasy XIV , a MMORPG , was released worldwide on Microsoft Windows in 2010 , but it received heavy criticism when it was launched , prompting Square Enix to send an apology for the players , and to re @-@ release the game under the title A Realm Reborn , this time to the Playstation 3 as well , in 2013 . At E3 2013 , Final Fantasy XV ( originally a spin @-@ off titled Versus XIII ) was officially unveiled as an upcoming title for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and currently scheduled for release in 2016 . Like XIII , XV uses the mythos of the Fabula Nova Crystallis series , although in many other respects the game stands on its own and has since been distanced from the series by its developers .
= = = = Remakes , sequels and spin @-@ offs = = = =
Final Fantasy has spawned numerous spin @-@ offs and metaseries . Several are , in fact , not Final Fantasy games , but were rebranded for North American release . Examples include the SaGa series , rebranded The Final Fantasy Legend , and its two sequels , Final Fantasy Legend II and Final Fantasy Legend III . Final Fantasy Mystic Quest was specifically developed for a United States audience , and Final Fantasy Tactics is a tactical RPG that features many references and themes found in the series . The spin @-@ off Chocobo series , Crystal Chronicles series , and Kingdom Hearts series also include multiple Final Fantasy elements . In 2003 , the Final Fantasy series ' first direct sequel , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , was released . Final Fantasy XIII was originally intended to stand on its own , but the team wanted to explore the world , characters and mythos more , resulting in the development and release of two sequels in 2011 and 2013 respectively , creating the series ' first official trilogy . Dissidia Final Fantasy was released in 2009 , a fighting game that features heroes and villains from the first ten games of the main series . It was followed by a prequel in 2011 . Other spin @-@ offs have taken the form of subseries — Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , Ivalice Alliance , and Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy .
= = = Related media = = =
= = = = Film and television = = = =
Square Enix has expanded the Final Fantasy series into various media . Multiple anime and computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) films have been produced that are based either on individual Final Fantasy games or on the series as a whole . The first was an original video animation ( OVA ) titled Final Fantasy : Legend of the Crystals , a sequel to Final Fantasy V. The story was set on the same world as the game , although 200 years in the future . It was released as four 30 @-@ minute episodes , first in Japan in 1994 and later in the United States by Urban Vision in 1998 . In 2001 , Square Pictures released its first feature film , Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within . The film is set on a future Earth invaded by alien life forms . The Spirits Within was the first animated feature to seriously attempt to portray photorealistic CGI humans , but was considered a box office bomb and garnered mixed reviews .
In 2005 , Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , a theatrical CGI film , and Last Order : Final Fantasy VII , a non @-@ canon OVA , were released as part of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII . Advent Children was animated by Visual Works , which helped the company create CG sequences for the games . The film , unlike The Spirits Within , gained mixed to positive reviews from critics and has become a commercial success . Last Order , on the other hand , was released in Japan in a special DVD bundle package with Advent Children . Last Order sold out quickly and was positively received by Western critics , though fan reaction was mixed over changes to established story scenes .
A 25 @-@ episode anime television series titled Final Fantasy : Unlimited was released in 2001 based on the common elements of the Final Fantasy series . It was broadcast in Japan by TV Tokyo and released in North America by ADV Films .
Two animated tied ins for Final Fantasy XV were announced at the Uncovered Final Fantasy XV fan and press event , forming part of a larger multimedia project dubbed the Final Fantasy XV Universe . Brotherhood : Final Fantasy XV is a series of five 10 @-@ minute @-@ long episodes developed by A @-@ 1 Pictures and Square Enix detailing the backstories of the main cast . Kingsglaive : Final Fantasy XV , a CGI movie set for release prior to the game in Summer 2016 , is set during the game 's opening and follows new and secondary characters .
= = = = Other media = = = =
Several video games have either been adapted into or have had spin @-@ offs in the form of manga and novels . The first was the novelization of Final Fantasy II in 1989 , and was followed by a manga adaptation of Final Fantasy III in 1992 . The past decade has seen an increase in the number of non @-@ video game adaptations and spin @-@ offs . Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within has been adapted into a novel , the spin @-@ off game Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles has been adapted into a manga , and Final Fantasy XI has had a novel and manga set in its continuity . Seven novellas based on the Final Fantasy VII universe have also been released . The Final Fantasy : Unlimited story was partially continued in novels and a manga after the anime series ended . The Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy XIII series have also had novellas and audio dramas released .
Two titles , Final Fantasy Tactics Advance and Final Fantasy : Unlimited , have been adapted into radio dramas .
= = Common elements = =
Although most Final Fantasy installments are independent , many gameplay elements recur throughout the series . Most titles feature recycled names often inspired from various cultures ' history , languages and mythology , including Asian , European , and Middle @-@ Eastern . Examples include weapon names like Excalibur and Masamune — derived from Arthurian legend and the Japanese swordsmith Masamune respectively — as well as the spell names Holy , Meteor , and Ultima . Beginning with Final Fantasy IV , the main series adopted its current logo style that features the same typeface and an emblem designed by Japanese artist Yoshitaka Amano . The emblem relates to a title 's respective plot and typically portrays a character or object in the story . Subsequent remakes of the first three games have replaced the previous logos with ones similar to the rest of the series .
= = = Plot and themes = = =
The central conflict in many Final Fantasy games focuses on a group of characters battling an evil , and sometimes ancient , antagonist that dominates the game 's world . Stories frequently involve a sovereign state in rebellion , with the protagonists taking part in the rebellion . The heroes are often destined to defeat the evil , and occasionally gather as a direct result of the antagonist 's malicious actions . Another staple of the series is the existence of two villains ; the main villain is not always who it appears to be , as the primary antagonist may actually be subservient to another character or entity . The main antagonist introduced at the beginning of the game is not always the final enemy , and the characters must continue their quest beyond what appears to be the final fight .
Stories in the series frequently emphasize the internal struggles , passions , and tragedies of the characters , and the main plot often recedes into the background as the focus shifts to their personal lives . Games also explore relationships between characters , ranging from love to rivalry . Other recurring situations that drive the plot include amnesia , a hero corrupted by an evil force , mistaken identity , and self @-@ sacrifice . Magical orbs and crystals are recurring in @-@ game items that are frequently connected to the themes of the games ' plots . Crystals often play a central role in the creation of the world , and a majority of the Final Fantasy games link crystals and orbs to the planet 's life force . As such , control over these crystals drives the main conflict . The classical elements are also a recurring theme in the series related to the heroes , villains , and items . Other common plot and setting themes include the Gaia hypothesis , an apocalypse , and conflicts between advanced technology and nature .
= = = Characters = = =
The series features a number of recurring character archetypes . Most famously , every game since Final Fantasy II , including subsequent remakes of the original Final Fantasy , features a character named Cid . Cid 's appearance , personality , goals , and role in the game ( non @-@ playable ally , party member , villain ) vary dramatically . However , two characteristics many versions of Cid have in common are 1 ) being a scientist or engineer , and 2 ) being tied in some way to an airship the party eventually acquires . Every Cid has at least one of these two traits .
Biggs and Wedge , inspired by two Star Wars characters of the same name , appear in numerous titles as minor characters , sometimes as comic relief . The later titles in the series feature several males with effeminate characteristics . Recurring creatures include Chocobos and Moogles . Chocobos are large , often flightless birds that appear in several installments as a means of long @-@ distance travel for characters . Moogles , on the other hand , are white , stout creatures resembling teddy bears with wings and a single antenna . They serve different capacities in games including mail delivery , weaponsmiths , party members , and saving the game . Chocobo and Moogle appearances are often accompanied by specific musical themes that have been arranged differently for separate titles .
= = = Gameplay = = =
In Final Fantasy games , players command a party of characters as they progress through the game 's story by exploring the game world and defeating opponents . Enemies are typically encountered randomly through exploring , a trend which changed in Final Fantasy XI and Final Fantasy XII . The player issues combat orders — like " Fight " , " Magic " , and " Item " — to individual characters via a menu @-@ driven interface while engaging in battles . Throughout the series , the games have used different battle systems . Prior to Final Fantasy XI , battles were turn @-@ based with the protagonists and antagonists on different sides of the battlefield . Final Fantasy IV introduced the " Active Time Battle " ( ATB ) system that augmented the turn @-@ based nature with a perpetual time @-@ keeping system . Designed by Hiroyuki Ito , it injected urgency and excitement into combat by requiring the player to act before an enemy attacks , and was used until Final Fantasy X , which implemented the " Conditional Turn @-@ Based " ( CTB ) system . This new system returned to the previous turn @-@ based system , but added nuances to offer players more challenge . Final Fantasy XI adopted a real @-@ time battle system where characters continuously act depending on the issued command . Final Fantasy XII continued this gameplay with the " Active Dimension Battle " system . Final Fantasy XIII 's combat system , designed by the same man who worked on X , was meant to have an action @-@ oriented feel , emulating the cinematic battles in Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children .
Like most RPGs , the Final Fantasy installments use an experience level system for character advancement , in which experience points are accumulated by killing enemies . Character classes , specific jobs that enable unique abilities for characters , are another recurring theme . Introduced in the first game , character classes have been used differently in each title . Some restrict a character to a single job to integrate it into the story , while other games feature dynamic job systems that allow the player to choose from multiple classes and switch throughout the game . Though used heavily in many games , such systems have become less prevalent in favor of characters that are more versatile ; characters still match an archetype , but are able to learn skills outside their class .
Magic is another common RPG element in the series . The method by which characters gain magic varies between installments , but is generally divided into classes organized by color : " White magic " , which focuses on spells that assist teammates ; " Black magic " , which focuses on harming enemies ; " Red magic " , which is a combination of white and black magic , " Blue magic " , which mimics enemy attacks ; and " Green magic " which focuses on applying status effects to either allies or enemies . Other types of magic frequently appear such as " Time magic " , focusing on the themes of time , space , and gravity ; and " Summoning magic " , which evokes legendary creatures to aid in battle and is a feature that has persisted since Final Fantasy III . Summoned creatures are often referred to by names like " Espers " or " Eidolons " and have been inspired by mythologies from Arabic , Hindu , Norse , and Greek cultures .
Different means of transportation have appeared through the series . The most common is the airship for long range travel , accompanied by chocobos for travelling short distances , but others include sea and land vessels . Following Final Fantasy VII , more modern and futuristic vehicle designs have been included .
= = Development and history = =
= = = Origin = = =
In the mid @-@ 1980s , Square entered the Japanese video game industry with simple RPGs , racing games , and platformers for Nintendo 's Famicom Disk System . In 1987 , Square designer Hironobu Sakaguchi chose to create a new fantasy role @-@ playing game for the cartridge @-@ based NES , and drew inspiration from popular fantasy games : Enix 's Dragon Quest , Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda , and Origin Systems 's Ultima series . Though often attributed to the company allegedly facing bankruptcy , Sakaguchi explained that the game was his personal last @-@ ditch effort in the game industry and that its title , Final Fantasy , stemmed from his feelings at the time ; had the game not sold well , he would have quit the business and gone back to university . Despite his explanation , publications have also attributed the name to the company 's hopes that the project would solve its financial troubles . In 2015 , Sakaguchi explained the name 's origin : the team wanted a title that would abbreviate to " FF " , which would sound good in Japanese . The name was originally going to be Fighting Fantasy , but due to concerns over trademark conflicts with the roleplaying gamebook series of the same name , they needed to settle for something else . As the word " Final " was a famous word in Japan , Sakaguchi settled on that . According to Sakaguchi , any title that created the " FF " abbreviation would have done .
The game indeed reversed Square 's lagging fortunes , and it became the company 's flagship franchise . Following the success , Square immediately developed a second installment . Because Sakaguchi assumed Final Fantasy would be a stand @-@ alone title , its story was not designed to be expanded by a sequel . The developers instead chose to carry over only thematic similarities from its predecessor , while some of the gameplay elements , such as the character advancement system , were overhauled . This approach has continued throughout the series ; each major Final Fantasy game features a new setting , a new cast of characters , and an upgraded battle system . Video game writer John Harris attributed the concept of reworking the game system of each installment to Nihon Falcom 's Dragon Slayer series , with which Square was previously involved as a publisher . The company regularly released new titles in the main series . However , the time between the releases of Final Fantasy XI ( 2002 ) , Final Fantasy XII ( 2006 ) , and Final Fantasy XIII ( 2009 ) were much longer than previous titles . Following Final Fantasy XIV , Square Enix stated that it intended to release Final Fantasy games either annually or biennially . This switch was to mimic the development cycles of Western games in the Call of Duty , Assassin 's Creed and Battlefield series , as well as maintain fan @-@ interest .
= = = Design = = =
For the original Final Fantasy , Sakaguchi required a larger production team than Square 's previous titles . He began crafting the game 's story while experimenting with gameplay ideas . Once the gameplay system and game world size were established , Sakaguchi integrated his story ideas into the available resources . A different approach has been taken for subsequent titles ; the story is completed first and the game built around it . Designers have never been restricted by consistency , though most feel each title should have a minimum number of common elements . The development teams strive to create completely new worlds for each title , and avoid making new games too similar to previous ones . Game locations are conceptualized early in development and design details like building parts are fleshed out as a base for entire structures .
The first five games were directed by Sakaguchi , who also provided the original concepts . He drew inspiration for game elements from anime films by Hayao Miyazaki ; series staples like the airships and chocobos are inspired by elements in Castle in the Sky and Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind , respectively . Sakaguchi served as a producer for subsequent games until he left Square in 2001 . Yoshinori Kitase took over directing the games until Final Fantasy VIII , and has been followed by a new director for each new title . Hiroyuki Ito designed several gameplay systems , including Final Fantasy V 's " Job System " , Final Fantasy VIII 's " Junction System " and the Active Time Battle concept , which was used from Final Fantasy IV until Final Fantasy IX . In designing the Active Time Battle system , Ito drew inspiration from Formula One racing ; he thought it would be interesting if character types had different speeds after watching race cars pass each other . Ito also co @-@ directed Final Fantasy VI with Kitase . Kenji Terada was the scenario writer for the first three games ; Kitase took over as scenario writer for Final Fantasy V through Final Fantasy VII . Kazushige Nojima became the series ' primary scenario writer from Final Fantasy VII until his resignation in October 2003 ; he has since formed his own company , Stellavista . Nojima partially or completely wrote the stories for Final Fantasy VII , Final Fantasy VIII , Final Fantasy X , and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 . He also worked as the scenario writer for the spin @-@ off series , Kingdom Hearts . Daisuke Watanabe co @-@ wrote the scenarios for Final Fantasy X and XII , and was the main writer for the XIII games .
Artistic design , including character and monster creations , was handled by Japanese artist Yoshitaka Amano from Final Fantasy through Final Fantasy VI . Amano also handled title logo designs for all of the main series and the image illustrations from Final Fantasy VII onward . Tetsuya Nomura was chosen to replace Amano because Nomura 's designs were more adaptable to 3D graphics . He worked with the series from Final Fantasy VII through Final Fantasy X ; for Final Fantasy IX , however , character designs were handled by Shukō Murase , Toshiyuki Itahana , and Shin Nagasawa . Nomura is also the character designer of the Kingdom Hearts series , Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , and Fabula Nova Crystallis : Final Fantasy . Other designers include Nobuyoshi Mihara and Akihiko Yoshida . Mihara was the character designer for Final Fantasy XI , and Yoshida served as character designer for Final Fantasy Tactics , the Square @-@ produced Vagrant Story , and Final Fantasy XII .
= = = Graphics and technology = = =
Because of graphical limitations , the first titles on the NES feature small sprite representations of the leading party members on the main world screen . Battle screens use more detailed , full versions of characters in a side @-@ view perspective . This practice was used until Final Fantasy VI , which uses detailed versions for both screens . The NES sprites are 26 pixels high and use a color palette of 4 colors . 6 frames of animation are used to depict different character statuses like " healthy " and " fatigued " . The SNES installments use updated graphics and effects , as well as higher quality audio than in previous games , but are otherwise similar to their predecessors in basic design . The SNES sprites are 2 pixels shorter , but have larger palettes and feature more animation frames : 11 colors and 40 frames respectively . The upgrade allowed designers to have characters be more detailed in appearance and express more emotions . The first title includes non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) the player could interact with , but they are mostly static in @-@ game objects . Beginning with the second title , Square used predetermined pathways for NPCs to create more dynamic scenes that include comedy and drama .
In 1995 , Square showed an interactive SGI technical demonstration of Final Fantasy VI for the then next generation of consoles . The demonstration used Silicon Graphics 's prototype Nintendo 64 workstations to create 3D graphics . Fans believed the demo was of a new Final Fantasy title for the Nintendo 64 console ; however , 1997 saw the release of Final Fantasy VII for the Sony PlayStation . The switch was due to a dispute with Nintendo over its use of faster but more expensive cartridges , as opposed to the slower and cheaper , but much higher capacity Compact Discs used on rival systems . Final Fantasy VII introduced 3D graphics with fully pre @-@ rendered backgrounds . It was because of this switch to 3D that a CD @-@ ROM format was chosen over a cartridge format . The switch also led to increased production costs and a greater subdivision of the creative staff for Final Fantasy VII and subsequent 3D titles in the series .
Starting with Final Fantasy VIII , the series adopted a more photo @-@ realistic look . Like Final Fantasy VII , full motion video ( FMV ) sequences would have video playing in the background , with the polygonal characters composited on top . Final Fantasy IX returned to the more stylized design of earlier games in the series , although it still maintained , and in many cases slightly upgraded , most of the graphical techniques used in the previous two games . Final Fantasy X was released on the PlayStation 2 , and used the more powerful hardware to render graphics in real @-@ time instead of using pre @-@ rendered material to obtain a more dynamic look ; the game features full 3D environments , rather than have 3D character models move about pre @-@ rendered backgrounds . It is also the first Final Fantasy game to introduce voice acting , occurring throughout the majority of the game , even with many minor characters . This aspect added a whole new dimension of depth to the character 's reactions , emotions , and development .
Taking a temporary divergence , Final Fantasy XI used the PlayStation 2 's online capabilities as an MMORPG . Initially released for the PlayStation 2 with a PC port arriving six months later , Final Fantasy XI was also released on the Xbox 360 nearly four years after its original release in Japan . This was the first Final Fantasy game to use a free rotating camera . Final Fantasy XII was released in 2006 for the PlayStation 2 and uses only half as many polygons as Final Fantasy X , in exchange for more advanced textures and lighting . It also retains the freely rotating camera from Final Fantasy XI . Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy XIV both make use of Crystal Tools , a middleware engine developed by Square Enix .
= = = Music = = =
The titles in the series feature a variety of music , but frequently reuse themes . Most of the games open with a piece called " Prelude " , which has evolved from a simple , 2 @-@ voice arpeggio in the early games to a complex , melodic arrangement in recent installments . Victories in combat are often accompanied by a victory fanfare , a theme that has become one of the most recognized pieces of music in the series . The basic theme that accompanies Chocobo appearances has been rearranged in a different musical style for each installment . A piece called " Prologue " ( and sometimes " Final Fantasy " ) , originally featured in the first game , is often played during the ending credits . Although leitmotifs are common in the more character @-@ driven installments , theme music is typically reserved for main characters and recurring plot elements .
Nobuo Uematsu was the chief music composer of the Final Fantasy series until his resignation from Square Enix in November 2004 . Other composers include Masashi Hamauzu , Hitoshi Sakimoto and Junya Nakano . Uematsu was allowed to create much of the music with little direction from the production staff . Sakaguchi , however , would request pieces to fit specific game scenes including battles and exploring different areas of the game world . Once a game 's major scenarios were completed , Uematsu would begin writing the music based on the story , characters , and accompanying artwork . He started with a game 's main theme , and developed other pieces to match its style . In creating character themes , Uematsu read the game 's scenario to determine the characters ' personality . He would also ask the scenario writer for more details to scenes he was unsure about . Technical limitations were prevalent in earlier titles ; Sakaguchi would sometimes instruct Uematsu to only use specific notes . It was not until Final Fantasy IV on the SNES that Uematsu was able to add more subtlety to the music .
= = Reception = =
Overall , the Final Fantasy series has been critically acclaimed and commercially successful , though each installment has seen different levels of success . The series has seen a steady increase in total sales ; it sold over 10 million units worldwide by early 1996 , 45 million by August 2003 , 63 million by December 2005 , and 85 million by July 2008 . In June 2011 , Square Enix announced that the series had sold over 100 million units , and by March 2014 , it had sold over 110 million units . Its high sales numbers have ranked it as one of the best @-@ selling video game franchises in the industry ; in January 2007 , the series was listed as number three , and later in July as number four .
Several games within the series have become best @-@ selling titles . At the end of 2007 , the seventh , eighth , and ninth best @-@ selling RPGs were Final Fantasy VII , Final Fantasy VIII , and Final Fantasy X respectively . Final Fantasy VII has sold more than 9 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , earning it the position of the best @-@ selling Final Fantasy title . Within two days of Final Fantasy VIII 's North American release on September 9 , 1999 , it became the top @-@ selling video game in the United States , a position it held for more than three weeks . Final Fantasy X sold over 1 @.@ 4 million Japanese units in pre @-@ orders alone , which set a record for the fastest @-@ selling console RPG . The MMORPG , Final Fantasy XI , reached over 200 @,@ 000 active daily players in March 2006 and had reached over half a million subscribers by July 2007 . Final Fantasy XII sold more than 1 @.@ 7 million copies in its first week in Japan . By November 6 , 2006 — one week after its release — Final Fantasy XII had shipped approximately 1 @.@ 5 million copies in North America . Final Fantasy XIII became the fastest @-@ selling game in the franchise , and sold one million units on its first day of sale in Japan . Final Fantasy XIV : A Realm Reborn , in comparison to its predecessor , was a runaway success , originally suffering from servers being overcrowded , and eventually gaining over one million unique subscribers within two months of its launch .
= = = Critical response = = =
The series has received critical acclaim for the quality of its visuals and soundtracks . In 1996 , Next Generation ranked it as the 17th top game series of all time , speaking very highly of its graphics , music and stories . It was awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2006 , making it the first franchise to win a star on the event ( other winners were individual games , not franchises ) . WalkOfGame.com commented that the series has sought perfection as well as having been a risk taker in innovation . In 2006 , GameFAQs held a contest for the best video game series ever , with Final Fantasy finishing as the runner @-@ up to The Legend of Zelda . In a 2008 public poll held by The Game Group plc , Final Fantasy was voted the best game series , with five titles appearing in their " Greatest Games of All Time " list .
Many Final Fantasy games have been included in various lists of top games . Several games have been listed on multiple IGN " Top Games " lists . Eleven games were listed on Famitsu 's 2006 " Top 100 Favorite Games of All Time " , four of which were in the top ten , with Final Fantasy X and Final Fantasy VII coming first and second , respectively . The series holds seven Guinness World Records in the Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition 2008 , which include the " Most Games in an RPG Series " ( 13 main titles , seven enhanced titles , and 32 spin @-@ off titles ) , the " Longest Development Period " ( the production of Final Fantasy XII took five years ) , and the " Fastest @-@ Selling Console RPG in a Single Day " ( Final Fantasy X ) . The 2009 edition listed two titles from the series among the top 50 consoles games : Final Fantasy XII at number 8 and Final Fantasy VII at number 20 .
However , the series has garnered some criticism . IGN has commented that the menu system used by the games is a major detractor for many and is a " significant reason why they haven 't touched the series . " The site has also heavily criticized the use of random encounters in the series ' battle systems . IGN further stated the various attempts to bring the series into film and animation have either been unsuccessful , unremarkable , or did not live up to the standards of the games . In 2007 , Edge criticized the series for a number of related titles that include the phrase " Final Fantasy " in their titles , which are considered inferior to previous titles . It also commented that with the departure of Hironobu Sakaguchi , the series might be in danger of growing stale .
Several individual Final Fantasy titles have garnered extra attention ; some for their positive reception and others for their negative reception . Final Fantasy VII topped GamePro 's " 26 Best RPGs of All Time " list , as well as GameFAQs " Best Game Ever " audience polls in 2004 and 2005 . Despite the success of Final Fantasy VII , it is sometimes criticized as being overrated . In 2003 , GameSpy listed it as the seventh most overrated game of all time , while IGN presented views from both sides . Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII shipped 392 @,@ 000 units in its first week of release , but received review scores that were much lower than that of other Final Fantasy games . A delayed , negative review after the Japanese release of Dirge of Cerberus from Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu hinted at a controversy between the magazine and Square Enix . Though Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within was praised for its visuals , the plot was criticized and the film was considered a box office bomb . Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles for the GameCube received overall positive review scores , but reviews stated that the use of Game Boy Advances as controllers was a big detractor . The predominantly negative reception of the original version of Final Fantasy XIV caused then @-@ president Yoichi Wada to issue an official apology during a Tokyo press conference , stating that the brand had been " greatly damaged " by the game 's reception .
= = Impact and legacy = =
The Final Fantasy series and several specific games within it have been credited for introducing and popularizing many concepts that are today widely used in console RPGs . The original title is often cited as one of the most influential early console RPGs , and played a major role in legitimizing and popularizing the genre . Many console RPGs featured one @-@ on @-@ one battles against monsters from a first @-@ person perspective . Final Fantasy introduced a side view perspective with groups of monsters against a group of characters that has been frequently used . It also introduced an early evolving class change system , as well as different methods of transportation , including a ship , canoe , and flying airship . Final Fantasy II was the first sequel in the industry to omit characters and locations from the previous title . It also introduced an activity @-@ based progression system , which has been used in later RPG series such as SaGa , Grandia , and The Elder Scrolls . Final Fantasy III introduced the job system , a character progression engine allowing the player to change character classes , as well as acquire new and advanced classes and combine class abilities , at any time during the game . Final Fantasy IV is considered a milestone for the genre , introducing a dramatic storyline with a strong emphasis on character development and personal relationships . Final Fantasy VII is credited as having the largest industry impact of the series , and with allowing console role @-@ playing games to gain mass @-@ market appeal .
The series affected Square 's business on several levels . The commercial failure of Final Fantasy : The Spirits Within resulted in hesitation and delays from Enix during merger discussions with Square . Square 's decision to produce games exclusively for the Sony PlayStation — a move followed by Enix 's decision with the Dragon Quest series — severed their relationship with Nintendo . Final Fantasy games were absent from Nintendo consoles , specifically the Nintendo 64 , for seven years . Critics attribute the switch of strong third @-@ party titles like the Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest games to Sony 's PlayStation , and away from the Nintendo 64 , as one of the reasons behind PlayStation being the more successful of the two consoles . The release of the Nintendo GameCube , which used optical disc media , in 2001 caught the attention of Square . To produce games for the system , Square created the shell company The Game Designers Studio and released Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles , which spawned its own metaseries within the main franchise . Final Fantasy XI 's lack of an online method of subscription cancellation prompted the creation of legislation in Illinois that requires internet gaming services to provide such a method to the state 's residents .
The series ' popularity has resulted in its appearance and reference in numerous facets of popular culture like anime , TV series , and webcomics . Music from the series has permeated into different areas of culture . Final Fantasy IV 's " Theme of Love " was integrated into the curriculum of Japanese school children and has been performed live by orchestras and metal bands . In 2003 , Uematsu became involved with The Black Mages , a rock group independent of Square that has released albums of arranged Final Fantasy tunes . Bronze medalists Alison Bartosik and Anna Kozlova performed their synchronized swimming routine at the 2004 Summer Olympics to music from Final Fantasy VIII . Many of the titles ' official soundtracks have been released for sale as well . Numerous companion books , which normally provide in @-@ depth game information , have been published . In Japan , they are published by Square and are called Ultimania books .
= Muhanna ibn Isa =
Husam ad @-@ Din Muhanna ibn Isa ( also known as Muhanna II ; d . 1335 ) was the lord of Palmyra and amir al @-@ ʿarab ( commander of the Bedouins ) under the Mamluk Sultanate . He served between 1284 and his death , but was dismissed and reinstated four times during this period . As the chieftain of the Al Fadl , a clan of the Tayy tribe , which dominated the Syrian Desert , Muhanna wielded considerable influence among the Bedouin . He was described by historian Amalia Levanoni as " the eldest and most senior amir " of the Al Fadl during his era .
Muhanna was first appointed amir al @-@ ʿarab to replace his father Isa ibn Muhanna in 1284 . He was imprisoned by Sultan al @-@ Ashraf Khalil in 1293 , but released two years later . In 1300 , he commanded a wing of the Mamluk army in the Third Battle of Homs against the Mongol Ilkhanate . He defected to the latter in the early years of Sultan an @-@ Nasir Muhammad 's reign ( 1310 – 1341 ) , ushering in a policy of playing off the Mamluks and the Mongols to further his own interests . An @-@ Nasir eventually banished Muhanna and his tribe to the depths of the Syrian Desert . Through mediation by the Ayyubid prince , al @-@ Afdal Muhammad , Muhanna reconciled with an @-@ Nasir in 1330 and remained loyal to the Mamluks until his death five years later .
Muhanna was succeeded by his son Musa , and his descendants filled the office of amir al @-@ ʿarab for the next seven decades with minor interruption . Throughout his reign , Muhanna was granted numerous iqtaʿat ( fiefs ) by an @-@ Nasir , including Palmyra , Salamiyah , Sarmin and Douma . Muhanna later criticized an @-@ Nasir 's generous iqtaʿ distribution to the Bedouin tribes , believing it would ultimately degrade the character of the Bedouin and in turn , weaken the Muslim armies .
= = Ancestry = =
Muhanna , also known as Muhanna II , belonged to the Al Fadl clan , a branch of the large Arab tribe of Tayy . His grandfather Muhanna ibn Mani ' ibn Haditha ibn Ghudayya ibn Fadl ibn Rabi 'a al @-@ Ta 'i or " Muhanna I " was the head of the clan and sometimes referred to as the " king of the Arabs " by the Mamluk government ; his son Isa became the first lord of Palmyra as a reward for supporting the Mamluk sultan Qalawun in the Second Battle of Homs in 1281 .
= = Lord of Palmyra = =
= = = First and second reigns = = =
Muhanna succeeded his father ' Isa as lord of Palmyra and amir al @-@ ʿarab in 1284 , after receiving the appointment from Sultan Qalawun . Muhanna visited Qalawun 's successor , Sultan al @-@ Ashraf Khalil , in Cairo in 1291 . In 1293 , after celebrating the wedding of his granddaughter , Muhanna and his sons and brothers met al @-@ Ashraf Khalil at the wells of Furqlus , near Homs , where the sultan had been on a hunting expedition . Al @-@ Ashraf Khalil had Muhanna and his family arrested and imprisoned in the Cairo Citadel . Muhanna was replaced by his distant cousin , Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr , from the Al Ali branch of Al Fadl . Muhanna was released with his family and restored as amir al @-@ ʿarab and lord of Palmyra two years later by Sultan al @-@ Adil Kitbugha . In 1298 , Muhanna performed the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca .
Muhanna later commanded the right wing of the Mamluk army during the Third Battle of Homs in 1299 / 1300 , during which the Mamluks were defeated by the Mongol Ilkhanids . In 1311 , the Mamluk na 'ib ( governor ) of Aleppo , Qarasunqur , defected to the Ilkhanids and was given refuge by Muhanna , who unsuccessfully attempted to mediate between Qarasunqur and Sultan an @-@ Nasir Muhammad ( r . 1310 – 1341 ) . These circumstances together with Muhanna 's suspicions of an @-@ Nasir 's negative disposition toward him prompted Muhanna and Qarasunqur to seek safe haven in Ilkhanid @-@ held Iraq . To that end , in 1312 , Muhanna sent his son Musa to confer with Öljaitü of the Ilkhanate , and afterward he defected to the latter with his son Sulayman ; unlike his father , Musa remained loyal to the Mamluks . Öljaitü gave Muhanna iqtaʿat ( fiefs ) in al @-@ Hillah , south of Baghdad . An @-@ Nasir Muhammad consequently dismissed Muhanna from his principality and appointed his brother Fadl ibn Isa the lord of Palmyra .
= = = Third reign = = =
Muhanna arrived at the Ilkhan 's court in 1316 , but then decided to go back to Palmyra where he was contacted by the sultan who summoned him to his court in Cairo . Muhanna avoided meeting the sultan , and sent his brothers and sons instead . He was able to gain the sultan 's forgiveness and was restored to his position in 1317 . The defection and subsequent reconciliation with an @-@ Nasir marked the first episode in Muhanna 's policy of extracting maximum gain from both the Mamluks and the Ilkhanids . According to contemporary historian Abu 'l Fida , who maintained good ties with the Al Fadl , Muhanna pursued a policy whereby both the Mamluks and Ilkhanids accorded him iqtaʿat , money and robes of honor while he stayed effectively neutral , " not going to this party or that ; a case the like of which had never happened before " . Moreover , Fadl too participated in this policy with Muhanna , albeit discreetly ; the contemporary historian al @-@ Umari wrote " Muhanna and Fadl were agreed at heart , but openly they were otherwise " .
An @-@ Nasir sought to keep the Al Fadl loyal to him and prevent their defection to the Ilkhanate , as well as ensure they would not disrupt peaceful travel on the roads . To accomplish this , an @-@ Nasir adopted an unprecedented policy among Mamluk sultans by distributing large iqtaʿat and grants to the Bedouin , namely the Al Fadl . Moreover , an @-@ Nasir granted Al Fadl members ' requests for possession of particularly lucrative iqtaʿat belonging to the Mamluk emirs ( commanders / princes ) of Aleppo , Hama and Damascus ( the Mamluk emirs were typically compensated with other iqtaʿat ) . In addition to Palmyra , Sarmin and Salamiyah , Muhanna was also given the town of Douma in the Ghouta near Damascus as an iqta . Muhanna criticized an @-@ Nasir for the lavish distribution of iqtaʿat to his tribesmen out of belief that such excesses would ruin the character of the Bedouin and ultimately weaken the Muslim armies . He also asserted to an @-@ Nasir that " even if he [ sic ] wished to change this situation ... you will no longer be able to do so " since the tribesmen would not willingly forfeit their new properties .
Muhanna later reestablished contact with the Ilkhanate , causing the sultan to banish him with his whole tribe in 1320 . On an @-@ Nasir 's order , the Mamluk army in Syria drove the Al Fadl from their home district of Salamiyah and pursued them eastward up to the Euphrates fortress towns of al @-@ Rahba and Anah . According to Ibn Abi al @-@ Fada 'il , Muhanna was punished because he went back on an agreement his son Sulayman made with an @-@ Nasir in 1319 . The agreement stipulated that the Al Fadl would receive 250 @,@ 000 silver dirhams and the iqtaʿat of Adhri 'at and Bosra in return for joining the Mamluk army as auxiliaries in an upcoming campaign against Ilkhanid @-@ held Sinjar ; an @-@ Nasir gave them the iqtaʿat and money , but when the Mamluk army arrived , Muhanna 's forces stopped it at ' Urd near Palmyra and refused it passage through Al Fadl territory . The tribe was exiled from their encampments in the Palmyrene steppe and were forced to live deep in the Syrian Desert .
= = = Final reign and death = = =
Ten years later , Muhanna contacted the Ayyubid emir al @-@ Afdal Muhammad of Hama ( vassal of the Mamluks ) , and requested that he intercede with the sultan on Muhanna 's behalf ; an @-@ Nasir ultimately forgave Muhanna , reinstating him in 1330 . This marked the end of Muhanna 's policy of playing the Mamluks and Ilkhanids against each other . Thereafter , Muhanna remained loyal to the sultanate until his death near al @-@ Salamiyah in June 1335 , at around age 80 . According to historian A. S. Tritton , " there was public lamentation " for Muhanna 's death and " black was worn " in mourning .
= = Legacy = =
Historian Amalia Levanoni described Muhanna as " the eldest and most senior amir " of the Al Fadl during his era . By 1352 , Muhanna 's descendants amounted to 110 men , all with with their own clans , iqtaʿ and princely titles . According to Levanoni , Muhanna 's warning to an @-@ Nasir about the effects of distributing and subsequently seizing iqtaʿat " came true only a short time " after Muhanna 's death , when his son and successor , Musa , threatened to start a Bedouin revolt and defect to the Ilkhanate if an @-@ Nasir did not return iqtaʿat confiscated from the Al Fadl .
= The Little Fire Chief =
The Little Fire Chief is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on a young boy , Willie Stone , who follows a parade of firemen and attempts to join them as their leader . The firemen find it humorous and allow him to play with them . The fire alarm sounds and Willie attempts to join them , but is too slow . On their way back , Willie holds them up and his sister appears . A fireman named Jack , who has affections for the woman , convinces Willie to be relieved of his " command " by promising to call him later . Marie Eline played the role of Willie Stone , but the other two credits are claimed to have been William Garwood and Mignon Anderson . The rest of the cast and credits are unknown . The film was released on November 8 , 1910 and does not appear to have had any reviews in the usual trade publications . The film was advertised nationally and was claimed to have been popular in Vancouver , Canada . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 29 , 1910 . It states : " Willie Stone is only six years old , but he yearns to be a fireman . He is much impressed with the parade of firemen he sees in his hometown , so much so in fact that he basely deserts his sister on the streets to follow the ' smoke eaters . ' But Willie is only a little boy , and despite his enthusiasm , he is soon weary and footsore . His plight , added to his tears , attracts the attention of a kindly fireman who is driving with his engine back to quarters . The lad 's discomfort is soon forgotten , for the fireman gives him a ride back to the engine house . There Willie gravely applies to the captain for a position on the uniformed force , and is jokingly accepted . But he does not see the humor in it and follows the other men to the bunkroom , where he takes part in their sports . "
" But in the midst of the happiest day of his life , an alarm is sounded , and the firemen hastily slide down the pole to their duty . The new fireman , however , is not the kind to be deserted . Grabbing the helmet , the insignia of his office , he follows the others , but it is too late to go to the fire . He arrives in time to hold them up on their way back , but is captured by his weeping sister . He does not wish to leave his command , but his friend , fireman Jack Allen , finally induces him to go on the promise that he , Jack , will call later . Perhaps one reason Jack is so accommodating is because he likes [ his ] sister . Jack pays ardent court to her , and the flame of their affection [ s ] resists all of young Willie 's efforts to put it out . He didn 't really mean to try , but he assuredly poured cold water on Jack , for it was in the line of what he regarded as his duty . "
= = Cast = =
Marie Eline as Willie Stone
William Garwood as Jack Allen ( unconfirmed )
Mignon Anderson as Willie Stone 's sister ( unconfirmed )
In December 1912 , a notice in the The Monroe News @-@ Star announced the showing of this film and also gave the key roles of the players . Though the credits cannot be confirmed , the " Thanhouser Kid " ( Marie Eline ) , William Garwood and Mignon Anderson were given as the featured players . This would indicate that Garwood played Jack Allen and the sister was played by Anderson if the information is accurate .
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil or Lucius J. Henderson . Cameramen employed by the company during this era included Blair Smith , Carl Louis Gregory , and Alfred H. Moses , Jr. though none are specifically credited . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits for this production are fragmentary like many 1910 Thanhouser productions . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . The role of Willie Stone was played by Marie Eline . This film was another example of Eline cast in the role of a boy . Eline 's with the first such credit was as a young Italian boy in The Two Roses . Eline would also star as Hans in The Little Hero of Holland . If the cast information provided by the The Monroe News @-@ Star is accurate , it represents the earliest credit of Mignon Anderson for the Thanhouser Company . If it is not , the first known credit for would be four months later in Robert Emmet in March 1911 . The film would also be an early credit of William Garwood , who was among the most important actors at Thanhouser . He joined the company in late 1909 and remained until 1911 before returning in 1912 . His previous and first credited work with Thanhouser was Jane Eyre .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel comedy , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long was released on November 8 , 1910 . The film had a wide national release , advertising theaters are known in Montana , Texas , Kansas , South Dakota , Indiana , Pennsylvania , Maryland , Louisiana , and Missouri . The film was also shown in Vancouver , Canada by the Province Theatre .
Bowers does not cite any trade publication reviews for this film , making it unlikely that the film was given attention in The New York Dramatic Mirror , The Moving Picture World or The Moving Picture News publications . The film was apparently a success at the Province Theater when it was shown in Vancouver . It is possible that non @-@ advertisement reviews of the film may exist in other publications .
= Soyuz TM @-@ 30 =
Soyuz TM @-@ 30 ( Russian : Союз ТМ @-@ 30 , Union TM @-@ 30 ) , also known as Mir EO @-@ 28 , was a Soyuz mission , the 39th and final human spaceflight to the Mir space station . The crew of the mission was sent by MirCorp , a privately funded company , to reactivate and repair the station . The crew also resupplied the station and boosted the station to an orbit with a low point ( perigee ) of 360 and a high point ( apogee ) of 378 kilometers ( 223 and 235 miles , respectively ) . The boost in the station 's orbit , which was done by utilizing the engines of the Progress M1 @-@ 1 and M1 @-@ 2 spacecraft , made transit between Mir and the International Space Station impossible , as desired by NASA . The mission was the first privately funded mission to a space station .
The mission was part of an effort by MirCorp to refurbish and privatize the aging Mir space station , which was nearing the end of its operational life . Further commercially funded missions beyond Soyuz TM @-@ 30 were originally planned to continue the restoration efforts of the then 14 @-@ year @-@ old space station , but insufficient funding and investment ultimately led to the de @-@ orbit of the station in early 2001 .
= = Crew = =
Soyuz TM @-@ 30 was the first spaceflight for flight commander Zalyotin , who became a cosmonaut in 1990 and completed his general training two years later in 1992 . TM @-@ 30 was the third visit to space made by flight engineer Kaleri , who became a cosmonaut in 1984 and completed general training in 1986 . He served as flight engineer aboard the Soyuz TM @-@ 14 and TM @-@ 24 missions to Mir in 1992 and 1996 @-@ 7 , respectively .
= = = Backup crew = = =
While Soyuz TM @-@ 30 was in orbit , a second privately funded mission was being planned to continue the restoration efforts aboard Mir . The crew assigned to this mission , although never flown , was reported to have been the backup crew for TM @-@ 30 , cosmonauts Salizhan Sharipov and Pavel Vinogradov .
= = Background = =
Soyuz TM @-@ 30 was intended by MirCorp to be the first in a series of missions to refurbish the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Mir space station for commercial use . Although the mission was scheduled to last approximately two months , commander Sergei Zalyotin said before the flight that if additional funds became available the mission could be extended until August , when another crew would replace them . The other possible scenario , which occurred in reality , was again to leave the station uninhabited , as had been done several months before the mission . Towards the end of Soyuz TM @-@ 30 plans were formed to send another privately funded mission to continue with MirCorp 's maintenance efforts ; cosmonauts Salizhan Sharipov and Pavel Vinogradov were tentatively assigned as the crew .
= = Mission highlights = =
Soyuz TM @-@ 30 launched at 05 : 01 :
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16 assists tied a career high . However , the death of Anderson 's friend seemed to have caught on to him the next season . Anderson was battling with depression . To make matters worse , Wayne Gretzky , his longtime teammate , had been traded to a different team . Anderson scored 64 points in 73 games , the lowest output since his rookie season . At one time , Anderson considered retiring . In the playoffs , the Oilers were ousted in the first round by the Kings , Gretzky 's new team . After being eliminated from the playoffs , Anderson chose to play for Team Canada at the World Championships in Sweden . Anderson credits his time in Sweden for rejuvenating his love of the game .
Looking to rebound after a disappointing season , Anderson and his team made a surprise appearance in the Finals . The Oilers defeated their opponents , the Boston Bruins , in five games to win their fifth Stanley Cup . Anderson scored 22 points and became one of only seven players to be a part of the entire Oilers dynasty . In 1990 – 91 , Anderson recorded 55 points , his lowest point totals since his rookie season . Wanting to rebuild the team with a younger core , the Oilers were involved in a blockbuster trade at the end of the season with the Toronto Maple Leafs that included seven players . Anderson , along with Grant Fuhr and Craig Berube , were sent to Toronto in exchange for Scott Thornton , Vincent Damphousse , Luke Richardson , Peter Ing and future considerations .
During his time with the Oilers , Anderson scored 417 goals , 489 assists , and 906 points , ranking him third , fourth , and fourth most respectively in franchise history . His 183 playoff points are fourth all @-@ time in franchise history and his 126 powerplay goals are the most in franchise history .
= = = Late career ( 1991 – 1997 ) = = =
Anderson spent two seasons and part of another with the Maple Leafs . He recorded consecutive 20 @-@ goal seasons , and he reached the career milestone of 1000 points with them . During the Maple Leafs playoff run in 1992 – 93 , Anderson recorded 18 points in 21 games , including an overtime goal in Game 5 of the Western Conference Finals against the Kings , which gave the Leafs a 3 @-@ 2 series lead but turned out to be their last win of the season . In Game 6 , Anderson took a costly penalty in the last minute of the third period , which resulted in Gretzky 's overtime @-@ winner . The Kings then won Game 7 in Toronto to advance to the Finals .
In 1993 – 94 , Anderson played 73 games with the Maple Leafs before being traded to the New York Rangers . In New York , Anderson was reunited with many of his former teammates from his days in Edmonton . The Rangers featured six former Oilers , including future Hall of Famer and Anderson 's long @-@ time linemate Mark Messier . The Rangers qualified for the playoffs and were able to advance to the Finals . Matched up against the Vancouver Canucks , the Rangers defeated them in seven games . This was the Rangers ' first Stanley Cup victory since 1940 and the end of the longest Stanley Cup drought in NHL history . After being held scoreless in the previous rounds , Anderson scored his only three playoff goals in the Finals , two of them being game @-@ winners . This would be Anderson 's sixth and last Stanley Cup victory .
Due to the 1994 – 95 NHL lockout , Anderson went to Europe to play hockey . He played with the Augsburger Panther of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga in Germany and the Lukko Rauma of the SM @-@ liiga in Finland , as well as the Canadian National Team . After the lockout was resolved , Anderson signed as a free agent with the St. Louis Blues and played 42 regular season and playoff games combined . At the end of the season , Anderson did not re @-@ sign with the Blues . After playing part of the next season with Augsburger and the National Team again , Anderson signed with the Canucks as a free agent for the reported sum of $ 400 @,@ 000 . His reasons for joining the team were because of former Oiler teammate Esa Tikkanen already playing there , and a desire to finish his career in his hometown . However , Anderson never played for the Canucks as the Oilers picked him up on re @-@ entry waivers . Anderson expressed his disappointment at these turn of events , as he wanted to play in Vancouver instead . He spent 17 games with the Oilers , before being put on waivers that same season . The Blues claimed him , and he spent his last days in the NHL with them . The 1996 – 97 season saw Anderson return to Europe and play with HC La Chaux @-@ de @-@ Fonds of the National League A in Switzerland and with Bolzano HC of the Alpenliga in Italy . Anderson played a combined 25 games in both leagues before retiring .
= = International career = =
Anderson was known to have a liking for participating in international competitions . His first test at the international stage was during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid , New York . Canada finished sixth in the tournament while Anderson scored four points in six games . Later on , Anderson credited the practice he received in preparation for the Olympics as a key to his future success in the NHL .
Anderson was chosen to participate in the 1984 Canada Cup . The roster included eight of Anderson 's teammates from the Edmonton Oilers . Canada advanced to the finals and defeated Sweden 2 – 0 in a best of three series to win the Cup . Anderson scored five points during the tournament . The 1987 Canada Cup also saw Anderson participate . Once more , Canada reached the finals , but this time they were up against the Soviet Union . The finals required all three games as Canada defeated the Soviet Union . All three games needed overtime and had a final score of 6 – 5 . Anderson recorded three points during the tournament .
In 1989 , Anderson played at the Ice Hockey World Championships for the first time . With four points in six games , Anderson helped Canada win the silver medal , as the Soviets took home the gold . Three years later , Anderson made his second and final appearance at the World Ice Hockey Championships , this time in Czechoslovakia . Canada was eliminated by Finland in the quarterfinals by a score of 4 – 3 . Anderson registered three points during the tournament .
Wanting to participate in the Olympics again , Anderson did what he could to play at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer , Norway . He negotiated a clause with his team , the Toronto Maple Leafs , to grant him the right to play for Team Canada . This was not enough as Anderson also had to obtain permission from the league . The league had instituted a policy that only players with less than one year of National Hockey League experience could join and therefore turned down his request . The league 's decision caused an outrage in Canada . Canada won silver as they lost the gold medal game to Sweden .
= = Playing style = =
Anderson was noted for his aggressive " to the net " playing style , typifying the NHL power forward in the early 1980s . He credits coach Clare Drake 's drills during his time with the Olympic team for his love of driving the net . He also liked to stay behind the net and pass to his teammates in front of the goal for scoring chances . Noted as a " money " player , Anderson was able to elevate his game in high pressure situations . He scored five playoff overtime goals and 17 playoff game @-@ winning goals , good for third and fifth all @-@ time in NHL history . During the playoffs , Anderson accumulated 93 goals , 121 assists , and 214 points , the fourth , ninth , and fourth most in NHL history . In addition , his 72 regular season game @-@ winning goals with the Oilers put him first all time in franchise history .
Anderson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 10 , 2008 in the players category . His jersey number 9 was retired on January 18 , 2009 , by the Oilers , before a game against the Phoenix Coyotes . The date for Anderson 's number retirement was specifically selected because his former Oilers teammates , Wayne Gretzky and Grant Fuhr , were serving as the Coyotes ' head coach and goaltending coach respectively at the time .
= = Personal life = =
Anderson 's post @-@ playing career was mired by a bitter legal battle over child support . He was accused of reneging on child support payments to a woman whom he had fathered a child with out of wedlock . The case has since been settled . It was reported that the bad publicity from this case had kept Anderson out of the Hockey Hall of Fame for a long time .
He resides in Manhattan with his wife Susan , and daughter Autumn . Anderson plays in charity and old @-@ timers games , and owns a hockey school in Connecticut . He also runs a fantasy camp , which gives fans a chance to play hockey alongside him . On occasions , Anderson appears as an analyst for the New York Rangers . Anderson started a company called Glenn Anderson 's Cell @-@ City . It specializes in car phones .
Anderson was a participant in season one of Battle of the Blades . His partner , Isabelle Brasseur , and he were the second pair to be eliminated from the competition . For their efforts , Brasseur 's charity , the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada , and Anderson 's charity , the Cross Cancer Institute , each received a $ 12 @,@ 500 donation .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= Dominik Hašek =
Dominik Hašek ( Czech pronunciation : [ ˈdomɪnɪk ˈɦaʃɛk ] , audio ; born January 29 , 1965 ) is a retired Czech ice hockey goaltender . In his 16 @-@ season National Hockey League ( NHL ) career , he played for the Chicago Blackhawks , Buffalo Sabres , Detroit Red Wings and the Ottawa Senators . During his years in Buffalo , he became one of the league 's finest goaltenders , earning him the nickname " The Dominator " . His strong play has been credited with establishing European goaltenders in a league previously dominated by North Americans . He is a two @-@ time Stanley Cup champion , both with the Red Wings .
Hašek was one of the league 's most successful goaltenders of the 1990s and early 2000s . From 1993 to 2001 , he won six Vezina Trophies . In 1998 he won his second consecutive Hart Memorial Trophy , becoming the first goaltender to win the award multiple times . During the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan , he led the Czech national ice hockey team to its first and only Olympic gold medal . The feat made him a popular figure in his home country and prompted hockey legend Wayne Gretzky to call him " the best player in the game " . While with the Red Wings in 2002 , Hašek became the first European @-@ trained starting goaltender to win the Stanley Cup . In the process , he set a record for shutouts in a postseason year .
Hašek is considered an unorthodox goaltender , with a distinct style that has labeled him a " flopper " . He is best known for his concentration , foot speed , flexibility , and unconventional saves , such as covering the puck with his blocker rather than his trapper . Hašek holds the highest career save percentage of all time ( 0 @.@ 9223 ) and is seventh in goals against average ( first in the modern era ) ( 2 @.@ 202 ) , and the third @-@ highest single @-@ season save percentage ( 0 @.@ 9366 in 1998 – 99 ) . The record was broken by Tim Thomas in the 2010 @-@ 11 season and again by Brian Elliott in the 2011 @-@ 12 season who now holds the record at .940 . Hašek is the only goalie to face the most shots per 60 minutes and have the highest save percentage in one season . He did it twice , while with the Buffalo Sabres ( 1996 and 1998 ) .
At the time of his retirement , he was the oldest active goalie in the NHL at 43 , and the second @-@ oldest active player in the league after Red Wings teammate Chris Chelios , who was 46 . Hašek announced his retirement on June 9 , 2008 , but on April 21 , 2009 , he announced a comeback to professional hockey and signed a contract with HC Pardubice of the Czech Extraliga . On June 7 , 2010 , he signed with Spartak Moscow of the KHL and played the last season of his career with this team . Hašek announced his retirement on October 9 , 2012 . Hašek was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 17 , 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Hašek started playing hockey at the age of six in his native Czechoslovakia . As he explains :
In 1980 , Hašek joined the top hockey league in the country , the Czechoslovak Extraliga , with his hometown team , HC Pardubice . He became the youngest hockey player in history to play at the professional level at age 16 . He helped to win two league titles in 1987 and 1989 . The next year , he was drafted by the Czech army to play for Dukla Jihlava . After making his mark and eventually playing for the Czechoslovakian National team , Hašek entered the NHL draft and was drafted by the Chicago Blackhawks in 1983 . At the time , NHL teams were wary of drafting players from behind the Iron Curtain who were often unwilling to play in the NHL or barred from doing so by their countries . Consequently , Hašek was picked in the 10th round ( 199th overall ) and was the seventeenth goalie selected . Hašek did not even know he had been drafted until several months later .
Until 1990 , Hašek played in his native Czechoslovakia for HC Pardubice and HC Jihlava . He was named the top ice hockey player of the Czechoslovak Extraliga in 1987 , 1989 and 1990 , and Goaltender of the Year from 1986 through 1990 . His American career began with the Indianapolis Ice of the IHL , where he played parts of two seasons . His NHL debut with the Blackhawks finally came in the 1990 – 91 season , seven years after the 1983 NHL Entry Draft .
= = NHL career = =
= = = Chicago Blackhawks ( 1990 – 1992 ) = = =
In Chicago , Hašek spent time as the backup to Ed Belfour , and played only 25 games over two seasons with the Blackhawks , splitting time between the Blackhawks and the Indianapolis Ice of the IHL . On November 6 , 1990 , wearing the number 34 ( 31 was worn by backup goaltender Jacques Cloutier that year ) , Hašek made his first NHL start in a 1 – 1 tie against the Hartford Whalers . His first victory came on March 8 , 1991 , in a 5 – 3 performance over the Buffalo Sabres , and on January 9 , 1992 , he recorded his first shutout in a 2 – 0 win against the Toronto Maple Leafs . During this time with the Blackhawks , his goaltending coach was Vladislav Tretiak , who was selected in the 1983 draft but was barred from playing in the NHL by the Soviet government . Hašek appeared in game 4 of the 1992 Stanley Cup Finals against the Pittsburgh Penguins , after Belfour allowed two goals on four shots in the opening 6 : 33 , and had 21 saves . Although the Penguins won to clinch the Stanley Cup , Hašek 's performance attracted the attention of the Sabres , who had considered trading for him earlier that season .
= = = Buffalo Sabres ( 1992 – 2001 ) = = =
After the Stanley Cup finals appearance , Chicago decided to stay with Belfour and Jimmy Waite . Hašek was traded to the Buffalo Sabres for goalie Stephane Beauregard and future considerations , which later materialized into a draft pick used to obtain Éric Dazé . In Buffalo , wearing number 39 , he was initially the backup goaltender , first playing behind Tom Draper and then Grant Fuhr . When Fuhr was injured partway through the season , Hašek was elevated to starter and soon developed into a top tier goaltender . In 1994 , he won his first Vezina Trophy , was runner @-@ up for the Hart Trophy and shared the William M. Jennings Trophy with Fuhr . Hašek played 58 games with a league @-@ best 1 @.@ 95 goals against average ( GAA ) , seven shutouts , and a .930 save percentage . He followed this feat by again winning the Vezina Trophy and again placing as a Hart finalist in 1995 .
Hašek 's success in the 1996 – 97 season was overshadowed by a conflict with then @-@ head coach Ted Nolan . The conflict created a tense , clique @-@ like atmosphere in the Sabres ' clubhouse . In game three of the first round series against the Ottawa Senators , Hašek removed himself in the second period and was replaced by Steve Shields . Hašek suffered a mild sprain of his right MCL , and the team doctor pronounced him day @-@ to @-@ day . However , the media and some teammates speculated Hašek was using his injury to bail out on the team . One such individual was Buffalo News columnist Jim Kelley , who wrote a column which detailed Hašek 's injury and his conflict with Nolan , and questioned the goaltender 's mental toughness . When Kelley approached Hašek for an interview after a loss in game five of the best @-@ of @-@ seven series , Hašek attacked the journalist and received a three @-@ game suspension and a $ 10 @,@ 000 ( US ) fine as a result of the incident . With Steve Shields in goal , the Sabres fought back against the Senators and took the series in seven games . However , Hašek claimed his knee was still injured and did not play in the five @-@ game loss in the following series against the Philadelphia Flyers .
Though General Manager John Muckler was named " Executive of the Year " , he was fired for his constant feuding with Nolan . Hašek , who sided with Muckler , stated in an interview during the 1997 NHL Awards Ceremony that the team would benefit from replacing Nolan . Despite winning the Jack Adams Award as top coach and being popular with the Sabres fanbase , Nolan was only offered a one @-@ year contract extension by replacement GM Darcy Regier . He rejected this under the grounds that it was too short , and decided to part ways with the franchise . This upset many fans , who blamed Nolan 's departure on Hašek 's alleged attempt to rid him . For the first six weeks of the next season he was booed so vigorously that arena workers would play tapes of a crowd cheering to help balance it out . As the season progressed , Hašek played well and won back many fans . He won the Vezina Trophy again , as well as the Lester B. Pearson Award and the Hart Trophy for league MVP . He became one of the few goaltenders in NHL history to win the Hart , alongside Al Rollins and José Théodore , and Hall of Famers Jacques Plante , Chuck Rayner and Roy Worters .
Hašek played a career high 72 games in the 1997 – 98 season , and set a team record with 13 shutouts . Six of these shutouts came in December , which tied the all @-@ time NHL record for most in one month . He again won the Lester B. Pearson Award , the Hart Trophy , and the Vezina Trophy , becoming the first goalie in NHL history to win the Hart twice . He donated the $ 10 @,@ 000 prize money after winning the Pearson Award in 1998 to the Variety Club of Buffalo . In the off @-@ season he signed a three @-@ year , $ 26 million deal , securing the highest goaltender salary contract at that time .
In 1999 , Hašek averaged a career best 1 @.@ 87 GAA and .937 save percentage , capturing him his third consecutive Vezina , and fifth overall . He was also a finalist for the Hart and Pearson trophies . Though the Sabres did not have a stellar regular season and finished with the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference , they defeated the Ottawa Senators , Boston Bruins and Toronto Maple Leafs in the playoffs en route to a best @-@ of @-@ seven Stanley Cup Final against the Presidents ' Trophy @-@ winning Dallas Stars . The Sabres eventually lost the series four games to two , with the decisive sixth game being one of the longest Stanley Cup playoff games in NHL history . Hašek and Ed Belfour made 50 and 53 saves , respectively , in a sudden @-@ death triple @-@ overtime duel that only ended when Brett Hull scored a controversial Cup @-@ winning goal with his foot in the goal crease .
The goal was not reviewed immediately , so officials did not notice Hull 's foot in the crease until minutes later . After video reviews showed Hull 's position , the goal was still upheld , leaving the Sabres infuriated . Hašek commented , " Maybe [ the video goal judge ] was in the bathroom . Maybe he was sleeping . Maybe he doesn 't know the rule . " The following season , NHL commissioner Gary Bettman announced that video replays would no longer be used to judge if players are in the crease or not , and that it would be a judgment call by the officiating crew . After the season ended , Hašek contemplated retirement because of a combination of injuries and a desire to become more involved in his family life . The announcement stunned many of his teammates , particularly Mike Peca and Jason Woolley .
In the 1999 – 2000 season , Hašek was hampered by a nagging groin injury . He missed forty games and failed to win a major NHL award for the first time in several years . Though he healed in time for the playoffs , the Sabres were eliminated in the first round in five games by the Philadelphia Flyers . In 2000 – 01 — his final season with Buffalo — Hašek set a modern era record by collecting his sixth Vezina Trophy . He also won his second William M. Jennings Trophy . The Sabres played Philadelphia in the first round of the playoffs again , where Hašek outplayed his 1998 Olympic back @-@ up Roman Čechmánek . In the clinching sixth game , Hašek recorded a shutout against the Flyers . In the second round , the Sabres played a seven @-@ game series against Mario Lemieux 's Pittsburgh Penguins , which culminated with the Penguins winning the final game in overtime .
= = = First tenure with the Detroit Red Wings ( 2001 @-@ 2002 ; 2003 @-@ 2004 ) = = =
Before the start of the next season , Hašek was traded to the Detroit Red Wings in an attempt to lower the Sabres ' payroll and to send Hašek to a more competitive team . He was dealt for Vyacheslav Kozlov , a first round selection in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft and future considerations , which eventually became the draft pick of Jim Slater . During his first season with Detroit , Hašek posted a career high 41 wins with just 15 losses , helping the Red Wings earn the President 's Trophy with the league 's best record . In the playoffs , he led the Wings past the Vancouver Canucks , the St. Louis Blues , the Colorado Avalanche and eventually the Carolina Hurricanes in the finals to win the Stanley Cup . During the conference finals against Colorado , he became the first goalie to be awarded an assist on an overtime game @-@ winning goal in the post @-@ season after passing the puck to Wings captain Steve Yzerman , who then assisted Fredrik Olausson in scoring the final goal of the third game of that series . He also set a record for most shutouts in a post @-@ season with six , broken the year after by Martin Brodeur with seven .
That summer , Hašek officially announced his retirement so that he could spend time with his family and other hobbies . However , after Detroit 's first round loss to the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in the following season , he expressed his desire to play again . This created a difficult situation for the Red Wings , who had two years left on Curtis Joseph 's three @-@ year $ 24 million contract , which had a no @-@ trade clause . Detroit was also under pressure knowing that the rival Colorado Avalanche would be looking for a goalie to replace Patrick Roy after his retirement . With Manny Legace also on the Wings ' roster , Detroit now had three potential starting goalies .
In the 2003 – 04 season Hašek injured his groin after playing just 14 games . On January 9 , he and the team agreed he should rest his injury for two to four weeks . Hašek privately told general manager Ken Holland that he would not accept any pay while he was injured . On February 10 , he announced that he was not going to continue to play that season , surprising the Red Wings management . He eventually revealed that he refused about $ 3 million of his $ 6 million salary . In April 2004 , he underwent groin surgery in Prague , and returned to his hometown of Pardubice to recuperate .
= = = Ottawa Senators ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = =
After his contract with the Wings expired , Hašek announced his intention to play for a Stanley Cup contender , and specifically named the Ottawa Senators as a possibility . On July 6 , 2004 , after trading Patrick Lalime to the St. Louis Blues , the Senators signed Hašek to a one @-@ year deal .
During the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Hašek toured with the Primus Worldstars . Similar to the tour Wayne Gretzky and IMG formed during the 1994 – 95 NHL lockout , the Primus Worldstars Tour ran December 7 – 23 , playing in seven different countries ( Riga , Latvia ; Moscow and St Petersburg , Russia ; Bratislava , Slovakia ; Bern , Switzerland ; Karlstad , Jonkoping and Linkoping , Sweden ; Oslo , Norway ; Katowice , Poland ) in ten scheduled games . The tour competed against all @-@ star teams or club teams of each country .
Hašek played increasingly well for the Senators up until the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin . During the season , he reached 300 career wins , and his GAA and save percentage were the second @-@ best in the league . Upon departure to Turin , Hašek 's equipment was accidentally left behind in Ottawa . This caused Hašek to miss a number of practices with the Czech National team . At the Winter Olympics , he injured his right adductor muscle while making a save in the first qualifying match against Germany , forcing him to leave the game after only 9 minutes and 25 seconds . Hašek 's injury caused him to miss the rest of the regular season and post @-@ season , despite several rumours that he would return in time for the playoffs . He said that if he were to be re @-@ signed , he would play for a base salary of $ 500 @,@ 000 with bonuses .
After the Senators were eliminated in the second round , they opted not to re @-@ sign Hašek , despite Hašek 's willingness to take a pay cut .
= = = Return to the Red Wings ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = =
On July 31 , 2006 , at the age of 41 , Hašek joined the Red Wings for the second time . He signed a one @-@ year $ 750 @,@ 000 US contract , with added bonuses if the team succeeded in the playoffs . He posted 38 wins and a 2 @.@ 05 GAA while leading the Red Wings to the number one seed in the Western Conference . He also broke his own personal record by going 181 minutes and 17 seconds without allowing a goal . Midway through the regular season , the team announced that to avoid injury and preserve Hašek for the playoffs , he would not play on consecutive nights . He played his first consecutive nights of the season on April 21 and 22 against the Calgary Flames in games 5 and 6 of the Western Conference Quarterfinals . Hašek won both games , clinching the series for Detroit . In the next round against the San Jose Sharks , the Red Wings were on the road and down two games to one , but Hašek held the Sharks to three goals in the next three games . His 28 @-@ save shutout in game six tied him for sixth place on the all @-@ time NHL playoff shutouts list and sent the Red Wings to the Western Conference finals against the Anaheim Ducks . However , Hašek and the Red Wings lost in six games to the Ducks , who eventually defeated the Ottawa Senators for the Stanley Cup .
Hašek contemplated retirement in the 2007 offseason , but on July 5 , 2007 , he signed a one @-@ year contract with Detroit worth $ 2 million with up to $ 2 million in bonuses , reportedly turning down $ 5 million for salary cap room for the rest of the Red Wings ' roster .
During the 2007 – 08 season , he was replaced by backup Chris Osgood , who had originally been traded away from the Red Wings to make way for Hašek before the 2001 @-@ 02 season . When Hašek recovered and got back into his stride , Detroit chose to alternate goaltenders in tandem instead of designating either as the backup . Detroit coach Mike Babcock announced Hašek to start in the 2008 playoffs . Through the first two games against the Nashville Predators , the Red Wings were victorious , but after a lackluster performance in the next two , Osgood was in goal for the remainder of the playoffs . Despite expressing disappointment at losing his starting position , Hašek maintained his professionalism in practice and continued to support his teammates , with Darren McCarty citing a close relationship between Hašek and Osgood . Eventually the Red Wings beat the Pittsburgh Penguins in six games for the Stanley Cup .
On June 9 , 2008 , Hašek announced his retirement from the NHL , only five days after winning his second Stanley Cup with the Detroit Red Wings , saying he lacked the motivation for another year in the NHL . With Osgood , the two were awarded the William M. Jennings Trophy for least goals against on a team in the season .
= = Final years in Europe and retirement = =
In April 2009 , Hašek once again came out of retirement and signed a one @-@ year contract with HC Moeller Pardubice , the club where he started his long career . In the 2009 – 10 season he led his team to win Czech league title . Hašek had three shutouts in the playoffs , one in the finals , while his Pardubice lost just one game in the playoffs before claiming 12 consecutive wins . For the 2010 – 2011 hockey season , Hašek signed a one @-@ year contract with HC Spartak Moscow .
On May 15 , 2012 , Czech website hokej.cz reported that Hašek had discussed playing for Piráti Chomutov after their promotion to the Czech Extraliga . On May 25 , 2012 , Czech sport website Deniksport reported that Hašek was considering a return to the NHL , possibly with the Buffalo Sabres , Detroit Red Wings or Tampa Bay Lightning . However , the start of the 2012 – 13 NHL season was delayed due to the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout and Hašek announced his retirement on October 9 , 2012 .
On January 13 , 2015 , the Sabres retired Hašek 's # 39 jersey prior to a game against the Detroit Red Wings , becoming the seventh retired number in Sabres ' history .
= = International play = =
Hašek 's most memorable international performance came in the 1998 Winter Olympics , where he led the Czech national team to the gold medal . He allowed six goals in total , with only two of them coming in the medal round . Against Team Canada in the semifinals , Hašek stopped Theoren Fleury , Ray Bourque , Joe Nieuwendyk , Eric Lindros and Brendan Shanahan in a dramatic shootout win . He then shut out the Russian team 1 – 0 in the final game , stopping 20 shots . He was later announced as the best goaltender in the Olympics . After he won the gold , he was quoted as saying :
His play made him one of the most popular figures in the Czech Republic , so much so that residents chanted " Hašek to the castle ! " in the streets . In response to this , Hašek called the country 's president Václav Havel and jokingly told him that his job was not in jeopardy . He also helped to inspire an opera ( titled Nagano ) about the Czech team 's gold medal victory , and in 2003 , Petr Pravec and Lenka Šarounová named an asteroid ( 8217 Dominikhašek ) in his honour .
In the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin , Italy , Hašek played for just nine minutes and twenty @-@ five seconds , until he injured his right adductor muscle . Despite his absence , the Czechs managed to earn the bronze medal with backup goaltender Tomáš Vokoun , which Hašek received as well .
= = Style of play = =
Hašek had an unorthodox goaltending style . He was extraordinarily flexible and was jokingly described in a MasterCard commercial as having " a Slinky for a spine " . In order to cover the bottom of the net , where most goals are scored , Hašek dropped down on almost every shot . His " flopping " style was derived from him flailing in the crease , using every part of his body , including his head , to stop the puck . Hašek occasionally dropped his stick and covered the puck with his stick hand , whereas most goaltenders would use the glove hand instead . In response to the speculation he received from his style , Hašek explained :
Hašek 's unique style attracted fans to games . Because of his flexibility , Hašek could make difficult saves that other goalies could not — an opposing coach once referred to them as " miracle saves " . These types of saves include toe @-@ stops , snagging pucks from behind his back , and a desperation maneuver known as the " Hašek roll " . Hašek was also known for his strict regimen of conditioning . During the off @-@ season between May and September 2006 , he lost a considerable amount of weight to increase his flexibility . Hašek was one of the last goaltenders to wear a helmet @-@ and @-@ cage combo rather than a contemporary hybrid goalie mask . The last was his former teammate Chris Osgood who left the NHL three years after Hašek .
= = Personal life = =
Hašek and his former wife Alena have a son named Michael ( born 1990 ) and a daughter named Dominika ( born 1994 ) . He divides much of his free time playing squash and inline hockey , where he plays defense . When he was younger , Hašek played competitive football as a midfielder , and was a junior tennis champion in Eastern Bohemia . His brother Martin is also a competitive athlete and played for the Czech Republic football team AC Sparta Prague before retiring and eventually deciding to coach . Cousin Ivan Hašek also played professional football . Hobby @-@ wise , Hašek claims that he has been a fan of professional wrestling since his Buffalo days , and says that he mostly follows his favorite wrestlers , Stone Cold Steve Austin and Don " The Rock " Muraco .
Because of his formal education , Hašek stands out among Czech sportsmen . He earned a university degree after studying history and the Czech language in the Faculty of Education at the University of Hradec Králové , which qualified him to be a teacher , and led him to teach high school classes . Hašek also has a brand of sportswear named Dominator Clothing , which was launched shortly after the Nagano Olympics in 1998 . It also had two locations in Michigan for a short time . Unfortunately , sales was short , and Dominator brand was forced to end in 2008 . In May 2001 , Hašek founded the Dominik Hašek Youth Hockey League / Hašek 's Heroes , and donated over $ 1 million to help underprivileged children in Buffalo play hockey . In 1998 , he also organized a charity hockey game in Prague , and donated the profits to hospitals in the Czech Republic .
Hašek is known to appreciate humor to keep team spirits up , and often jokes about his resemblance to Cosmo Kramer of Seinfeld . In the late 1990s , he was featured in a Mastercard commercial that praised his flexibility . On November 26 , 2006 , Mark Parisi 's comic panel off the mark featured a comic about Hašek 's childhood .
In November 2012 Hašek announced divorce after 23 years of marriage .
Throughout his long career , Hašek has been represented by agent Ritch Winter .
= = = Inline hockey game incident = = =
During an inline hockey game on May 18 , 2003 , Hašek was accused of assaulting another player . He was playing as a defender for Bonfire Střída when he crosschecked Martin Šíla . The prosecutor in the case , Lenka Strnadová , ruled two months later that there was no evidence that Hašek intended bodily harm and recommended the case be treated as a misdemeanor , punishable only by fine ( $ 95 USD maximum ) , rather than a felony where jail time would have been possible . Hašek 's lawyer Pavel Jelínek announced in a statement that media reports about the incident were exaggerated , with Šíla not having sustained any documented injuries . In October 2003 , the country 's top prosecutor overruled Strnadová , saying her ruling was unlawful because the case had not been properly investigated . The Pardubice prosecution then investigated the case again , and reached the same decision as Strnadová .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Milestones = = =
Hašek earned his 300th National Hockey League win on October 15 , 2005 , in a 5 – 1 home victory with the Ottawa Senators over the Boston Bruins . He stopped 34 of 35 shots and was holding a shutout until Bruins forward Pat Leahy jammed a loose puck under him three minutes into the third period . He became the twenty @-@ second goaltender to reach the milestone . He is the oldest goaltender in NHL history to post a 30 @-@ win season , and in 1997 , he became the second goaltender to win the Lester B. Pearson Award for most outstanding player in the league ( Mike Liut won the Lester B. Pearson Trophy as the league 's MVP as determined by his peers in 1981 ) . He is also the only goaltender to win the Hart Trophy twice for most valuable player , and was only one Vezina Trophy away from tying Jacques Plante 's record of seven . Hašek 's personal best shutout streak is 181 minutes , 17 seconds .
= = = Records = = =
In nine seasons with the Buffalo Sabres , Hašek acquired over 25 franchise records , including most all @-@ time games played , wins , shutouts and lowest goals against average . He also holds the Sabres ' record for most shutouts in a single season with 13 in 1997 – 98 , and lowest goals against average in a single season with a total of 1 @.@ 87 in 1998 – 99 . During the Detroit Red Wings ' championship run in 2002 , Hašek set franchise records for most games played , minutes played , wins and shutouts in a playoff year . He holds several notable NHL records :
One of the most impressive single @-@ game performances by any player in NHL history came on April 27 , 1994 . Hašek made 70 saves in a 4OT shutout . The opposing goalie was Martin Brodeur , then a rookie , who made 49 saves before being beaten by Dave Hannan and the Sabres beat New Jersey 1 – 0 . Hašek 's 70 saves set a record , which still stands , for the most saves in a game without allowing a goal .
= = Career statistics = =
Bolded numbers indicate season leader
= = = Regular season = = =
† Note : As of the 2005 – 06 season , ties have been replaced by an overtime or shootout loss .
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
Bolded numbers indicate tournament leader
= = Awards = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = Nominations = = =
= = = Czechoslovak and Czech awards = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Transactions = =
June 8 , 1983 – Drafted by Chicago in the 10th round , 199th overall
August 7 , 1992 – Traded to Buffalo for Stephane Beauregard and a fourth round pick ( Éric Dazé )
March 19 , 1998 – Agreed with Buffalo on a three @-@ year , twenty @-@ six million dollar contract
June 30 , 2001 – Traded to Detroit for Vyacheslav Kozlov , a first round pick in 2002 ( Daniel Paille ) and future considerations
June 25 , 2002 – Announced retirement from professional hockey
July 8 , 2003 – Returned to Detroit as an active player
July 6 , 2004 – Signed as a free agent by Ottawa
July 27 , 2005 – Contract option exercised by Ottawa for 2005 – 06 season
July 31 , 2006 – Signed as a free agent by Detroit
July 5 , 2007 – Signed as a free agent by Detroit
June 9 , 2008 – Again announced retirement from professional hockey
April 21 , 2009 – Signed as a free agent by HC Pardubice of the Czech Extraliga
June 7 , 2010 – Signed as a free agent by Spartak Moscow of the KHL
October 9 , 2012 - Announced retirement from professional hockey for the third time .
= 2012 – 13 Harvard Crimson men 's basketball team =
The 2012 – 13 Harvard Crimson men 's basketball team represents Harvard University during the 2012 – 13 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season . The Crimson , led by sixth year head coach Tommy Amaker , played their home games at Lavietes Pavilion and are members of the Ivy League .
Harvard entered the season as the two @-@ time defending Ivy League Champion , but its roster was greatly changed due to graduation and the 2012 Harvard cheating scandal that led to the withdrawal of two star players . With reduced expectations , the team entered the season expected to finish second in conference . During the season , the team swept the three opponents that are also from Boston . The win against Boston College , gave Amaker his sixth victory against no defeats over Atlantic Coast Conference foes . Despite the team 's turmoil , it prevailed to win the 2012 – 13 Ivy League men 's basketball season regular season championship , earning the team an automatic bid to the 2013 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , where it won the school 's first ever NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament game . The tournament victory over # 3 seed New Mexico was also the school 's first victory over a top 10 ranked team .
The team was led by Wesley Saunders who was unanimous First Team All @-@ Ivy and Ivy League Rookie of the Year Siyani Chambers who was also a first team honoree . Both Steve Moundou @-@ Missi and Laurent Rivard earned honorable mention All @-@ Ivy recognition . Harvard tied an Ivy League single @-@ season team record with 13 combined Player of the Week and Rookie of the Week Awards .
= = Roster = =
= = Preseason = =
Prior to the season , Harvard won all four games on its international training trip to Italy . The team announced that senior Christian Webster and junior Laurent Rivard would serve as captain . The Crimson only returned one starter from the prior year . Harvard 's two captains from the prior season , Keith Wright and Oliver McNally were seniors . Wright had been the Ivy League Men 's Basketball Player of the Year in 2011 . Wright , the Crimson all @-@ time leader in blocked shots , signed with Uppsala Basket of the Swedish Basketball League , and McNally , signed with the Moncton Miracles of the National Basketball League of Canada . The team welcomed five freshmen and ten returning players .
The Ivy League media selected Harvard as the preseason runner @-@ up to Princeton , giving the team the only first place vote that did not go to Princeton . Jeff Goodman of CBS Sports also selected Princeton first and Harvard second with his preseason predictions , noting that Harvard had been his preseason favorite until the September cheating scandal that involved about 125 athletes and students ensnared Kyle Casey and Brandyn Curry , leading to their withdrawal . Casey and Curry had been first @-@ team and second @-@ team All @-@ Ivy selections respectively for the 2011 – 12 Ivy League men 's basketball season , respectively . Both players withdrew from school in hopes of preserving their final year of athletic eligibility following the investigation .
Harvard appeared on 14 televised games in the regular season . Of these 14 , six came on the NBC Sports Network . In addition , the team had four games broadcast on four different ESPN networks . Its February 23 game against Yale was televised by CBS Sports .
= = Schedule = =
Harvard 's November 14 contest against Massachusetts was televised on ESPN as part of the network 's Tip @-@ Off Marathon . Harvard lost the contest 67 – 64 . On December 4 , the team defeated Boston College for its fifth consecutive victory against Boston College Eagles men 's basketball , making Amaker a perfect 6 – 0 against the Atlantic Coast Conference . The team also defeated cross @-@ town rivals MIT and Boston University as well as in @-@ state rival Holy Cross . Harvard 's contest against Columbia that was originally scheduled for February 9 at 7 : 00 PM at Levien Gymnasium in Manhattan was postponed until February 10 at 2 : 00 PM due to the February 2013 nor 'easter ( also known as Winter Storm Nemo ) .
Harvard had cruised to a 9 – 1 record in conference play and then fell to 7 – 2 Princeton on March 1 . The following night , Princeton defeated Dartmouth and Harvard lost to Penn to give Princeton the lead in the conference race . Harvard earned the Ivy League Championship with wins on March 8 and 9 over Columbia and Cornell to finish at 11 – 3 in conference as Princeton was swept on the same nights to Yale and Brown to fall to 9 – 4 in conference .
On March 21 in the 2013 NCAA Tournament , Harvard earned the school 's first NCAA Tournament victory and its first victory over a top 10 opponent when it defeated number three seeded New Mexico ( # 10 AP Poll / # 10 Coaches ' Poll ) . The victory was the first by an Ivy League team in the tournament since the 2009 – 10 Cornell Big Red men 's basketball team advanced to the Sweet Sixteen . Two days later , the team lost to Arizona , ending its season .
N.B. Source :
= = = In season = = =
Each week the Ivy League selects a player of the week and a rookie of the week . Led by Wesley Saunders ' 5 Ivy League Player of the Week Awards and Siyani Chambers ' 6 Rookie of the Week Awards , Harvard tied the Ivy League record with 13 single @-@ season weekly recognitions .
= = = All @-@ Ivy = = =
Siyani Chambers was named the unanimous choice for Ivy League Rookie of the Year and the first freshman to be first team All @-@ Ivy . Chambers and Saunders were the first Harvard teammates selected together as first team All @-@ Ivy . The following players earned Ivy League postseason recognition :
First Team All @-@ Ivy
^ Wesley Saunders , ( So . , G / F - Los Angeles )
Siyani Chambers , ( Fr . , G - Golden Valley , Minn . )
Honorable Mention All @-@ Ivy
Steve Moundou @-@ Missi , ( So . , F - Yaounde , Cameroon )
Laurent Rivard , ( Jr . , G - Saint @-@ Bruno @-@ de @-@ Montarville , Québec , Canada )
^ Unanimous Selection
On March 12 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association named Saunders to its 2012 – 13 Men 's All @-@ District I ( ME , VT , NH , RI , MA , CT ) Team , based upon voting from its national membership . The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All ‐ District teams on March 26 , recognizing the nation ’ s best men ’ s collegiate basketball student @-@ athletes . Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , 240 student @-@ athletes , from 24 districts were chosen . The selections on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America teams . Saunders and Chambers were among the District 13 first team selections .
= Alice in Wonderland ( 2010 film ) =
Alice in Wonderland is a 2010 American fantasy film directed by Tim Burton from a screenplay written by Linda Woolverton . The film stars Johnny Depp , Anne Hathaway , Helena Bonham Carter , Crispin Glover , Matt Lucas , and Mia Wasikowska and features the voices of Alan Rickman , Stephen Fry , Michael Sheen , and Timothy Spall . Based on Lewis Carroll 's fantasy novels , Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking @-@ Glass , and inspired by Walt Disney 's 1951 animated film of the same name , the film tells the story of a nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Alice Kingsleigh , who is told that she can restore the White Queen to her throne , with the help of the Mad Hatter . She is the only one who can slay the Jabberwocky , a dragon @-@ like creature that is controlled by the Red Queen and terrorizes Underland 's inhabitants .
The film was produced by Walt Disney Pictures and shot in the United Kingdom and the United States . The film premiered in London at the Odeon Leicester Square on February 25 , 2010 , and was released in Australia on March 4 , 2010 , and the following day in the United Kingdom and the United States through the Disney Digital 3D , RealD 3D , and IMAX 3D formats well as in conventional theaters .
Alice in Wonderland received mixed reviews upon release ; although praised for its visual style and special effects , the film was criticized for its lack of narrative coherence and overuse of computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) . At the 83rd Academy Awards , Alice in Wonderland won Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design , and was also nominated for Best Visual Effects . The film generated over $ 1 billion in ticket sales and became the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of all time during its theatrical run . The film started a trend of many live action fairytale films being green @-@ lit ( Disney alone had since released similar fantasy films like Oz the Great & Powerful , Maleficent and Cinderella , the latter also featuring Helena Bonham Carter ) . A sequel , titled Alice Through the Looking Glass , was released on May 27 , 2016 .
= = Plot = =
Troubled by a strange recurring dream and mourning the loss of her beloved father , nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Alice Kingsleigh attends a garden party at Lord Ascot 's estate . There she is confronted by an unwanted marriage proposal to Hamish Ascot and the stifling expectations of the society in which she lives . Unsure of how to proceed , she pursues a rabbit wearing a blue waistcoat and accidentally falls into a large rabbit hole under a tree . She emerges in a forest where she is greeted by the White Rabbit , the Dormouse , the Dodo , the Talking Flowers , and Tweedledee and Tweedledum . They argue over her identity as " the right Alice " who must slay the Red Queen 's Jabberwocky and restore the White Queen to power , as foretold by Absolem the Caterpillar and his prophetic scroll . The group is then ambushed by the Bandersnatch and a group of playing @-@ card soldiers led by the Knave of Hearts . Alice , Tweedledum and Tweedledee escape into the woods . The Knave steals the Caterpillar 's scroll . The Dormouse leaves the others behind with one of the Bandersnatch 's eyes in her possession . Tweedledum and Tweedledee are then captured by the Red Queen 's Jubjub bird .
The Knave informs the Red Queen that Alice threatens her reign , and the soldiers and Bayard the Bloodhound are ordered to find Alice immediately . Meanwhile , the Cheshire Cat guides Alice to the March Hare and the Hatter . The Hatter helps Alice avoid capture by allowing himself to be seized instead . Later , Alice is found by Bayard the Bloodhound ; but Alice insists upon helping the Hatter . At the Queen 's citadel , the Red Queen is unaware of Alice 's true identity and therefore welcomes her as a guest . Alice learns that the Vorpal Sword , the only weapon capable of killing the Jabberwocky , is locked inside the den of the Bandersnatch . The Knave crudely attempts to seduce Alice , but she rebuffs him , and a jealous Red Queen orders Alice beheaded . Alice obtains the sword and befriends the Bandersnatch by returning its eye . She then escapes on the back of the grateful Bandersnatch and delivers the sword to the White Queen . The Cheshire Cat saves the Hatter from the executioner , and the Hatter calls for rebellion against the Red Queen . The rebellion is quickly put down by the Jubjub bird , but the resistance flees to the White Queen 's castle , and both armies prepare for battle . Former caterpillar Absolem advises Alice to fight the Jabberwocky just before completing his transformation into a pupa .
On the appointed day , the White and Red Queens gather their armies on a chessboard @-@ like battlefield and send Alice and the Jabberwocky to decide the battle in single combat . Encouraged by the advice of her late father , Alice fights the Jabberwocky among the ruins surrounding the battlefield and finally jumps from the remains of a spiral staircase onto the Jabberwocky 's neck and beheads it . The White Queen sends the Red Queen and the Knave into exile . After the Hatter performs a celebration dance called Futterwacken , the White Queen gives Alice a vial of the Jabberwocky 's purple blood whose power will bring her whatever she wishes . She decides to rejoin the everyday world . Back in England , Lord Ascot takes Alice as his apprentice with the idea of establishing oceanic trade routes to Hong Kong . As the story closes , Alice prepares to set off on a trading ship . A light @-@ blue butterfly lands on her shoulder , and Alice recognizes him as Absolem .
= = Cast = =
Johnny Depp as Tarrant Hightopp , The Mad Hatter . Wasikowska said that the characters " both feel like outsiders and feel alone in their separate worlds , and have a special bond and friendship . " Burton explained that Depp " tried to find a grounding to the character ... as opposed to just being mad . " Burton also said that , " In a lot of versions it 's a very one @-@ note kind of character and you know [ Depp 's ] goal was to try and bring out a human side to the strangeness of the character . " The orange hair is an allusion to the mercury poisoning suffered by hatters who used mercury to cure felt ; Depp believes that the character " was poisoned ... and it was coming out through his hair , through his fingernails and eyes " . Depp and Burton decided that the Hatter 's clothes , skin , hair , personality and accent would change throughout the film to reflect his emotions . In an interview with Depp , the character was paralleled to " a mood ring , [ as ] his emotions are very close to the surface " . The Hatter is " made up of different people and their extreme sides " , with a gentle voice much like the character 's creator Lewis Carroll reflecting the lighter personality and with a Scottish Glaswegian accent ( which Depp modeled after Gregor Fisher 's Rab C. Nesbitt character ) reflecting a darker , more dangerous personality . Illusionary dancer David " Elsewhere " Bernal doubled for Depp during the " Futterwacken " sequence near the end of the film .
Mia Wasikowska as Alice Kingsleigh . When creating the character , screenwriter Linda Woolverton researched how young women were expected to behave in the Victorian era and then made her the opposite . Wasikowska read Carroll 's books as a child and re @-@ read them to prepare for her role . She also watched Jan Švankmajer 's Alice . She said , " When we were kids , my mum would pop it in the VCR player . We would be disturbed , and wouldn 't really understand it , but we couldn 't look away because it was too intriguing . So I had kept that feeling about Alice , a kind of haunting feeling . " Although facing pressures to conform to society 's expectations , Alice grows into a stronger @-@ willed and empowered heroine who chooses her own path ; Independent columnist Liz Hoggard praised Alice as a role model for girls , describing the character as " stubborn , brave , [ and ] non @-@ girlie " . Mairi Ella Challen portrayed Alice as a six @-@ year @-@ old .
Helena Bonham Carter as Iracebeth of Crims , the Red Queen . She is an amalgamation of two Carroll characters : the Red Queen and the Queen of Hearts . Her first name is a play on the word irascible , as she is easily irritated and quick to anger . Bonham Carter 's head was digitally increased to three times its original size on screen . The character hates animals , choosing to use them as servants and furniture . The actress took inspiration from her young daughter Nell , a toddler , stating that , " The Red Queen is just like a toddler , because she 's got a big head and she 's a tyrant . "
Anne Hathaway as Mirana of Marmoreal , the White Queen . She was one of few characters that did not require digital manipulation . Hathaway summed up her character with a caption on a magnet of Happy Bunny holding a knife ; " Cute but psycho . Things even out . " According to Hathaway , " She comes from the same gene pool as the Red Queen . She really likes the dark side , but she 's so scared of going too far into it that she 's made everything appear very light and happy . But she 's living in that place out of fear that she won 't be able to control herself . " Hathaway described her interpretation of the White Queen as " a punk @-@ rock vegan pacifist " , with inspiration drawn from Debbie Harry , Greta Garbo , and the artwork of Dan Flavin . Burton said that the White Queen 's appearance was inspired by Nigella Lawson .
Crispin Glover played Ilosovic Stayne , the Knave of Hearts . The character is arrogant and tricky , and while following the Red Queen 's every order , he is the only one capable of calming her dramatic mood swings . Glover said , " The Red Queen has a fair amount of short @-@ tempered reactions to things that people do , and so [ the Knave ] has to be quite diplomatic . " The Red Queen believes he is her lover , but this proves to be false .
Matt Lucas portrayed both Tweedledee and Tweedledum . Burton commented on the mixture of animation and Lucas , saying that " It 's a weird mixture of things which gives his characters the disturbing quality that they so richly deserve . " The characters are portrayed through a combination of CGI and live @-@ action , with Lucas ' face digitally composited to a full animated body . While performing the character , Lucas had to wear a teardrop @-@ shaped motion capture suit and walk on stilts . In order to play both characters , Lucas was doubled by Ethan Cohn .
Frances de la Tour as Imogene , Alice 's aunt . She is suffering from severe delusions and is constantly awaiting her fictional fiancé whom she believes to be a prince .
Leo Bill as Hamish Ascot , the would @-@ be fiancé of Alice .
Marton Csokas makes a cameo appearance as Alice 's deceased father in the film 's opening scene and Alice 's mother is played by Lindsay Duncan . Lord and Lady Ascot are played by Tim Pigott @-@ Smith and Geraldine James respectively . Eleanor Tomlinson and Eleanor Gecks play the Cathaway sisters , who bear a strong resemblance to Tweedledum and Tweedledee . Jemma Powell appears briefly as Alice 's sister , Margaret , while Margaret 's unfaithful husband Lowell is played by John Hopkins .
= = = Voice cast = = =
Michael Sheen voiced Nivens McTwisp , the White Rabbit . Sheen said the character " is such an iconic character that [ he ] didn 't feel like [ he ] should break the mold too much . " Burton said the quality he wanted most in his clock @-@ watching bunny was a twitchiness , also commenting that " [ in ] any incarnation of the [ White Rabbit ] through the years , there 's that sort of nervousness of a rabbit . "
Alan Rickman voiced Absolem , the Caterpillar . Rickman was originally going to have his face composited onto the animated Caterpillar . He was filmed recording his voice in the studio , but the idea was eventually scrapped . The animators did , however , try to give Absolem 's face characteristics similar to Rickman 's .
Stephen Fry voiced Cheshire , the Cheshire Cat . Burton stated that the character had a creepy quality in addition to tapping into his own hatred of cats . The role was intended to be played by Michael Sheen but he changed his role to the White Rabbit due to scheduling conflicts .
Barbara Windsor voiced Mallymkun , the Dormouse . Burton said that he sought after Windsor for the role because he was a fan of her TV show EastEnders . Her voice sealed the deal for her role as the character .
Paul Whitehouse voiced Thackery Earwicket , the March Hare . Burton stated that because Whitehouse is a great comedic actor , a lot of his lines came from improvisation .
Timothy Spall voiced Bayard , the Bloodhound . Although Bayard does not appear in the book , a similar character named The Puppy is likely the inspiration for the character .
Michael Gough voiced Uilleam , the Dodo . Burton said that Gough was the first person he thought of for the role of the Dodo because he has " a full life quality to his voice " . The character only speaks three lines , that Gough recorded in a day . This would be Gough 's final acting role because he died the following year , aged 94 . Gough had previously portrayed
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land use . Stabilizing the world ’ s climate will require high @-@ income countries to reduce their emissions by 60 – 90 % over 2006 levels by 2050 which should hold CO2 levels at 450 – 650 ppm from current levels of about 380 ppm . Above this level , temperatures could rise by more than 2 ° C to produce “ catastrophic ” climate change . Reduction of current CO2 levels must be achieved against a background of global population increase and developing countries aspiring to energy @-@ intensive high consumption Western lifestyles .
Reducing greenhouse emissions , is being tackled at all scales , ranging from tracking the passage of carbon through the carbon cycle to the commercialization of renewable energy , developing less carbon @-@ hungry technology and transport systems and attempts by individuals to lead carbon neutral lifestyles by monitoring the fossil fuel use embodied in all the goods and services they use . Engineering of emerging technologies such as carbon @-@ neutral fuel and energy storage systems such as power to gas , compressed air energy storage , and pumped @-@ storage hydroelectricity are necessary to store power from transient renewable energy sources including emerging renewables such as airborne wind turbines .
= = = = Water = = = =
Water security and food security are inextricably linked . In the decade 1951 – 60 human water withdrawals were four times greater than the previous decade . This rapid increase resulted from scientific and technological developments impacting through the economy – especially the increase in irrigated land , growth in industrial and power sectors , and intensive dam construction on all continents . This altered the water cycle of rivers and lakes , affected their water quality and had a significant impact on the global water cycle . Currently towards 35 % of human water use is unsustainable , drawing on diminishing aquifers and reducing the flows of major rivers : this percentage is likely to increase if climate change impacts become more severe , populations increase , aquifers become progressively depleted and supplies become polluted and unsanitary . From 1961 to 2001 water demand doubled — agricultural use increased by 75 % , industrial use by more than 200 % , and domestic use more than 400 % . In the 1990s it was estimated that humans were using 40 – 50 % of the globally available freshwater in the approximate proportion of 70 % for agriculture , 22 % for industry , and 8 % for domestic purposes with total use progressively increasing .
Water efficiency is being improved on a global scale by increased demand management , improved infrastructure , improved water productivity of agriculture , minimising the water intensity ( embodied water ) of goods and services , addressing shortages in the non @-@ industrialized world , concentrating food production in areas of high productivity , and planning for climate change , such as through flexible system design . A promising direction towards sustainable development is to design systems that are flexible and reversible . At the local level , people are becoming more self @-@ sufficient by harvesting rainwater and reducing use of mains water .
= = = = Food = = = =
The American Public Health Association ( APHA ) defines a " sustainable food system " as " one that provides healthy food to meet current food needs while maintaining healthy ecosystems that can also provide food for generations to come with minimal negative impact to the environment . A sustainable food system also encourages local production and distribution infrastructures and makes nutritious food available , accessible , and affordable to all . Further , it is humane and just , protecting farmers and other workers , consumers , and communities . " Concerns about the environmental impacts of agribusiness and the stark contrast between the obesity problems of the Western world and the poverty and food insecurity of the developing world have generated a strong movement towards healthy , sustainable eating as a major component of overall ethical consumerism . The environmental effects of different dietary patterns depend on many factors , including the proportion of animal and plant foods consumed and the method of food production . The World Health Organization has published a Global Strategy on Diet , Physical Activity and Health report which was endorsed by the May 2004 World Health Assembly . It recommends the Mediterranean diet which is associated with health and longevity and is low in meat , rich in fruits and vegetables , low in added sugar and limited salt , and low in saturated fatty acids ; the traditional source of fat in the Mediterranean is olive oil , rich in monounsaturated fat . The healthy rice @-@ based Japanese diet is also high in carbohydrates and low in fat . Both diets are low in meat and saturated fats and high in legumes and other vegetables ; they are associated with a low incidence of ailments and low environmental impact .
At the global level the environmental impact of agribusiness is being addressed through sustainable agriculture and organic farming . At the local level there are various movements working towards local food production , more productive use of urban wastelands and domestic gardens including permaculture , urban horticulture , local food , slow food , sustainable gardening , and organic gardening .
Sustainable seafood is seafood from either fished or farmed sources that can maintain or increase production in the future without jeopardizing the ecosystems from which it was acquired . The sustainable seafood movement has gained momentum as more people become aware about both overfishing and environmentally destructive fishing methods .
= = = = Materials , toxic substances , waste = = = =
As global population and affluence has increased , so has the use of various materials increased in volume , diversity and distance transported . Included here are raw materials , minerals , synthetic chemicals ( including hazardous substances ) , manufactured products , food , living organisms and waste . By 2050 , humanity could consume an estimated 140 billion tons of minerals , ores , fossil fuels and biomass per year ( three times its current amount ) unless the economic growth rate is decoupled from the rate of natural resource consumption . Developed countries ' citizens consume an average of 16 tons of those four key resources per capita , ranging up to 40 or more tons per person in some developed countries with resource consumption levels far beyond what is likely sustainable .
Sustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of dematerialization , converting the linear path of materials ( extraction , use , disposal in landfill ) to a circular material flow that reuses materials as much as possible , much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature . This approach is supported by product stewardship and the increasing use of material flow analysis at all levels , especially individual countries and the global economy . The use of sustainable biomaterials that come from renewable sources and that can be recycled is preferred to the use on non @-@ renewables from a life cycle standpoint .
Synthetic chemical production has escalated following the stimulus it received during the second World War . Chemical production includes everything from herbicides , pesticides and fertilizers to domestic chemicals and hazardous substances . Apart from the build @-@ up of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere , chemicals of particular concern include : heavy metals , nuclear waste , chlorofluorocarbons , persistent organic pollutants and all harmful chemicals capable of bioaccumulation . Although most synthetic chemicals are harmless there needs to be rigorous testing of new chemicals , in all countries , for adverse environmental and health effects . International legislation has been established to deal with the global distribution and management of dangerous goods . The effects of some chemical agents needed long @-@ term measurements and a lot of legal battles to realize their danger to human health . The classification of the toxic carcinogenic agents is handle by the International Agency for Research on Cancer .
Every economic activity produces material that can be classified as waste . To reduce waste industry , business and government are now mimicking nature by turning the waste produced by industrial metabolism into resource . Dematerialization is being encouraged through the ideas of industrial ecology , ecodesign and ecolabelling . In addition to the well @-@ established “ reduce , reuse and recycle , ” shoppers are using their purchasing power for ethical consumerism .
The European Union is expected to table by the end of 2015 an ambitious Circular Economy package which is expected to include concrete legislative proposals on waste management , ecodesign and limits on land fills .
= = Economic dimension = =
On one account , sustainability " concerns the specification of a set of actions to be taken by present persons that will not diminish the prospects of future persons to enjoy levels of consumption , wealth , utility , or welfare comparable to those enjoyed by present persons . " Sustainability interfaces with economics through the social and ecological consequences of economic activity . Sustainability economics represents : " ... a broad interpretation of ecological economics where environmental and ecological variables and issues are basic but part of a multidimensional perspective . Social , cultural , health @-@ related and monetary / financial aspects have to be integrated into the analysis . " However , the concept of sustainability is much broader than the concepts of sustained yield of welfare , resources , or profit margins . At present , the average per capita consumption of people in the developing world is sustainable but population numbers are increasing and individuals are aspiring to high @-@ consumption Western lifestyles . The developed world population is only increasing slightly but consumption levels are unsustainable . The challenge for sustainability is to curb and manage Western consumption while raising the standard of living of the developing world without increasing its resource use and environmental impact . This must be done by using strategies and technology that break the link between , on the one hand , economic growth and on the other , environmental damage and resource depletion .
A recent UNEP report proposes a green economy defined as one that “ improves human well @-@ being and social equity , while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities ” : it " does not favor one political perspective over another but works to minimize excessive depletion of natural capital " . The report makes three key findings : “ that greening not only generates increases in wealth , in particular a gain in ecological commons or natural capital , but also ( over a period of six years ) produces a higher rate of GDP growth ” ; that there is “ an inextricable link between poverty eradication and better maintenance and conservation of the ecological commons , arising from the benefit flows from natural capital that are received directly by the poor ” ; " in the transition to a green economy , new jobs are created , which in time exceed the losses in “ brown economy ” jobs . However , there is a period of job losses in transition , which requires investment in re @-@ skilling and re @-@ educating the workforce ” .
Several key areas have been targeted for economic analysis and reform : the environmental effects of unconstrained economic growth ; the consequences of nature being treated as an economic externality ; and the possibility of an economics that takes greater account of the social and environmental consequences of market behavior .
= = = Decoupling environmental degradation and economic growth = = =
Historically there has been a close correlation between economic growth and environmental degradation : as communities grow , so the environment declines . This trend is clearly demonstrated on graphs of human population numbers , economic growth , and environmental indicators . Unsustainable economic growth has been starkly compared to the malignant growth of a cancer because it eats away at the Earth 's ecosystem services which are its life @-@ support system . There is concern that , unless resource use is checked , modern global civilization will follow the path of ancient civilizations that collapsed through overexploitation of their resource base . While conventional economics is concerned largely with economic growth and the efficient allocation of resources , ecological economics has the explicit goal of sustainable scale ( rather than continual growth ) , fair distribution and efficient allocation , in that order . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development states that " business cannot succeed in societies that fail " .
In economic and environmental fields , the term decoupling is becoming increasingly used in the context of economic production and environmental quality . When used in this way , it refers to the ability of an economy to grow without incurring corresponding increases in environmental pressure . Ecological economics includes the study of societal metabolism , the throughput of resources that enter and exit the economic system in relation to environmental quality . An economy that is able to sustain GDP growth without having a negative impact on the environment is said to be decoupled . Exactly how , if , or to what extent this can be achieved is a subject of much debate . In 2011 the International Resource Panel , hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , warned that by 2050 the human race could be devouring 140 billion tons of minerals , ores , fossil fuels and biomass per year – three times its current rate of consumption – unless nations can make serious attempts at decoupling . The report noted that citizens of developed countries consume an average of 16 tons of those four key resources per capita per annum ( ranging up to 40 or more tons per person in some developed countries ) . By comparison , the average person in India today consumes four tons per year . Sustainability studies analyse ways to reduce resource intensity ( the amount of resource ( e.g. water , energy , or materials ) needed for the production , consumption and disposal of a unit of good or service ) whether this be achieved from improved economic management , product design , or new technology .
There are conflicting views whether improvements in technological efficiency and innovation will enable a complete decoupling of economic growth from environmental degradation . On the one hand , it has been claimed repeatedly by efficiency experts that resource use intensity ( i.e. , energy and materials use per unit GDP ) could in principle be reduced by at least four or five @-@ fold , thereby allowing for continued economic growth without increasing resource depletion and associated pollution . On the other hand , an extensive historical analysis of technological efficiency improvements has conclusively shown that improvements in the efficiency of the use of energy and materials were almost always outpaced by economic growth , in large part because of the rebound effect ( conservation ) or Jevons Paradox resulting in a net increase in resource use and associated pollution . Furthermore , there are inherent thermodynamic ( i.e. , second law of thermodynamics ) and practical limits to all efficiency improvements . For example , there are certain minimum unavoidable material requirements for growing food , and there are limits to making automobiles , houses , furniture , and other products lighter and thinner without the risk of losing their necessary functions . Since it is both theoretically and practically impossible to increase resource use efficiencies indefinitely , it is equally impossible to have continued and infinite economic growth without a concomitant increase in resource depletion and environmental pollution , i.e. , economic growth and resource depletion can be decoupled to some degree over the short run but not the long run . Consequently , long @-@ term sustainability requires the transition to a steady state economy in which total GDP remains more or less constant , as has been advocated for decades by Herman Daly and others in the ecological economics community .
A different proposed solution to partially decouple economic growth from environmental degradation is the restore approach . This approach views " restore " as a fourth component to the common reduce , reuse , recycle motto . Participants in such efforts are encouraged to voluntarily donate towards nature conservation a small fraction of the financial savings they experience through a more frugal use of resources . These financial savings would normally lead to rebound effects , but a theoretical analysis suggests that donating even a small fraction of the experienced savings can potentially more than eliminate rebound effects .
= = = Nature as an economic externality = = =
The economic importance of nature is indicated by the use of the expression ecosystem services to highlight the market relevance of an increasingly scarce natural world that can no longer be regarded as both unlimited and free . In general , as a commodity or service becomes more scarce the price increases and this acts as a restraint that encourages frugality , technical innovation and alternative products . However , this only applies when the product or service falls within the market system . As ecosystem services are generally treated as economic externalities they are unpriced and therefore overused and degraded , a situation sometimes referred to as the Tragedy of the Commons .
One approach to this dilemma has been the attempt to " internalize " these " externalities " by using market strategies like ecotaxes and incentives , tradeable permits for carbon , and the encouragement of payment for ecosystem services . Community currencies associated with Local Exchange Trading Systems ( LETS ) , a gift economy and Time Banking have also been promoted as a way of supporting local economies and the environment . Green economics is another market @-@ based attempt to address issues of equity and the environment . The global recession and a range of associated government policies are likely to bring the biggest annual fall in the world 's carbon dioxide emissions in 40 years .
= = = Economic opportunity = = =
Treating the environment as an externality may generate short @-@ term profit at the expense of sustainability . Sustainable business practices , on the other hand , integrate ecological concerns with social and economic ones ( i.e. , the triple bottom line ) . Growth that depletes ecosystem services is sometimes termed " uneconomic growth " as it leads to a decline in quality of life . Minimizing such growth can provide opportunities for local businesses . For example , industrial waste can be treated as an " economic resource in the wrong place " . The benefits of waste reduction include savings from disposal costs , fewer environmental penalties , and reduced liability insurance . This may lead to increased market share due to an improved public image . Energy efficiency can also increase profits by reducing costs .
The idea of sustainability as a business opportunity has led to the formation of organizations such as the Sustainability Consortium of the Society for Organizational Learning , the Sustainable Business Institute , and the World Council for Sustainable Development . The expansion of sustainable business opportunities can contribute to job creation through the introduction of green @-@ collar workers . Research focusing on progressive corporate leaders who have integrated sustainability into commercial strategy has yielded a leadership competency model for sustainability , and led to emergence of the concept of " embedded sustainability " – defined by its authors Chris Laszlo and Nadya Zhexembayeva as " incorporation of environmental , health , and social value into the core business with no trade @-@ off in price or quality – in other words , with no social or green premium . " Laszlo and Zhexembayeva 's research showed that embedded sustainability offers at least seven distinct opportunities for business value creation : a ) better risk @-@ management , b ) increased efficiency through reduced waste and resource use , c ) better product differentiation , d ) new market entrances , e ) enhanced brand and reputation , f ) greater opportunity to influence industry standards , and g ) greater opportunity for radical innovation . 2014 research further suggested that innovation driven by resource depletion can result in fundamental advantages for company products and services , as well as the company strategy as a whole , when right principles of innovation are applied .
= = = Ecosocialist approach = = =
One school of thought , often labeled ecosocialism or ecological Marxism , asserts that the capitalist economic system is fundamentally incompatible with the ecological and social requirements of sustainability . This theory rests on the premises that :
Capitalism ’ s sole economic purpose is “ unlimited capital accumulation ” in the hands of the capitalist class
The urge to accumulate ( the profit motive ) drives capitalists to continually reinvest and expand production , creating indefinite and unsustainable economic growth
“ Capital tends to degrade the conditions of its own production ” ( the ecosystems and resources on which any economy depends )
Thus , according to this analysis :
Giving economic priority to the fulfillment of human needs while staying within ecological limits , as sustainable development demands , is in conflict with the structural workings of capitalism
A steady @-@ state capitalist economy is impossible ; further , a steady @-@ state capitalist economy is socially undesirable due to the inevitable outcome of massive unemployment and underemployment
Capitalism will , unless overcome by revolution , run up against the physical limits of the biosphere and self @-@ destruct
By this logic , market @-@ based solutions to ecological crises ( ecological economics , environmental economics , green economy ) are rejected as technical tweaks that do not confront capitalism ’ s structural failures . “ Low @-@ risk ” technology / science @-@ based solutions such as solar power , sustainable agriculture , and increases in energy efficiency are seen as necessary but insufficient . “ High @-@ risk ” technological solutions such as nuclear power and climate engineering are entirely rejected . Attempts made by businesses to “ greenwash ” their practices are regarded as false advertising , and it is pointed out that implementation of renewable technology ( such as Walmart ’ s proposition to supply their electricity with solar power ) has the effect opposite of reductions in resource consumption , viz. further economic growth . Sustainable business models and the triple bottom line are viewed as morally praiseworthy but ignorant to the tendency in capitalism for the distribution of wealth to become increasingly unequal and socially unstable / unsustainable . Ecosocialists claim that the general unwillingness of capitalists to tolerate — and capitalist governments to implement — constraints on maximum profit ( such as ecotaxes or preservation and conservation measures ) renders environmental reforms incapable of facilitating large @-@ scale change : “ History teaches us that although capitalism has at times responded to environmental movements . . . at a certain point , at which the system ’ s underlying accumulation drive is affected , its resistance to environmental demands stiffens . ” They also note that , up until the event of total ecological collapse , destruction caused by natural disasters generally causes an increase in economic growth and accumulation ; thus , capitalists have no foreseeable motivation to reduce the probability of disasters ( i.e. convert to sustainable / ecological production ) .
Ecosocialists advocate for the revolutionary succession of capitalism by ecosocialism — an egalitarian economic / political / social structure designed to harmonize human society with non @-@ human ecology and to fulfill human needs — as the only sufficient solution to the present @-@ day ecological crisis , and hence the only path towards sustainability . Sustainability is viewed not as a domain exclusive to scientists , environmental activists , and business leaders but as a holistic project that must involve the whole of humanity redefining its place in Nature : “ What every environmentalist needs to know . . . is that capitalism is not the solution but the problem , and that if humanity is going to survive this crisis , it will do so because it has exercised its capacity for human freedom , through social struggle , in order to create a whole new world — in coevolution with the planet . ”
= = Social dimension = =
Sustainability issues are generally expressed in scientific and environmental terms , as well as in ethical terms of stewardship , but implementing change is a social challenge that entails , among other things , international and national law , urban planning and transport , local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism . " The relationship between human rights and human development , corporate power and environmental justice , global poverty and citizen action , suggest that responsible global citizenship is an inescapable element of what may at first glance seem to be simply matters of personal consumer and moral choice . "
= = = Peace , security , social justice = = =
Social disruptions like war , crime and corruption divert resources from areas of greatest human need , damage the capacity of societies to plan for the future , and generally threaten human well @-@ being and the environment . Broad @-@ based strategies for more sustainable social systems include : improved education and the political empowerment of women , especially in developing countries ; greater regard for social justice , notably equity between rich and poor both within and between countries ; and intergenerational equity . Depletion of natural resources including fresh water increases the likelihood of “ resource wars ” . This aspect of sustainability has been referred to as environmental security and creates a clear need for global environmental agreements to manage resources such as aquifers and rivers which span political boundaries , and to protect shared global systems including oceans and the atmosphere .
= = = Poverty = = =
A major hurdle to achieve sustainability is the alleviation of poverty . It has been widely acknowledged that poverty is one source of environmental degradation . Such acknowledgment has been made by the Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future and the Millennium Development Goals . There is a growing realization in national governments and multilateral institutions that it is impossible to separate economic development issues from environment issues : according to the Brundtland report , “ poverty is a major cause and effect of global environmental problems . It is therefore futile to attempt to deal with environmental problems without a broader perspective that encompasses the factors underlying world poverty and international inequality . ” Individuals living in poverty tend to rely heavily on their local ecosystem as a source for basic needs ( such as nutrition and medicine ) and general well @-@ being . As population growth continues to increase , increasing pressure is being placed on the local ecosystem to provide these basic essentials . According to the UN Population Fund , high fertility and poverty have been strongly correlated , and the world ’ s poorest countries also have the highest fertility and population growth rates . The word sustainability is also used widely by western country development agencies and international charities to focus their poverty alleviation efforts in ways that can be sustained by the local populace and its environment . For example , teaching water treatment to the poor by boiling their water with charcoal , would not generally be considered a sustainable strategy , whereas using PET solar water disinfection would be . Also , sustainable best practices can involve the recycling of materials , such as the use of recycled plastics for lumber where deforestation has devastated a country 's timber base . Another example of sustainable practices in poverty alleviation is the use of exported recycled materials from developed to developing countries , such as Bridges to Prosperity 's use of wire rope from shipping container gantry cranes to act as the structural wire rope for footbridges that cross rivers in poor rural areas in Asia and Africa .
= = = Human relationship to nature = = =
According to Murray Bookchin , the idea that humans must dominate nature is common in hierarchical societies . Bookchin contends that capitalism and market relationships , if unchecked , have the capacity to reduce the planet to a mere resource to be exploited . Nature is thus treated as a commodity : “ The plundering of the human spirit by the market place is paralleled by the plundering of the earth by capital . ” Social ecology , founded by Bookchin , is based on the conviction that nearly all of humanity 's present ecological problems originate in , indeed are mere symptoms of , dysfunctional social arrangements . Whereas most authors proceed as if our ecological problems can be fixed by implementing recommendations which stem from physical , biological , economic etc . , studies , Bookchin 's claim is that these problems can only be resolved by understanding the underlying social processes and intervening in those processes by applying the concepts and methods of the social sciences .
A pure capitalist approach has also been criticized in Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change to mitigation the effects of global warming in this excerpt ...
“ the greatest example of market failure we have ever seen . ”
Deep ecology is a movement founded by Arne Naess that establishes principles for the well @-@ being of all life on Earth and the richness and diversity of life forms . The movement advocates , among other things , a substantial decrease in human population and consumption along with the reduction of human interference with the nonhuman world . To achieve this , deep ecologists advocate policies for basic economic , technological , and ideological structures that will improve the quality of life rather than the standard of living . Those who subscribe to these principles are obliged to make the necessary change happen . The concept of a billion @-@ year Sustainocene has been developed to initiate policy consideration of an earth where human structures power and fuel the needs of that species ( for example through artificial photosynthesis ) allowing Rights of Nature .
= = = Human settlements = = =
One approach to sustainable living , exemplified by small @-@ scale urban transition towns and rural ecovillages , seeks to create self @-@ reliant communities based on principles of simple living , which maximize self @-@ sufficiency particularly in food production . These principles , on a broader scale , underpin the concept of a bioregional economy . These approaches often utilize commons based knowledge sharing of open source appropriate technology .
Other approaches , loosely based around New Urbanism , are successfully reducing environmental impacts by altering the built environment to create and preserve sustainable cities which support sustainable transport . Residents in compact urban neighborhoods drive fewer miles , and have significantly lower environmental impacts across a range of measures , compared with those living in sprawling suburbs . In sustainable architecture the recent movement of New Classical Architecture promotes a sustainable approach towards construction , that appreciates and develops smart growth , architectural tradition and classical design . This in contrast to modernist and globally uniform architecture , as well as opposing solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl . Both trends started in the 1980s . The concept of Circular flow land use management has also been introduced in Europe to promote sustainable land use patterns that strive for compact cities and a reduction of greenfield land take by urban sprawl .
Large scale social movements can influence both community choices and the built environment . Eco @-@ municipalities may be one such movement . Eco @-@ municipalities take a systems approach , based on sustainability principles . The eco @-@ municipality movement is participatory , involving community members in a bottom @-@ up approach . In Sweden , more than 70 cities and towns — 25 per cent of all municipalities in the country — have adopted a common set of " Sustainability Principles " and implemented these systematically throughout their municipal operations . There are now twelve eco @-@ municipalities in the United States and the American Planning Association has adopted sustainability objectives based on the same principles .
There is a wealth of advice available to individuals wishing to reduce their personal and social impact on the environment through small , inexpensive and easily achievable steps . But the transition required to reduce global human consumption to within sustainable limits involves much larger changes , at all levels and contexts of society . The United Nations has recognised the central role of education , and have declared a decade of education for sustainable development , 2005 – 2014 , which aims to " challenge us all to adopt new behaviours and practices to secure our future " . The Worldwide Fund for Nature proposes a strategy for sustainability that goes beyond education to tackle underlying individualistic and materialistic societal values head @-@ on and strengthen people 's connections with the natural world .
= = = Human and labor rights = = =
Application of social sustainability requires stakeholders to look at human and labor rights , prevention of human trafficking , and other human rights risks . These issues should be considered in production and procurement of various worldwide commodities . The international community has identified many industries whose practices have been known to violate social sustainability , and many of these industries have organizations in place that aid in verifying the social sustainability of products and services . The Equator Principles ( financial industry ) , Fair Wear Foundation ( garments ) , and Electronics Industry Citizenship Coalition are examples of such organizations and initiatives . Resources are also available for verifying the life @-@ cycle of products and the producer or vendor level , such as Green Seal for cleaning products , NSF @-@ 140 for carpet production , and even labeling of Organic food in the United States .
= = = Topics = = =
= Butterfly ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Butterfly " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey from her sixth studio album of the same name . It was released as the second single from the album on December 1 , 1997 by Columbia Records . The song was written by Carey and Walter Afanasieff ; both of them producing and arranging the song as well . " Butterfly " is a ballad combining elements of pop and gospel genres . Carey had originally conceived it as a house record with David Morales titled " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " . After realizing how personal the lyrics were and how they could be applied to Butterfly , she wrote the album 's title track with Afanasieff . On the song 's lyrics , Carey sings to someone , telling them to spread their wings and release into the world on their own , like a butterfly .
The song 's music video depicts Carey in an abandoned house , trapped in a desolate life . As the video progresses , she leaves , apparently for the first time in years , and runs into a nearby meadow . Towards the end , Carey jumps over a barbed fence and goes out into the world on a horse . The song 's lyrics and video were directly connected to Carey 's personal life at the time . " Butterfly " was performed live on the Late Show with David Letterman , Saturday Night Live and various European television programs . The song was also a permanent part of the set @-@ list during her Butterfly World Tour during 1998 . Due to current conflict with Columbia , " Butterfly " was never issued a commercial release , therefore hindering its charting ability . The song performed weakly on the charts , peaking outside the top twenty in most countries , except for New Zealand , where it peaked at number 15 . In the United States , " Butterfly " was not eligible to chart on the Hot 100 due to Billboard rules at the time .
= = Background = =
During the recording for Butterfly , Carey was in the midst of her separation from then husband , Tommy Mottola . While writing the material for the album , she wrote a house music record titled " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " with David Morales . When the song was finished , Carey felt there was something more she could do with the song ; the lyrics were very personal and a perfect fit for a ballad . After contemplating on the matter , Carey re @-@ wrote " Fly Away " in ballad form , and incorporated new lyrics and vocals .
" It was ' 97 and I was leaving my marriage [ to Tommy Mottola ] . which encompassed my life . I was writing the song ' Butterfly ' wishing that that 's what he would say to me . There 's a part that goes , ' I have learned that beauty / has to flourish in the light / wild horses run unbridled / or their spirit dies / you have given me the courage / to be all that I can / and I truly feel ... [ sings ] and I truly feel your heart will lead you back to me when you 're ready to land . ' At that point I really believed that I was going to go back to the marriage – I didn 't think I was going to leave forever . But then the things that happened to me during that time caused me to not go back . Had it been , ' Go be yourself , you 've been with me since you were a kid , let 's separate for a while , ' I probably would 've . "
The song was named " Butterfly " and became Carey 's " favorite and most heartfelt ballad . " Its lyrics were very personal , linking to Carey 's personal life and relationship with Mottola . Carey wrote " Butterfly " for Mottola , hoping he would say its contents to her , and choose to do what was best for her . She described the song as " the best ballad she had ever written " and credited it as the epitome of her magnum opus , which was Butterfly .
= = Composition = =
" Butterfly " is a personal ballad , which blends pop , gospel and R & B genres . It incorporates piano and drum notes , including heavy beats and grooves . As part of " layering the song , " background vocals are featured throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge . It is set in the signature common time , and is written in the key of G ♭ major . It features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -F ♭ -1 . Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of G ♭ 3 to the high note of A6 ; the piano and guitar pieces range from G ♭ 3 to G ♭ 5 as well . The song contains choral lyrics written by Carey , who produced the song 's melody and chorus as well . Aside from assisting with its writing and chord progression , Afanasieff co @-@ arranged and produced the track as well . In his review for the album , David Browne commented on the song 's lyrics and message " The title song , a slice of florid pop gospel , explores the old if @-@ you @-@ love @-@ someone @-@ set @-@ her @-@ free theme ; It isn 't a reach to interpret these songs as describing life with the reportedly controlling Mottola .
= = Critical reception = =
Paul Verna from Billboard gave the song a positive review , writing " the lovely ' Butterfly ' is classic Carey , from its gospel @-@ kissed ballad instrumentation and choir chants to the diva 's soaring , glass @-@ shattering performance . " Verna concluded his review of the song " This should not imply , however , that she is covering crusty old ground . The notable maturity in her lyrics and worldly warmth of her vocal reflect the growth that she has continually strived to attain . " Rick Juzwiak from Slant gave the song a mixed review , but felt it was a pivotal part of Carey 's vocal and musical transition . Juzwiak wrote " The agonizingly slow ' Butterfly , ' with its predictably soaring chorus and if @-@ it @-@ comes @-@ back @-@ it @-@ was @-@ meant @-@ to @-@ be message , would have been ignorable tripe . Here , it 's a show for the peeping . Echoes of her newly failed relationship with Mottola bounce off the gospelly song 's cheap stained glass and then garble so that it sounds like some insane document of Stockholm Syndrome . " He felt however , that the song was an important part of the album , " It isn 't just subject matter that elevates ' Butterfly ' above Carey 's usual melodrama . Carey 's vocal delivery and her willingness to experiment with it helped define the album , so it 's only appropriate that its title track is the first of many to showcase Carey 's much @-@ debated ' whisper voice . ' "
= = Chart performance = =
" Butterfly " was a moderate success on the charts , performing weakly in many music markets . In the United States , Billboard rules at the time did not allow non @-@ commercially released singles to chart on the Hot 100 . Songs were required to have been issued a commercial release in order to chart , therefore not qualifying " Butterfly . " However , due to live promotion and popularity , the song charted on the Hot 100 Airplay , peaking at number sixteen . In Canada , the song entered the RPM Singles Chart at number 57 on the RPM issue dated November 3 , 1997 , and reached its peak of number 22 on December 1 , 1997 . It was present on the chart for a total of 14 weeks .
The song 's success in Europe was very limited as well , due to its non @-@ commercial release . In the United Kingdom , the song entered the singles chart at its peak of 22 , the week of December 13 , 1997 . " Butterfly " stayed in the chart for six weeks , falling out of the chart the week of January 17 , 1998 . In France and The Netherlands , the song peaked at number 43 and 52 , respectively . In Australia , " Butterfly " cracked the top @-@ 40 , peaking at number 27 and spending a total of ten weeks on the chart . " Butterfly " charted at number 15 in New Zealand , spending seven weeks on the chart . " Butterfly " was nominated for the 1998 Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance , which it lost to Sarah McLachlan 's " Building a Mystery . "
= = Music video = =
The single 's music video was co @-@ directed by Carey and Daniel Pearl . It was inspired by the Tennessee Williams play Baby Doll and a dream Carey had one night . The video begins with scenes of a man leaving his home one early morning ; only his feet are shown . Carey is first seen residing in the old abandoned house , in the middle of a large meadow . She awakes , sad and depressed , with the viewer making notice or her battered and disheveled clothing . As she walks down the stairs , Carey sits on the staircase , lamenting in agony at her loneliness . As the video climaxes , Carey is seen finally leaving the foyer , apparently for the first time in many years , escaping from the misery she once called home . As she reaches the outskirts of the property , Carey mounts a horse , which assists her in jumping over the barbed fence . After leaving , Carey is seen smiling for the first time in the video , while waiving her arms in the air .
The video drew many comparisons to the rumors of Carey 's deteriorating marriage at the time . Author Chris Nickson felt the video , like the song , served as a metaphor for the things that were taking place in her life at the time . Rumors circulated that Mottola was controlling , abusive and would even monitor Carey 's phone calls . For this reason , she is portrayed with tattered clothing and hair in the video , with the final moments showing her escape . It features Carey finally leaving the lonely and abusive marriage she once was part of , and finally breaking free into the outside world . Unlike the video , the lyrics spoke of setting your loved one free , because it is the best thing for them ; showing that their love for the person should be greater than their own happiness .
= = Remixes = =
David Morales created several dance remixes of the song — in addition to the original version of " Butterfly , " which is known as " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " — among them are the " Fly Away " club mix ( an extended version of " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " ) and Def ' B ' Fly mix ( a variation of the " Fly Away " club mix with completely re @-@ sung vocals of the original " Butterfly " ) . " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " reached the top twenty on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart , and a shortened version is included as an interlude on the album Butterfly . Latin remixes of " Butterfly " , influenced by the musical styles of flamenco and salsa , were also commissioned by Meme . They include " Butterfly " ( Sambatterfly ) , " Butterfly " ( Classic Bossa Nova ) , and " Butterfly " ( Meme 's extended club mix part 1 ) .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed " Butterfly " on various American and European television programs . In the US , Carey first performed the song live on the Late Show with David Letterman , prior to an interview . Carey wore a mid @-@ length black gown for the performance , and was accompanied by three back @-@ up singers , Walter Afanasieff on piano and Randy Jackson playing the bass . On September 17 , Carey performed the song live on Saturday Night Live , alongside " My All . " The performance featured the same musicians on set , with the exception of Afanasieff , who was absent . On November 12 , Carey sang " Butterfly " live on The Oprah Winfrey Show alongside her previous hit , " Hero . " For her appearance , Carey wore a short blue skirt , and featured an array of gospel back @-@ up singers . In Europe , Carey performed the song on the popular German game show , Wetten , dass .. ? , featured only three female back @-@ up singers . In France , Carey visited the talk show , " The Hit Machine , " where she performed the song as well . After completing the song , Carey received a standing ovation .
The song was sung during her Butterfly World Tour in 1998 , a part of the set list of every show . For the performances in Japan , Carey donned a long flowing gown , and featured live back @-@ up . During the performance , large images of butterflies were projected onto the large screen behind her . The performances served as one of the closing songs on the set @-@ list . Similar props and set @-@ up were used for the following shows of the tour , with the addition on the " Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) " addition at the show 's finale . In subsequent tours , the chorus of the song was played by the band and sung by the background vocals at the end of each concert as Carey would exit the stage . In the Angels Advocate Tour an instrumental version was played as an introduction while Carey entered the stage .
= = Formats and track listings = =
American CD single
" Butterfly "
" Fly Away ( Butterfly Reprise ) "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Butterfly liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriting , co @-@ production , vocals
Walter Afanasieff – songwriting , co @-@ production
= = Charts = =
= Confirmed Dead =
" Confirmed Dead " is the 74th episode of Lost , and was first aired the United States and Canada on February 7 , 2008 . It was the second episode of the fourth season of the serial television drama on ABC and CTV .
The episode includes the first appearances of the main characters Miles Straume and Charlotte Lewis and the supporting character Frank Lapidus . Ken Leung played Miles Straume , Rebecca Mader played Charlotte Lewis and Jeff Fahey played Frank Lapidus . The actors were given fake scenes when auditioning to limit the leak of story information or spoilers . Mader and Fahey were different from the writers ' visions of Charlotte and Frank , but the writers changed the characters to suit them . Also , the role of Miles was changed for Leung . The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Drew Goddard and co @-@ producer Brian K. Vaughan and directed by co @-@ executive producer Stephen Williams .
The beginning of the episode is set on December 21 , 2004 , or 91 days after the original characters crash @-@ land on a tropical island from Oceanic Airlines Flight 815 . During the show , flashbacks introduce the island 's latest arrivals – four people from an offshore freighter who landed on the island . The main action is of John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) leading his group to the Barracks . He begins to find out why Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) is afraid of the newcomers . " Confirmed Dead " was watched by 17 million Americans and received generally positive critical reception as reviewers praised the introduction of the new characters .
= = Plot = =
The episode 's five flashbacks focus on the reactions and activities of the freighter 's crew who made contact with the Oceanic 815 survivors ; Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) is shown crying while watching a newscast confirming the deaths of all Oceanic 815 passengers . His caretaker asks why he is crying , and he answers that he does not know . Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) is a medium hired by an elderly woman to remove the ghost of her grandson from her home . After conversing with the spirit , Miles finds a hidden cache of money and drugs . Charlotte Lewis ( Rebecca Mader ) is an anthropologist who finds a polar bear skeleton bearing a Dharma Initiative collar buried in the Tunisian desert . Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) is an alcoholic who was originally scheduled to pilot flight 815 . He phones the Oceanic hotline while watching the newscast and claims that the footage of the plane wreckage being aired on television is not authentic , while Naomi Dorrit ( Marsha Thomason ) is shown in a posthumous flashback , criticizing her employer Matthew Abaddon ( Lance Reddick ) for his choice in her coworkers .
After Daniel parachutes from a failing helicopter onto the island , he uses Naomi 's phone to contact George Minkowski ( Fisher Stevens ) on the ship that he came from . The next morning , on December 22 , 2004 , two of the flight 815 survivors – Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) and Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) – help Daniel find his colleagues , as the rival group led by Locke attempts to do the same . Jack and Kate find Miles , who demands to see Naomi 's body , and ascertains that Locke killed her . Locke 's group finds Charlotte , takes her prisoner , and disposes of her tracking device . Daniel 's third colleague , helicopter pilot Frank , fires a flare into the sky , leading Jack 's group to him . Frank tells Jack 's group that he managed to land the helicopter intact . After finding out that Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) is one of the Others , Miles demands to know where Ben ( Michael Emerson ) is , as locating him is the freighter crew 's primary objective . In Locke 's group , several people become discontent with Locke 's revelation that he is following the instructions of Walt Lloyd ( Malcolm David Kelley ) , who had left the island a month earlier , and they also question why Ben is being kept alive . Locke holds him at gunpoint , and Ben starts to reveal information about the Kahana crew , specifically Charlotte 's identity and that he has a spy aboard the ship .
= = Production = =
While casting the " freighter folk " – the nickname that Lost 's executive producers / writers / show runners Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse use to refer to Daniel , Charlotte , Miles and Frank – fake names , occupations and scenes were temporarily assigned , to limit the leak of spoilers . After seeing Ken Leung guest star on HBO 's The Sopranos in April 2007 , Lindelof and Cuse wrote the role of Miles specifically for him , although it was initially reported that Leung would be playing the part of " brilliant mathematician " " Russell " . The name Miles Straume was simply chosen because the writer @-@ producers thought that " it would be cool if his name sounded like ' maelstrom ' " . Had he not taken the part , Lindelof and Cuse claim that Miles would have been scrapped and a new and very different character would have been written into the story instead . Leung , who was originally contracted as a recurring guest star , was quoted as saying that " Miles doesn 't know how to be social , which is great , because I don 't know how to be social . " Costume designer Roland Sanchez wanted to base one of the freighter folk 's clothing after that of Keith Richards , specifically a picture in which he wore a sleeveless vest , which he admired . Sanchez believed that Miles fitted the haggard look and bought an Armani Exchange jacket , cut off the sleeves and added a hood , and that this outfit helped Leung to develop Miles . Co @-@ executive producer / writer Edward Kitsis had been pitching the name " Lapidus " for years , finally naming an unseen character in the fourteenth episode of the third season Rick Lapidus . Unsatisfied , Kitsis developed the character " Frank Lapidus , Helicopter Pilot " . According to the show runners , recurring guest star Jeff Fahey " was the first and only choice for the role " . They also commended his " intense eyes " and stated that " he has exactly the right sensibilities " for the part . Frank was not envisioned with a beard , however , the writer @-@ producers allowed Fahey to keep it for the role . The writer @-@ producers have said that Frank " never takes anything at face value [ and is ] a true conspiracy nut [ who ] has probably seen every episode of The X @-@ Files , [ which will ] pay off for him " .
Rebecca Mader 's audition scene was a fake flashback and she was disappointed that it was not used for the show . The character 's name was spoiled months in advance of broadcast . Charlotte was originally envisioned as an American ; however , the writers preferred Mader 's natural English accent to her fake American accent and they changed Charlotte accordingly . Lost 's writer @-@ producers compared Mader to " a young Nicole Kidman " . During the casting process , Charlotte was described as a " successful academic " . It was falsely rumored that Kristen Bell was offered the role of Charlotte ; Bell had actually spoken to the producers about having a part ; however , no role was offered to her . Despite never having seen Lost , Mader decided that she " was not going to leave [ the auditioning ] room until [ she ] made [ Lindelof and Cuse ] fall in love with [ her ] " . Mader subsequently began to watch the first three seasons of Lost and was watching the fourth episode when she received the news that she had been chosen for the role . In the next two to three weeks , Mader – who was then signed on as a recurring guest star – watched the rest of the first three seasons , watching the third season finale a matter of hours before she began shooting her first " Confirmed Dead " scene , in which Charlotte meets Locke and his group . Mader was told little about her character by the writer @-@ producers , except that " she was sort of like a female Indiana Jones type " . Mader has found it challenging but fun to play a character with an unknown backstory and motives . Charlotte 's full name is Charlotte Staples Lewis , which is an homage to the author C.S. Lewis , best known for The Chronicles of Narnia and various books about Christianity . Lewis was one of Mader 's favorite authors as a child and found it " wicked " and " cool " for her character to be named after him . Mader also enjoyed that she only requires a small amount of hair and makeup done , saying that " I just wanted to rough it . I wanted to roll around in the mud with a gun . " Mader claims that she has " never had so much fun in [ her ] life " as when she is shooting Lost . In the episode , Charlotte 's birthday is said to be July 2 , 1979 . This led to a minor continuity error in the fifth season episode " LaFleur " , when Charlotte is depicted as being a little girl in 1974 . Executive producers Cuse and Lindelof claimed in a podcast that the original script for " Confirmed Dead " listed Charlotte 's birthday as being in 1970 and that Mader had it changed because she did not want people to think she was significantly older than she actually is . This caused a controversy when Mader later stated on her blog that Gregg Nations , the script coordinator , was the one who suggested the change . Cuse and Lindelof later conceded that she was right .
Most or all of the episode was shot from September 11 to 23 , 2007 and filming overlapped with the following episode . The Tunisian desert scene was filmed on location in Oahu , Hawaii , like the rest of the episode , at a stone quarry with industrial fans blowing fake sand . A typical Lost episode contains fifty visual effects shots . Among scenes created entirely or partially with effects are the opening scene of " Confirmed Dead " , which shows what appears to be the wreckage of 815 underwater and the scene from Daniel 's perspective as he parachutes from the helicopter to the ground . In Frank 's flashback , he drops a toy plane , which spirals into a small aquarium . This shot was not intended to use effects ; however , " it 's impossible to get a toy plane to spiral the way you want it to " , according to supervisor Mitch Suskin . A tank with still water and rocks on the bottom was filmed and the plane was added in editing . Suskin said that creating effects for " Confirmed Dead " " was slightly too leisurely " because the episode aired over four months after post @-@ production began .
In fall 2007 , Lost 's writers presented ABC executives with the story that a salvage vessel called the Christiane I looking for the Black Rock , among other things , in the Sunda Trench would come across what would appear to be the wreckage of 815 . ABC hired the Australian company Hoodlum to design a $ 3 million viral marketing alternate reality game ( ARG ) titled Find 815 . Find 815 ran from December 28 , 2007 to January 31 , 2008 , beginning with a press release issued from ABC Medianet announcing the fictitious return of the fictional Oceanic Airlines ' return to business . The ARG – apparently the largest ever – followed Sam Thomas , an Oceanic technician who had lost his girlfriend in the crash , as he received cryptic e @-@ mails from The Maxwell Group ( a division of Widmore Industries , but nonexistent in Lost ) , joined the crew of the Christiane I and ultimately uncovered 815 . Because Find 815 was produced separately from the show and without the show 's writers , it contradicts events in the TV series . In " Confirmed Dead " , 815 is found by a man not present in the game named Ron ; Thomas is not mentioned . Lindelof and Cuse dismissed the game as not being canon ( not containing genuine information within the fictional universe ) and was largely just a bonus for fans during the between @-@ seasons hiatus .
= = Reception = =
" Confirmed Dead " was watched by 15 @.@ 292 million American viewers live or recorded and watched within six hours of broadcast , ranking Lost seventh in the weekly chart . It was watched by a total of 16 @.@ 963 million viewers , including those who watched within seven days of broadcast ; this number went toward the year @-@ end season average . The episode received a
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, and exopolysaccharide starter cultures as well as higher pasteurization temperatures .
Manufacturers aim for a moisture content of 50 @-@ to @-@ 52 percent and a fat @-@ in @-@ dry @-@ matter content of 35 @-@ to @-@ 40 percent . A study published in the International Journal of Food & Science Technology found that a 12 @.@ 5 : 87 @.@ 5 blend of vetch milk and bovine milk improved stretchiness and melting characteristics . Vetch is a legume that has seeds which are similar to lentils . An experiment published in the International Journal of Dairy Technology suggested that the level of galactose , a monosaccharide sugar that is less sweet than glucose and fructose , can be reduced using different culture techniques . An article in the International Journal of Food Engineering found that trisodium citrate , a food additive used to preserve and add flavor to foods , slightly improved the preferred qualities of pizza cheese . Research published in Dairy Industries International suggested that denatured whey proteins increased moisture retention , but that the improvements were very slight and not economically worthwhile relative to the minor improvements .
Some consumers prefer pizza cheese with less browning , which can be achieved using low @-@ moisture part @-@ skim Mozzarella with a low galactose content . Some varieties derived from skim mozzarella variants were designed not to require aging or the use of fermentation starter . Others can be produced through the direct acidification of milk , which may be used in place of bacterial fermentation .
= = Production and business = =
In the United States , the production and consumption of Mozzarella and pizza cheese in the United States steadily increased in the mid @-@ 20th century , and this trend has continued into the first decade of the 21st century . In the U.S. , several hundred million pounds of pizza cheese is consumed annually . In 1997 , it was estimated that annual production of the product was 1 million tons ( 2 billion pounds ) in the United States and 100 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 98 @,@ 000 long tons ; 110 @,@ 000 short tons , 220 @,@ 460 @,@ 000 pounds ) in Europe . It has been estimated that 30 % of all pizza cheese used in the United States is Mozzarella cheese . As of 2000 , demand for the product was growing in Europe by 8 percent per year .
Mass @-@ produced pizza cheese is used by the foodservice industry , quick service restaurants , and other industries and businesses . The world 's largest manufacturer of pizza cheese , Leprino Foods Company , processes 600 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 590 @,@ 000 long tons ; 660 @,@ 000 short tons , 1 @,@ 322 @,@ 760 @,@ 000 pounds ) a year . Leprino Foods holds patents for some specialized Mozzarella production processes that enable the quick manufacture of the product . One such product is a frozen shredded cheese used for pizza that is created in a few hours from milk . Other U.S. companies also mass @-@ produce pizza cheese , which is shipped in a frozen state . As of 2000 , Glanbia is the largest producer of pizza cheese in Europe . Some retail and commercially mass @-@ produced frozen pizzas have cheese stuffed into the pizza crust .
= = Use by region = =
Significant amounts of pizza cheese are used in Europe , Australia , New Zealand and the United States . Whole milk mozzarella is popular in pizzas in the East and Southwest regions of the U.S. , while one survey showed that Provolone was more popular on the east and west coast . Cheddar may be used more in the Eastern and Southern regions of the U.S. Provel cheese is typically used in the preparation of St. Louis @-@ style pizza in the U.S.
= Bridgeoporus =
Bridgeoporus is a fungal genus in the family Polyporaceae . A monotypic genus , it contains the single polypore species Bridgeoporus nobilissimus , first described to science in 1949 . Commonly known both as the noble polypore and the fuzzy Sandozi , this fungus produces large fruit bodies ( or conks ) that have been found to weigh up to 130 kilograms ( 290 lb ) . The upper surface of the fruit body has a fuzzy or fibrous texture that often supports the growth of algae , bryophytes , or vascular plants .
This species is found in the Pacific Northwest region of North America where it grows on large ( at least 1 m diameter ) specimens of noble fir ( Abies procera ) , Pacific silver fir ( Abies amabilis ) , or western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) . Bridgeoporus nobilissimus causes a brown rot in its tree hosts . Genetic analysis shows that the fungus is more prevalent than fruit body distribution indicates .
= = Taxonomy = =
Bridgeoporus nobilissimus was named for William Bridge Cooke , who originally described the species as Oxyporus nobilissimus in 1949 . The fungus was discovered in Clackamas County , Oregon , in 1943 by brothers Ali and Fred Sandoz . Foresters called the species Fomes fuzzii @-@ sandozii , referring to the collectors and the fuzzy surface texture of the conk . Several collections were made in Oregon and Washington in subsequent years . A large specimen was collected in Lewis County , Washington in 1946 that weighed about 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) and measured 56 inches ( 140 cm ) by 37 inches ( 94 cm ) . Cooke learned of the fungus in 1948 while visiting Daniel Elliot Stuntz , who kept one of the large fruit bodies that he and Alexander H. Smith had previously collected in Mount Rainier National Park . This fruit body served as the type collection .
Species of genus Oxyporus cause white rot in their host trees . Cooke placed the fungus in this genus by despite not knowing definitively what type of rot it caused ; he considered it to be closely related to Oxyporus populinus . In 1955 , polypore specialist Josiah Lincoln Lowe transferred O. nobilissimus to Fomes , before the concept of this genus was narrowed . In 1996 the new genus Bridgeoporus was circumscribed by Harold Burdsall , Tom Volk and Joseph Ammirati to accommodate this species , in order to rectify incompatibilities with placements in Fomes and Oxyporus . In particular , genus Oxyporus features true cystidia arising from the subhymenium ( the supportive hyphae underlying the hymenium ) , whereas B. nobilissimus has pseudocystidia ( sterile structures arising deep in the subhymenium and protruding into the hymenium ) .
Phylogenetic analyses of mitochondrial small @-@ subunit rDNA sequences suggests that B. nobilissimus , which belongs in the hymenochaetoid clade , is closely related to the genera Oxyporus and Schizopora . The hymenochaetoid clade includes wood @-@ decaying species previously classified variously in the families Corticiaceae , Polyporaceae and Stereaceae .
= = Description = =
Bridgeoporus nobilissimus has perennial , imbricate , sessile fruit bodies that measure 30 – 140 cm ( 12 – 55 in ) by 25 – 95 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 37 @.@ 4 in ) by 30 – 100 cm ( 12 – 39 in ) . From 1966 to 1990 , this species was designated the largest pore fungus in the Guinness Book of World Records . Three fruit body shapes are associated with the fungus , depending largely on the location of the fruiting on the host tree . Hoof @-@ shaped and shelf @-@ like conks are located on the sides of hosts ; short , oblong @-@ topped conks with tapering pore surfaces occur on the main roots of the host ; and centrally substipitate ( conical ) conks are found on the tops of stumps . The cap surface of young fruit bodies are covered with a dense mat of white mycelial fibers ( up to several millimeters long ) that in age darken in color and often become stuck together at their tips . Although the surface is typically brown or darker , it may appear green due to epiphytic associations with algae such as Coccomyxa or Charicium species . Bryophytes or sometimes vascular plants grow on the upper surface of the conk . The texture of the fruit body is fibrous ; it is rubbery and tough when fresh , but becomes hard and brittle when it is dry . The pores on the underside of the fruit body are round , approximately 2 per mm . The tubes comprising the pores becomes strafified , layering over each other with each successive year of growth . There is a 2 – 3 mm @-@ thick layer of sterile tissue between pore layers , and mature tube layers are 2 – 7 mm long .
Microscopically , B. nobilissimus is characterized by hyphae with a septum , pseudocystidia originating from the trama , closely appressed hyphae in bundles ( fascicles ) on the upper surface of the fruit body . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 12 – 18 by 4 – 10 µm in size , pear @-@ shaped , and four @-@ spored . The roughly ovoid Basidiospores are 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 µm , hyaline , smooth , and have thin walls .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies ( also called conks ) of Bridgeoporus are found singly or sometimes in overlapping layers on old trees ( 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) diameter at breast height ) of noble fir ( Abies procera ) , and more rarely Pacific silver fir ( Abies amabilis ) or western hemlock ( Tsuga heterophylla ) . It has also been recorded growing on a snag of redwood . Other tree species often found in B. nobilissimus habitats include Douglas @-@ fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) , western redcedar ( Thuja plicata ) , and western hemlock . Common shrubs at these sites include salal ( Gaultheria shallon ) , Sitka alder ( Alnus sinuata ) , rhododendron ( Rhododendron macrophyllum ) , and Alaska blueberry ( Vaccinium ovalifolium ) . The use of molecular genetic techniques has demonstrated that the fungus also lives in Douglas fir , western hemlock , and western redcedar , although its fruit bodies have not been seen on these hosts .
The fungus has been found in the Cascade Range in Washington and Oregon , the Coast Range on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington , and in Redwood National Park in northern California . Specimens have been found at elevations of 1 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 – 1 @,@ 220 m ) . Because the fungus feeds on both dead and living wood , it is both parasitic and saprophytic . B. nobilissimus fruit bodies do not occur on fallen logs or other forms of dead wood lacking roots or some connection to a root system . Conks have been found growing on the still @-@ living roots of an upturned , windthrown tree , while a once @-@ living conk died within several years after the host tree was uprooted by a fallen tree .
= = Conservation = =
Threats to Bridgeoporus nobilissimus include extirpation of known and unknown habitats by logging , fire , or other disturbances , and forestry practices that lead to the loss of large @-@ diameter Abies procera and Abies amabilis trees and large @-@ diameter stumps and snags in managed forests . Due to the scarcity of its mature tree hosts , B. nobilissimus was listed in 1995 as an endangered species by the Oregon Natural Heritage Program , making it the first of the fungi to be listed as endangered by any private or public agency in the United States . It is the sole fungus in category A of the survey and management guidelines for fungi under the Northwest Forest Plan , meaning pre @-@ disturbance surveys and site management are needed before developing areas known to harbor the fungus . There were 13 known sites with the fungus before 1998 ; extensive surveying in the Pacific Northwest increased this number to 103 sites by 2006 . Although it is infrequently observed , the fungus is more abundant than fruit body appearance indicates . Using genetic markers to detect the fungus mycelium in hosts , researchers found that B. nobilissimus was present at low to moderate levels and widespread in forest stands containing at least a single visible fruit body . It was detected in trees of all sizes , and in species not previously thought to harbor the fungus . B. nobilissimus may require decades of mycelial growth in its host before fruit body production is initiated . The fungus has not been successively grown in vitro despite several attempts .
= Tropical Storm Cecil ( 1989 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Cecil in May 1989 caused devastating floods in central Vietnam , killing 751 people . The storm developed as a tropical depression over the South China Sea on May 22 . Tracking north @-@ northwestward , the system steadily intensified , attaining peak winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) assessed Cecil to have been slightly stronger with one @-@ minute sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . The storm made landfall near Hoi An , Vietnam late on May 24 and quickly weakened . The system later dissipated over Laos on May 26 .
In Vietnam , heavy rains accompanied the storm , amounting to over 510 mm ( 20 in ) in some areas , triggered catastrophic and deadly flooding . Widespread structural and agricultural losses took place in addition to the significant loss of life , with damage estimated at ₫ 300 billion ( $ 71 @.@ 7 million ) . In the wake of the flooding , some international aid was sent to Vietnam , though most relief work was conducted by the nation 's government , local agencies , and the Red Cross .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 20 , following Typhoon Brenda 's passage through the South China Sea , a monsoon trough extending from the area into the Bay of Bengal received enhanced low @-@ level southwesterly flow . An environment of weak wind shear in the wake of the typhoon allowed a new area of low pressure to form within the southwesterly flow on May 21 . With convection becoming persistent and the system 's overall presentation more organized by May 22 , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert at 0300 UTC . Around this time , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression . Later that day , convection wrapped entirely around the center of circulation ; this structural improvement , combined with nearby surface observations , prompted the JTWC to designate the system as Tropical Storm Cecil .
Initially , Cecil was forecast to maintain a northward track into a weakness in a subtropical ridge left behind by Typhoon Brenda ; however , Cecil turned westward on May 23 due to another ridge over China . With favorable atmospheric conditions , Cecil continued to intensify through May 24 . By 0600 UTC , a ragged 75 km ( 45 mi ) wide eye developed over the center of circulation , indicating it had become a typhoon . The storm ultimately attained peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) while situated just off the coast of central Vietnam . However , the JMA reported Cecil to have been slightly weaker , classifying it as a severe tropical storm with ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Around 1800 UTC , the storm made landfall near Hoi An with winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Once onshore , Cecil quickly weakened to a tropical depression . Turning slightly to the west @-@ northwest , the remnants of Cecil continued inland before dissipating over eastern Laos early on May 26 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
In addition to the considerable losses that took place in Vietnam , Cecil also produced heavy rains in Laos and northeastern Thailand , resulting in flooding and crop damage .
= = = Vietnam = = =
Tropical Storm Cecil was regarded as the worst storm to strike Vietnam in 50 years . In some areas , rainfall exceeded 510 mm ( 20 in ) . Approximately 105 @,@ 600 hectares of rice and other crops were destroyed and another 78 @,@ 300 hectares were otherwise inundated . About 7 @,@ 500 metric tons of rice seeds were also lost . The hardest hit areas were in Quảng Nam Province , where damage reached ₫ 300 billion ( $ 71 @.@ 7 million ) . The storm destroyed at least 10 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed and damaged another 27 @,@ 000 buildings , leaving an estimated 336 @,@ 000 people homeless . Approximately 60 percent of the forests and forestry nurseries in the province were ruined . By June 5 , 151 people were confirmed dead across the country with another 600 missing . Eventually , the death toll was revised to 751 as all missing persons were considered dead .
In the wake of the storm , Vietnamese soldiers were deployed to rescue survivors . Local police forces were also stepped up to prevent looting . On June 5 government also requested international assistance to deal with the scale of the disaster . However , this was later retracted on June 16 , though spontaneous donations were appreciated . The governments of Australia and France provided Vietnam with $ 75 @,@ 188 and $ 73 @,@ 964 in funds respectively . Additionally , the Swedish Red Cross donated clothing , which was later distributed by the local Red Cross along with medicine and relief supplies . A total of ₫ 52 million ( $ 124 @,@ 000 ) worth of funds and relief supplies , including 1 @,@ 600 m ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) of fabric , and two tons of clothing , was sent to Quang Nam province .
= MTV Unplugged ( Katy Perry album ) =
MTV Unplugged ( listed on iTunes as MTV Unplugged : Katy Perry ) is an extended play ( EP ) and live album by American singer Katy Perry , released in the United States on November 13 , 2009 by Capitol Records . After airing more than 100 MTV Unplugged specials , MTV wanted to bring back the series , in order to expose them to a younger generation . The channel recruited various mainstream and popular artists to perform as part of the series , including Perry , who particularly expressed interest in the idea as it would allow her to showcase herself as an artist and share the stories behind her songs .
The extended play includes rearranged versions of five songs extracted from Perry 's album One of the Boys ( 2008 ) , a previously unreleased original song and a cover version of a song by Fountains of Wayne . Alongside the audio disc , the album includes a DVD with the video recording of her performance and an exclusive interview . Upon its release , MTV Unplugged received mixed reviews from critics , who questioned the idea of giving Perry 's songs an acoustic treatment , while some deemed Perry a hard @-@ working artist . On the US Billboard 200 , the set debuted at number 168 , while on the French and Swiss album charts , it reached numbers 192 and 82 .
= = Background and content = =
After airing more than 100 specials , in May 2009 , MTV announced the relaunch of its MTV Unplugged TV series , which would feature mainstream and popular artists in an acoustic setting . Amy Doyle , the executive vice president of music and talent for MTV , stated : " Unplugged has always been a fan and artist favorite and one of the more iconic MTV performance series ever . By bringing the series to MTV.com , we 're able to deliver it to a new generation of music fans and offer a greater level of access to their favorite musicians through performances , interviews and artist @-@ chosen playlists - and it 's all viewable on demand . " The relaunch would also include airing " full @-@ song and special clips from performances " on various MTV sister channels . Perry , appeared on the program during that summer .
Perry thought that it would be a great opportunity to showcase herself as an artist , as well as expressing the true meaning of her songs . She stated : " I really wanted to do MTV Unplugged , obviously , because it has such a great history of showing off really who the person is ... You get to hear the real story of the songs , which is important to me " . The audience for the program was selected on a contest where fans over the age of 18 could send photos and explain why they were fans of Perry . The episode featuring Perry was recorded on July 22 , 2009 . For the recording , Perry was dressed in a pale pink chiffon evening gown , with flowers in her hair . She further said : " Some people have an idea who I am , a little piece of the cake , but I get to show off really more . I have a larger @-@ than @-@ life personality and my clothes reflect that . For MTV Unplugged , I wanted to be a mixture of Stevie Nicks and a fairy ! " .
MTV Unplugged consists of two discs . The first , which is a Compact Disc , contains acoustic renditions of her songs " I Kissed a Girl " , " Ur So Gay " , " Thinking of You " , " Waking Up in Vegas " , and " Lost " from One of the Boys , a cover version of a song by American power pop band Fountains of Wayne , " Hackensack " , and a new song titled " Brick by Brick " . Perry explained why she sang it during MTV Unplugged , saying that she related to the lyrics of " having a loyal lover [ or ] friend back home when she 's on the road " , though , directly , the song does not narrate any event of Perry 's life . The versions performed incorporate lighter genres than pop rock , which is embraced in One of the Boys , like jazz and lounge music , particularly in " I Kissed a Girl " . The second disc is a DVD , containing the video recording of the performance , recorded at NEP Midtown Studios , located in New York City . Aside from the live performance , it also contains an interview with the singer .
= = Release and reception = =
MTV Unplugged was first released in Switzerland and the United States , respectively , in CD / DVD and digital formats , on November 13 , 2009 . Select songs and interviews from the EP were aired during MTV 's morning block , AMTV , three days later . The physical edition was released in the United States and France on November 17 , 2010 . The full video recording was released , on 27 November , on the MTV official website , while the television premiere followed at 9 PM of that day , on the high @-@ definition channel Palladia , being reaired at midnight . In Brazil , the set was released in a DVD / CD format , packaged in an keep case . The Japan release , also as a DVD / CD package , only occurred more than one year after , on November 24 , 2010 . The album opened at number 168 on the US Billboard 200 , having dropped out from the chart on the following week . As of August 2013 , it has sold more than 55 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It debuted at number 192 on the French Albums Chart , and higher on the Swiss Albums Chart , at number 82 .
Upon its release , MTV Unplugged received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics . AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album three out of five stars , praising Katy for being a hard working music act and " seeming more likeable here than she did on her debut " , though he noted that her flaws were " amplified " during the performance . Sahar from Blogcritics was more positive about the set , writing that although Perry was not the " best singer out there " , she made up for it " in catchiness and ..... adorableness " . The contributor was more negative of the acoustic version of " I Kissed a Girl " and the fact that MTV cut out parts from the video recording : " What I 'd like to have seen is for MTV to make Katy Perry enter into an unscripted dialog with the fans that are there , film the whole thing and put that on a DVD – then you will really have something unplugged . For how can you truly know an artist if we don 't see such interactions ? " Becky Bain from website Idolator favored Perry 's live voice and her natural presentation , though she was ambivalent towards the decision of giving the songs an acoustic treatment . She went on to say that the MTV Unplugged versions of Perry 's songs were not able to substitute the " glossy originals " . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson from Entertainment Weekly gave the live album a D , opining that " the stripped @-@ down treatment of MTV Unplugged does Perry 's yowling voice no favors " , and that " [ the ] songs just aren 't solid enough to stand on their own without loads of glossy production " . Catherine Lewis of The Washington Post praised Perry 's " translate her more rambunctious numbers into an acoustic format " and wrote album was " definitely a step in a good — and unexpected — direction " .
= = Track listing = =
Titles are obtained from the iTunes Store ; lengths are adapted from the liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for MTV Unplugged adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= John Basilone =
John Basilone ( November 4 , 1916 – February 19 , 1945 ) was a United States Marine Corps Gunnery Sergeant who received the nation 's highest military award for valor , the Medal of Honor , for heroism during the Battle of Guadalcanal in World War II . He was the only enlisted Marine to receive both the Medal of Honor and the Navy Cross in World War II .
He served three years in the United States Army with duty in the Philippines . He enlisted in the Marine Corps in 1940 and was deployed to Guantánamo Bay , Cuba , and then to Guadalcanal where he held off 3 @,@ 000 Japanese troops after his 15 @-@ member unit was reduced to two other men . On the first day of the Battle of Iwo Jima , he was killed in action , after which he was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for extraordinary heroism . He has received many honors including being the namesake for streets , military locations , and a United States Navy destroyer .
= = Early life = =
Basilone was born in his parents ' home on November 4 , 1916 in Buffalo , New York , the sixth of ten children . His first five siblings were born in Raritan , New Jersey , but the family was living in Buffalo when John was born ; they returned to Raritan in 1918 . His father , Salvatore Basilone , emigrated from Colle Sannita , in the province of Benevento , Italy in 1903 and settled in Raritan . His mother , Dora Bencivenga , was born in 1889 and grew up in Manville , New Jersey , but her parents , Carlo and Catrina , also came from Benevento . His parents met at a church gathering and married three years later . Basilone grew up in the nearby Raritan Town ( now Borough of Raritan ) where he attended St. Bernard Parochial School . After completing middle school at the age of 15 , he dropped out prior to attending high school .
= = Military service = =
= = = U.S. Army = = =
Basilone worked as a golf caddy for the local country club before joining the military . He enlisted in the United States Army in July 1934 and completed his three @-@ year enlistment with service in the Philippines , where he was a champion boxer . In the Army , Basilone was initially assigned to the 16th Infantry at Fort Jay , before being discharged for a day and reenlisting and being assigned to the 31st Infantry .
After he was released from active duty , he returned home and worked as a truck driver in Reisterstown , Maryland . After driving trucks for a few months , he wanted to go back to Manila , and believed he could get there faster in the Marines than in the Army .
= = = U.S. Marine Corps = = =
He enlisted in the Marine Corps in July 1940 from Baltimore , Maryland . He went to recruit training at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island , followed by training at Marine Corps Base Quantico and New River . The Marines sent him to Guantánamo Bay , Cuba for his next assignment , and then to Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands as a member of D ( Dog ) Company , 1st Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division ( D / 1 / 7 ) .
= = = = Guadalcanal = = = =
During the Battle for Henderson Field , his unit came under attack by a regiment of approximately 3 @,@ 000 soldiers from the Japanese Sendai Division . On October 24 , 1942 , Japanese forces began a frontal attack using machine guns , grenades , and mortars against the American heavy machine guns . Basilone commanded two sections of machine guns that fought for the next two days until only Basilone and two other Marines were left standing . Basilone moved an extra gun into position and maintained continual fire against the incoming Japanese forces . He then repaired and manned another machine gun , holding the defensive line until replacements arrived . As the battle went on , ammunition became critically low . Despite their supply lines having been cut off by enemies in the rear , Basilone fought through hostile ground to resupply his heavy machine gunners with urgently needed ammunition . When the last of it ran out shortly before dawn on the second day , Basilone held off the Japanese soldiers attacking his position using his pistol . By the end of the engagement , Japanese forces opposite their section of the line were virtually annihilated . For his actions during the battle , he received the United States military 's highest award for valor , the Medal of Honor .
Afterwards , Private First Class Nash W. Phillips , of Fayetteville , North Carolina , recalled from the battle for Guadalcanal :
Basilone had a machine gun on the go for three days and nights without sleep , rest , or food . He was in a good emplacement , and causing the Japanese lots of trouble , not only firing his machine gun , but also using his pistol .
= = = = War bond tours and marriage = = = =
In 1943 , after receiving the Medal of Honor , he returned to the United States and participated in war bond tours . His arrival was highly publicized and his hometown held a parade in his honor when he returned . The homecoming parade occurred on Sunday , September 19 and drew a huge crowd with thousands of people , including politicians , celebrities and the national press . The parade made national news in Life magazine and Fox Movietone News . After the parade , he toured the country raising money for the war effort and achieved celebrity status . Although he appreciated the admiration , he felt out of place and requested to return to the operating forces fighting the war . The Marine Corps denied his request and told him he was needed more on the home front . He was offered a commission , which he turned down , and was later offered an assignment as an instructor , but refused this as well . He requested again to return to the war and this time the request was approved . He left for Camp Pendleton , California , for training on December 27 .
While stationed at Camp Pendleton , he met his future wife , Lena Mae Riggi , who was a Sergeant in the Marine Corps Women 's Reserve . They were married at St. Mary 's Star of the Sea Church in Oceanside , on July 10 , 1944 , with a reception at the Carlsbad Hotel . They honeymooned at an onion farm near Portland .
= = = = Iwo Jima = = = =
After his request to return to the fleet was approved , he was assigned to Charlie Company , 1st Battalion , 27th Marine Regiment , 5th Marine Division during the invasion of Iwo Jima . On February 19 , 1945 , he was serving as a machine gun section leader in action against Japanese forces on Red Beach II . During the battle , the Japanese concentrated their fire at the incoming Marines from heavily fortified blockhouses staged throughout the island . With his unit pinned down , Basilone made his way around the side of the Japanese positions until he was directly on top of the blockhouse . He then attacked with grenades and demolitions , single @-@ handedly destroying the entire strong point and its defending garrison . He then fought his way toward Airfield Number 1 and aided a Marine tank that was trapped in an enemy mine field under intense mortar and artillery barrages . He guided the heavy vehicle over the hazardous terrain to safety , despite heavy weapons fire from the Japanese . As he moved along the edge of the airfield , he was killed by Japanese mortar shrapnel . His actions helped Marines penetrate the Japanese defense and get off the landing beach during the critical early stages of the invasion . He was posthumously awarded the Marine Corps ' second @-@ highest decoration for valor , the Navy Cross , for extraordinary heroism during the battle of Iwo Jima .
Based on his research for the book and mini @-@ series The Pacific , author Hugh Ambrose suggested that Basilone was not killed by a mortar , but by small arms fire that hit him in the right groin , the neck and nearly took off his left arm .
= = = = Burial = = = =
He was interred in Arlington National Cemetery in Section 12 , Grave 384 , grid Y / Z 23 @.@ 5 . Lena M. Basilone died June 11 , 1999 , at the age of 86 , and was buried at Riverside National Cemetery in Riverside , California . Lena 's obituary notes that she never remarried , and was buried still wearing her wedding ring .
= = Awards and decorations = =
GySgt . Basilone 's military awards include :
= = = Medal of Honor citation = = =
Basilone 's Medal of Honor citation reads as follows :
The President of the United States in the name of The Congress takes pride in presenting the MEDAL OF HONOR to
SERGEANTJOHN BASILONE
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
for service as set forth in the following CITATION :
For extraordinary heroism and conspicuous gallantry in action against enemy Japanese forces , above and beyond the call of duty , while serving with the 1st Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division in the Lunga Area , Guadalcanal , Solomon Islands , on 24 and 25 October 1942 . While the enemy was hammering at the Marines ' defensive positions , Sgt. BASILONE , in charge of 2 sections of heavy machine guns , fought valiantly to check the savage and determined assault . In a fierce frontal attack with the Japanese blasting his guns with grenades and mortar fire , one of Sgt. BASILONE 'S sections , with its gun crews , was put out of action , leaving only 2 men able to carry on . Moving an extra gun into position , he placed it in action , then , under continual fire , repaired another and personally manned it , gallantly holding his line until replacements arrived . A little later , with ammunition critically low and the supply lines cut off , Sgt. BASILONE , at great risk of his life and in the face of continued enemy attack , battled his way through hostile lines with urgently needed shells for his gunners , thereby contributing in large measure to the virtual annihilation of a Japanese regiment . His great personal valor and courageous initiative were in keeping with the highest traditions of the U.S. Naval Service .
FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT
= = = Navy Cross = = =
Basilone 's Navy Cross citation reads as follows :
The President of the United States takes pride in presenting the NAVY CROSS posthumously to
GUNNERY SERGEANTJOHN BASILONE
UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS
for service as set forth in the following CITATION :
For extraordinary heroism while serving as a Leader of a Machine @-@ Gun Section , Company C , 1st Battalion , 27th Marines , 5th Marine Division , in action against enemy Japanese forces on Iwo Jima in the Volcano Islands , 19 February 1945 . Shrewdly gauging the tactical situation shortly after landing when his company 's advance was held up by the concentrated fire of a heavily fortified Japanese blockhouse , Gunnery Sergeant BASILONE boldly defied the smashing bombard
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finished fourth and fifth .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
Tony Stewart appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to start celebrating his first win of the season , and his third at Atlanta Motor Speedway , in front of a crowd of 93 @,@ 200 people . After breaking a thirty @-@ one race losing streak , Stewart stated on the team 's radio , " Ring the bell baby , woo ! Good job , guys ! You got it done , that 's the only way we had a shot . You guys won this thing in the pits . " He also added , " I 've never been so happy to win in my life . "
Although , Denny Hamlin lead the most laps in the first half of the race , his engine failed , and sent him to the garage for the rest of the race . He said , " It ’ s frustrating . I know if we had the reliability that we could win this championship and the odds would be pretty good to win the championship if I can just keep it together for 10 weeks . " In the subsequent press conference , Stewart said , " It ’ s been a long time since we have been in victory lane . So it ’ s something we are not used to ; luckily , we have had the good fortune to not normally go this long without a win . But we had an awesome race car tonight . This thing , it was balanced off the start of the race , and you know , I knew the first run when we were a little bit off , and the leaders were not getting away from us , I thought , we have probably got a shot at this thing tonight and a shot at a solid Top 5 or Top 3 , but once we got a couple of runs in there , and it was Denny and I trading spots back and forth . " He continued by saying :
" It was fun racing with him like that . We gave each other room . Whoever got caught in traffic , the other guy got the lead back . It was fun switching the lead . We struggled on restarts or I struggled on restarts , Darian wasn ’ t driving the car , so I can ’ t blame it on him . I struggled on restarts all night . Finally the last two , I hit it a lot closer and kept them from spinning quite as bad . The pit crew is who we have got to give all the credit to tonight . They had an awesome pit stop the last time we came in that got us that track position that I lost on the previous restart . So you know , without that , I don ’ t think we would have a shot to be here tonight . "
Ryan Newman discussed his contact with Kahne by explaining , " Yeah , the No. 18 ( Kyle Busch ) hit me the same time I hit the No. 9 ( Kahne ) — it was within a millisecond . I was trying to push him to get ahead of the No. 2 car ( Kurt Busch ) and it didn ’ t work out . We ’ ve seen this several times this year , and it was me trying to help him out . It causes accidents once in a while . It hurt him but in the grand scheme of things he tried to hurt me and it didn ’ t hurt us as bad . So , we ’ ll just go on . " Stewart also stated , " When you have a car that ’ s that good , it ’ s not good to lose those spots like that . ... We got caught back there one time and we struggled getting that track position back . But when you have a car that ’ s that fast , it ’ s nice . You don ’ t feel like you ’ re in too much trouble when you lose a couple of spots on a restart like that . "
The race result left Kevin Harvick leading the Driver 's Championship with 3 @,@ 585 points . Jeff Gordon , who finished thirteenth , was second on 3 @,@ 366 , forty @-@ one points ahead of Kyle Busch and sixty @-@ four ahead of Stewart . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained their lead with 182 points . Toyota remained second with 150 points . Ford followed with 116 points , fourteen points ahead of Dodge in fourth . 5 @.@ 516 million people watched the race on television . The race took three hours , fifty @-@ two minutes and forty @-@ three seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 1 @.@ 316 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for driver 's standings .
* – This driver clinched a position in the Chase for the Sprint Cup .
‡ – This driver is in the Chase for the Sprint Cup .
= Hale Commission =
The Hale Commission was established by the Commonwealth of England on 30 January 1652 and led by Sir Matthew Hale to investigate law reform . Consisting of eight lawyers and thirteen laymen , the Commission met approximately three times a week and proposed changes as radical ( at the time ) as reducing the use of the death penalty , allowing witnesses , legal aid and lawyers for defendants in criminal cases and creating County Courts and a Court of Appeal for criminal cases . Though the Commission was unsuccessful at passing any of its measures under the Rump Parliament , two of its measures were put into law by the subsequent Barebone 's Parliament , and , by the middle of the 20th century , most of the others were as well . Debate has occurred over the effectiveness and strife within the Commission between its more moderate and radical members ; the general conclusion is that with the sheer volume of work produced and the vast proportion of moderate to radical members , it is unlikely such strife existed .
= = Background and establishment = =
The loss of Charles I of England in the English Civil War led to the establishment of the Commonwealth of England on 19 May 1649 . During the rule of both the Commonwealth and the succeeding Protectorate , there was considerable desire for law reform . Many judges and lawyers were corrupt , and criminal law followed no real reason or philosophy . Any felony was punishable by death , proceedings were in a form of Norman French , and judges regularly imprisoned jurors for reaching a verdict they disagreed with . Cromwell and the Rump Parliament aimed to establish a " new society " , which included reforming the law ; to that end , on 30 January 1652 Sir Matthew Hale was appointed chairman of a commission to investigate law reform , which soon became known as the Hale Commission . The Commission 's official remit was defined by the Commons ; " taking into consideration what inconveniences there are in the law ; and how the mischiefs which grow from delays , the chargeableness and irregularities in the proceedings in the law may be prevented , and the speediest way to reform the same , and to present their opinions to such committee as the Parliament shall appoint " .
The Commission consisted of eight lawyers and thirteen laymen , appointed by the Rump Parliament on 26 December 1651 , and sat from 23 January 1652 approximately three times a week in the chamber of the House of Lords . No Members of Parliament were allowed to sit . In addition to Hale , members included John Desborough , John Rushworth , Hugh Peters , Anthony Cooper , John Sadler , John Fountaine , William Steele , Henry Blount , William Roberts , Josiah Bemers , Samuel Moyer , Charles George Cock and Matthew Thomlinson .
= = Recommendations = =
The Commission recommended various changes . On the criminal law side , they supported reducing the use of the death penalty , although " wilful murderers " were still to be executed , and the abduction of a child under 16 was to be considered a capital crime . They also suggested allowing prisoners access to lawyers in any case where the prosecution was permitted representation and allowing witnesses for the defence to give evidence under oath . Legal aid was also considered , although the rejection of a case where legal aid was given would result in the defendant being sent to a workhouse for a month and whipped . The abolition of peine forte et dure as a way to avoid the forfeiture of land was also proposed .
For legal system reform , the Commission suggested the creation of county courts led by the Westminster judges with jurisdiction over civil actions , and small claims courts for amounts under £ 4 to be manned by commissioners , approved by Justices of the Peace . They also supported the creation of a Court of Appeal consisting of laymen chosen by Parliament , the formation of a land registry and a permanent law commission . Against Hale 's wishes , the Commission called for the abolition of benefit of clergy , and the acquittal of those charged with justified homicide . The Commission also suggested that debtors should no longer be imprisoned , and attorneys should be educated at an Inn of Court and not allowed to practise until they were admitted as members .
= = Disestablishment = =
None of the Commission 's recommendations ever made it into law under the Rump Parliament , though the Commission did produce 16 bills . Several were read in the House of Commons , and the remainder given to the Parliamentary Law Committee in July 1652 following the Committee 's dissolution on 23 July . The Rump Parliament 's successor , the Barebone 's Parliament , brought two of the Commission 's suggestions ( to abolish fines for original writs and to develop procedures for civil marriages ) into force through statutes . Most of the Commission 's suggestions were , at some point , followed . In 1837 the use of the death penalty was curtailed , and it was finally abolished in 1969 . From 1702 onwards , witnesses were allowed for the defence , and the Prisoners ' Counsel Act 1836 allowed legal representation for the defendants . The use of peine forte et dure was abolished in 1741 , and the benefit of clergy in 1827 . A permanent Law Commission was finally established with the Law Commissions Act 1965 . County Courts were finally established in 1846 , and a Court of Criminal Appeal in 1907 .
Academic debate over the Commission 's value has been strong . On the one hand , William Holdsworth wrote that the Commission was riven by strife between its lawyerly members and those of a more radical nature , and that its proposals were sometimes extreme . Other academics argued that the reform scheme was of great merit , and Hostettler , writes that " there is no evidence to confirm the belief of Sir William Holdsworth that the lawyers had a difficult time with the laymen " . Mary Cotterell , writing in the English Historical Review , notes that 13 of the 21 members were certainly not radicals , although Moyer and Bemers , Blount and Peters certainly were . The lawyers , all moderates , nevertheless dominated the discussions . Debate was on a highly technical level which prevented many of the laymen contributing much , although six of them had been educated at the Inns of Court . The large number of meetings and sheer volume of work produced also suggests that there was little dissent and argument . John Hostettler , in his biography of Hale , has suggested that if the measures had been put into law immediately , " we would have been honouring such pioneers for their farsightedness in enhancing our legal system and the concept of justice " .
= Commelina communis =
Commelina communis , commonly known as the Asiatic dayflower , is an herbaceous annual plant in the dayflower family . It gets its name because the blooms last for only one day . It is native throughout much of East Asia and northern parts of Southeast Asia . In China , the plant is known as yazhicao ( simplified Chinese : 鸭跖草 ; traditional Chinese : 鴨跖草 ; pinyin : yāzhīcǎo ) , roughly translating to " duckfoot herb " , while in Japan it is known as tsuyukusa ( 露草 , tsuyukusa ) , meaning " dew herb " . It has also been introduced to parts of central and southeastern Europe and much of eastern North America , where it has spread to become a noxious weed . It is common in disturbed sites and in moist soil . The flowers emerge from summer through fall and are distinctive with two relatively large blue petals and one very reduced white petal .
The Asiatic dayflower plant serves as the type species for its large genus . Linnaeus picked the name Commelina in honour of the two Dutch botanists of the Commelijn family , using the two large showy petals of Commelina communis to symbolise them . Linnaeus described the species in the first edition of his landmark work , Species Plantarum , in 1753 . Long before the plant was studied in Europe , however , it had been used for generations in traditional Chinese medicine . The flowers have also been used in Japan to produce a dye and a pigment that was used in many world @-@ renowned Ukiyo @-@ e woodcuts from the 18th and early 19th centuries . In the modern era the plant has found limited use as a model organism in the field of plant physiology due to its complex pigment chemistry and the ease of viewing its stomata .
The Asiatic dayflower is considered a weed both in areas where it was introduced and in certain parts of its native range . The flowers ' interactions with pollinators have been well studied and have helped to support important hypotheses about pollination in the field of plant ecology . Recent research has also revealed that the Asiatic dayflower can bioaccumulate a number of metals , making it a candidate for revegetating and essentially cleaning spoiled copper mines . Several animals and fungi use the plant as a food source , with a few species feeding upon it exclusively .
= = Description = =
The Asiatic dayflower is an annual herb with stems that are typically decumbent , meaning that they are prostrate at the base but become erect towards the tips , but some individuals may be simply erect . The diffusely branched stems tend to root at the basal nodes . The pubescence on the stems is variable , but common patterns include a line of hair continuous with the leaf sheath , or they may be glabrous basally , meaning hairless , and puberulent towards the extremities , that is covered with fine hairs . The leaves are sessile : they lack a leaf stalk , also known as a petiole ; or they may be subpetiolate , meaning they have very small petioles . The leaf sheaths are cylindrical , sometimes striped with red , and typically glabrous , but usually have margins that are puberulent or pilose , meaning lined with fine , soft hairs . The leaf blades range from narrowly lanceolate , or lance @-@ shaped , to ovate @-@ elliptic , between egg @-@ shaped and ellipse @-@ shaped . They measure 3 – 12 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 – 4 3 ⁄ 4 in ) by 1 – 4 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) wide . The blades range from glabrous to puberulent and have scabrescent , or slightly rough , margins . Their tips are acute , meaning they come to a point quickly , to acuminate , meaning the point develops gradually . The leaf bases are oblique , or uneven .
The flowers are arranged on inflorescences called cincinni ( singular : cincinnus ) , which are also called scorpioid cymes . This is a form of a monochasium where the lateral branches arise alternately . The cincinni are subtended by a spathe , a modified leaf . The solitary spathes usually measure 1 @.@ 2 – 3 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 – 1 1 ⁄ 4 in ) long , but some may be up to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) in length , while they are 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 ⁄ 2 in ) tall , but sometimes up to 1 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 ⁄ 4 in ) . The uncurved spathes typically have a cordate , or heart @-@ shaped , whitish base , which contrasts with its dark green veins . Their margins lack hairs , are somewhat scabrous , or rough , and are unfused , meaning they are distinct to the base . Their apices are acute to acuminate while the surfaces are glabrous , puberulent , or hirsute @-@ ciliate , meaning with longer , shaggier hairs . The spathes are borne on peduncles , or stalks , that measure 0 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) and sometimes up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) long .
There are often two cincinni present , though the upper , or distal , cincinnus may be vestigial . The lower , or proximal , cincinnus bears 1 to 4 bisexual flowers and is nearly included in the spathe , while the upper cincinnus has 1 to 2 male flowers and is about 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) long . The individual flowers are subtended by bracteoles that fall off early in development . The pedicels supporting single flowers , and later the fruits , are erect initially but curve when in fruit . They measure about 3 – 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 – 0 @.@ 16 in ) . The 3 concave , membranous sepals are inconspicuous , but persist after the fruit develops ; the lateral pair are fused basally , measure only 4 @.@ 5 – 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 18 – 0 @.@ 20 in ) long by 3 – 3 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 – 0 @.@ 15 in ) wide , and are elliptic and glabrous . The lower sepal is lanceolate and about 4 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 18 in ) long by about 2 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 087 in ) wide . The 2 upper petals are blue to indigo in colour , while the much smaller lower petal is white . The upper two petals measure 9 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 – 0 @.@ 39 in ) long by 8 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 – 0 @.@ 39 in ) wide , while the lower petal is 5 – 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 24 in ) long by about 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) wide . The 2 upper petals are composed of a claw about 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) long and a broadly ovate limb with an acute apex and a cuneate @-@ cordate base .
There are three anticous fertile stamens , meaning they are on the lower part of the flower , and three posticous infertile stamens , meaning they are on the upper part of the flower . These infertile stamens are termed staminodes . The fertile stamens are dimorphic : the lateral pair have maroon to indigo anthers that measure about 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) long and are elliptic with a base that is sagittate or arrowhead @-@ shaped . Their filaments are about 10 – 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 47 in ) long . The central fertile stamen has a yellow , elliptic anther with a maroon connective and a base that is hastate or spearhead @-@ shaped , but with the lobes at right angles . The anther measures about 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 098 in ) long while its filament is about 5 – 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 24 in ) long . The three staminodes are all alike with yellow , cruciform , or cross @-@ shaped , antherodes that are about 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) long on filaments about 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 12 in ) long . Sometimes the antherodes will have a central maroon spot . Each antherode has two abortive lateral pollen sacks . The ovary is ellipsoid , about 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) long and has a style that is about 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) long .
The fruit is a dehiscent , ellipsoid capsule with two locules each containing two seeds . The capsule is glabrous , brown , measures 4 @.@ 5 – 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 18 – 0 @.@ 31 in ) long , and dehisces into two valves . The seeds are brown or brownish yellow in colour and deltoid , or roughly triangular in outline . They are dorsiventral , meaning they have distinct upper and lower surfaces , with the ventral , or lower , surface being planar and the dorsal , or upper , surface being convex . Seeds range in length from 2 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 098 – 0 @.@ 165 in ) , but seeds as short as 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) can occur , while they are 2 @.@ 2 – 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 087 – 0 @.@ 118 in ) across . The surfaces are rugose pitted @-@ reticulate and are densely covered with smaller farinose granules with sparse larger farinose granules .
= = Taxonomy = =
Commelina communis was first described in 1753 by Carolus Linnaeus in the first edition of his Species Plantarum , along with eight other species in the genus . The plant serves as the type species for the genus . The scientific name Commelina was chosen based on the Asiatic dayflower . Linnaeus picked the name in honour of the Dutch botanists Jan and Caspar Commelijn , using the two large showy petals of Commelina communis to symbolise them . A number of names given to plants thought to be different species have fallen into synonymy with the Asiatic dayflower . Albrecht Wilhelm Roth created the first such synonym , Commelina polygama , in 1790 . Wenceslas Bojer described what he believed were two new species , Commelina barabata and Commelina salicifolia , in his work Hortus Mauritianus , both of which were quickly found to be identical to C. communis . Karl Sigismund Kunth created the synonym Commelina willdenowii in 1841 . Finally , Korean populations of the species were named under the synonym Commelina coreana in 1910 by Augustin Abel Hector Léveillé .
Several varieties have also been named . Commelina communis var. ludens was created by C.B. Clarke after demoting it from the full species status in which it was placed by Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel in 1861 . The variety is distinguished by its darker flowers , antherodes with central maroon spots , less well developed distal cymes that usually do not produce a flower , and spathes that are proportionally broader . Jisaburo Ohwi 's Flora of Japan also treats the variety as geographically distinct , stating that it is restricted to mountainous areas . This variety is still accepted by some workers , but others , such Robert B. Faden , consider it impossible to consistently separate from the type variety . Another variety , C. communis var. hortensis , which was named by Tomitaro Makino and is apparently a cultivated variety which originated from C. communis var. ludens in Japan , is also accepted by some botanists . It differs in having larger showy flowers which are used to produce a dye ( see " Uses " section below ) . A variegated form called C. communis var. ludens f. aureostriata named by Frank C. MacKeever in 1961 is known to occur randomly throughout much of the species ' range .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The plant 's native distribution includes much of East Asia and Southeast Asia . Country by country , it is found in China , Taiwan , Japan , Korea , the Russian Far East , Cambodia , Laos , Malaysia , Thailand and Vietnam . Within China it is found in all provinces except Qinghai , Hainan , Xinjiang , and Tibet . In Japan the plant is found throughout the bulk of the country from Hokkaido south to Kyūshū . In Russia the Asiatic dayflower is found naturally on Sakhalin as well as in the Far East in areas surrounding the Ussuri River .
The species has been introduced to much of Europe and eastern North America . On the former continent it is now found from Central Europe well into western Russia . Specifically it is known from Italy north to Switzerland , east through the region encompassing the former Yugoslavia , east into the regions around the Black Sea including Romania , the Moldavia Region , and the Ukraine but excluding Crimea , north through the Dnieper Basin into Belarus and Russia , continuing east into the regions surrounding the Don River and the Volga River south to their intersection at the Volga @-@ Don Canal and north to the regions around Lake Ladoga and Lake Ilmen , and farther east to the regions of the Ural River and the Kama River . It is also found in the Czech Republic and Slovakia . It is present in the provinces of Ontario and Quebec in Canada , and in most of the eastern and central American states from Massachusetts and New York in the northeast , west to Minnesota and south through the Great Plains to Texas and east to extreme northern Florida in the United States .
Within its native distribution , the plant is most typical of moist , open places , including shady forest edges and wet areas of crop fields , orchards , ditches , and roadsides . In Taiwan , it can be found from 350 to 2 @,@ 400 m ( 1 @,@ 150 to 7 @,@ 870 ft ) elevation . In areas where the Asiatic dayflower is an introduced weed it is most common in waste places , but also along the edges of fields , woods , and marshes , and occasionally penetrating into woods .
= = Ecology = =
The Asiatic dayflower is considered an invasive weed in many areas where it has been introduced . In the United States , the Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation , for example , categorises the species as " occasionally invasive " in its Invasive Plant Species of Virginia . This means that the plant will " not affect ecosystem processes , but may alter plant community composition by outcompeting one or more native plant species " . The species is typically limited to disturbed sites , whence it spreads relatively slowly . Within its native range in China it is also sometimes considered a pest , especially in the northeast of the country where it has caused economically significant agricultural damage in orchards .
The Asiatic dayflower has been used in pollination studies concerning the behaviour of plants in relation to their pollinators . One important experiment tested the hypotheses that floral guides ( i.e. various patterns and colours on anthers and petals ) simultaneously promote pollinator visitation and prevent visits where the pollinator fails to come into contact with the stigma or anthers , termed pollen theft . As the flowers of the Asiatic dayflower lack nectar , they offer only pollen as a reward to their visitors . To attract pollinators , the plant has three types of brightly colored floral organs : the large blue petals , fertile yellow anthers , and infertile yellow antherodes that lack pollen . When the infertile antherodes were experimentally removed in natural populations , the number of total floral visitor landings was reduced , supporting the hypothesis that these infertile anthers essentially trick their pollinators into believing they offer more than they actually do . When the central , bright yellow fertile anther was removed , leaving only two brown fertile anthers , the frequency of legitimate flower landings decreased , meaning that the visitors were not pollinating the flowers , suggesting that floral signals also prevent " theft " , or visits where the pollinators take pollen , but do not place any on the stigma . Thus both the fertile anthers and the infertile antherodes were shown to play an important role in both increasing visitor landings and orienting floral visitors toward a landing point appropriate for pollination .
Recent studies have shown that wild Asiatic dayflower populations found growing on copper mine spoils in eastern China exhibited very high concentrations of copper within the plants , more so than the 48 species tested . Commelina communis had sequestered some 361 mg / kg of copper , while the plant with the next highest concentration , Polygonum macrathum , had 286 mg / kg . Five of the species examined , including the Asiatic dayflower , also showed high concentrations of other metals such as zinc , lead , and cadmium . The results suggest that the Asiatic dayflower is a good candidate for copper mine spoil revegetation and phytoremediation .
Ten species of fungi have been found on the Asiatic dayflower , four of which can infect the plant , while 12 species of insects are known to be associated with it . Two of the fungi , Kordyana commelinae and Phyllosticta commelinicola , are thought to be host specific with the Asiatic dayflower . Of the ten fungi seven are Basidiomycota and three are Ascomycota . Nine of the 12 insects associated with the plant are beetles , seven of which are in the genus Lema , while the other two are in the families Hispidae and Pentatomidae . The remaining three insects include one species of moth , Pergesa acteus , and two true bugs , namely Aphis commilinae and Aeschrocoris ceylonicus . Important pollinators include the Asian honeybee , Apis cerana , syrphid fly , Episyrphus balteatus , and the bumble bee species Bombus diversus .
= = Uses = =
= = = Medicine and food = = =
In China it is used as a medicinal herb with febrifugal , antipyretic , anti @-@ inflammatory , and diuretic effects . Additionally , it is also used for treating sore throats and tonsillitis . Recent pharmacological investigations have revealed that the Asiatic dayflower contains at least five active compounds . One of these , p @-@ hydroxycinnamic acid , shows antibacterial activity , while another , D @-@ mannitol , has an antitussive effect . In China and India the plant is also used as a vegetable and fodder crop .
= = = Pigment and dye = = =
In Japan there is a sizeable dye industry devoted to the plant . The purported variety Commelina communis var. hortensis , which is apparently a cultivated form of another putative variety , namely Commelina communis var. ludens , is grown for its larger petals which yield a blue juice used in manufacturing a paper called boshigami or aigami ( 藍紙 ) , which is the famous product of the Yamada village in the Shiga prefecture . The paper is usually resoaked , allowing the pigment to be reabsorbed in water for use as a dye . The dye , also referred to as aigami , but also as aobanagami ( 青花紙 ) or tsuyukusairo ( 露草色 ) , is composed primarily of malonyl awobanin and was used extensively as a colorant in 18th and 19th century woodblock prints in Japan , especially during the early Ukiyo @-@ e era . The colorant is known to have been used by several famous Ukiyo @-@ e artists such as Torii Kiyonaga . However , aigami fades to a greenish yellow in a matter of months when exposed to sunlight . As a result , the color was eventually replaced by imported Prussian blue , a much more stable colour with its first commercial appearance in 1829 in the work of Keisai Eisen . The plant is also grown for its dye in northern China . Additional uses of the colourant include making preparatory designs on cloth before dyeing with other pigments .
Commelinin is the blue pigment from the flowers of C. communis , is a metalloanthocyanin . It is a complex of 4 Mg2 + ions chelating six anthocyanin molecules .
= = = Plant physiology and development = = =
Commelina communis is also used as a model organism in plant physiology and plant development to a limited extent , especially in relation to stomatal physiology and the biology of pigmentation development . For example , the blue pigmentation of Asiatic dayflower petals was shown to consist of a large complex of six anthocyanins , six flavones , and two associated magenesium ions , demonstrating that supramolecular complexes of several copigments and chelated metals often determine colour . Other research on the plant has helped to explain photoreceptor systems in plants such as their stomatal responses to blue light versus red light spectrums , abscisic acid perception and its role in cell signaling , particularly concerning the chemical 's role in stomatal function , the role of vanadates in inhibiting stomatal opening , and the necessity of calcium in stomatal closure , among other topics . Its widespread use in stomatal studies is due to the fact that the leaves produce exceptional epidermal peels that are consistently one cell layer thick . This same quality makes the plant popular for use in laboratory exercises in higher education for demonstrating stomatal function and morphology . Guard cell turgor pressure and its regulation in the opening and closing of stomata is particularly easy to demonstrate with the Asiatic dayflower .
= Outlaw Star =
Outlaw Star ( 星方武侠アウトロースター , Seihō Bukyō Autorō Sutā , lit . " Outlaw Star : Starward Warrior Knight " ) is a seinen manga series written and illustrated by Takehiko Itō and his affiliated Morning Star Studio . The series takes place in the " Toward Stars Era " universe in which spacecraft are capable of traveling faster than the speed of light . The plot follows protagonist Gene Starwind and his motley crew of an inherited ship dubbed the " Outlaw Star " , as they search for a legendary , outer space treasure trove called the " Galactic Leyline " .
Outlaw Star was originally serialized in the monthly Shueisha magazine Ultra Jump between 1996 and 1999 for a total of 21 chapters . Three volumes of collected chapters were published in Japan between August 1997 and January 1999 . Although no official English version of the manga exists , it has been published in Chinese , German , Italian , and Spanish . Sunrise Studios produced a 26 @-@ episode anime adaptation that was directed by Mitsuru Hongo and aired on the Japanese station TV Tokyo in early 1998 . The animated series has since been translated and broadcast worldwide . This includes an English version from Bandai Entertainment that received an edited airing on the North American Cartoon Network blocks Toonami in early 2001 and later on Adult Swim in early 2002 . Outlaw Star has been licensed for release in Australia and New Zealand by Madman Entertainment and in Europe by Beez Entertainment . A few Japanese @-@ exclusive audio CDs and light novels have been spawned since the start of the manga 's publication .
Critical reception for Outlaw Star has been mostly positive . Many reviewers praised the anime series , particularly its animation style and its balance of dramatic and comedic elements . However , some found fault with the show 's pacing , believing that the storyline quality begins to wane after the first few episodes . Sunrise produced a spin @-@ off television series titled Angel Links ( 星方天使エンジェルリンクス , Seihō Tenshi Enjeru Rinkusu , lit . " Angel Links : Starward Angels " ) , which aired in Japan in 1999 . Preliminary plans were made to create a direct sequel in the form of a single @-@ episode ( OVA ) called " Sword of Wind , " but production never began . Nevertheless , staff have expressed their hopes of there one day being a sequel on television , with certain plot developments in the final episode , such as the survival of Gene 's longtime enemy Ron MacDougall , the crew heading off into space to a new adventure , and Gene and his friend Melfina becoming lovers , leaving the door open to a continuation to the anime .
= = Plot = =
Outlaw Star is a space opera / Space Western set in the fictional " Towards Stars Era " ( 到星歴 , Tōseireki ) universe . During its past , an asteroid containing a material known as " dragonite " crashed in the fictional Arashon desert of northern China . Scientists found that the dragonite contained properties related to " ether " , an energy source that would allow spacecraft to travel faster than the speed of light , and thus traverse large distances of the universe in a short time . As new colonies were formed throughout the vast reaches of outer space , pirates , assassins , and outlaws began to threaten humanity 's new frontier . To create order , the Earth Federation established four empires : USSA , Einhorn , Piotr , and Tenpa . However , internal power struggles within the factions and conflicts amongst one another become abundant , leading to inevitable lawlessness . The storyline starts shortly after an infamous outlaw named " Hot Ice " Hilda flees from the Kei Pirates , a branch of the Tin 'Pa . Hilda has stolen from them a highly @-@ advanced prototype ship dubbed the XGP15A @-@ II and a suitcase containing a bio @-@ android called Melfina , the only being capable of interfacing with the ship .
Outlaw Star opens on the backwater planet Sentinel III , on which the protagonist Gene Starwind and his 11 @-@ year @-@ old business associate James " Jim " Hawking run a small jack @-@ of @-@ all @-@ trades business . After the two take a job as bodyguards for a disguised Hilda and engage in a brief skirmish with the Kei Pirates , Gene and Jim find themselves the owners of the XGP15A @-@ II ( which they nickname the " Outlaw Star " ) and the caretakers of Melfina . Hilda reveals that the ship 's true purpose is to locate the " Galactic Leyline " ( 銀河の龍脈 , Ginga no Ryū Myaku , lit . " Galactic Dragon Vein " ) , a place which popular claims say is a holder of immense treasure , knowledge , and power . Throughout the course of the series , the crew grows to include the kimono @-@ garbed contract killer " Twilight " Suzuka and the Ctarl @-@ Ctarl alien catgirl Aisha Clanclan .
The Outlaw Star manga series and animated television series are paced differently than one another . The anime episodes often involve Gene and his comrades taking on various jobs or missions to fund their ship 's massive maintenance costs . Throughout their travels , the crew often encounters Ronald MacDougall and Harry MacDougall , a pair of bounty hunters responsible for the death of Gene 's father . Ronald acts as a rival to Gene , while Harry wishes to form a bond with Melfina , a bio @-@ android like himself , who instead develops strong feelings for Gene . The crew also contends with others that learn of the Outlaw Star 's connection to the Galactic Leyline . They are Nguyen Khan , a scientist wishing to gain omniscience through the Leyline ; and Lord Hazanko , the leader of the ruthless assassin organization the Anten Seven that seek the Leyline to gain ultimate power . The series climaxes when all parties meet on the physical plane of the Leyline . In the end , Ron MacDougall retreats , saved by a computer copy of his brother Harry ( who is killed trying to protect Melfina from Hazanko ) , Khan is integrated into the Leyline as data , Gene reveals to Melfina that he is in love with her and frees her from the Leyline by making it their shared wish to be together forever , and Hazanko is eventually defeated by the Outlaw Star crewmembers . Once the conflict comes to a close , Gene and his friends return to Sentinel III and go their separate ways , but ultimately reunite to continue their adventures together .
= = Production = =
Outlaw Star was created by Morning Star Studio . Takehiko Itō was the manga 's director , writer , and chief artist . Itō was aided in his duties by Hajime Yatate , a pseudonym of writers at Sunrise . Others who contributed to the work include producer Kenzoh Tomita ; starship designer Shoji Kawamori ; character concept and imageboard illustrators Yutaka Minowa and Hajime Jinguji ; and a team of production designers and assistant artists . Outlaw Star takes place in the Toward Stars Era , the same universe as Itō 's Uchuu Eiyuu Monogatari ( 宇宙英雄物語 , lit . " Future @-@ Retro Hero Story " ) , a pulp @-@ science fiction manga that was first serialized by Kadokawa Shoten in 1988 . Itō has described this earlier work as " something out of boy 's dream " and took a much more mature , scientific approach when writing Outlaw Star . The author also referenced aspects of Chinese culture when creating Outlaw Star .
The animated television series of Outlaw Star was produced by Sunrise and directed by Mitsuru Hongo , whose previous credits include the comedy Crayon Shin @-@ chan and the magical girl series Shamanic Princess . The script was chiefly written by Katsuhiko Chiba , who wrote about three @-@ quarters of the episodes . Character designs were handled by Hiroyuki Hataike ( Detonator Orgun , Armored Trooper Votoms ) and Takuya Saito . The show 's vehicles were designed by Juniya Ishigaki and Macross and Gundam mecha artist Shōji Kawamori , the latter of whom designed the Outlaw Star ship itself . Koh Otani composed the musical score for the Outlaw Star anime . The series features the opening theme " Through the Night " written and performed Masahiko Arimachi , and two closing themes , " Hiru no Tsuki " ( 昼の月 , lit . " Daytime Moon " ) and " Tsuki no Ie " ( 月の家 , lit . " House of the Moon " ) , both written and performed by Akino Arai . " Through the Night " was chosen for the opening among several candidate songs . Itō and Sunrise agreed that the theme should be one that had not been used in a recent animation and that it should feature male vocals . Arimachi wrote the song to resemble a story , took into account its longterm impact , and felt it fit Outlaw Star perfectly .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Outlaw Star was serialized in Japan 's monthly Shueisha magazine Ultra Jump between 1996 and 1999 . A total of 21 chapters were published , and 17 of these chapters were compiled among three tankōbon ( collected volumes ) , released in Japan from August 1997 to January 1999 . Each volume also contains information on the series ' universe ; detailed spaceship and planet descriptions ; and character profiles . A Chinese version of the manga was published in Hong Kong by Sharp Point Press . The series has also been published in German and Italian by Planet Manga . No official English translation of the Outlaw Star exists , though Morning Star Studio 's official website suggests that a release in the United States was planned at one time .
= = = Anime = = =
The 26 @-@ episode anime adaptation of Outlaw Star began broadcasting in Japan on TV Tokyo from January 8 , 1998 and ended on June 25 , 1998 , though the broadcast
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touchdowns during the regular seasons , was anticipated to see significant playing time . Wide receiver Brenden Holbein also suffered an ankle injury in practice , but was able to play .
At quarterback , Nebraska had Scott Frost , a transfer player from Stanford who had 1 @,@ 440 passing yards , 13 passing touchdowns , three interceptions , and 578 rushing yards in his first season with the team . Frost 's three interceptions were the third @-@ least in Division I @-@ A ; only Army and Ohio University had fewer . Overall , Nebraska totaled 5 @,@ 069 yards of offense and 42 @.@ 7 points per game , the most in the Big 12 .
= = = = Virginia Tech offense = = = =
Virginia Tech was led on offense by quarterback Jim Druckenmiller . During the 1996 season , he completed 142 of his 250 pass attempts for 2 @,@ 071 yards , 17 touchdowns , and five interceptions , boosting his career total to 4 @,@ 383 yards and 34 touchdowns . Because of these numbers , he was considered one of the top quarterback prospects in the upcoming NFL draft . Despite Druckenmiller 's success , it was the Hokies ' rushing game that received most of the attention . The Hokies averaged 4 @.@ 8 yards per rushing attempt and produced 2 @,@ 504 yards rushing and 27 touchdowns during the regular season . Tech 's 227 @.@ 6 @-@ yards @-@ per @-@ game rushing average was No. 2 in the Big East Conference and No. 19 among 111 Division I @-@ A schools .
Three players in particular contributed to that rushing success . Running backs Ken Oxendine , Marcus Parker , and Shyrone Stith combined for 1 @,@ 831 yards of Tech 's total . Oxendine , who missed 2 ½ games due to injury , accumulated career highs of 890 rushing yards and 13 touchdowns . Parker , who missed four games due to a discipline @-@ related suspension , earned 467 yards and four touchdowns . Stith , meanwhile , had 474 yards and five touchdowns . Helping block the way for the rushers was center Billy Conaty , who was named an All @-@ American by the Sporting News and who was playing in a then @-@ school record 48th straight game .
= = = Defensive matchups = = =
= = = = Virginia Tech defense = = = =
The Hokies were led on defense by All @-@ America defensive end selection Cornell Brown , who accumulated eight sacks , five other tackles for loss , 19 quarterback hurries , and 58 total tackles during the regular season and was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Big East selection , signifying his status as the best player at his position in that conference . This followed being named National Defensive Player of the Year at the end of the previous season . Tech 's leading tackler was linebacker Brandon Semones , who accumulated 88 during the season . Free safety Torrian Gray also was a significant presence on the Virginia Tech defense . Gray ranked No. 1 on the team in solo tackles with 58 , and was No. 3 in total tackles , with 76 . He started every game for Tech during the three seasons immediately prior to the Orange Bowl and was a second @-@ team All @-@ Big East pick in 1996 . Gray was supported in the defensive secondary by Antonio Banks , who caught a Tech @-@ best four interceptions during the regular season .
In a December 26 practice , Virginia Tech linebacker Myron Newsome suffered an ankle injury that threatened to force him to sit out the Orange Bowl . Newsome , who had been a starter during the regular season , eventually recovered to participate in the game , but his injury was a point of media interest in the days prior to kickoff . Two other Virginia Tech defenders were injured during practice prior to the game . Cornell Brown suffered a minor leg injury , while defensive end John Engelberger broke his nose .
= = = = Nebraska defense = = = =
The Nebraska Cornhuskers ' defense was ranked No. 5 in the country in rushing defense and scoring defense , allowing averages of just 83 @.@ 8 rushing yards and 12 @.@ 8 points per game . Nebraska also was ranked No. 7 in total defense , permitting just 255 @.@ 4 yards per game . The cornerstones of that defense were Nebraska 's two All @-@ American defensive ends , Jared Tomich and Grant Wistrom . Tomich recorded five sacks , 10 tackles for loss , and a team @-@ best 23 quarterback hurries during the 1996 regular season . In recognition of his performance , he was named a second @-@ team AP All @-@ American and was a finalist for the Lombardi Award . Wistrom , meanwhile , led Nebraska with 9 @.@ 5 sacks and 20 tackles for loss . He was named a consensus All @-@ American , indicating his selection as a first @-@ team All @-@ American by all the major selection panels . Neither man was Nebraska 's leading tackler , however . That honor went to defensive tackle Jason Peter , who had 58 and was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Big 12 selection .
In the defensive secondary , defensive back Mike Minter led the Cornhuskers in interceptions , catching five and returning one for a touchdown during the regular season . Supporting Minter was cornerback Ralph Brown , who had 12 pass breakups .
= = Game summary = =
The 1996 Orange Bowl kicked off on December 31 , 1996 at 7 : 17 p.m. EST . The game 's attendance was announced as 51 @,@ 212 , giving it the lowest attendance for an Orange Bowl since 1947 . This poor attendance was despite the fact that more than 64 @,@ 000 tickets were sold for the game . Many of the unused tickets were purchased in blocs by corporations that failed to use them . The game was televised on CBS , and Mike Mayock , Sean McDonough , and Dave Logan were the broadcasters . Approximately 8 @.@ 8 million people tuned in to watch the game on television , earning the broadcast a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 8 . The temperature at kickoff was 75 degrees , and the weather was clear , with 75 percent humidity and wind from the east at six mph . Dick Honig was the referee , the umpire was Jim Augustyn , and the linesman was Ed Peters .
= = = First quarter = = =
Virginia Tech won the traditional pre @-@ game coin toss and elected to kick off to Nebraska to begin the game . The Hokie kickoff was returned to the Nebraska 25 @-@ yard line , where the Cornhuskers ran the first play of the game . On that first play , Frost completed a five @-@ yard pass to Brendan Holbein . This was followed by two rushes by Benning , who picked up 18 yards and a first down in the process . Benning then crossed into the Virginia Tech half of the field with a five @-@ yard rush . Frost then threw an incomplete pass , and Benning was unable to pick up another first down after gaining two yards on a pass from Frost . Nebraska punter Jesse Kosch came on to the field to punt to Virginia Tech . The kick sailed into the end zone for a touchback , and Virginia Tech began its first possession at its 20 @-@ yard line .
Tech 's first drive began inauspiciously for the Hokies . Druckenmiller threw an incomplete pass on the first Tech play , then was sacked for a four @-@ yard loss . Facing third down , Druckenmiller evaded another sack and connected with Oxendine on a 41 @-@ yard pass that picked up a first down and pushed Tech into the Nebraska side of the field . Despite the gain , the Hokies were unable to gain another first down as Oxendine ran for one yard before Druckenmiller threw two successive incomplete passes . Virginia Tech punter Jimmy Kibble kicked the ball back to Nebraska , which returned it to its 15 @-@ yard line , and the Nebraska offense returned to the field .
With 9 : 28 remaining in the quarter , Nebraska 's second possession of the game mirrored its first . The Cornhuskers picked up a first down on a Scott Frost throw , but were unable to gain another after being stopped for a loss on one play and had to punt . Following the kick , Virginia Tech took over at its 28 @-@ yard line . The Hokies performed better than their first possession , picking up a quick first down on two rushes by Oxendine . Druckenmiller then completed a first @-@ down throw that pushed the Hokies into Nebraska territory for a second time . Druckenmiller rushed for eight yards on the next play , then ran an option with Oxendine that saw the players combine for 20 yards and a first down . Now at the Nebraska 20 @-@ yard line , Oxendine ran for a yard , pushing the Hokies into the red zone . On the first play inside the Nebraska red zone , Druckenmiller completed a 19 @-@ yard pass to Marcus Parker for a Virginia Tech touchdown — the game 's first points . Virginia Tech placekicker Shayne Graham kicked the extra point , and Virginia Tech took a 7 – 0 lead with 3 : 14 remaining in the first quarter . The drive covered 72 yards and had taken eight plays and 4 : 06 of game time .
Following the post @-@ touchdown kickoff and a short return , Nebraska 's offense began work at its 21 @-@ yard line . Three rushes by as many different players — Joel Makovicka , Damon Benning , and Jay Sims — resulted in 11 yards and a first down . During Sims ' run , Tech 's Loren Johnson committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul facemask penalty that pushed Nebraska to the Nebraska 47 @-@ yard line . From there , Frost threw an incomplete pass , then Sims ran twice for fifteen yards and a first down , crossing into the Virginia Tech half of the field in the process . Now at the Tech 38 @-@ yard line , Frost completed a 23 @-@ yard throw to Lance Brown , who picked up another first down at the Tech 15 @-@ yard line . With time running out in the quarter , the Cornhuskers executed a quick four @-@ yard rush to the Tech 11 @-@ yard line . At the end of the first quarter , Virginia Tech led Nebraska , 7 – 0 , but the Cornhuskers were in scoring position .
= = = Second quarter = = =
The second quarter began with Nebraska in possession of the ball at the Virginia Tech 11 @-@ yard line and facing a second down and needing six yards . On the first play of the quarter , Nebraska rusher Brian Schuster was tackled for a five @-@ yard loss in a failed trick play , pushing Nebraska back to the 16 @-@ yard line . Sims rushed for eight yards on third down , but failed to pick up the first down and Nebraska sent kicker Kris Brown into the game . Brown 's 25 @-@ yard field goal was successful , and Nebraska cut Virginia Tech 's lead to 7 – 3 with 13 : 25 remaining before halftime .
The post @-@ score kickoff rolled into the end zone for a touchback , and Virginia Tech began at its 20 @-@ yard line . On the first play , Nebraska committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty . Shyrone Stith and Parker then ran for a combined six yards on the next two plays , picking up a first down with the shortened yardage provided by the penalty . From the first down at the Tech 31 @-@ yard line , Druckenmiller threw three consecutive passes : The first was incomplete , the second gained one yard , and the third gained nine yards and a first down . After that gain , however , Tech lost yardage on a rush by Oxendine , Druckenmiller threw an incomplete pass , then was sacked for a loss of nine yards during the third down play . Kibble punted , and Nebraska began at the Tech 45 @-@ yard line after the kick was returned 26 yards by Michael Hawkes . The Cornhuskers took quick advantage of the good field position . Ahman Green ran 17 yards for a first down , then Frost passed for 23 yards to Kenny Cheatham , pushing Nebraska inside the Virginia Tech red zone . On just the third play after Virginia Tech 's punt , Frost ran the remaining five yards , crossing the goal line for a touchdown . The extra point was good , and with 9 : 14 remaining , Nebraska took a 10 – 7 lead .
Before the subsequent kickoff , Virginia Tech committed a 15 @-@ yard personal foul penalty , allowing Nebraska to kick off from the 50 @-@ yard line instead of the regulation 35 @-@ yard line . The kick resulted in a touchback , and Tech started from its 20 @-@ yard line . Oxendine picked up nine yards on a rush , and Parker earned another seven yards for a first down at the Tech 36 . Oxendine then ran three consecutive times for 17 yards and a first down . After Parker was stopped for no gain , Druckenmiller ran the ball himself for a seven @-@ yard gain and a first down at the Nebraska 40 @-@ yard line . Oxendine gained one yard on a carry to the left , but on the next play , Druckenmiller was sacked for an 11 @-@ yard loss , negating the minor gain . Druckenmiller then completed a 24 @-@ yard pass to Oxendine , but the play was negated by a holding penalty against Virginia Tech , effectively resulting in a loss of 34 yards and pushing the Hokies back to their 33 @-@ yard line . On the first play after the holding penalty , Druckenmiller fumbled the football after he was jarred by Nebraska defender Mike Rucker . The loose ball was picked up by Cornhusker Jason Peter , who ran 31 yards for a defensive touchdown . The score gave Nebraska a 17 – 7 lead with 3 : 36 remaining in the first half .
Following the kickoff , Virginia Tech 's offense began work to cut Nebraska 's lead before halftime . The Hokies started at their 20 @-@ yard line after a touchback , and Druckenmiller completed a 20 @-@ yard throw to Bryan Jennings after Oxendine was stopped for no gain on a carry to the left . From the Tech 40 @-@ yard line , Oxendine carried the ball 39 yards for another first down deep inside Nebraska 's half of the field . Nebraska committed a five @-@ yard offsides penalty , but Virginia Tech was stopped for short gains on the two plays following the penalty . Virginia Tech was forced to use a timeout in order to stop the clock from moving and to allow time to plan the third @-@ down play . With 57 seconds remaining in the first half , Parker ran the remaining two yards for a first down at the Nebraska 11 @-@ yard line . Druckenmiller then completed a five @-@ yard pass to Cornelius White , but because White was unable to get out of bounds or cross the goal line , Tech was again forced to call a timeout to stop the clock with 25 seconds remaining . On the next play , Druckenmiller completed a six @-@ yard pass to Shawn Scales for Tech 's second touchdown of the game . The score came with 19 seconds remaining in the first half , and the extra point was good , cutting Nebraska 's lead to 17 – 14 .
With just a few seconds remaining in the first half , there appeared to be little chance that Nebraska would have a chance to score . But Nebraska received the kickoff at its 24 @-@ yard line and returned it to the Nebraska 42 . Frost attempted a long pass to get Nebraska into position for a field goal attempt , but the throw fell incomplete . Instead of trying another long pass , Nebraska proceeded to run out the clock , and the Cornhuskers went into halftime with a 17 – 14 lead .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Because Nebraska received the ball to begin the game , Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the second half . Following the kickoff and return , Virginia Tech began at its 19 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the second half , Oxendine broke loose for a 36 @-@ yard run to the Nebraska 45 @-@ yard line and a first down . Despite that strong opening play , Tech was unable to gain another first down and was forced to punt after gaining only two additional yards . The Tech punt rolled out of bounds at the Nebraska 26 @-@ yard line .
The Cornhuskers ' subsequent drive did not have the initial offensive explosion of Tech 's drive , but it was in the end more successful . Benning rushed for five yards and Jeff Lake caught a 10 @-@ yard pass for a first down at the Nebraska 41 @-@ yard line . Frost then threw two incomplete passes and a nine @-@ yard toss to Vershan Jackson . Facing fourth down and needing one yard , Nebraska head coach Tom Osborne elected to attempt to gain the yardage rather than punt the ball . Benning rushed for three yards , and Nebraska was able to convert the fourth down into another first down . Benning followed that success with another , breaking loose for a 33 @-@ yard run and the first touchdown of the second half . The extra point was good , and Nebraska extended its lead to 24 – 14 with 4 : 58 remaining in the quarter .
Following the Nebraska kickoff , Tech tried to answer the Cornhusker score with one of its own . The Hokies started at their 20 @-@ yard line after a touchback . Parker caught an eight @-@ yard pass from Druckenmiller , then ran for three yards and a first down . With a first down at the Tech 31 @-@ yard line , Druckenmiller threw an incomplete pass . This was followed by a four @-@ yard run by Oxendine and a ten @-@ yard completion by Druckenmiller for another first down , this time to the Tech 45 @-@ yard line . Oxendine picked up three yards on two short runs , then Druckenmiller advanced the Hokies into the Nebraska side of the field with a 19 @-@ yard pass to Jennings . Oxendine was stopped for no gain and Druckenmiller threw an incompletion , but on third down , Druckenmiller connected with White for a 33 @-@ yard gain and Tech 's first touchdown of the second half . The extra point was good , and the Hokies again trimmed Nebraska 's lead to three points : 24 – 21 . Tech 's drive covered 80 yards in 12 plays and 4 : 56 of game time .
The Cornhuskers ' offense returned to the field with 4 : 58 remaining in the third quarter . Nebraska began at its 39 @-@ yard line after the kickoff was returned 23 yards . Frost ran four yards , and Benning earned eight yards with two rushes , giving Nebraska a first down at the Tech 49 @-@ yard line . Frost 's first pass of the drive fell incomplete , but Benning ran seven yards and Frost completed his second pass of the drive for nine yards and another first down , this time to the Tech 33 @-@ yard line . Three more rushes created 10 more yards and another first down , but a bigger loss came to the Tech defense when Hokie All @-@ American Cornell Brown was injured . Nebraska 's offense inexorably pressed onward , aided by a 15 @-@ yard pass interference penalty against Virginia Tech , and Nebraska capitalized on a six @-@ yard rush by Benning , giving Nebraska a touchdown with 20 seconds remaining in the quarter . The extra point was good , and Nebraska returned to a 10 @-@ point lead , 31 – 21 .
Nebraska 's kickoff was returned to the Tech 19 @-@ yard line , and Oxendine ran one yard on the last play of the third quarter . With one quarter remaining in the game , Virginia Tech was in possession of the ball , but trailed , 31 – 21 .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The fourth quarter began with Virginia Tech in possession of the ball and facing a second @-@ and @-@ nine at its 20 @-@ yard line . On the first play of the quarter , Druckenmiller completed a 20 @-@ yard pass to Oxendine for a first down at the Tech 40 @-@ yard line . Parker ran for three yards , but Tech was forced to call a timeout before the next play . During the timeout , a light rain began to fall that would last through the remainder of the game . Coming out of the timeout , Druckenmiller threw an incomplete pass , but made it up on the next play by rushing for 16 yards , picking up a first down at the 41 @-@ yard line of Nebraska . This was followed by another rush by Druckenmiller , this time for nine yards . The two gains were negated on the next play , however , as Virginia Tech committed a penalty that pushed the Hokies back to their 41 @-@ yard line . Druckenmiller then threw two incomplete passes , and Tech was forced to punt .
Nebraska began its possession at its five @-@ yard line after the returner was tackled for a three @-@ yard loss and the Cornhuskers were assessed six yards of penalties during the return . Frost threw an incomplete pass , Schuster ran for four yards , then Frost completed a 14 @-@ yard pass to Shevin Wiggins for a first down at the Nebraska 23 @-@ yard line . Frost continued the drive by earning nine yards on an option , then Schuster picked up three yards for another first down . Sims followed this by gaining 22 yards and two first downs on the next three plays . Frost then completed a 17 @-@ yard throw to Jeff Lake for a first down at Tech 's 26 @-@ yard line . Just outside Tech 's red zone , however , the drive petered out . Sims was stopped for a short loss , Frost ran for eight yards , and threw an incomplete pass , causing a fourth down . Kris Brown kicked his second field goal of the game , this time a 37 @-@ yard kick , which was successful . With 7 : 52 remaining in the game , Nebraska had a 34 – 21 lead .
With time running out , Virginia Tech 's offense returned to the field needing to score . Nebraska 's kickoff was downed in the end zone for a touchback , and the Hokies started at their 20 @-@ yard line . The Hokies ' need for quick points was foiled by an injury to Druckenmiller , who left the game after throwing an incomplete pass on the first play of the drive . Backup quarterback Al Clark was unable to gain a first down , and neither was Druckenmiller , who returned to the game for third down . Tech punted back to Nebraska , which returned the kick to its 45 @-@ yard line .
Cornhusker Ahman Green , who had started most of Nebraska 's games during the regular season , entered the game and ran three straight plays for 24 yards . On the third play , Green fumbled the ball , which was recovered by a Nebraska player . Frost then completed an 11 @-@ yard pass for a first down to the Tech 21 @-@ yard line . The Cornhuskers were stopped for losses on two consecutive running plays , but Frost broke free for a 22 @-@ yard touchdown run . The score and subsequent extra point gave the Cornhuskers a 41 – 21 lead with 3 : 26 remaining in the game .
The limited time left in the game meant there was little chance the Hokies could make good the 20 @-@ point deficit . Tech 's hopes flared after Nebraska 's kickoff was returned 67 yards to the Nebraska 25 @-@ yard line , providing a chance for a quick score . Druckenmiller completed a 14 @-@ yard pass after the long return , giving Tech a first down at the 11 @-@ yard line , but the Hokies were unable to advance the ball much further . Oxendine ran for five yards , but Druckenmiller threw three incomplete passes , turning the ball over on downs . With a firm lead , Nebraska proceeded to run four short rushes , running out the clock and bringing the game to an end . Nebraska won the 63rd Orange Bowl , 41 – 21 .
= = Statistical summary = =
From 1970 through 1998 , the Orange Bowl Committee , organizers of the Orange Bowl , recognized two most valuable players . Following the 63rd Orange Bowl , Virginia Tech running back Ken Oxendine and Nebraska running back Damon Benning were awarded the honor . Oxendine carried the ball 20 times during the game for a total of 150 rushing yards — an average of 7 @.@ 5 yards per carry . He also caught three passes for 60 yards , making him the game 's leading receiver as well as its leading rusher . Benning , meanwhile , carried the ball 15 times for 96 yards and two touchdowns . He also caught one pass for two yards and returned one kickoff 23 yards .
Oxendine accounted for the majority of Virginia Tech 's 193 total rushing yards , but Nebraska had many more players run the ball than just Benning , who accounted for just over one @-@ third of Nebraska 's 279 @-@ yard rushing total . Scott Frost carried the ball nine times for 62 yards and two touchdowns for the Cornhuskers , and Ahman Green , despite being hampered by his injured foot , managed seven carries for 52 yards . All told , seven Nebraska players managed to carry the ball at least once . Virginia Tech , on the other hand , saw just four players carry the ball , and its No. 2 rusher , Marcus Parker , had eight carries for 22 yards .
Though behind in the rushing game , Tech 's passing offense finished ahead of Nebraska 's . Hokie quarterback Jim Druckenmiller completed 16 of his 33 pass attempts , earning 214 passing yards and three touchdowns . On the opposite side of the ball , Nebraska quarterback Scott Frost earned just 136 passing yards from 11 completed passes and 22 attempts . Combining the rushing and passing totals results in a similar total offensive performance from both teams . Virginia Tech finished the game with 407 net yards from 72 offensive plays , while Nebraska eked 415 net yards from 71 offensive plays . The Hokies had a slight advantage in the time of possession , 31 : 02 to 28 : 58 . The real statistical difference comes in penalties — Tech committed five for 89 yards , while Nebraska had just three for 16 yards — and turnovers . The sole turnover in the game was a Virginia Tech fumble returned for a touchdown . Neither quarterback threw an interception .
Oxendine 's 150 rushing yards for Tech were the fifth @-@ highest total in the history of the Orange Bowl to that point . Druckenmiller 's three touchdown passes came behind only Notre Dame quarterback Danny Kanell 's four touchdown passes in the previous season 's Orange Bowl . Virginia Tech center Billy Conaty set a Virginia Tech record by making his 48th consecutive start in a game .
On defense , Virginia Tech 's Torrian Gray led all defenders with 12 total tackles . Second was Nebraska 's Mike Minter , who had 11 tackles and a pass breakup . Two Nebraska players had nine tackles apiece , and one of those players , Octavious McFarlin , recorded two tackles for loss . Nebraska recorded three sacks of Jim Druckenmiller , while the Virginia Tech defense was unable to sack Scott Frost . The Hokies did manage seven tackles for loss , compared to Nebraska 's five .
= = Postgame effects = =
Nebraska 's win pushed it to a final 1996 record of 11 – 2 , while Virginia Tech 's loss dropped it to 10 – 2 on the season . In the final Associated Press poll of the season , the Hokies finished 13th nationally .
Thanks to its appearance in the Orange Bowl and a revenue @-@ sharing agreement with other Big East schools , Virginia Tech earned $ 3 @.@ 981 million for playing in the 1996 Orange Bowl . $ 3 @.@ 5 million of that total came directly from the bowl , while the remaining $ 481 @,@ 000 came from the revenue @-@ sharing pool generated by all the Big East teams that participated in bowl games . The almost- $ 4 million payout made Virginia Tech 's football team the wealthiest of the 36 schools that participated in bowl games after the 1996 season .
Multiple players from each team were selected in the 1997 NFL Draft , which took place April 19 – 20 , 1997 . Nebraska had eight players selected : Michael Booker , Jared Tomich , Mike Minter , Adam Treu , Chris Dishman , Jamel Williams , Eric Stokes , and Jon Hesse .
= Silver center cent =
The silver center cent is an American pattern coin , one of the precursors to the large cent and an early example of a bimetallic coin . Less than a dozen specimens are known to exist today , and they generally fetch substantial prices ; an uncirculated silver center cent sold at auction for $ 414 @,@ 000 in January 2002 . That price was eclipsed by an example graded PCGS MS61 offered at auction in April 2012 , with a price tag of more than $ 1 million .
= = Origins = =
During the early years of the American republic , there was a general consensus that the intrinsic bullion value of the new nation 's coinage should be approximately equal to its face value . Some merchants would refuse to accept coins that did not meet this standard . For most denominations , bullion parity was achieved by producing the coins in a gold or silver alloy . However , the Coinage Act of 1792 specified that the cent was to consist of 11 pennyweight ( 264 grains or 17 @.@ 1 g ) of pure copper . Such a weight , needed to maintain intrinsic value , would have been too heavy for practical everyday use .
U.S. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson suggested an alternative : a coin made of an alloy that was primarily copper , but that included enough silver to give a reasonably @-@ sized coin an intrinsic value of one cent . This billon alloy was considered by the U.S. Mint , but U.S. Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton feared that it would be too susceptible to counterfeiting , since its appearance differed little from that of pure copper . In 1792 , the Mint 's chief coiner , Henry Voight , hit upon a solution : a copper planchet , slightly smaller than that of a modern quarter , with a small silver " plug " inserted in a center hole during the striking process . The silver plug would have been worth approximately 3 ⁄ 4 ¢ at contemporary bullion prices , while the copper planchet added an additional 1 ⁄ 4 ¢ of intrinsic value . Several such coins were produced as test pieces . Ultimately , the additional labor required for these bimetallic coins proved unsuitable for mass production , and the large cent that was produced for circulation starting in 1793 consisted of 208 grains of 100 % copper .
= = Design = =
The obverse of the silver center cent features a Liberty head with flowing hair . The date appears below the portrait , and the words " LIBERTY PARENT OF SCIENCE & INDUST . " are inscribed in a circular pattern around the central devices . The reverse design consists of a wreath with the words " ONE CENT " in the center , and the fraction " 1 / 100 " below . Surrounding the wreath , " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " is inscribed .
= 1948 Miami hurricane =
The 1948 Miami hurricane ( Air Weather Service designation : Fox ) caused no fatalities in Florida , despite moving across the Miami area as a hurricane . The ninth tropical storm and fifth hurricane of the 1948 season , the storm developed from a large low pressure area over the northwestern Caribbean Sea on October 3 . The storm intensified into a tropical storm early the next day and a hurricane several hours later . Fox then significantly deepened , peaking with winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) early on October 5 . Around that time , Fox made landfall in eastern Pinar del Río Province of Cuba . Fox crossed the island and emerged into the Straits of Florida . Late on October 5 , the hurricane struck Bahia Honda Key , Florida , with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and two hours later , hit Flamingo . Fox emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Fort Lauderdale early on October 6 . The storm moved northeastward and later curved to the east @-@ northeast . Late on October 7 , Fox made landfall on Bermuda with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Fox weakened over the next several days and later executed a large cyclonic loop . By October 16 , it became extratropical while well east @-@ southeast of Newfoundland .
In Cuba , homes and cattle were swept away by flash flooding . Eleven deaths and about 300 injuries were attributed to the tropical cyclone . Damage in the country reached about $ 6 million . The storm brought strong winds to Florida , with a sustained wind speed of 122 mph ( 196 km / h ) at Naval Air Station Key West . Heavy rainfall exceeding 9 @.@ 5 in ( 240 mm ) in Miami and three tornadoes also contributed to the damage in South Florida . Throughout the state , 674 homes were severely damaged or destroyed , while 45 other buildings were demolished . Overall , damage in Florida reached $ 5 @.@ 5 million and there were no deaths , but 36 injuries , none of which were serious . In Bermuda , buildings were unroofed and the sides of some structures were knocked down . Electrical light wires and telephone lines were toppled across the island . Damage totaled over $ 1 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
A very large but weak and elongated low pressure area first noted over the Intertropical Convergence Zone on October 1 developed into a tropical depression around 12 : 00 UTC on October 3 , while situated about 55 mi ( 90 km ) southeast of the Swan Islands . The storm intensified into a tropical storm early on October 4 and was designated as Tropical Storm Fox by the Air Weather Service in real time , although the name Fox is not included in HURDAT . Several hours later , the storm intensified into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . A reconnaissance flight into the hurricane late on October 4 indicated winds near the center estimated at 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Early the following day , Fox became a Category 2 hurricane . At 06 : 00 UTC the system peaked as a Category 3 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) . About an hour later , Fox made landfall at the same intensity in eastern Pinar del Río Province of Cuba . Shortly before 12 : 00 UTC on October 5 , the storm emerged into the Straits of Florida . Prior to reanalysis in 2014 , it was thought that Fox briefly strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 130 mph ( 215 km / h ) , but reanalysis instead revealed that the storm weakened to 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) because the aforementioned wind speed was a gust rather than a sustained wind .
Fox weakened while moving northeastward and fell to Category 2 hurricane intensity by 18 : 00 UTC , at which time it made landfall on Bahia Honda Key , Florida , with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Continuing northeastward , the hurricane struck near Flamingo about two hours later at the same intensity . While passing near Miami early on October 6 , Fox briefly weakened to a Category 1 hurricane . Shortly thereafter , it emerged into the Atlantic Ocean near Fort Lauderdale and quickly re @-@ strengthened to a Category 2 hurricane . After brushing Grand Bahama island , the storm continued on its northeasterly trajectory into the open sea , until curving east @-@ northward on October 7 . Around 12 : 00 UTC , a ship observed a barometric pressure of 971 mbar ( 28 @.@ 7 inHg ) , the lowest in relation to the cyclone . Ten hours later , Fox made landfall on Bermuda with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . The storm fell to Category 1 early on October 8 and to tropical storm status after about 24 hours . Fox then meandered out in the central Atlantic for several days and executed a large cyclonic loop between October 11 and October 14 . Fox turned northward on October 14 and began to accelerate . After curving northeastward , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone early on October 16 while located about 535 mi ( 861 km ) east @-@ southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland . The remnants were absorbed by a cold front several hours later .
= = Impact = =
The storm brought strong winds to Cuba , with a wind gust of 132 mph ( 212 km / h ) in Havana . The city suffered considerable damage , forcing police to patrol for looters . Nearly all of the city was left without electricity . In some portions of the neighborhood of Miramar , flooding was reported . Trees were felled onto Paseo del Prado , a famous street in Havana . In other parts of the city , falling trees and rubble also disrupted transportation . There were heavy crop losses in Havana and Pinar Del Rio provinces , where several rivers overflowed their banks . Homes and cattle were swept away by flash flooding . Overall , the hurricane left eleven fatalities , three of them due to houses collapsing on their occupants . Additionally , there were about 300 injuries and an estimated $ 6 million in damage . After the storm , Cuban President Ramón Grau , President @-@ elect Carlos Prío Socarrás , and Major General Genovevo Pérez Dámera – Chief of Staff of the Army – assessed damage in the Havana area and developed plans for recovery .
The Hurricane Warning Service , operated by the United States Weather Bureau and the predecessor to the National Hurricane Center , issued hurricane warnings from Fort Myers to Miami , including the Florida Keys on October 4 . Miami Weather Bureau chief Grady Norton urged residents to take precautions and concentrate on further advisories . On October 5 , the hurricane warning was revised to include Naples to Jupiter . Additionally , other warnings were issued for areas surrounding Lake Okeechobee due to flooding concerns . Four U.S. Navy wartime housing project areas in Key West were evacuated . About 100 Seminoles fled the Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation , with 95 % of the property still inundated from the September hurricane . Two 25 @-@ car trains evacuated about 5 @,@ 000 people in the Lake Okeechobee area in Lake Harbor and transported them to Sebring . Many residents throughout South Florida boarded @-@ up their windows and sandbagged their properties . The American Red Cross opened 143 shelters , which 21 @,@ 663 people sought refuge in .
The hurricane , reminiscent of Hurricane Floyd in 1987 , produced minimal damage in the Florida Keys . Strong winds were reported at some islands , with winds well over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) observed on Bahia Honda Key . At the Naval Air Station Key West on Boca Chica Key , several buildings were deroofed . The cyclone produced a storm surge of 4 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) on Biscayne Bay . Rainfall exceeded 9 @.@ 5 in ( 241 @.@ 30 mm ) at the Miami airport station , inundating many streets in the city and in Hialeah , Homestead , Miami Beach , Miami Springs . In Hialeah , the city mayor reported water depths of 3 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) in the streets . A Miami bridge , located near the Miami River , was damaged by a loose barge during the hurricane . Planes were overturned and damaged by strong winds at the Tamiami Airport . Electrical outages occurred in Miami as power lines snapped due to the wind . In Miami Beach , a fire that broke out during the storm severely damaged a meat market and destroyed a photo shop . Prior to landfall , the hurricane produced three tornadoes , all of which attained the equivalence of F2 intensity on the modern Fujita scale . A tornado destroyed three homes in the city of Opa @-@ locka , where damage reached $ 15 @,@ 000 . The tornado flipped cars and inflicted extensive damage at the Royal Palm dairy farm .
Another tornado touched down just south of Pompano Beach demolished 25 homes and left $ 100 @,@ 000 in damage and seven injuries . Forty @-@ four minutes later , a third tornado struck homes west of Fort Lauderdale . One building , containing two stories , lost its roof , while five homes incurred damage . Barns were damaged or destroyed . Losses reached $ 15 @,@ 000 . West Palm Beach observed wind gusts up to 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) . The hurricane caused no fatalities across the state , which the Weather Bureau considered unusual due to the storm 's path over the densely populated Miami metropolitan area . The passage of hurricane in September , which had resulted in pre @-@ existing damage , mitigated the destruction from the October hurricane . Overall , 36 homes were destroyed and 638 others suffered serious impact , while 45 buildings were demolished and 50 others experienced damage . Total losses in Florida reached $ 5 @.@ 5 million , which included $ 3 @.@ 5 million to property , $ 1 @.@ 5 million to crops , $ 400 @,@ 000 to electricity and communications , and $ 100 @,@ 000 to roads .
In the Bahamas , wind gusts reached 110 mph ( 170 km / h ) on Grand Bahama . Bermuda was also impacted by the hurricane , with strong winds blowing roofs off buildings , including a portion of the roof on the House of Assembly of Bermuda , and the sides of some structures were knocked down . Electrical light wires and telephone lines were down across the island . Kindley Air Force Base and the U.S. Naval Base received minimal damage . Damages exceeded $ 1 million .
= Burger King legal issues =
The legal issues of Burger King include several legal disputes and lawsuits , as both plaintiff and defendant , of the international fast food restaurant chain Burger King ( BK ) , in the years since its founding in 1954 . Situations involving these many legal topics have affected almost every aspect of the company 's operations . Depending on the ownership and executive staff at the time of these incidents , the company 's responses to these challenges have ranged from a conciliatory dialog with its critics and litigants to a more aggressive opposition with questionable tactics and negative consequences . The company 's response to these various issues has drawn praise , scorn , and accusations of political appeasement from different parties over the years .
Controversies and disputes have arisen from a diverse source of group such as People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) over the welfare of animals , governmental and social agencies over health issues and compliance with nutritional labeling laws , and unions and trade groups over labor relations and laws . These situations have touched on the concepts of animal rights , corporate responsibility and ethics , as well as social justice . While the majority of the disputes did not result in lawsuits , in many of the cases the situations raised legal questions , dealt with statutory compliance , or resulted in legal remedies such as changes in contractual procedure or binding agreements between parties . The resolutions to these legal matters have often altered the way the company interacts and negotiates contracts with its suppliers and franchisees or how it does business with the public .
Further controversies have occurred because of the company 's involvement in the Middle East . The opening of a Burger King location in the Israeli @-@ occupied territories lead to a breach of contract dispute between Burger King and its Israeli franchise ; the dispute eventually erupted into a geopolitical conflagration involving Muslim and Jewish groups on multiple continents over the application of and adherence to international law . The case eventually elicited reactions from the members of the 22 @-@ nation Arab League ; the Islamic countries within the League made a joint threat to the company of legal sanctions including the revocation of Burger King 's business licenses within the member states ' territories . A second issue involving members of the Islamic faith over the interpretation of the Muslim version of canon law , Shariah , regarding the promotional artwork on a dessert package in the United Kingdom raised issues of cultural sensitivity , and , with the former example , posed a larger question about the lengths that companies must go to insure the smooth operation of their businesses in the communities they serve .
A trademark dispute involving the owners of the identically named Burger King in Mattoon , Illinois led to a federal lawsuit ; the case 's outcome helped define the scope of the Lanham act and trademark law in the United States . An existing trademark held by a shop of the same name in South Australia forced the company to change its name in Australia , while another state trademark in Texas forced the company to abandon its signature product , the Whopper , in several counties around San Antonio . Legal decisions from other suits have set contractual law precedents in regards to long @-@ arm statutes , the limitations of franchise agreements , and ethical business practices ; many of these decisions have helped define general business dealings that continue to shape the entire marketplace .
= = Legal disputes & agreements = =
= = = Animal welfare = = =
In 2001 , the animal rights group PETA began targeting fast food chains in the United States regarding the treatment of chickens by suppliers such as Tyson Foods . Using parodies of corporate logos and slogans , the group sought to publicly embarrass the companies into changing their corporate policies in dealing with their poultry suppliers . After winning concessions from McDonald 's with its " McCruelty " campaign , the group targeted Burger King with a six @-@ month campaign it called Murder King . The group and its supporters , with the backing of celebrities including Alec Baldwin , James Cromwell , and Richard Pryor , staged protests outside Burger King restaurants across the United States , calling on the company to establish these new compliance guidelines . On June 28 , 2001 , Burger King entered into an agreement with the group and established a contractual framework that defined procedures to ensure that its suppliers were conforming to the agreed @-@ upon standards of animal welfare . These changes , along with the company 's new vegetarian offering , the BK Veggie sandwich , drew praise from the group .
In 2006 , PETA went before Burger King 's board of directors during its parent company 's annual corporate meeting to request that poultry suppliers switched to a more @-@ humane method of slaughter called controlled atmosphere killing ( CAK ) . Instead of using its previous tactic of stating that the procedure is more humane , the group claimed that CAK was economically more feasible as it reduces the chances of injury to workers in poultry factories and it produces better products by preventing injury to the animal . Responding to the proposal in March 2007 , Burger King announced it would make further changes to its animal @-@ welfare policies . The new policies favor suppliers of chickens that utilize CAK rather than electric shock to knock birds unconscious before slaughter , and require its pork and poultry suppliers to upgrade the living conditions of pigs and chickens . Under the agreement , 2 % of BK 's North American egg suppliers are to use cage @-@ free @-@ produced eggs and 10 % of pork suppliers are to use crate @-@ free pigs for its pork products . PETA and the Humane Society of the United States were quoted as saying that Burger King ’ s initiatives put it ahead of its competitors in terms of animal rights and welfare and that they were hopeful that the new initiatives would trigger reform throughout the fast food industry as a whole .
= = = Nutrition = = =
Since the 1980s , several parties , including the Center for Science in the Public Interest ( CSPI ) , the British Heart Foundation , the City of New York , and the Spanish government , have argued that Burger King has contributed to obesity and unhealthy eating behaviors in Western nations by producing products that contain large amounts of salt , fat , trans @-@ fat and calories . After its purchase by TPG Capital from former parent company Diageo in 2002 , the company introduced several large , over @-@ sized products including its European BK XXL line , the British Angus burger six @-@ pack , the Enormous Omelet Sandwich line and the BK Stacker line . These new offerings , and others like them , have resulted in further international scorn and negative attention due the large portion size and increased amounts of unhealthy fats and trans @-@ fats in these items . Many consumer groups have accused Burger King and other fast food restaurant chains of failing to provide healthier alternatives .
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appeal to the US Supreme Court , which agreed to hear the case on its merits , after which it would decide if it had jurisdiction to grant a writ of certiorari . In its decision , the Supreme Court overturned the Appellate Court and found that Florida does have jurisdiction in the case . The Court concluded that the defendants , Rudzewicz and MacShara , sought out their franchise in the state of Florida and were availed of the protections of that state and were , therefore , subject to jurisdiction there . Additionally , the Court reasoned that the defendants had a " substantial and continuing " relationship with Burger King in Florida and that due process would not be violated because the defendants should have reasonably anticipated being summoned into court in Florida for breach of contract .
The decision in Burger King Corp. v. Rudzewicz , has been criticized as complicating " personal jurisdiction jurisprudence by creating , in dicta , a new bifurcated test " that duplicates a venue analysis , adds little to the minimum contacts inquiry , hinders predictability , is a burdensome process , and potentially allows a plaintiff to manipulate a defendant 's constitutional rights .
= = = Burger King of Florida , Inc. v. Hoots = = =
As the company expanded , it was subject to several legal issues regarding trademarks . Because of its use as a case study in American law schools , one of the most prominent incidents of infringement in the United States occurred with the similarly named Burger King located in Mattoon , Illinois . Eugene and Elizabeth Hoots owned an ice cream shop in the city of Mattoon ; due to the success of the store , in 1957 they expanded it with an additional shop in a former garage next to the original operation . Keeping with theme related to the name of the ice cream shop , Frigid Queen , they named their burger stand Burger King and registered their trademark with the state of Illinois in 1959 . In 1962 The Hootses , with knowledge of the Federal trademark held by Burger King Corporation , added a second location in Charleston , Illinois .
In 1961 , with its first location in Skokie , Illinois , Burger King Corporation and its franchises began opening stores and by 1967 had over 20 locations spread throughout the state . The Hootses , claiming that their trademark gave them exclusive rights to the name in Illinois sued BK in the state , and later federal , courts under the case Burger King of Florida , Inc. v. Hoots 403 F.2d 904 ( 7th Cir . 1968 ) . The decision issued by United States District Court for the Central District of Illinois , and upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit , stated that the BK federal trademark , applied for in 1961 and granted in 1963 , took precedence over the Hootses ' older , state trademark ; The Court granted the Hootses exclusive rights to the Burger King trademark within a circular area defined with a 20 @-@ mile ( 32 km ) radius centered on their original location .
The Burger King v. Hoots trademark dispute and its resulting decision went beyond the original case , it established a major legal precedent in the United States in regards to the Lanham Act . The ruling states that while the senior user of the state service mark or trademark has prior usage of the common law marks , federal statute overrides the earlier , state service mark and prohibits the senior user from preventing the junior user from exercising the use of the federally registered mark outside a defined geographic reach of the senior user .
The Hoots decision would again affect Burger King as it moved into the state of Texas . When Burger King expanded into the San Antonio area , it was prevented from utilizing the name of its signature product , the Whopper , in its local advertising and stores due to a prior state registered service mark owned by a local chain known as Whopper Burger . The chain , owned by Frank and Barbara Bates , prevented the company from using the name in Bexar County for several years until Mrs. Bates , the CEO of Whopper Burger after the death of her husband in 1983 , retired and sold the chain with its related trademarks to then @-@ corporate parent Pillsbury in the mid @-@ 1980s .
= Joppenbergh Mountain =
Joppenbergh Mountain is a nearly 500 @-@ foot ( 152 m ) mountain in Rosendale Village , a hamlet in the town of Rosendale , in Ulster County , New York . The mountain is composed of a carbonate bedrock overlain by glacially deposited material . It was named after Rosendale 's founder , Jacob Rutsen , and mined throughout the late 19th century for dolostone that was used in the manufacture of natural cement . Extensive mining caused a large cave @-@ in on December 19 , 1899 , that destroyed equipment and collapsed shafts within Joppenbergh . Though it was feared that several workers had been killed , the collapse happened while all the miners were outside , eating lunch . Since the collapse , the mountain has experienced shaking and periodic rockfalls .
During the late 1930s , Joppenbergh became the site of several ski jumping competitions , which continued until the early 1940s . The original slope was designed by Harold Schelderup for Rosendale 's first competition in 1937 ; Schelderup himself skied that July , after the slope was coated with borax for a summer competition . Several Olympic skiers participated in the competitions . Skiing began again in the 1960s , when a new slope was built on the mountain , and the revived competitions continued until 1971 .
The town of Rosendale considered buying land near the mountain in 2003 for parking , and the following year , the town leased a tract of land to build a municipal parking lot . Joppenbergh was put up for sale in 2009 , and in March 2011 , the Open Space Institute ( OSI ) offered to purchase the entire 117 @-@ acre ( 47 ha ) property and sell it to the town . The Rosendale town board initially agreed to the deal the following month , with payment planned to come from a surplus fund . That June , however , the board found that the surplus fund had already been exhausted and could not cover the entire cost of the purchase . Ultimately , the OSI completed its purchase of Joppenbergh in October 2011 , without town money .
= = Name = =
Joppenbergh is named after Colonel Jacob Rutsen , born Jacobsen Rutger van Schoonderwoerdt . Rutsen was a merchant , and the son of a Dutch immigrant , from Albany ; he founded the first settlement in what is now the town of Rosendale , New York , in the late 17th century . The spelling of the mountain 's name has been disputed , and has been rendered as Joppenberg and Joppenburgh . It has also been called Jacob 's Nose , Jacob 's Mount , and , in an early 18th @-@ century deed , Jobsenbright .
= = Geology = =
Sources differ on whether Joppenbergh is 485 feet ( 148 m ) or 495 feet ( 151 m ) . Both measurements give Joppenbergh a lower elevation than the highest point in the town of Rosendale , a 600 @-@ foot ( 180 m ) peak of the Shawangunk Ridge .
The bedrock underlying the mountain is composed of limestone and dolostone members of the Helderberg Group , laid during the Paleozoic era . Most of the Helderberg carbonates in Rosendale are located north of the Rondout Creek , and have given Rosendale a karst topography , resulting in " sink holes , disappearing streams , caves , and springs " . The mountain 's surface is composed of unconsolidated , glacially deposited outwash and till , with several outcrops exposing Joppenbergh 's bedrock . Soils have been mapped as Farmington @-@ Rock outcrop complex . In some areas , the soil depth is less than 20 inches ( 51 cm ) , which hinders groundwater filtration . Other parts of the mountain have a steep , 30 percent grade . These areas , comprising nearly 75 percent of the 117 @-@ acre ( 47 ha ) property , cannot be easily developed .
= = History = =
= = = Mining collapses = = =
In 1825 , engineers working on the Delaware and Hudson Canal found large numbers of dolostone rocks in the region , which enabled the production of natural cement . The rocks contained dolomite of the Upper Silurian 's Rondout formation . Joppenbergh was rich in the mineral , and was mined . Several quarries operated on the mountain , including the New York and Rosendale Cement Company , and the James Cement Company . No one company had complete control of the entire mountain .
By late December 1899 , mining had compromised Joppenbergh 's integrity enough to cause a series of landslides , followed by a large cave @-@ in on December 19 . Four collapses occurred that day , beginning at 8 AM , and culminating in the 11 : 30 AM collapse of the Black Smoke Mine shaft network . Though it was initially believed that fifteen workers had been killed , the collapse happened while all 150 men were outside of the mountain , eating lunch .
The collapse rendered the canal and nearby road impassable , and caused a boiler explosion that shook the nearby Rosendale trestle . At the time of the collapse , the total cost of the damage was estimated to be between $ 20 @,@ 000 and $ 25 @,@ 000 . Another , larger collapse happened the following week , late at night . This cave @-@ in was believed to have been caused by the December 19 collapse . Shortly after the landslides , " swarms of gawking spectators " crowded the village to photograph the debris ; one such photograph was alleged to depict the Madonna . Frequent rockfalls as a result of mining led to calls to destroy the mountain in 1907 .
= = = Skiing competitions = = =
Throughout the 1930s the tourist industry in Rosendale flourished , generating almost $ 700 @,@ 000 each year between spring and autumn . The Rosendale Township Association , founded in 1934 to encourage tourism in the town , sought out new activities to attract tourists to Rosendale during the winter . In 1936 the association asked a Brooklyn @-@ based telemark skiing club to build its new 40 @-@ meter ( 130 ft ) ski jumping slope in Rosendale . The group leased Joppenbergh from owner Warren Sammons .
Rosendale 's first ski jumping competition was held on January 24 , 1937 . The ski track was designed by Harold Schelderup , a ski hill designer from Norway . Bad weather caused the cancellation of competitive events , but a skiing exhibition still occurred . That April , the Telemark club held a special dinner in Brooklyn to honor members who performed well in the January competition . The club planned to hold a summer competition by covering the mountain with " straw and pine needles " . Harold Schelderup , who was recognized at the dinner for his skills , performed in the summer tournament . Joppenbergh 's ski track was coated with borax , and the tournament was held on July 18 , 1937 at 2 : 30 in the afternoon , with enough parking provided for 500 cars . In front of a crowd of 3 @,@ 300 people , " jumpers took off from an in @-@ run covered with borax and landed on a hill covered with mats and carpets topped with straw and borax " .
Olympic skier Ottar Satre set a record jump of 112 feet ( 34 m ) in 1937 . The following year a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) extension was placed atop the mountain to increase jumpers ' distance . Although Satre 's 112 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) record was expected to be beaten by more than 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) , the winner of the January 23 , 1938 competition was Norwegian skier Nils Eie , who jumped only 128 feet ( 39 m ) . Harold Schelderup also participated in the competition , which was held the week after he won a separate tournament in White Plains . Another Joppenbergh tournament was planned for March 7 , 1938 . Competitions were held in 1940 and 1941 . The length of the slope was increased to 50 meters ( 160 ft ) in 1941 , but the United States ' entrance into World War II caused skiers to enter the military , and competitions were not held after the war .
Skiing resumed on Joppenbergh in the 1960s . The Rosendale Nordic Ski Club was organized on January 11 , 1964 , and immediately created the Joppenbergh Mountain Corporation ( JMC ) to manage the Joppenbergh property . Three hundred shares of stock were issued for the JMC , priced at $ 100 per share , to build a new slope – and to buy the mountain itself for $ 20 @,@ 000 from its owner , Mary Sammons . The JMC gained control of the property on August 20 , 1964 , and immediately announced its intent to build a new ski slope on the site of the original one , as well as a parking lot capable of holding 10 @,@ 000 cars . The goal of the club was to make Rosendale the " Nordic Ski Capital of the East " . A new 70 @-@ meter ( 230 ft ) slope was completed on November 14 , 1965 , and augmented by a snowmaking system to provide artificial snow . When a ski jumping competition was held on January 30 , 1966 , skier Leif Bringslimark achieved a 152 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) jump from the new slope . Competitions were held January 22 , 1967 and January 27 , 1968 . The winner of the 1968 tournament was Per Coucheron , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Dartmouth student who reached 206 feet ( 63 m ) . The slope was icy prior to the competition ; a snowmaking machine was used the night before the jump , and club members , as well as the competitors themselves , " help [ ed ] manicure the slope " . When the jump began , the slope was in fine condition .
The Rosendale Outing Ski Club organized a competition on January 25 and 26 , 1969 , attended by a crowd of 3 @,@ 000 people . Olympic medalist Franz Keller jumped 212 feet ( 65 m ) down a 65 @-@ meter ( 213 ft ) slope on Joppenbergh , though he managed to reach 214 feet ( 65 m ) during practice . It had rained the week before the competition , and although 20 truckloads of snow were brought in , the condition of the track was " extremely fast " . Several participants fell , and one was brought to a hospital in Kingston .
A jump took place on January 18 , 1970 , the same year that the Rosendale Outing Ski Club became part of the Rosendale Nordic Ski Club . The new club organized Rosendale 's final skiing competition , which took place on February 6 and 7 , 1971 . Keller 's 212 @-@ foot ( 65 m ) record was broken twice on February 6 , by Middlebury College student Hugh Barber . The 185 @-@ pound ( 84 kg ) Barber reached heights of 213 feet ( 65 m ) and 217 feet ( 66 m ) during the competition , and 226 feet ( 69 m ) during practice , in front of 3 @,@ 500 spectators . Although Barber believed the ski hill was in " great condition " , 10 to 15 percent of participants had fallen during the tournament . Consistently unfavorable weather conditions and a lack of profitability were the major reasons skiing stopped on Joppenbergh ; the poor design of the slope , as well as infighting among ski club members , also contributed . The slope was subsequently abandoned , and an adjacent facility , for the ski jumps , fell into disuse . The JMC continued to own and maintain the property after skiing ceased .
= = = Modern use = = =
Periodic rockfalls continue to happen , with debris sliding down the mountain face . In 1984 , State Route 213 was moved 50 feet ( 15 m ) away from Joppenbergh and closer to Rondout Creek to protect motorists . A retaining wall was put up at the foot of the mountain to prevent falling rocks from rolling onto the street . During the 1980s , Vidacable TV Systems leased part of the mountain from the JMC to set up an antenna . Cellular One considered building a 180 @-@ foot ( 55 m ) cell tower on top of Joppenbergh in 1992 , but decided not to do so . Although there was public opposition to the proposal , Cellular One stated that local sentiment was not a factor in its decision against building the tower . In 1995 the mountain was studied by the New York Public Service Commission to determine a possible route for new transmission lines laid by a local energy utility .
The body of a 25 @-@ year @-@ old substitute teacher from Kingston , Amy Glauner , was found on Joppenbergh after an October 1998 search . Police determined that she died of head trauma following a fall . Her car had been found in a parking lot by the mountain .
In 2003 , the town of Rosendale considered either leasing a tract of land near Joppenbergh , or purchasing a 1 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 61 ha ) lot , to expand parking on Main Street . The lot belonged to former village mayor Joseph Reid , who refused to sell it to the town . Although the town board considered using eminent domain to acquire Reid 's property , it agreed in June 2004 to lease the Joppenbergh property instead , for a period of 10 years , at a rate of $ 3 @,@ 500 each year . One member of the town board opposed the deal because it would not secure the land beyond the 10 @-@ year term . The lease allowed the town to create a park by the municipal lot , Willow Kiln Park , which contains several defunct cement kilns . Willow Kiln Park has served as the setting of an art show and , following a zombie @-@ themed street festival , a concert .
Though the JMC had been unwilling to sell its land in 2004 , by December 2009 the entire mountain was put up for sale , for $ 500 @,@ 000 . Before 2009 , the assessed value of the property was only about $ 50 @,@ 000 . In early March 2011 , the Open Space Institute ( OSI ) offered to purchase the 117 @-@ acre ( 47 ha ) property – which had , by that time , been reassessed at $ 240 @,@ 000 – for $ 185 @,@ 000 , and sell it to the town for $ 85 @,@ 000 . The deal would create an easement with the town , allowing only noncommercial use of the mountain while preserving the municipal parking lot at its base . While some government officials viewed such an acquisition as a permanent solution to the hamlet 's parking problems , other officials viewed the loss of tax revenue from the privately owned property to be undesirable .
More than 175 people showed up for a rancorous public hearing over the purchase on April 6 , 2011 . During the hearing , members of the Rosendale town board determined that the tax income from the entire property was much less than the cost of renting part of it for parking . Residents brought up several issues , such as the liability the town would assume from falling rocks , and sinkholes . Other issues discussed were the lack of road access to the parking lot , and whether the property should be used commercially . An individual living adjacent to the property , Brett Hansen , expressed a strong desire to buy it and build additional parking lots , as well as an amphitheater . Proponents of the purchase described how ownership of Joppenbergh would allow Rosendale to connect the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail with Main Street , and how property values near the mountain would increase . The town board agreed to the purchase in a 3 – 2 vote on April 13 .
Although a 17 @-@ page petition with 298 signatures in favor of a public referendum was presented at the meeting , the board felt that OSI funds would not be available by the proposed November referendum . Opponents of the board 's decision protested it by placing signs near the mountain deriding the purchase as an unwise expenditure . The town was not legally obligated to hold a referendum , regardless of public sentiment , because the money budgeted for the purchase was not borrowed ; board members planned to tap a $ 340 @,@ 000 surplus fund , generated by the 2010 sale of town land to the OSI , which intended to allow bouldering on the property . The $ 340 @,@ 000 fund was originally intended for capital improvements , specifically the construction of a new town hall , but a June 2011 audit of the town 's 2010 budget found that a large part of the surplus had already been used to offset budget and tax shortfalls ; only $ 79 @,@ 000 remained available .
Several local businesses considered contributing money to the mountain 's purchase . Such funding would be considered surplus , and would not be subject to referendum . Owners of businesses on Main Street expressed concern at the June 1 town board meeting that the cost of parking would increase if the property was purchased by a third party . One board member estimated that without paying rent , the town would recoup the cost of the property within 12 years . Ulster County Area Transit expressed a desire to route its buses through the property , creating a connection to the Mohonk Preserve . A nonprofit organization , the Joppenbergh Mountain Preservation Association , was created in June 2011 to raise funding to purchase the mountain , the parking lot , and Willow Kiln Park .
In an effort to reduce the purchase price , the town board asked the mountain 's current owners to discount the final four years of rent on the parking lot , a cost of $ 32 @,@ 000 . The town considered buying only the parking lot and Willow Kiln Park , but the JMC 's lawyer indicated that the 117 @-@ acre ( 47 ha ) property would not be divided . Ultimately , the OSI bought Joppenbergh without any financial assistance from the town , gaining ownership of the property in October 2011 , although the sale was not completed until December 20 , 2011 . By that time , most of the JMC 's stockholders had died , and ownership of the property generated so little income that it served " no further business purpose " . Joppenbergh was a point of contention during the town 's November 2011 elections , with Republicans criticizing the affair as " reflect [ ing ] poorly on town Democrats ' fiscal management skills " . The town of Rosendale approached the OSI in January 2012 to renew its lease of the parking lot , which was set to expire at the end of 2013 .
In 2012 the OSI transferred ownership of the property to a local conservancy , the Wallkill Valley Land Trust ( WVLT ) . An informal association of businesses , the Joppenbergh Mountain Advisory Group ( JMAG ) , began working with the WVLT to create a land use policy . The WVLT began having monthly meetings with the JMAG , and with town and state departments ; its stated goal was to combine Joppenbergh 's development with the rehabilitation of the adjacent railroad trestle and subsequent expansion of the rail trail . In late September 2012 , the WVLT held a hearing on a proposed land use plan that would allow deer hunting on the property beginning in 2013 , and would prohibit entry into several caves on the mountain .
= The Basement Tapes =
The Basement Tapes is a studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Bob Dylan and the Band , released on June 26 , 1975 by Columbia Records . It is Dylan 's sixteenth studio album . The songs featuring Dylan 's vocals were recorded in 1967 , eight years before the album 's release , at houses in and around Woodstock , New York , where Dylan and the Band lived . Although most of the Dylan songs had appeared on bootleg records , The Basement Tapes marked their first official release .
During his world tour of 1965 – 66 , Dylan was backed by a five @-@ member rock group , the Hawks , who would subsequently become famous as the Band . After Dylan was injured in a motorcycle accident in July 1966 , four members of the Hawks gravitated to the vicinity of Dylan 's home in the Woodstock area to collaborate with him on music and film projects . While Dylan was concealed from the public 's gaze during an extended period of convalescence in 1967 , they recorded more than 100 tracks together , incorporating original compositions , contemporary covers and traditional material . Dylan 's new style of writing moved away from the urban sensibility and extended narratives that had characterized his most recent albums , Highway 61 Revisited and Blonde on Blonde , toward songs that were more intimate and which drew on many styles of traditional American music . While some of the basement songs are humorous , others dwell on nothingness , betrayal and a quest for salvation . In general , they possess a rootsy quality anticipating the Americana genre . For some critics , the songs on The Basement Tapes , which circulated widely in unofficial form , mounted a major stylistic challenge to rock music in the late sixties .
When Columbia Records prepared the album for official release in 1975 , eight songs recorded solely by the Band — in various locations between 1967 and 1975 — were added to sixteen songs taped by Dylan and the Band in 1967 . Overdubs were added in 1975 to songs from both categories . The Basement Tapes was critically acclaimed upon release , reaching number seven on the Billboard 200 album chart . Subsequently , the format of the 1975 album has led critics to question the omission of some of Dylan 's best @-@ known 1967 compositions and the inclusion of material by the Band that was not recorded in Woodstock .
= = Background and recording = =
By July 1966 , Bob Dylan was at the peak of both creative and commercial success . Highway 61 Revisited had reached number three on the US album chart in November 1965 ; the recently released double @-@ LP Blonde on Blonde was widely acclaimed . From September 1965 to May 1966 , Dylan embarked on an extensive tour across the US , Australia and Europe backed by the Hawks , a band that had formerly worked with rock and roll musician Ronnie Hawkins . The Hawks comprised four Canadian musicians — Rick Danko , Garth Hudson , Richard Manuel and Robbie Robertson — and one American , Levon Helm . Dylan 's audiences reacted with hostility to the sound of their folk icon backed by a rock band . Dismayed by the negative reception , Helm quit the Hawks in November 1965 and drifted around the South , at one point working on an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico . The tour culminated in a famously raucous concert in Manchester , England , in May 1966 when an audience member shouted " Judas ! " at Dylan for allegedly betraying the cause of politically progressive folk music . Returning exhausted from the hectic schedule of his world tour , Dylan discovered that his manager , Albert Grossman , had arranged a further 63 concerts across the US that year .
= = = Motorcycle crash = = =
On July 29 , 1966 , Dylan crashed his Triumph motorcycle near his home in Woodstock , New York , suffering cracked vertebrae and a mild concussion . The concerts he was scheduled to perform had to be cancelled . Biographer Clinton Heylin wrote in 1990 on the significance of the crash : " A quarter of a century on , Dylan 's motorcycle accident is still viewed as the pivot of his career . As a sudden , abrupt moment when his wheel really did explode . The great irony is that 1967 — the year after the accident — remains his most prolific year as a songwriter . " In a 1969 Rolling Stone interview with Jann Wenner , Dylan said , " I had a dreadful motorcycle accident which put me away for a while , and I still didn 't sense the importance of that accident till at least a year after that . I realized that it was a real accident . I mean I thought that I was just gonna get up and go back to doing what I was doing before ... but I couldn 't do it anymore . "
Dylan was rethinking the direction of his life while recovering from a sense of having been exploited . Nine months after the crash , he told New York Daily News reporter Michael Iachetta , " Songs are in my head like they always are . And they 're not going to get written down until some things are evened up . Not until some people come forth and make up for some of the things that have happened . " After discussing the crash with Dylan , biographer Robert Shelton concluded that he " was saying there must be another way of life for the pop star , in which he is in control , not they . He had to find ways of working to his own advantage with the recording industry . He had to come to terms with his one @-@ time friend , longtime manager , part @-@ time neighbor , and sometime landlord , Albert Grossman . "
= = = Early recordings = = =
Rick Danko recalled that he , Richard Manuel and Garth Hudson joined Robbie Robertson in West Saugerties , a few miles from Woodstock , in February 1967 . The three of them moved into a house on Stoll Road nicknamed " Big Pink " ; Robertson lived nearby with his future wife , Dominique . Danko and Manuel had been invited to Woodstock to collaborate with Dylan on a film he was editing , Eat the Document , a rarely seen account of Dylan 's 1966 world tour . At some point between March and June 1967 , Dylan and the four Hawks began a series of informal recording sessions , initially at the so @-@ called Red Room of Dylan 's house , Hi Lo Ha , in the Byrdcliffe area of Woodstock . In June , the recording sessions moved to the basement of Big Pink . Hudson set up a recording unit , using two stereo mixers and a tape recorder borrowed from Grossman , as well as a set of microphones on loan from folk trio Peter , Paul and Mary . Dylan would later tell Jann Wenner , " That 's really the way to do a recording — in a peaceful , relaxed setting — in somebody 's basement . With the windows open ... and a dog lying on the floor . "
For the first couple of months , they were merely " killing time " , according to Robertson , with many early sessions devoted to covers . " With the covers Bob was educating us a little " , recalls Robertson . " The whole folkie thing was still very questionable to us — it wasn 't the train we came in on . ... He 'd come up with something like ' Royal Canal ' , and you 'd say , ' This is so beautiful ! The expression ! ' ... He remembered too much , remembered too many songs too well . He 'd come over to Big Pink , or wherever we were , and pull out some old song — and he 'd prepped for this . He 'd practiced this , and then come out here , to show us . " Songs recorded at the early sessions included material written or made popular by Johnny Cash , Ian & Sylvia , John Lee Hooker , Hank Williams and Eric Von Schmidt , as well as traditional songs and standards . Linking all the recordings , both new material and old , is the way in which Dylan re @-@ engaged with traditional American music . Biographer Barney Hoskyns observed that both the seclusion of Woodstock and the discipline and sense of tradition in the Hawks ' musicianship were just what Dylan needed after the " globe @-@ trotting psychosis " of the 1965 – 66 tour .
= = = New compositions = = =
Dylan began to write and record new material at the sessions . According to Hudson , " We were doing seven , eight , ten , sometimes fifteen songs a day . Some were old ballads and traditional songs ... but others Bob would make up as he went along . ... We 'd play the melody , he 'd sing a few words he 'd written , and then make up some more , or else just mouth sounds or even syllables as he went along . It 's a pretty good way to write songs . " Danko told Dylan biographer Howard Sounes , " Bob and Robbie , they would come by every day , five to seven days a week , for seven to eight months . " Hudson added , " It amazed me , Bob 's writing ability . How he would come in , sit down at the typewriter , and write a song . And what was amazing was that almost every one of those songs was funny . "
Dylan recorded around thirty new compositions with the Hawks , including some of the most celebrated songs of his career : " I Shall Be Released " , " This Wheel 's on Fire " , " Quinn the Eskimo ( The Mighty Quinn ) " , " Tears of Rage " and " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " . Two of these featured his lyrics set to music by members of the Band : Danko wrote the music of " This Wheel 's on Fire " ; Manuel , who composed " Tears of Rage " , described how Dylan " came down to the basement with a piece of typewritten paper ... and he just said , ' Have you got any music for this ? ' ... I had a couple of musical movements that fit ... so I just elaborated a bit , because I wasn 't sure what the lyrics meant . I couldn 't run upstairs and say , ' What 's this mean , Bob : " Now the heart is filled with gold as if it was a purse " ? ' "
One of the qualities of The Basement Tapes that sets it apart from contemporaneous works is its simple , down @-@ to @-@ earth sound . The songs were recorded in mid @-@ 1967 , the " Summer of Love " that produced the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , their most technically elaborate album . In a 1978 interview , Dylan reflected on the period : " I didn 't know how to record the way other people were recording , and I didn 't want to . The Beatles had just released Sgt. Pepper which I didn 't like at all . I thought that was a very indulgent album , though the songs on it were real good . I didn 't think all that production was necessary . " Of the sound and atmosphere of the basement recordings , Barney Hoskyns wrote that " Big Pink itself determined the nature of this homemade brew . " " One of the things is that if you played loud in the basement , it was really annoying , because it was a cement @-@ walled room " , recalled Robertson . " So we played in a little huddle : if you couldn 't hear the singing , you were playing too loud . "
Mike Marqusee describes how the basement recordings represented a radical change of direction for Dylan , who turned his back on his reputation for importing avant @-@ garde ideas into popular culture : " At the very moment when avant @-@ gardism was sweeping through new cultural corridors , Dylan decided to dismount . The dandified , aggressively modern surface was replaced by a self @-@ consciously unassuming and traditional garb . The giddiness embodied , celebrated , dissected in the songs of the mid @-@ sixties had left him exhausted . He sought safety in a retreat to the countryside that was also a retreat in time , or more precisely , a search for timelessness . "
Dylan had married Sara Lownds in November 1965 . By the time the basement sessions started in Big Pink around June 1967 , he had two children : Maria ( Sara 's daughter from her first marriage ) and Jesse Dylan . Anna Dylan was born on July 11 , 1967 . Both Heylin and biographer Sid Griffin suggest that recording had to move from Dylan 's home to Big Pink when it became clear that the sessions were getting in the way of family life . Domesticity was the context of The Basement Tapes , as Hudson said in The Last Waltz : " Chopping wood and hitting your thumb with a hammer , fixing the tape recorder or the screen door , wandering off into the woods with Hamlet [ the dog Dylan shared with the Band ] ... it was relaxed and low @-@ key , which was something we hadn 't enjoyed since we were children . " Several Basement Tapes songs , such as " Clothes Line Saga " and " Apple Suckling Tree " , celebrate the domestic aspects of the rural lifestyle .
The intense collaboration between Dylan and the Hawks that produced the basement recordings came to an end in October 1967 when Dylan relocated to Nashville to record a formal studio album , John Wesley Harding , with a different crew of accompanying musicians . The same month , drummer Levon Helm rejoined his former bandmates in Woodstock , after he received a phone call from Danko informing him that they were getting ready to record as a group . In his autobiography , Helm recalled how he listened to the recordings the Hawks had made with Dylan , and remembered that he " could tell that hanging out with the boys had helped Bob to find a connection with things we were interested in : blues , rockabilly , R & B. They had rubbed off on him a little . "
= = Dwarf Music demos and Great White Wonder = =
Dylan referred to commercial pressures behind the basement recordings in a 1969 interview with Rolling Stone : " They weren 't demos for myself , they were demos of the songs . I was being PUSHED again into coming up with some songs . You know how those things go . " In October 1967 , a fourteen @-@ song demo tape was copyrighted and the compositions were registered with Dwarf Music , a publishing company jointly owned by Dylan and Grossman . Acetates and tapes of the songs then circulated among interested recording artists .
Peter , Paul and Mary , managed by Grossman , had the first hit with a basement composition when their cover of " Too Much of Nothing " reached number 35 on the Billboard chart in late 1967 . Ian & Sylvia , also managed by Grossman , recorded " Tears of Rage " , " Quinn the Eskimo " and " This Wheel 's on Fire " . In January 1968 , Manfred Mann reached number one on the UK pop chart with their recording of " The Mighty Quinn " . In April , " This Wheel 's on Fire " , recorded by Julie Driscoll , Brian Auger and the Trinity , hit number five on the UK chart . That same month , a version of " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " by the Byrds was issued as a single . Along with " Nothing Was Delivered " , it appeared on their country @-@ rock album Sweetheart of the Rodeo , released in August . The Hawks , officially renamed the Band , recorded " This Wheel 's on Fire " , " I Shall Be Released " and " Tears of Rage " for their debut album , Music from Big Pink , released in July 1968 . Fairport Convention covered " Million Dollar Bash " on their 1969 album Unhalfbricking .
As tapes of Dylan 's recordings circulated in the music industry , journalists became aware of their existence . In June 1968 , Jann Wenner wrote a front @-@ page Rolling Stone story headlined " Dylan 's Basement Tape Should Be Released " . Wenner listened to the fourteen @-@ song demo and reported , " There is enough material — most all of it very good — to make an entirely new Bob Dylan album , a record with a distinct style of its own . " He concluded , " Even though Dylan used one of the finest rock and roll bands ever assembled on the Highway 61 album , here he works with his own band for the first time . Dylan brings that instinctual feel for rock and roll to his voice for the first time . If this were ever to be released it would be a classic . "
Reporting such as this whetted the appetites of Dylan fans . In July 1969 , the first rock bootleg appeared in California , entitled Great White Wonder . The double album consisted of seven songs from the Woodstock basement sessions , plus some early recordings Dylan had made in Minneapolis in December 1961 and one track recorded from The Johnny Cash Show . One of those responsible for the bootleg , identified only as Patrick , talked to Rolling Stone : " Dylan is a heavy talent and he 's got all those songs nobody 's ever heard . We thought we 'd take it upon ourselves to make this music available . " The process of bootlegging Dylan 's work would eventually see the illegal release of hundreds of live and studio recordings , and lead the Recording Industry Association of America to describe Dylan as the most bootlegged artist in the history of the music industry .
= = Columbia Records compilation = =
In January 1975 , Dylan unexpectedly gave permission for the release of a selection of the basement recordings , perhaps because he and Grossman had resolved their legal dispute over the Dwarf Music copyrights on his songs . Clinton Heylin argues that Dylan was able to consent following the critical and commercial success of his album Blood on the Tracks , released that same month : " After Blood on the Tracks , The Basement Tapes no longer had the status of a final reminder of Dylan 's lost genius " . In 1975 , as well , the Band purchased Shangri @-@ La ranch in Malibu , California , which they transformed into their recording studio .
Engineer Rob Fraboni was brought to Shangri @-@ La to clean up the recordings still in the possession of Hudson , the original engineer . Fraboni had worked on Dylan 's Planet Waves album , with backing by the Band , and the live Dylan – Band album Before the Flood , both released in 1974 . Fraboni has described Robertson as the dominant voice in selecting the final tracks for The Basement Tapes and reported that Dylan was not in the studio very often . The stereo recordings made by Hudson were remixed to mono , while Robertson and other members of the Band overdubbed new keyboard , guitar , and drum parts onto some of the 1967 Woodstock recordings . According to Fraboni , four new songs by the Band were also recorded in preparation for the album 's official release , one of which , a cover of Chuck Berry 's " Going Back to Memphis " , did not end up being included . There is disagreement about the recording date of the other three songs : " Bessie Smith " , " Ain 't No More Cane " and " Don 't Ya Tell Henry " . While Fraboni has recalled that the Band taped them in 1975 , the liner notes for the reissued versions of the Band 's own albums state that these songs were recorded between 1967 and 1970 . Ultimately , eight of the twenty @-@ four songs on The Basement Tapes did not feature Dylan , several of them studio outtakes postdating the sessions at Big Pink . In justifying their inclusion , Robertson explained that he , Hudson and Dylan did not have access to all the basement recordings : " We had access to some of the songs . Some of these things came under the heading of ' homemade ' which meant a Basement Tape to us . " Robertson has suggested that the Basement Tapes are , for him , " a process , a homemade feel " and so could include recordings from a wide variety of sources .
= = = Track listing = = =
For a comprehensive list of the 1967 Basement Tapes session recordings , see List of Basement Tapes songs . See also List of Basement Tapes songs ( 1975 ) .
All songs written by Bob Dylan , except where noted .
= = = Personnel = = =
Bob Dylan – acoustic guitar , piano , vocals
Rick Danko – bass guitar , mandolin , vocals
Levon Helm – drums , mandolin , bass guitar , vocals
Garth Hudson – organ , clavinet , accordion , tenor saxophone , piano
Richard Manuel – piano , drums , harmonica , vocals
Robbie Robertson – electric guitar , acoustic guitar , drums , vocals
= = = Cover art = = =
The art director / design consultant credited on the 1975 album was Bob Cato . The cover photograph for the 1975 album was taken by designer and photographer Reid Miles in the basement of a Los Angeles YMCA . It poses Dylan and the Band alongside characters suggested by the songs : a woman in a Mrs. Henry T @-@ shirt , an Eskimo , a circus strongman and a dwarf who has been identified as Angelo Rossitto . Robertson wears a blue Mao @-@ style suit , and Manuel wears an RAF flight lieutenant uniform . Michael Gray has identified musicians David Blue and Neil Young in the photograph . The identification of Young has been disputed by Bill Scheele who has written that Young was not present . Bill Scheele and his brother John Scheele worked with The Band from 1969 until 1976 and were present in the cover photo . Some photos by John Sheele of the 1975 Hollywood YMCA photo shoot were included in the book accompanying the 2014 release The Bootleg Series Vol . 11 : The Basement Tapes Complete
= = = Reception and sales = = =
Columbia Records released The Basement Tapes on June 26 , 1975 . The album peaked at number seven on the Billboard chart , and reached number eight in the UK . It was acclaimed by critics . John Rockwell of The New York Times hailed it as " one of the greatest albums in the history of American popular music . " Rolling Stone 's Paul Nelson called its contents " the hardest , toughest , sweetest , saddest , funniest , wisest songs I know " . Robert Christgau gave it an A + in his Village Voice " Consumer Guide " column . He commented on how the recordings sounded richer and stranger in 1975 than when they were made and concluded , " We don 't have to bow our heads in shame because this is the best album of 1975 . It would have been the best album of 1967 , too . " The Basement Tapes topped the Voice 's Pazz & Jop Critics Poll . The review in The Washington Post declared , " He may perplex , irritate , and disappoint , but Dylan has to rank as the single greatest artist modern American pop music has produced . "
= = Criticism of 1975 album = =
Criticism of the 1975 official release of The Basement Tapes has centered on two issues : the recordings by the Band on their own , and the selection of the Dylan songs . In his book about the basement sessions , Greil Marcus describes the album 's contents as " sixteen basement recordings plus eight Band demos " . Critic Michael Gray writes of the album , " The interspersed tracks by the Band alone merely disrupt the unity of Dylan material , much more of which should have been included . Key songs missing here include ' I Shall Be Released ' and ' The Mighty Quinn ' " . Heylin similarly argues that compiler Robbie Robertson did Dylan fans " a major disservice " by omitting those two songs as well as " I 'm Not There " and " Sign On The Cross " . He writes , " The album as released hardly gave a real idea of what they had been doing in Woodstock . Not even the two traditional songs pulled to the master reels — ' Young But Daily Growin ' ' and ' The Banks Of The Royal Canal ' — made the final twenty @-@ four cuts . "
The authenticity of the 1975 album was questioned by a reviewer of the remastered version of the Band 's Music from Big Pink , issued in 2000 . Dave Hopkins noted that " Katie 's Been Gone " , which appears as a bonus track on the Big Pink reissue , is the same recording that appeared on The Basement Tapes , but now " in stereo and with improved sound quality beyond what the remastering process alone would provide " . Hopkins declared , " The cat 's out of the bag : ' Katie ' and the other Band @-@ only tracks on The Basement Tapes must have been intentionally muddied in the studio in 1975 so that they would fit better alongside the Dylan material recorded in the basement with a home reel @-@ to @-@ reel . " Heylin also takes exception to Robertson 's passing off the Band 's songs as originating from the basement sessions . By including eight Band recordings to Dylan 's sixteen , he says , " Robertson sought to imply that the alliance between Dylan and the Band was far more equal than it was : ' Hey , we were writing all these songs , doing our own thing , oh and Bob would sometimes come around and we 'd swap a few tunes . ' " Heylin asserts that " though revealing in their own right , the Band tracks only pollute the official set and reduce its stature . "
Barney Hoskyns describes " Heylin 's objections [ as ] the academic ones of a touchy Dylanologist : The Basement Tapes still contained some of the greatest music either Dylan or the Band ever recorded . " Sid Griffin similarly defends the inclusion of the Band 's songs : " ' Ain 't No More Cane ' may be included under false pretenses , but it is stirring stuff . ... And while a Dylan fan might understandably grumble that he wanted to hear another Bob song , a fan equally versed and interested more generally in late 20th century American music would only smile and thank the Good Lord for the gift of this song . " Of the Band 's version of " Don 't Ya Tell Henry " , he writes , " True , the argument could be made that Robertson was way outside his brief in including this on the two @-@ LP set , as this wasn 't from Woodstock or ' 67 , and has no Dylan on it . ... But it is a song from the Basement Tapes era and it swings like a randy sailor on shore leave in a bisexual bar . So give Robbie a break . "
By 1975 , Dylan showed scant interest in the discographical minutiae of the recordings . Interviewed on the radio by Mary Travers , he recalled , " We were all up there sorta drying out ... making music and watching time go by . So , in the meantime , we made this record . Actually , it wasn 't a record , it was just songs which we 'd come to this basement and recorded . Out in the woods ... " Heylin has commented that Dylan seemed to " dismiss the work as unfinished therapy " .
= = Themes = =
Although The Basement Tapes reached the public in an unorthodox manner , officially released eight years after the songs were recorded , critics have assigned them
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in the rest of the pop world , which during the long hot summer of 1967 was celebrating the birth of the hippie movement with a gaudy explosion of ' psychedelic ' music — mostly facile paeans to universal love draped in interminable guitar solos . " Patrick Humphries itemizes the ways in which Dylan 's songs dissented from the dominant ethos of rock culture : " While the rock world vented its spleen on parents and leaders , Dylan was singing privately about parental fidelity . While George Harrison was testifying that life went on within and without you , Dylan was taking his potatoes down to be mashed . While Mick Jagger was 2 @,@ 000 light years from home , Dylan was strapping himself to a tree with roots . "
This aspect of the basement recordings became obvious when Dylan chose to record his next album , John Wesley Harding , in Nashville in late 1967 . The songs on that record , according to Howard Sounes , revealed the influence of Dylan 's daily reading of both the Bible and the Hank Williams songbook . And its sound came as a shock to other rock musicians . As producer Bob Johnston recalled , " Every artist in the world was in the studio trying to make the biggest @-@ sounding record they possibly could . So what does [ Dylan ] do ? He comes to Nashville and tells me he wants to record with a bass , drum and guitar . " Dylan summed up the gap : " At that time psychedelic rock was overtaking the universe and we were singing these homespun ballads . "
When the Band began work on their debut album , Music from Big Pink , in a New York studio in January 1968 , they employed a recording technique similar to the one they had become familiar with during the Basement Tapes sessions . As Robertson described it , " We used the same kind of mike on everything . A bit of an anti @-@ studio approach . And we realized what was comfortable to us was turning wherever we were into a studio . Like the Big Pink technique . " That technique influenced groups including the Beatles , writes Griffin , who calls their Twickenham Get Back sessions in early 1969 an effort to record " in the honest , live , no frills , no overdubs , down home way that the Hawks / Band did for the Basement Tapes " .
" Listening to The Basement Tapes now , it seems to be the beginning of what is called Americana or alt.country , " wrote Billy Bragg . " The thing about alt.country which makes it ' alt ' is that it is not polished . It is not rehearsed or slick . Neither are The Basement Tapes . Remember that The Basement Tapes holds a certain cultural weight which is timeless — and the best Americana does that as well . " The songs ' influence has been detected by critics in many subsequent acts . Stuart Bailie wrote , " If rock 'n'roll is the sound of a party in session , the Basement Tapes were the morning after : bleary , and a bit rueful but dashed with emotional potency . Countless acts — Mercury Rev , Cowboy Junkies , Wilco , the Waterboys — have since tried to get back to that place . "
For Elvis Costello , The Basement Tapes " sound like they were made in a cardboard box . I think [ Dylan ] was trying to write songs that sounded like he 'd just found them under a stone . As if they sound like real folk songs — because if you go back into the folk tradition , you will find songs as dark and as deep as these . "
In 2016 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked The Basement Tapes number 292 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . In a special issue devoted to Dylan 's work , Q magazine awarded the record five stars , its highest rating , commenting that " Dylan 's work is by turns haunting , hilarious and puzzling — and all of it taps into centuries of American song " .
= = Other released Basement Tape songs = =
Between 1985 and 2013 , Columbia issued five additional 1967 recordings by Dylan from Big Pink : take 2 of " Quinn the Eskimo ( The Mighty Quinn ) " on Biograph in 1985 , " I Shall Be Released " and " Santa @-@ Fe " on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 – 3 ( Rare & Unreleased ) 1961 – 1991 in 1991 , " I 'm Not There ( 1956 ) " on the I 'm Not There soundtrack in 2007 , and " Minstrel Boy " on The Bootleg Series Vol . 10 – Another Self Portrait ( 1969 – 1971 ) in 2013 . In the early 1970s , Dylan released new recordings of five compositions from the Basement Tape era : live performances of " Minstrel Boy " and " Quinn the Eskimo " from the Isle of Wight Festival on August 31 , 1969 , appeared on Self Portrait , and October 1971 recordings with Happy Traum of " You Ain 't Goin ' Nowhere " , " I Shall Be Released " and " Down in the Flood " appeared on Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II .
In 2005 , the Band compilation A Musical History was released , which includes the 1967 Woodstock Band recordings " Words and Numbers " , " You Don 't Come Through " , " Caledonia Mission " , " Ferdinand the Imposter " and " Will the Circle Be Unbroken " . In 1968 , the Band re @-@ recorded " This Wheel 's on Fire " , " Tears of Rage " , " I Shall Be Released " and " Caledonia Mission " in studios in New York and Los Angeles for Music From Big Pink . Versions of other Band Basement Tape compositions , recorded in various locations between 1967 and possibly 1975 , appear on Across the Great Divide and A Musical History , and as bonus tracks on the 2000 reissues of Music From Big Pink and Cahoots . Live versions by the Band of various Basement Tapes songs have also been issued : " I Shall Be Released " on Before the Flood ; " Caledonia Mission " and " This Wheel 's On Fire " on Rock of Ages , with " I Shall Be Released " , " Down in the Flood " and " Don 't Ya Tell Henry " appearing on the album 's 2001 reissue ; " I Shall Be Released " on The Last Waltz and " This Wheel 's On Fire " on the 2002 box set release of the album ; " I Shall Be Released " and " Don 't Ya Tell Henry " on Live at Watkins Glen ; and " Ain 't No Cane on the Brazos " recorded live at the Woodstock Festival in August 1969 , on Across the Great Divide .
On March 31 , 2009 , Legacy Records issued a remastered version of the original 1975 Basement Tapes double album , which critics praised for its improved sound quality . According to reviewer Scott Hreha , there was " something about the remastering that makes it feel more like an official album — the earlier CD version ’ s weak fidelity unfairly emphasized the ' basement ' nature of the recordings , where it now possesses a clarity that belies its humble and informal origins . "
In the early 1990s , a virtually complete collection of all of Dylan 's 1967 recordings in Woodstock was released on a bootleg five @-@ CD set , The Genuine Basement Tapes . The collection , which contains over 100 songs and alternate takes , was later remastered and issued as the four @-@ CD bootleg A Tree With Roots . On November 4 , 2014 , Columbia / Legacy issued The Bootleg Series Vol . 11 : The Basement Tapes Complete , an official 6 @-@ CD box set containing 139 tracks which comprises nearly all of Dylan 's basement recordings , including 30 never @-@ bootlegged tracks . A companion 2 @-@ CD set containing highlights from the recordings , The Basement Tapes Raw , was also released .
= Meat ant =
The meat ant ( Iridomyrmex purpureus ) , also known as the gravel ant or southern meat ant , is a species of ant endemic to Australia . A member of the genus Iridomyrmex in the subfamily Dolichoderinae , it was described by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858 . The meat ant is associated with many common names due to its appearance , nest @-@ building behaviour and abundance , of which its specific name , purpureus , refers to its coloured appearance . It is among the best @-@ known species of ant found throughout Australia ; it occurs in almost all states and territories except for Tasmania . Its enormous distribution , aggression and ecological importance have made this ant a dominant species .
The meat ant is monomorphic ( occurs in a particular form ) , although there is evidence that certain populations can be polymorphic . It is characterised by its dark @-@ bluish body and red head . It is a medium to large species , measuring 6 – 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 47 in ) . The workers and males are approximately the same sizes at 6 – 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 28 in ) and 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) , respectively . The queens are the largest and appear mostly black , measuring 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) . The iridescence in workers ranges from green or blue to plain green and purple , varying in different body parts and castes . Meat ants inhabit open and warm areas in large , oval @-@ shaped mounds that are accompanied by many entrance holes . The nest area is always cleared of vegetation and covered with materials including gravel , pebbles and dead vegetation . They are also polydomous , where a colony may be established in a series of satellite nests connected by well @-@ defined paths and trails . Satellite nests are constructed away from the main nest and nearby areas with valuable food sources so workers can exploit them .
Queens mate with a single male and colonies may have more than one queen until the workers arrive , where they both exhibit antagonism . It takes around one or two months for an individual egg to develop into an adult . Colonies range in size , varying between 11 @,@ 000 individuals to over 300 @,@ 000 . The meat ant is a diurnal species ( active throughout most of the day ) , especially when it is warm . It forages on trees and collect sweet substances such as honeydew and nectar , and also capture insects or collect the remains of animals . A number of predators eat these ants , including the short @-@ beaked echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus ) , numerous species of birds , blindsnakes and spiders . This species is also a competitor of the banded sugar ant ( Camponotus consobrinus ) . Meat ants establish territorial borders with neighbouring colonies and solve disputes through ritualised fighting .
Meat ants play an important role in both the environment and for humans . A single nest is capable of dispersing over 300 @,@ 000 plant seeds ; moreover , meat ants have formed symbiotic relationships with many insects . This ant may be used as a form of pest control to kill the cane toad , an invasive species . They can also help farmers to remove animal carcases by consuming and reducing them to bones in a matter of weeks . Despite this , meat ants are sometimes pests around urban areas and eradicating them is difficult .
= = Taxonomy = =
The meat ant was first described in 1858 by British entomologist Frederick Smith in his Catalogue of Hymenopterous Insects in the Collection of the British Museum part VI , under the binomial name Formica purpurea from a holotype worker ant he collected in Melbourne , Victoria . The type material is currently housed in the Natural History Museum , London . In 1862 , Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr erected the genus Iridomyrmex , and reclassified the meat ant as a member of Iridomyrmex rather than the genus Formica . The ant was named Iridomyrmex purpurea in 1862 ; however , Mayr renamed the ant as Iridomyrmex purpureus one year after . I. purpureus was later classified as a synonym of Iridomyrmex detectus , and this taxon was designated as the type species of Iridomyrmex in 1903 . In 1993 , I. detectus was synonymised with I. purpureus and grouped into the I. purpureus species complex . I. detectus was described as a separate species by Smith the same year as I. purpureus from two syntype queens he collected from the Hunter River in New South Wales . Although the name I. purpureus was used by many authors , Karl Wilhelm von Dalla Torre reused I. detectus and this was adopted by several authors , replacing I. purpureus . By the 1960s , however , I. purpureus once again became preferred over I. detectus . While the two names were described in the same year and publication , the name I. purpureus is the valid name for the species in accordance with the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature . Entomologist B.T. Lowne was the first person to revise I. purpureus and I. detectus , and he synonymised the two species .
Several synonyms have either been classified as a separate species from the meat ant or even a subspecies . Iridomyrmex purpureus sanguineus and I. p. viridiaeneus were classified as subspecies in 1974 , previously being recognised as two species . I. detectus castrae was originally described as a variant of the meat ant in 1925 ( as I. d. var. castrae ) , but the taxon was reclassified as a subspecies in 1985 ; subsequently , a 1993 revision reclassified I. p. sanguineus and I. p. viridiaeneus at species level while I. d. castrae was synonymised , based on morphological examinations of collected material . Camponotus horni , Formica smithii and Liometopum aeneum were described as three distinct species in three different ant genera , but these classifications were short @-@ lived , as scientists discovered that these taxa were all identical , and subsequently synonymised them with the meat ant . Camponotus horni was described by English entomologist William Forsell Kirby in 1896 from worker and queen syntypes he collected at Palm Creek in the Northern Territory . In 1930 , Australian entomologist John S. Clark reviewed these specimens and synonymised the taxon with the meat ant . However , the queen was later found to be distinct from the workers and C. horni was redescribed as a species . The information provided by Clark makes it sufficient to retain the validity of the name , making Clark the new author of C. horni . Due to the uncertain taxonomic status of Clark 's C. horni , a proposal to rename the species cannot be carried through . Clark 's C. horni is currently a junior homonym for Kirby 's C. horni .
One synonym , Iridomyrmex greensladei , was described as a separate species from the meat ant based on the anatomical differences of its head and pronotum ( the dorsal portion of the prothorax 's exoskeletal plates ) , which are the same colour as its mesosoma . In the meat ant , the head and pronotum are usually lighter than the mesosoma . American entomologist Steve Shattuck notes that the two ants are non @-@ sympatric ( they exist in the same geographic area and regularly encounter each other ) , and supporting evidence to separate them as two distinct species emerged when the enzymes esterase and amylase were examined and the results show that they had different amylase allele . These examinations , however , did not take any account of any distinction in colour between populations previously known as I. greensladei and I. purpureus . For example , colonies residing in Western Australia may have lighter heads whereas those living in the eastern states have darker heads . An unpublished study examining the mitochondrial DNA did not find any distinction between eastern and western populations of I. greensladei and I. purpureus . Additional evidence suggests that the populations found in the east and west are the same species . Despite this evidence , there are several problems : forms intended to be I. greensladei were found in the Yorke Peninsula by a 1987 study , which noted that while the ants were morphologically indistinguishable from both I. greensladei and I. purpureus populations , their nests only contained a single nest hole ( whereas I. purpureus nests have many ) . Shattuck also collected workers for his holotype and paratype specimens from Israelite Bay in Western Australia , rather than collecting those from Yorke Peninsula . The forms in Yorke Peninsula have also never been subject to study , so future research may shed light as to whether or not these ants are genetically different from the meat ant .
Under the present classification , the meat ant is a member of the genus Iridomyrmex in the tribe Leptomyrmecini , subfamily Dolichoderinae . It is a member of the family Formicidae , belonging to the order Hymenoptera , an order of insects containing ants , bees , and wasps . The genus Froggattella is the sister group of Iridomyrmex , both of which are in a clade that is 23 million years old . Fossils related to the meat ant and other species are from the Eocene and Oligocene .
= = = Forms = = =
In the early 1970s , scientists discovered several different forms of meats ants , forming the Iridomyrmex purpureus species group ; three forms were identified ( the regular I. purpureus and the other two forms I. sanguineus and I. viridiaeneus ) , differing in colour and nest structure . However , as there were no clear morphological differences among these variations , the taxonomic status and evolutionary relationship of these ants remained uncertain . Colouration varies from ants with a red head and thorax and a blue metallic sheen , to those with a yellowish body and a bluish @-@ purple gaster . Others may be darker , appearing metallic @-@ bluish to purplish @-@ black . Owing to their different geographical ranges , the behaviour and ecology of these forms differentiated , based on examinations where multiple forms were sympatric . Each form had its own geographical limit , although the regular I. purpureus form is very common , inhabiting at least one @-@ third of the Australian continent . Some forms may be dominant in certain habitats ; for example , one form may be widespread throughout moist environments in dry areas , and others in cool and dry areas .
In 1974 , I. sanguineus and I. viridiaeneus were classified as two subspecies of the meat ant by P.J. Greenslade . He also recognised another form , an undescribed blue form that was first studied several years earlier . Greenslade did not propose any taxonomic recognition of the newly discovered taxon , but instead referred to it as a " form " . In 1975 , a study examined the distinctiveness of three forms by comparing the amylase enzyme allele frequencies . The blue form was found to be genetically isolated and its allele frequencies differed significantly from the forms purpureus and viridiaeneus , but the same study concluded that these latter two forms were similar . During this time , Greenslade would continue to study these forms to include a dark yellow , yellow , orange and a small purple form . In addition , two new forms were recognised in later studies , but these two forms were not given any formal species description . Instead , they were only recognised by their colour and the genitalia of the males . Although these forms most likely represented undescribed , yet distinct species , the I. purpureus species group only contained a single valid species , three subspecies and seven different forms . In 1993 , all known forms and subspecies were either revived or classified at species level in an article revising the group , concluding the separation of the forms from each other .
= = = Etymology and common names = = =
The specific epithet of the meat ant , purpureus , derives from Latin , in which it means " purple " , " purple @-@ coloured " or " dark @-@ red " , referencing the coloured appearance of the ant . In classical Latin , purpureus primarily translated to " dyed purple " , while the word purpura , used by Smith for the meat ant ( Formica purpura ) , translates to " purpled @-@ dyed cloth " . The generic name , Iridomyrmex , translates to " rainbow ants " from Ancient Greek , another reference which points to its appearance ; this , in particular , is due to its blue @-@ green iridescence colour . It is a compound of two Ancient Greek words – irido , meaning " rainbow " , and myrmex , that means " ant " . The ant is commonly known as the meat ant because of its habit of stripping the meat off dead vertebrates . Alternative names include the gravel ant , Greenslade 's meat ant , meat @-@ eater ant , mound ant , or southern meat ant . The name " southern meat ant " is due to its extreme abundance in the southern regions of Australia .
= = Description = =
In general , meat ants are medium to large in size , measuring 6 – 12 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 47 in ) , and can be easily recognised by their dark @-@ bluish body and red head . Generally , their heads and pronotums share similar colours and are lighter than the mesothorax ( the middle of the three segments in the thorax ) and the propodeum ( the first abdominal segment ) , which are reddish brown . However , the head may sometimes be lighter , and the pronotum and mesothorax may share similar colours . The mesosomal setae ( as in haur found on the mesosoma ) are dark and sometimes translucent . The iridescence between the compound eyes and the lateral portion of the head ranges from slightly purple to strong and dark purple . The colour of the legs and coxae ( the basal segment of the insect leg , which attaches to the body ) are darker than the mesothorax , and the petiole ( narrow waist ) is reddish brown and also darker than the mesothorax . The lateral portion of the second gastral tergite ( a dorsal segment other than the head ) is shiny , and the iridescence varies among workers , from green or blue to plain green and purple . The soft hairs on the head are frequent around the occipital margin , and around the mandibular insertion , three to eight pale setae are usually seen . The soft hairs are also common around the first gastral tergite . Examined specimens show no known ocelli . Erect setae on the pronotum are abundant . The anterodorsal ( meaning in front and toward the back ) portion of the propodeum is arched and flat .
There are no allometric differences among workers . On average , workers measure around 6 – 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 28 in ) ; this character distinguishes these ants from queens , as well as the different variety of colours they exhibit on their bodies . The head and pronotum range from orange to brick @-@ red , and the mesonotum and propodeum are either light , same in colour or darker than the head . The gaster can be brown or black with blue or purple iridescence and the legs are either orange or brown . The iridescence around the foreparts is blue , pink , pale greenish yellow and purple . The erect setae are brown . The head has a concave posterior margin ( as in the end of an organism from its head ) with erect setae abundant in front of the face . The sides of the head are convex . Fully erect setae on the genal ( side region of the head ) are either present or absent , although a small number of setae may be seen around the mandibular insertion . The eyes are semicircular and positioned around the midpoint of the ants ' head capsule . The frontal carinae ( a keel @-@ shaped ridge or structure ) are convex and the antennal scapes extend beyond the head 's posterior margin by two or three times the diameter . Erect setae are found all over the antennal scape and noticeably prominent on the clypeal margin ( a shield @-@ like plate at the front of an insect ) . The mandibles are elongated and triangular , with long curved setae around the head capsule . The pronotum is evenly curved with at least 12 or more pronotal setae present . These setae are mostly short and bristly . The mesonotum is sinuous ( meaning it has many curves ) , and , like the pronotum , has 12 or more mesonotal setae . The mesothoracic spiracles are very small and the propodeal dorsum is smooth or convex . There are also a number of propodeal setae . The dorsum of the node ( a segment between the mesosoma and gaster ) is thin , scale @-@ like and sometimes vertical . There are both non @-@ marginal and marginal setae present on the first gastral tergite around the gaster .
Queens are easily distinguishable from workers by their black colour and larger size , measuring 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) . Queens are black and fuscous , being mostly dark and sombre . The antennae and legs are ferruginous ( rust @-@ like colour ) , the head is fusco @-@ ferruginous , and the sides beneath the face and mandibles are ferruginous . The head is wider than the thorax and emarginate . There is an impressed line that runs from the anterior ( nearer to the front of the body ) stemma to the base of the clypeus . The thorax is ovate ( has an oval @-@ shaped outline ) and thinly covered with short reddish brown pubescence ( soft short hair ) . The wings are subhyaline , exhibiting a glassy appearance . The wings are yellowish along the anterior margin of the superior pair and also around the base ; the nervures ( the veins of the wings ) are rufo @-@ fuscous . Like the thorax , the abdomen is ovate and several abdominal segments appear rufo @-@ piceous , making it reddish @-@ brown or glossy brownish black . Males are smaller than queens , measuring 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) . Males are bright violet , and the antennae ( except for the first joint ) and tarsi are ferruginous . The first pair of the legs look almost ferruginous , and the head , legs and thorax are covered with black pubescence . Like the queen , the wings are subhyaline ( imperfectly hyaline ) and the nervures are rufo @-@ fuscous . The abdomen shows a bright green tinge when seen under certain light .
Larvae measure 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 – 0 @.@ 11 in ) . The body is stout @-@ shaped and the dorsal side is longer whereas the ventral side ( the bottom portion of the body ) is shorter and more straight . The head and anus are ventral . The integument is covered in spinules that are either isolated from each other or in short rows on the posterior somite and on the ventral surface . The body hairs are very short , measuring 0 @.@ 008 – 0 @.@ 016 mm ( 0 @.@ 00031 – 0 @.@ 00063 in ) . The cranium on its dorsal side outlines a curve which is smooth , and the spinules are moderately large . These spinules are either isolated or seen in near parallel rows . Several head hairs are present but they are small at 0 @.@ 013 – 0 @.@ 025 mm ( 0 @.@ 00051 – 0 @.@ 00098 in ) in length . The labrum is narrow and bilobed ( consisting of two lobes ) . Each lobe has spinules and three sensilla ( simple sensory receptors ) around the anterior surface . The ventral border only has two sensilla and a number of spinules , and on the posterior surface , there are several rows of spinules and three sensilla . The mandibles have a central apical ( most distal plate or appendage from the body ) tooth which is clearly noticeable and sharp . The maxillae have lobes , and the labial palps ( sensory structures on the labium ) are knob @-@ shaped .
Meat ant workers may be confused with those of I. lividus , as the two appear similar and are grouped in the same species complex . I. lividus and the much more localised I. spadius can be distinguished from other members of the I. purpureus group by the shape of the pronotum . Aside from colour differentiation that was a key morphological character to distinguish I. purpureus and the synonym I. greensladei from each other , some meat ant populations exhibit polymorphism despite being monomorphic ( occurs in a particular form ) ; specifically , body size among meat ants may vary geographically . For example , those that are found in very hot regions tend to be larger , whereas those found in regions of high humidity tend to be smaller than average . Examined workers once referred to as I. greensladei from southwestern Western Australia have erect setae on the genae ( lateral sclerites ) , whereas those studied elsewhere have glabrous genae , meaning that these areas have no hairs . Such patterns are most likely clinal , where several characteristics may gradually differentiate over a geographical area . The colour of the setae throughout the body and the iridescence may vary geographically . For example , populations restricted to the coasts of Western Australia usually have pale setae , compared to most colonies throughout the country , which have the common blackish setae . In 1993 , Shattuck could not separate populations with pale setae when other key diagnostic traits that would separate these populations were not considered . Meat ants from the Western Australian wheatbelt and goldfields show different iridescence ; the iridescence in some collected specimens ranged from pale greenish @-@ blue to yellowish @-@ green , especially around the humeri ( a structure which forms the basal corner of an insect 's wing or wing case ) and frons . The variation of the iridescence is , however , a consistent pattern found in other Iridomyrmex species with little distinction , making it a subtle character . The colour variation is less marked in all collected specimens of I. purpureus , as well as its close relative I. viridiaeneus , which is found in dry regions around the south @-@ western regions . Shattuck further notes that populations found throughout the Northern Territory and South Australia have reduced pubescence on the first gastral tergite , but this is different elsewhere .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The meat ant is one of the best @-@ known species of ant endemic to Australia ; it has an enormous geographical range , covering at least one @-@ third of the continent . Its range spans 4 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) from east to west , and 3 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 900 mi ) from north to south . This extensive range has allowed the meat ant to form large nesting grounds in areas where no development has occurred , and large amounts of gravel and open space have led to an abundant supply of materials ( i.e. pebbles and dead pieces of vegetation ) used to construct nests . Its isolation has also allowed meat ants to form associations with neighbouring nests of the same species . The ant is particularly dominant and frequently seen across the coastal and inland regions of southeastern Australia . Based on examined material , meat ants are widespread throughout New South Wales , the Australian Capital Territory and Victoria . In Queensland , they are frequently encountered in the eastern regions , whereas their abundance is limited around the north and central parts . The ants are common in the southwestern regions of Western Australia , though not in the north . However , the Division of Entomology of the CSIRO states that the ant 's presence in the state has not been verified . Most specimens collected in South Australia are from the south @-@ east , but some populations are known in the north @-@ west and northeast regions of the state . In the Northern Territory , specimens have been collected in the north and south regions but compared to other jurisdictions the ant is uncommon . No specimens have been collected from Tasmania or any outlying islands surrounding Australia .
Meat ants thrive in varied habitats , especially where it is open and warm . These ants are adapted to and thrive in warm climates and areas with constant high temperatures . The meat ant shares its distribution with many other animals and insects , some of which may cause harm to the ant or rival it , such as the banded sugar ant ( Camponotus consobrinus ) . Nests are seen in box @-@ pine scrubs , Callitris forests , dry and wet sclerophyll woodland , eucalypt open woodland , in farm pastures , flat savannah woodland , mallee woodland , heath , mulga , riparian woodland , around roads and cracks in sidewalks , and urban areas such as urban gardens and parkland . Nests are also common in lateritic ridges , granite outcrops and clay formations . Meat ants are able to survive in dry areas if there is a rich supply of water and food resources ( such as honeydew and arthropod prey ) , especially along river banks , station properties and irrigated areas . Meat ants typically occur at altitudes of 5 and 1 @,@ 170 m ( 16 and 3 @,@ 839 ft ) above sea level , though at times they can be found at heights of 915 m ( 3 @,@ 002 ft ) . Those that are found at these altitudes are always associated with Eucalyptus rubida , and colonies situated in eastern New South Wales tend to nest near E. melliodora and E. blakelyi . In the south coast of New South Wales , meat ants are mainly found in heath shrubland , but are absent from heavily timbered slopes and cannot build nests in quartz . Other areas where the ants do not occur include dense pastures , dense bushes , tropical rainforests and treeless areas . For example , the Canberra suburb of Turner was constructed on subterranean clover pasture , which meat ants do not nest around . Their populations would later flourish and nests became numerous around houses after shrubs and trees were planted .
= = = Nests = = =
Meat ants are well known for their large , oval @-@ shaped nest @-@ mounds ( normally 1 or 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 or 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in diameter ) that are encountered in areas of occurrence , and obvious to identify . These nests are often associated with many entrance holes ; most nests have 20 to 35 holes . On the surface on the nest , workers clear the area of vegetation and cover the mound with gravel , but may use other materials that are available , including sand , pebbles dead vegetation , eucalyptus fruits and twig fragments . Nests are built in the sun and hardly in the shade to keep them warm . The ant is a polydomous species , meaning that they live in more than one nest . Some colonies are known to create " super @-@ nests " : workers construct many nests connected through established paths , extending up to 650 metres ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) in length . In one extreme case , a single colony was found to occupy over 10 hectares ( 25 acres ) of land with 85 individual nests and 1 @,@ 500 entrance holes . While they show no aggression toward to their nest mates , meat ants are aggressive to occupants of different nests within the same colony . Polydomy within a colony is typically favoured as it improves access to forage , as workers deliver most of their food to the nest that is closest to any site they forage in .
At any size , a meat ant nest always has a possibility of dying out in any year , but the site may be reoccupied by another colony . Hence , nests can be very old as suggested in one study . Some nests may never be reoccupied for unknown reasons . The regrowth of vegetation which shades the nest , soil damage or even a disease may wipe out a colony and leave the nest site completely abandoned . The death of a colony may be obvious when competing colonies increase in population and size by expanding their territories with well @-@ established satellite nests in order exploit the food sources once used by a former colony . Satellite nests may diverge from their parent nests to become independent , as suggested by the antagonism of worker ants from different nests or when others are uninhabitable by insecticide treatment . After the eradication of a nest , satellite nests emerge nearby , and may sever their connections with the parent nest . The separation of a satellite nest is an effective way for a nest to exploit food sources , and a colony with less than 11 entrance holes is recognised as non @-@ mature ( a nest is mature at 12 ) . As most satellite nests have 11 holes and accept a queen of their own , a satellite nest may easily develop maturity in one year .
All entrance holes of a given nest lead into a separate set of galleries . Entrance holes tend to be very small with only enough space for a single worker to fit through , but others may be 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) wide . Beneath the surface , there are widened circular vertical shafts which are 1 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) wide . Below these shafts , the tunnels turn into irregular galleries with paths going outward and downward which form more galleries . Almost all of these galleries are clustered together 15 to 20 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) beneath the soil , which is extensively reworked by worker ants in the area above the nest . These sets of galleries are isolated from others connecting to neighbouring holes , although some may come close . However , there is no known physical connection . Each gallery has a flat floor , a domed roof and is irregularly oval @-@ shaped . A gallery is typically 1 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) high and 5 to 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide . Below the galleries are a small number of shafts in undisturbed soil with large , yet scattered chambers where the population remains during the winter . In the upper areas of the colony , the galleries and shafts only account for 7 – 10 % of nest space . For example , the galleries of excavated colonies occupy 420 cubic centimetres ( 26 cu in ) whereas the total volume is around 5 @,@ 000 cubic centimetres ( 310 cu in ) . Overall , a nest may dwell extremely deep beneath the soil as excavated nests are as deep as 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
= = = Foraging and dominance = = =
A diurnal species ( active mainly during the day ) , the meat ant shows minimal interaction with nocturnal ant species when their territories overlap . The meat ant and other members of the I. purpureus species group are regarded as a dominant group of diurnal species in Australia , as they are highly active , aggressive , and have an enormous geographical range . During the day , the bulk of the workers attend and feed on honeydew secreted by insects that live on the leaves of Eucalyptus trees . These trees are connected by foraging trails formed by meat ants , which also connect to satellite nests that are a part of a single colony ; these trails are easily visible due to the absence of vegetation and lead to important food and water sources . Other workers in smaller numbers will often scavenge around the nest area for dead insects , or other proteinaceous foods to bring back to their colony . Their dominance is clear when meat ants are capable of finding food sources more successfully than most ants , capable of displacing many ants and other insects . Food sources are also discovered more rapidly and greatly reduces the foraging efficiency of other ants , including those of Iridomyrmex . However , some ants such as the green @-@ head ant ( Rhytidoponera metallica ) are not affected by the presence of meat ants and are still successful in finding food sources . As green @-@ head ants are general predators and forage singularly and cannot recruit other nestmates , they are unable to defend food sources from dominant ants . They heavily rely on any food source and the impossibility of successfully defending it from other ants may have led to its peaceful coexistence with dominant species , including meat ants . This means green @-@ head ants avoid conflict with meat ants . Certain myrmicines , which are highly competitive , are capable of defending themselves from foraging workers ; the rapid recruitment of nestmates and the use of chemicals for defence allows them to withstand attacks from meat ants . In particular , Monomorium ants have been observed occupying baits regardless of the presence or absence of the meat ant . This is not the case with mealworms , but they have moderate success with honey baits . In foraging areas where meat ants are excluded or not present , the number of other ants observed is far greater and activity dramatically increases . However , the presence of meats ants does not affect abundant species , and most of the time it is only Iridomyrmex ants that increase their foraging rate .
The impact of meat ants on other species varies , depending on the habitat and type of food source , and the ecological role the ant plays . The deliberate exclusion of meat ants show that not only they can alter the amount of sources available , but the dynamics of resource use on entire outcrops . If present , meat ants rely on rapidly discovering food sources and retain their dominance so other ants cannot collect them , as well as exploitation and interference which helps displace other ants . The habitat meat ants live in may affect their dominance among the fauna . They are less successful in complex habitats and more successful in open areas , allowing workers to forage efficiently ; for example , workers forage around rocks and collect food sources more successfully in contrast to those in vegetation . Meat ants are even more dominant than other I. purpureus species group members in non @-@ complex habitats . Meat ants are normally larger than other Iridomyrmex species and can displace or even kill those trying to compete for food sources . The similar behaviours among meat ants and certain Iridomyrmex species have increased the level of conflict among each other , especially those in open habitats .
The rate of movement of workers is associated with temperature , and foraging workers leave the nest after sunrise when the nest is warmed in the early morning . Meat ants emerge and start foraging when temperatures are approximately 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) , but they are capable of withstanding extremely hot temperatures , as workers have been seen foraging in 43 ° C ( 109 ° F ) heat . Workers may only forage for several minutes when soil temperature is well above their thermal limit at 45 @.@ 8 ° C ( 114 ° F ) . At 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) ( soil surface temperature ) , foraging activity is reduced even further . As these ants exhibit high running speeds during hot days , their speed decreases after temperatures of 50 ° C due to the physiological stress put onto them . Workers can withstand such temperatures by exhibiting opportunistic thermal responses to adjust their behaviour in order to handle high trail temperatures and alter their thermal biology for low temperatures . They will also deliberately expose themselves closely to their thermal maxima .
The success of meat ants depends on what resource they are dealing with . In one study , the removal of meat ants allowed the successful foraging of Iridomyrmex ants at carbohydrate sources , but not for protein baits . The success of the ants also did not increase with mealworm baits , suggesting that competition does not always occur between meat ants and other species , and factors , such as food preference , may be involved . In contrast with camponotines and some myrmicines , both of their success was affected at numerous food sources with meat ants present . Camponotines exhibit no aggression and cannot defend themselves .
= = = Diet = = =
Like other Iridomyrmex species , the meat ant is an omnivore , retrieving food sources from various insects it tends , including caterpillars and various sorts of butterflies , particularly the larvae of the Waterhouse 's hairstreak ( Jalmenus lithochroa ) . Meat ants usually feed on honeydew from sap @-@ sucking insects , flower nectar , sugar and other sweet substances . In captive colonies , workers prefer to consume small pieces of grapes rather than honey solutions and other sweet foods . These ants prey on various insects and animals , collecting both live and dead invertebrates and acquire meat from dead vertebrates . Insects the meat
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70 % of Entertainment Weekly online readers voted as the most @-@ missed cancellation in Entertainment Weekly 's online poll .
A fan @-@ made , non @-@ profit , unofficial graphic novel , titled " Forever & Ever ! " , debuted on Facebook on January 5 , 2016 . According to one of the comic series ' co @-@ creators , the novel expands the fictional universe created by Miller by introducing new material and new characters .
= = = Ratings = = =
In Australia , the first episode was watched by 619 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the fourteenth most @-@ watched broadcast that night . The second one was viewed by 522 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the twentieth most @-@ watched . In Canada , the first and second episodes received 2 @.@ 32 and 1 @.@ 57 million viewers , respectively . In the United Kingdom , the premiere garnered 847 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated broadcast on the network that week . In New Zealand , it was the third most @-@ watched broadcast in prime time that night , with 243 @,@ 650 viewers .
= = Home video releases = =
Miller revealed that Warner Bros. would release DVDs for the series during a Twitter question @-@ and @-@ answer session on September 17 , 2015 . On November 16 , 2015 , Warner Home Entertainment of Canada announced that DVDs for the series would be released on January 19 , 2016 . The same day , Warner Bros. announced that DVDs would be made available in the United States through the company 's Warner Archive Collection . On January 4 , 2016 , Warner Bros. announced that DVDs for the series would be released in the United States on January 19 , 2016 , the same date as Canada . The DVD release will contain all 22 episodes of the series on five discs , along with deleted scenes from many of the episodes . The DVD was released on February 3 , 2016 in Region 4 .
= Great Seimas of Vilnius =
The Great Seimas of Vilnius ( Lithuanian : Didysis Vilniaus Seimas , also known as the Great Assembly of Vilnius , the Grand Diet of Vilnius , or the Great Diet of Vilnius ) was a major assembly held on December 4 and 5 , 1905 ( November 21 – 22 , 1905 O.S. ) in Vilnius , Lithuania , then part of the Russian Empire , largely inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1905 . It was the first modern national congress in Lithuania and dealt primarily not with the social issues that sparked the revolution , but with national concerns . Over 2 @,@ 000 participants took part in the Seimas . The assembly made the decision to demand wide political autonomy within the Russian Empire and achieve this by peaceful means . It is considered an important step towards the Act of Independence of Lithuania , adopted on February 16 , 1918 by the Council of Lithuania , as the Seimas laid the groundwork for the establishment of an independent Lithuanian state .
= = Historical background = =
Lithuania had been part of the Russian Empire since the partitions of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth in the late 18th century . After the unsuccessful uprising of 1863 , Lithuania was subjected to Russification policies : the Lithuanian press ban was initiated , schools were required to teach in the Russian language , Roman Catholics could not hold positions in government institutions and could own only limited amounts of land , and political rights were restricted . However , these measures had limited effects on the Lithuanian National Revival , and a sense of the Lithuanian national identity continued to grow . The first Lithuanian political parties , the Social Democratic Party of Lithuania and Lithuanian Democratic Party , included goals of political autonomy for Lithuania within the Russian Empire in their basic program .
After the events of Bloody Sunday in January 1905 sparked a revolution in Russia , Tsar Nicholas II was forced to make concessions . In April 1905 a decree guaranteed complete freedom of religion , and even allowed religious studies to be conducted in native languages . The most important decree , the October Manifesto , was announced on October 30 ( October 17 O.S. ) , 1905 . It guaranteed many political rights , including the right to form political parties and organize convocations . This decree formed the legal basis for the assembly in Vilnius . The October Manifesto also announced the intent to hold elections to the Russian Parliament ( Duma ) , and the Lithuanian organizers used this as an official pretext for the Seimas : they claimed that the Lithuanians needed to prepare themselves for this election .
= = Preparations = =
Historians disagree about who initiated the idea of organizing a national assembly . Some credit Jonas Basanavičius , while others argue for Jonas Kriaučiūnas . The organizational activities were largely taken on by the Lithuanian Christian Democrats and by Vilniaus žinios , a moderate newspaper owned by Petras Vileišis . Vilniaus žinios was the first legal Lithuanian @-@ language daily newspaper to appear after the Lithuanian press ban was lifted on May 7 , 1904 ; it was quite popular and its circulation soon reached 6 @,@ 000 copies . On October 31 ( October 18 O.S. ) , 1905 a fifteen @-@ member organizational committee , chairman Jonas Basanavičius and secretary Jonas Kriaučiūnas , was given the task of convening the assembly . They published an appeal or a manifest to the Lithuanian people on November 11 ( October 29 O.S. ) in Vilniaus žinios . The appeal , signed by the chairman and the secretary , aroused much interest in the public . Invitations were extended to all persons who would be elected as representatives by their communities at volosts , and to all other educated people interested in the future of the Lithuanian state . At the end of the appeal there was an eight @-@ point agenda to be discussed at the Seimas . It did not include the question of Lithuanian autonomy .
On November 15 ( November 2 O.S. ) , a controversial memorandum was adopted by the organizational committee and sent to Sergei Witte , Prime Minister of the Russian Empire . It was signed by only four people : Jonas Basanavičius , who was the primary author , Donatas Malinauskas , Juozapas Ambraziejus , and Mečislovas Davainis @-@ Silvestraitis . It consisted of an introduction , which briefly summarized the history of Lithuania , and ten points of demands and declarations . The first point was the most controversial : it declared that Kovno , Grodno , Vilna , Suwałki Governorates and parts of Courland Governorate were historically Lithuanian and that the Poles , Jews , Russians , and other groups in those areas were merely invaders , who had arrived in the recent past . Belarusians were called " Slavinized Lithuanians " . The last point in the memorandum , asking that the title of Grand Duke of Lithuania not be disregarded in the Tsar 's documents , also drew criticism . Other points demanded Lithuanian autonomy , equal rights to all nationalities and social classes , full political and religious freedom , free universal education in the Lithuanian language , the introduction of the Lithuanian language to government institutions , and the attachment of the Suwałki Governorate not to Poland but to autonomous Lithuania . Many of these demands were echoed by the Seimas .
Those parts of the memorandum that demanded Lithuanian autonomy and protested the possible attachment of Suwałki Governorate to autonomous Poland were reprinted in the Russian publication Pravitel 'stvennyi Vestnik on November 23 ( November 10 O.S. ) . The Russian government sought to demonstrate that granting autonomy to both Poland and Lithuania would be complicated , and would probably exacerbate national conflicts . On November 26 ( November 13 O.S. ) the memorandum was also reprinted in Vilniaus žinios . It was heavily criticized by non @-@ Lithuanians for its position on minorities and by Lithuanians for making demands on behalf of the Lithuanian nation without waiting for the Seimas ' resolutions .
On December 4 ( November 21 O.S. ) , about 2 @,@ 000 people arrived in Vilnius ; half of them were officially elected as delegates by their local communities . Because no standard elections procedures were offered , the process of selecting the representatives varied greatly . Despite irregularities , it was the first election in the history of Lithuania . People from Aukštaitija were most active , while participation from Samogitia and Suvalkija somewhat lacked . Some of the delegates came from areas that are now part of Poland and Latvia , as well as from areas that were then within the lands of the German Empire ( Lithuania Minor ) . As a result a wide variety of communities , political groups , government layers , social classes , and organizations were represented . This parliament may have been the first in Europe to include women — there were seven female delegates .
= = The Seimas = =
It took two hours of intense discussion to elect the presidium of the Seimas . Jonas Basanavičius , officially nonpartisan , was elected as the chairman and Steponas Kairys , leader of the Social Democrats , was chosen as vice @-@ chairman . Other members were Antanas Smetona , priest Petras Būčys , and Juozas Stankūnas ; the secretaries were Liudas Gira , Pranas Klimaitis , and Juozas Gabrys @-@ Paršaitis . The organizational committee proposed a rather academic agenda geared toward cultural issues for the assembly ; this initial agenda was vetoed by the delegates . They adopted a new schedule that was more political and highlighted two main goals : holding hearings on the current situation in Lithuania , and deciding which political demands should be submitted to the Tsarist authorities . A major portion of the first day 's proceedings was devoted to reports presented by delegates from rural areas . The content of these reports was repetitious and did not carry much weight . The most important question was that of Lithuanian autonomy .
There were rumors that some Russian politicians were seriously considering granting autonomy to Poland , and that Polish activists wished to incorporate Lithuanian lands into their autonomous region , calling on the historic tradition of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth . In light of these rumors , the demands of the delegates were much more radical than were expected . Most demanded autonomy in ethnographic Lithuanian lands along with any border areas that would decide to join . The region would be governed by a democratically elected seimas in Vilnius and bound by federal ties with neighboring lands . The " ethnographic Lithuanian lands " at issue were not clearly defined , but resistance to tsarist authorities was to be organized in Kovno , Grodno , and Vilna Governorates ; special attention was given to Suwałki Governorate . The Seimas ' resolution , adopted on the second day , explicitly stated that Lithuanians from Suwałki Governorate had decided to join the fight for autonomous Lithuania . This was largely an attempt to prevent the potential Polish autonomous region from claiming Suwałki , then part of Congress Poland , for itself . The election to seimas was to be universal , equal , direct and secret ; all persons were to be granted suffrage without regard to sex , religion , or nationality . If the election had taken place , it would have been the first in Europe where women were granted an equal right to vote .
This demand was far @-@ reaching and required transformation of the empire into a federal state , placing Lithuania on a par with the Grand Duchy of Finland within the Russian constitutional system . Heated discussions continued on the means to achieve this transformation . Some argued for armed resistance , but were reminded that the previous uprisings in November of 1831 and January of 1863 had failed . Others suggested peaceful and passive resistance : refusing to pay taxes , boycotting products from monopolistic companies ( mostly those selling alcoholic beverages ) , not allowing children to attend Russian schools , evading drafts into the Russian army , and organizing factory worker strikes . The delegates , who were mostly small farmers , also discussed land reform , demanding that all land would be confiscated from large landlords and distributed to those who actually cultivated it . However , no conclusions in that area were reached as there was a perception that any resolution on land reform would encourage the peasants to rise against their landlords as it was happening in other parts of the Russian Empire .
At the end of the second day , the Seimas adopted a four @-@ paragraph resolution . The first paragraph declared that the Tsarist government was Lithuania 's most dangerous enemy . The second paragraph demanded autonomy ; the third outlined the means towards this goal that were deemed acceptable . The resistance was to be peaceful and passive . The fourth and final paragraph demanded that children be taught in their native language by teachers chosen by the people . The Seimas , unlike the 1917 Vilnius Conference , did not attempt to elect an institution that could carry out these resolutions and act as a Lithuanian government . After the Seimas , rural areas were left on their own without central guidance . After the resolution was adopted by the Seimas , near midnight , Jonas Basanavičius read aloud his proposal to include an attachment condemning Polish ecclesiastical authorities for suppressing the use of the Lithuanian language in churches within the diocese of Vilnius . The church matters had not been discussed during the sessions , but the majority agreed to the proposal by a show of hands . Because the attachment was not fully discussed , Social Democrats did not consider it officially adopted .
= = Aftermath = =
During the night from December 5 to December 6 , Petras Vileišis printed 36 @,@ 000 copies of the resolution for distribution . After the assembly , notorious for its loud , lengthy and intense debates , the delegates returned to their communities and started to carry out its resolutions . The old Russian administrations were replaced in 125 out of the 280 volosts ( 82 in Kaunas , 33 in Suvalkai , and 10 in Vilnius Governorates ) . These communities elected their own representatives , organized their own schools where classes were taught in the Lithuanian language , and stopped paying taxes . While the first Russian responses were disorganized and confused , the authorities soon marshaled their armed forces and returned the situation back to normal . The process was relatively peaceful ; there were only a few clashes between armed groups of peasants and Tsarist military forces . Unlike in neighboring Latvia or Estonia , peasants did not rise against their landlords . A number of the most prominent activists of this movement were arrested and sent to Siberia .
The Lithuanian Democratic Party and Ernestas Galvanauskas used the Seimas as an opportunity to organize the Peasant Union , which largely represented the interests of large and mid @-@ size farmers . The Union helped spread the influence of the Seimas into the countryside . A few days after the Seimas , Jonas Basanavičius founded the Lithuanian National Democratic Party ( Lithuanian : Tautiškoji lietuvių demokratų partija ) , the first nationalistic party in Lithuania .
The plan for autonomy was not accomplished at this time , but the Seimas was an important development in the Lithuanian bid for independence . It consolidated efforts , spearheaded the organization of political parties , strengthened national conscience , and energized the rural populace . The assembly resolutely rejected ideas to restore the old Grand Duchy of Lithuania and for the first time voiced the demands for autonomy . Many of the political and religious rights that were granted by the October Manifesto were retained . A number of agricultural , educational , scientific , literary and artistic societies emerged .
= KFC =
Kentucky Fried Chicken ( KFC ) is a fast food restaurant chain that specializes in fried chicken and is headquartered in Louisville , Kentucky , United States . It is the world 's second largest restaurant chain ( as measured by sales ) after McDonald 's , with almost 20 @,@ 000 locations globally in 123 countries and territories as of December 2015 . The company is a subsidiary of Yum ! Brands , a restaurant company that also owns the Pizza Hut and Taco Bell chains .
KFC was founded by Harland Sanders , an entrepreneur who began selling fried chicken from his roadside restaurant in Corbin , Kentucky , during the Great Depression . Sanders identified the potential of the restaurant franchising concept , and the first " Kentucky Fried Chicken " franchise opened in Utah in 1952 . KFC popularized chicken in the fast food industry , diversifying the market by challenging the established dominance of the hamburger . By branding himself as " Colonel Sanders " , Harland became a prominent figure of American cultural history , and his image remains widely used in KFC advertising . However , the company 's rapid expansion overwhelmed the aging Sanders and , in 1964 , he sold it to a group of investors led by John Y. Brown , Jr. and Jack C. Massey .
KFC was one of the first fast food chains to expand internationally , opening outlets in Canada , the United Kingdom , Mexico , and Jamaica by the mid @-@ 1960s . Throughout the 1970s and 1980s , KFC experienced mixed fortunes domestically , as it went through a series of changes in corporate ownership with little or no experience in the restaurant business . In the early 1970s , KFC was sold to the spirits distributor Heublein , who were taken over by the R.J. Reynolds food and tobacco conglomerate , who sold the chain to PepsiCo . The chain continued to expand overseas however , and in 1987 KFC became the first Western restaurant chain to open in China . The chain has since expanded rapidly in China , which is now the company 's single largest market . PepsiCo spun off its restaurants division as Tricon Global Restaurants , which later changed its name to Yum ! Brands .
KFC 's original product is pressure fried chicken pieces , seasoned with Sanders ' recipe of 11 herbs and spices . The constituents of the recipe represent a notable trade secret . Larger portions of fried chicken are served in a cardboard " bucket " , which has become a well known feature of the chain since it was first introduced by franchisee Pete Harman in 1957 . Since the early 1990s , KFC has expanded its menu to offer other chicken products such as chicken fillet burgers and wraps , as well as salads and side dishes , such as French fries and coleslaw , desserts , and soft drinks , the latter often supplied by PepsiCo . KFC is known for its former and current slogan " Finger Lickin ' Good " , which was replaced by " Nobody does chicken like KFC " and " So good " in the interim .
= = History = =
Harland Sanders was born in 1890 and raised on a farm outside Henryville , Indiana ( near Louisville , Kentucky ) . When Sanders was five years old , his father died , forcing his mother to work at a canning plant . This left Sanders , as the eldest son , to care for his two younger siblings . After he reached seven years of age , his mother taught him how to cook . After leaving the family home at the age of 13 , Sanders passed through several professions , with mixed success . In 1930 , he took over a Shell filling station on US Route 25 just outside North Corbin , Kentucky , a small town on the edge of the Appalachian Mountains . It was here that he first served to travelers the recipes that he had learned as a child : fried chicken and other dishes such as steaks and country ham . After four years of serving from his own dining room table , Sanders purchased the larger filling station on the other side of the road and expanded to six tables . By 1936 , this had proven successful enough for Sanders to be given the honorary title of Kentucky colonel by Governor Ruby Laffoon . In 1937 he expanded his restaurant to 142 seats , and added a motel he purchased across the street , naming it Sanders Court & Café .
Sanders was unhappy with the 35 minutes it took to prepare his chicken in an iron frying pan , but he refused to deep fry the chicken , which he believed lowered the quality of the product . If he pre @-@ cooked the chicken in advance of orders , there was sometimes wastage at day 's end . In 1939 , the first commercial pressure cookers were released onto the market , mostly designed for steaming vegetables . Sanders bought one , and modified it into a pressure fryer , which he then used to fry chicken . The new method reduced production time to be comparable with deep frying , while , in the opinion of Sanders , retaining the quality of pan @-@ fried chicken .
In July 1940 , Sanders finalised what came to be known as his " Original Recipe " of 11 herbs and spices . Although he never publicly revealed the recipe , he admitted to the use of salt and pepper , and claimed that the ingredients " stand on everybody 's shelf " . After being recommissioned as a Kentucky colonel in 1950 by Governor Lawrence Wetherby , Sanders began to dress the part , growing a goatee and wearing a black frock coat ( later switched to a white suit ) , a string tie , and referring to himself as " Colonel " . His associates went along with the title change , " jokingly at first and then in earnest " , according to biographer Josh Ozersky .
The Sanders Court & Café generally served travelers , so when the route planned in 1955 for Interstate 75 bypassed Corbin , Sanders sold his properties and traveled the US to franchise his chicken recipe to restaurant owners . Independent restaurants would pay four ( later five ) cents on each chicken as a franchise fee , in exchange for Sanders ' " secret blend of herbs and spices " and the right to feature his recipe on their menus and use his name and likeness for promotional purposes . In 1952 he had already successfully franchised his recipe to his friend Pete Harman of South Salt Lake , Utah , the operator of one of the city 's largest restaurants .
Don Anderson , a sign painter hired by Harman , coined the name " Kentucky Fried Chicken " . For Harman , the addition of KFC was a way of differentiating his restaurant from competitors ; a product from Kentucky was exotic , and evoked imagery of Southern hospitality . Harman trademarked the phrase " It 's finger lickin ' good " , which eventually became the company @-@ wide slogan . He also introduced the " bucket meal " in 1957 ( 14 pieces of chicken , five bread rolls and a pint of gravy in a cardboard bucket ) . Serving their signature meal in a paper bucket was to become an iconic feature of the company .
By 1963 there were 600 KFC restaurants , making the company the largest fast food operation in the United States . KFC popularized chicken in the fast food industry , diversifying the market by challenging the established dominance of the hamburger .
In 1964 , Sanders sold the company to a group of investors led by John Y. Brown Jr. and Jack C. Massey for US $ 2 million ( around US $ 15 million in 2013 ) . The contract included a lifetime salary for Sanders and the agreement that he would be the company 's quality controller and trademark . The chain had reached 3 @,@ 000 outlets in 48 different countries by 1970 . In July 1971 , Brown sold the company to the Connecticut @-@ based Heublein , a packaged food and drinks corporation , for US $ 285 million ( around US $ 1 @.@ 6 billion in 2013 ) . Sanders died in 1980 , his promotional work making him a prominent figure in American cultural history . By the time of his death , there were an estimated 6 @,@ 000 KFC outlets in 48 different countries worldwide , with $ 2 billion of sales annually .
In 1982 , Heublein was acquired by R. J. Reynolds , the tobacco giant . In July 1986 , Reynolds sold KFC to PepsiCo for $ 850 million ( around US $ 1 @.@ 8 billion in 2013 ) . PepsiCo made the chain a part of its restaurants division alongside Pizza Hut and Taco Bell . The Chinese market was entered in November 1987 , with an outlet in Beijing .
In 1991 , the KFC name was officially adopted , although it was already widely known by that initialism . Kyle Craig , president of KFC US , admitted the change was an attempt to distance the chain from the unhealthy connotations of " fried " . The early 1990s saw a number of successful major products launched throughout the chain , including spicy " Hot Wings " ( launched in 1990 ) , popcorn chicken ( 1992 ) , and internationally , the " Zinger " , a spicy chicken fillet burger ( 1993 ) . By 1994 , KFC had 5 @,@ 149 outlets in the US , and 9 @,@ 407 overall , with over 100 @,@ 000 employees . In August 1997 , PepsiCo spun off its restaurants division as a public company valued at US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion ( around US $ 6 @.@ 5 billion in 2013 ) . The new company was named Tricon Global Restaurants , and at the time had 30 @,@ 000 outlets and annual sales of US $ 10 billion ( around US $ 14 billion in 2013 ) , making it second in the world only to McDonald 's . Tricon was renamed Yum ! Brands in May 2002 .
By 2015 , the company was struggling , having lost business to other retailers and being surpassed by Chick @-@ fil @-@ A as the leading chicken retailer three years previously . To combat this , the company launched a new initiative with a plan to revamp its packaging , decor and uniforms , as well as expanding its menu . Additionally , beginning in May 2015 , a new series of advertisements was launched featuring Darrell Hammond as Colonel Sanders .
= = Operations = =
KFC is a subsidiary of Yum ! Brands , one of the largest restaurant companies in the world . KFC had sales of $ 23 billion in 2013 . KFC has its headquarters at 1441 Gardiner Lane , Louisville , Kentucky , in a three @-@ story colonial style building known colloquially as the " White House " due to its resemblance to the US president 's home . The headquarters contain executive offices and the company 's research and development facilities . KFC is incorporated at 1209 North Orange St , Wilmington , Delaware .
By December 2013 , there were 18 @,@ 875 KFC outlets in 118 countries and territories around the world . There are 4 @,@ 563 outlets in China , 4 @,@ 491 in the United States , and 9 @,@ 821 across the rest of the world . Outlets are owned by franchisees or directly by the company . Eleven percent of outlets are company owned , with the rest operated by franchise holders . Although capital intensive , company ownership allows for faster expansion of the chain .
Most restaurants are furnished with images of the company founder , Colonel Harland Sanders . As well as dine @-@ in and take @-@ out , many stand @-@ alone KFC outlets offer a drive @-@ through option . KFC offers a limited delivery service in a small number of markets . Units include express concessions and kiosks which feature a limited menu and operated in non @-@ traditional locations such as filling stations , convenience stores , stadia , theme parks and colleges , where a full scale outlet would not be practical . Average annual sales per unit was $ 1 @.@ 2 million in 2013 . Worldwide , the daily average number of food orders at an outlet is 250 , with most occurring within a two @-@ hour peak @-@ period .
As chairman and CEO of Yum ! , David C. Novak ultimately has foremost responsibility for KFC operations . Sam Su is chairman and CEO of Yum ! ' s Chinese operations , and Muktesh Pant is the CEO of KFC . Richard T. Carucci is president of Yum ! , and Roger Eaton is the COO of Yum ! and the president of KFC .
= = = Africa = = =
The company hopes to expand its African operations , where it is already the regional leader among US fast food chains . The company is slowly expanding across the African continent , opening 70 outlets , but progress has been hampered by sourcing issues , such as a lack of quality suppliers .
= = = Asia = = =
KFC continues to grow in Asia .
In Malaysia , the first KFC restaurant was opened in 1973 on Jalan Tunku Abdul Rahman . There are 609 outlets as of June 2016 . In 1995 , Projek Penyayang KFC was founded in an effort to provide food to more than 150 orphanage every quarter .
In Sri Lanka , KFC was launched in 1995 at Majestic City . There were 25 KFC restaurants in Sri Lanka as of December 2014 .
In Singapore , the first KFC franchise was opened in Somerset Road . In 1993 , KFC Singapore was the first KFC in Asia to develop and launch the Zinger burger . In 2002 , KFC Singapore was acquired by KFC ( Malaysia ) Holdings Bhd .
In Bangladesh , the first KFC outlet was opened at Gulshan in 2006 . As of June 2016 , the country is home to 19 KFC outlets .
In Cambodia , KFC first opened on Monivong Boulevard in Phnom Penh in 2008 .
In Myanmar , the first KFC outlet was officially opened on Bogyoke Aung San Road in Yangon in 2015 .
= = = = China = = = =
KFC is the largest restaurant chain in China , with 5 @,@ 003 outlets as of 2015 . They are operated by the Yum ! China division . KFC became the first Western fast food company in China after its first outlet opened in Qianmen , Beijing , in November 1987 .
Local food items include rice congee and tree fungus salad , with an average of 50 different menu items per store .
In December 2012 , the chain faced allegations that some of its suppliers injected antiviral drugs and growth hormones into poultry in ways that violated food safety regulations . This resulted in the chain severing its relationship with 100 suppliers , and agreeing to " actively co @-@ operate " with a government investigation into its use of antibiotics . KFC China sales in January 2013 were down 41 percent against the previous year . To counter sluggish sales , the menu was revamped in 2014 .
In July 2014 , Chinese authorities closed down the Shanghai operations of the OSI Group , amidst allegations that it had supplied KFC with expired meat . Yum ! immediately terminated its contract with the supplier , and stated that the revelation had led to a " significant [ and ] negative " decline in sales .
KFC will open its first outlet in Tibet in 2016 .
= = = = India = = = =
There are 350 KFC outlets in India . The company has adapted the standard KFC offerings to Indian tastes and the menu options in India include the ever @-@ popular Hot & Crispy Chicken and Fiery Grilled bucket options , Chicken Zinger Burger , Rice Bowlz , the more recently launched 5 @-@ in @-@ 1 Meal Box and a range of shakes called Krushers . The business was refranchised in October 2015 after Yum concluded a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ long exercise to reorganize its business under larger , well @-@ capitalized franchisees . In this regard , about a third of its outlets , operated by several of its franchisees , have been sold to a newly formed entity — Sapphire Foods India Pvt. Ltd . The new entity is owned by a consortium of four private equity funds , led by Samara Capital . The other investors are CX Partners , Goldman Sachs Group Inc. and a fourth fund , said a top executive at the local arm of the American food company .
The first Indian KFC was a two @-@ storey outlet on the fashionable Brigade Road in Bangalore in June 1995 . According to journalist Michael White , the company could not have chosen a " more difficult venue for its maiden entrée into the country " . Bangalore housed the headquarters of the Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha , one of the most influential , vocal and anti @-@ foreign investment farmers ' associations in the country . The first outlet suffered protests from left wing , anti @-@ globalisation and environmental campaigners , as well as local farmers , who objected to the chain bypassing local producers . Many Indians were concerned about the onslaught of consumerism , the loss of national self @-@ sufficiency , and the disruption of indigenous traditions . The protests came to a head in August 1995 , when the Bangalore outlet was repeatedly ransacked . The KFC outlet in Bangalore demanded , and received , a police van permanently parked outside for a year . The outlet was closed on September 13 , 1995 by local authorities , who claimed the company used illegally high amounts of monosodium glutamate ( MSG ) in its food . The outlet re @-@ opened a few hours later as the result of an appeal by KFC to the Karnataka High Court . The company stated the recipe was no different than that used in any other KFC store . Rural activist M. D. Nanjundaswamy claimed KFC would adversely affect the health of the impoverished , by diverting grain from poor people to make the more profitable animal feed . Environmentalist Maneka Gandhi joined the anti @-@ KFC movement . A second outlet opened in Delhi , but was closed by the authorities throughout November , purportedly for health reasons , but more likely to avoid a repetition of the Bangalore incident . The Delhi outlet soon closed permanently .
KFC began to expand outside of Bangalore in 2004 , with a localized menu that was the most extensive meat @-@ free menu across the chain 's worldwide operations . It introduced a vegetarian menu that included rice meals , wraps and side dishes and , like McDonald 's , served eggless mayonnaise and sauces . Unnat Varma , marketing director of KFC India , states " The vegetarian offerings have made the brand more relevant to a larger section of consumers and that is necessary for KFC 's growth . " KFC also began using Indian spices and cooking techniques to localize its chicken dishes . By 2008 – 09 , KFC operated 34 outlets in India . In 2014 , KFC launched the " So Veg , So Good " menu as part of an India @-@ specific promotional strategy focused on enhancing their vegetarian range . The company has been up to a lot of innovation over the past few months with the launch of the first @-@ ever no crust , all chicken KFC Chizza in December 2016 . More recently , KFC got Mumbai 's dabbawalas to deliver its newly launched 5 @-@ in @-@ 1 Meal Boxes . The city 's dabbawalas , famed for their efficient delivery of office lunches , took on the role of KFC delivery men as part of an innovative marketing campaign . They supplied specially created 5 @-@ in @-@ 1 meal boxes to some office @-@ goers instead of their regular dabbas . The innovation efforts have continued with the launch of the Watt a Box , a practical new take on the 5 @-@ in @-@ 1 Meal Box , which can also charge phones .
= = = = Indonesia = = = =
In Indonesia KFC is the largest Western restaurant chain , with 466 outlets as of December 2013 . The chain has grown to hold an estimated 32 percent market share , and menu items include spaghetti , wraps and chicken porridge . The master franchisee is PT Fastfood Indonesia .
The first outlet opened in Jakarta in 1979 . Salim Group , Indonesia 's largest conglomerate , became a major shareholder in 1990 , which provided the company with funds for major expansion . Its master franchisee , PT Fastfood Indonesia , was publicly listed on the Indonesian Stock Exchange in 1993 .
= = = = Japan = = = =
Japan is the third @-@ largest market for KFC after China and the United States with 1 @,@ 200 outlets .
KFC Japan was formed in 1970 as a joint venture between the American parent and the Japanese Mitsubishi Corporation .
In December 1974 , KFC Japan began to promote fried chicken as a Christmas meal . Eating KFC as a Christmas time meal has since become a widely practiced custom in Japan .
In December 2007 , Mitsubishi assumed majority control of KFC Japan in a JP ¥ 14 @.@ 83 billion transaction .
= = = Europe = = =
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
As of December 2013 , there were 784 KFC outlets in the United Kingdom . British turnover was around £ 684 @.@ 5 million in 2013 , according to Technomic . About 70 percent of outlets are run by franchisees , with the remainder company owned . The company employs 24 @,@ 000 people . Around 400 sites are drive @-@ through outlets . Average outlet turnover is between £ 1 and £ 1 @.@ 5 million .
Annual sales amount to 60 @,@ 000 metric tonnes of chicken , 60 percent of which is purchased from the four largest suppliers in the UK , including Faccenda Group and 2 Sisters Food Group , and delivered fresh to outlets at least three times a week . The remaining 40 percent is sourced from companies in Europe , Thailand ( including Charoen Pokphand Foods ) and Brazil . All of the Original Recipe chicken is sourced within the UK .
England had the first overseas branch of KFC which opened in Preston , Lancashire in May 1965 , and was the first American fast food restaurant chain in the country , pre @-@ dating the arrival of McDonald 's , Burger King and Pizza Hut by almost a decade . Ray Allen , an experienced Lancashire caterer , was the first franchisee . The first London branch opened in North Finchley in November 1968 . In 1971 there were 31 outlets ; by 1975 the chain had grown to 250 outlets . In the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s , KFCs began to introduce seating . KFC opened its first drive through restaurant in the UK in 1984 . By 1987 the company had almost 400 outlets .
In May 1997 , the " Tower Burger " , a fried chicken fillet burger with the addition of a hash brown , was first launched in the United Kingdom . In 2006 , the company stopped pre @-@ salting its fries and removed trans fats from its products . In 2012 palm oil was replaced by rapeseed oil in the fryers . Between 2004 and 2014 , KFC UK increased its offering of " portable " foods : burgers , wraps and salads . During that period , sales rose from around £ 500 million to almost £ 1 billion . In 2012 , KFC UK invested £ 9 million to install ovens in all of its outlets , so that it could offer griddled chicken . In 2013 , KFC rolled out Lavazza coffee across all of its UK outlets . As of 2014 , KFC UK is trialling serving only halal meat at 96 of its outlets .
= = = Middle East = = =
The first KFC in the Middle East opened in 1973 in Kuwait . Today there are over 700 outlets , certified halal , including the United Arab Emirates , Egypt , Qatar , Bahrain , Oman , Jordan , Lebanon , Morocco , Iraq , and Saudi Arabia . KFC Israel existed from 1993 to 2013 and featured kosher restaurants . In 2012 KFC opened in Ramallah in the Palestinian Authority [ 8 ] and later expanded to Hebron , [ 9 ] Bethlehem , [ 10 ] Jenin , [ 11 ] and three separate outlets in Ramallah : the Ersal Branch ( Bacri ) , Plaza Mall Branch and Masyoun Branch . In 2013 the New York Times reported that KFC was being smuggled into Gaza through tunnels .
= = = North America = = =
= = = = United States = = = =
KFC sales in the United States in 2013 were estimated at $ 4 @.@ 22 billion by Technomic .
The basic model for KFC in the United States , not necessarily duplicated elsewhere , is a focus on low prices , a limited menu ( 29 items on average ) and an emphasis on takeout . A " very strong percentage " of sales come from African American customers . Many KFC locations are co @-@ located with either Taco Bell or Pizza Hut , or other Yum ! restaurants . When Yum ! owned Long John Silver 's and A & W Restaurants , these brands were often co @-@ branded with KFC as well . Often these locations behave like a single restaurant , offering one menu with food items from both restaurant brands . In 2003 , there were 354 KFC @-@ Taco Bell combines , offering the full KFC menu and Taco Bell items , and 13 units offering the full KFC menu and a limited number of Pizza Hut items . The concept originated in 1991 , when a KFC @-@ Taco Bell combination opened in Virginia . Some locations were also opened as combinations of KFC , Taco Bell and Pizza Hut , but this failed to catch on , and Yum ! CEO David Novak blamed a lack of franchisee commitment for its lack of success .
Initially , Sanders and KFC used hydrogenated vegetable oil for frying , but in the 1980s the company began to switch to cheaper oils such as palm or soybean . In the 2000s it became apparent that these oils contain relatively high levels of trans fat , which increases the risk of heart disease . By April 2007 , the chain had switched to trans fat @-@ free soybean oil in all of its US outlets .
In 2008 , Novak credited low US sales as being the result of a lack of new ideas and menu items . The Spring 2009 launch of Kentucky Grilled Chicken only resulted in a temporary halt to the sales decline . In 2010 KFC announced a turnaround plan that included improving restaurant operations , introducing value items and providing healthier menu options . In the same year , Advertising Age noted that KFC was losing market share to its smaller chicken restaurant rival , Chick @-@ fil @-@ A. In 2011 Bloomberg News referred to KFC US as " an also @-@ ran to McDonald 's Corp " . In 2012 , Forbes magazine described how many of the KFC outlets were " aged and uninviting " , and that the chain " hasn 't introduced an exciting new food item in ages " .
KFC was described in 2012 by Bloomberg Businessweek as a " muscular player " in developing regions , specifically Africa , China and India , while noting its falling market share in the US to rivals such as Chick @-@ fil @-@ A and Popeyes . Some analysts speculated that KFC would begin spinning off its ailing US operations . That year , the company began divesting control of company @-@ owned US restaurants to franchised operations , with the intention of reducing overall company ownership from 35 percent to 5 percent .
= = = Oceania = = =
There are over 600 KFC outlets in Australia , and around 100 in New Zealand . KFC was the first American style fast food chain to open in both countries . In 2013 , KFC reported an annual turnover of almost 2 billion AUD for its Australia and New Zealand operations .
= = = = Australia = = = =
Yum ! directly operates 160 KFC outlets in Australia . The largest of the 53 independent franchisees in Australia is Collins Foods , which operates 169 stores . KFC 's major poultry suppliers in Australia are Inghams , Steggles and Turi Foods .
The first Australian KFC was opened in 1968 in Guildford , a suburb of Sydney . The franchise was owned by a Canadian entrepreneur called Bob Lapointe . Between 1970 and 1971 , 75 outlets were opened . This had a major impact on Australian chicken production , which increased by 38 percent during the period . By 1995 there were 452 outlets , and the company employed 12 @,@ 000 staff . That year , Australia produced 35 percent of KFC 's international earnings .
= = = = New Zealand = = = =
The first KFC opened in New Zealand in 1971 at Royal Oak , a suburb of Auckland . By 1980 there were 37 outlets . In 1989 , PepsiCo acquired the 50 percent stake in KFC New Zealand that it did not already own from the local Goodman Fielder conglomerate . In 1991 New Zealand turnover topped 100 million NZD for the first time .
= = Products = =
KFC 's core product offering is pressure fried , on @-@ the @-@ bone chicken pieces seasoned with Colonel Harland Sanders ' " Original Recipe " of 11 herbs and spices . The product is typically available in either two or three piece individual servings , or in a family size cardboard bucket , typically holding between 6 and 16 chicken pieces . Poultry is divided into 9 different cuts ( 2 drumsticks , 2 thighs , 2 wings , 1 keel , and a backbone based breast cut divided into 2 pieces ) . The product is hand @-@ breaded at individual KFC outlets with wheat flour mixed with seasoning in a two- to four @-@ minute process .
It is then pressure fried for between seven and ten minutes ( the timing differs between countries ) in oil at 185 degrees Celsius . Following this , the chicken is left to stand for 5 minutes in order for it to sufficiently cool before it is placed in the warming oven . It is KFC policy to discard chicken if it has not been sold within 90 minutes , in order to ensure freshness . The frying oil varies regionally , and versions used include sunflower , soybean , rapeseed and palm oil . A KFC executive stated that the taste of the chicken will vary between regions depending on the oil variety used , and whether the chicken has been corn @-@ fed or wheat @-@ fed .
As well as its core chicken on the bone offering , KFC 's major products include chicken burgers ( including the Zinger and the Tower burgers ) ; wraps ( " Twisters " and " Boxmasters " ) ; and a variety of finger foods , including crispy chicken strips and hot wings . Popcorn Chicken is one of the most widely available KFC products , and consists of small pieces of fried chicken . In some locations , chicken nuggets are also sold .
KFC adapts its menu internationally to suit regional tastes , and there are over three hundred KFC menu items worldwide . Some locations , such as the UK and the US , sell grilled chicken . In predominantly Islamic countries , the chicken served is halal . In Asia there is a preference for spicy foods , such as the Zinger chicken burger . Some locations in the US sell fried chicken livers and gizzards . A small number of US outlets offer an all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat buffet option with a limited menu .
In multiracial Malaysian markets , KFC also has different limited @-@ time products to cater to different festive seasons such as Ayam Kicap Meletup for Eid al @-@ Fitr seasons and Golden Treasures for Chinese New Year in 2015 .
A number of territories , such as Japan , Jamaica , Trinidad , Barbados , Ecuador and Singapore sell fried seafood products under the " Colonel 's Catch " banner . In Jamaica , what was originally a seasonal offering for the Lent period was expanded to a year @-@ round offering from 2010 .
Value menu items are sold under the " Streetwise " name in locations such as Canada . Side dishes often include French fries , coleslaw , barbecue baked beans , corn on the cob , mashed potato , bread rolls and American biscuits . Salads include the bean salad , the Caesar salad and the garden salad . In a number of territories , KFC sell onion rings . In Asia , rice based side dishes such as congee are often sold . In Malaysia , chicken meatball soup is sold . In the US and Greece , potato wedges are sold instead of French fries .
McCormick & Company is KFC 's largest supplier of sauces , seasonings and marinades , and is a long @-@ term partner in new product development .
Due to the company 's previous relationship with PepsiCo , most territories supply PepsiCo products , but exceptional territories include Barbados , Greece , New Zealand , the Philippines , Romania , South Africa , and Turkey , which stock drinks supplied by The Coca @-@ Cola Company , and Aruba , which stocks RC Cola from the Cott Corporation . In Peru , the locally popular Inca Kola is sold . In a number of Eastern European locations and Portugal , beer is offered , in addition to soft drinks .
Launched in 2009 , the Krusher / Krushem range of frozen beverages containing " real bits " such as Kit Kat , Oreo and strawberry shortcake , is available in over 2 @,@ 000 outlets . Egg custard tart is a popular dessert worldwide , but other items include ice cream sundaes and tres leches cake in Peru .
In 2012 , the " KFC am " breakfast menu began to be rolled out internationally , including such items as pancakes , waffles and porridge , as well as fried chicken .
= = = 11 herbs and spices = = =
Sanders ' Original Recipe of " 11 herbs and spices " is one of the most famous trade secrets in the catering industry . The recipe is not patented , because patents eventually expire , whereas trade secrets can remain the intellectual property of their holders in perpetuity .
A copy of the recipe , signed by Sanders , is held inside a safe inside a vault in KFC 's Louisville headquarters , along with eleven vials containing the herbs and spices . To maintain the secrecy of the recipe , half of it is produced by Griffith Laboratories before it is given to McCormick , who add the second half .
A couple who bought the house formerly occupied by Colonel Sanders found scribbled notes of purportedly the secret recipe . Initially KFC wanted to file a lawsuit against the couple , but in the end , it dropped the lawsuit , claiming the scribbled notes are " nowhere close " to the original recipe .
= = = Equipment = = =
KFC initially used stove @-@ top covered cooking pots to fry its chicken . In the 1960s , the officially recommended model was the L S Hartzog developed " KFC 20 @-@ Head Cooker " , a large device that cost $ 16 @,@ 000 . The Hartzog model had no oil filtration system , meaning that filtering had to be done manually , and the pressure fryers occasionally exploded , often causing harm to employees . In 1969 , inventor and engineer Winston L. Shelton developed the " Collectramatic " pressurized fryer to overcome the problems KFC faced in quickly frying chicken to meet growing customer demand . The Collectramatic used precision time and temperature controls and self @-@ filtered the cooking oil – all while meeting Colonel Sander 's legendary high quality standards . Fred Jeffries , then vice president of purchasing at KFC , claimed that the invention helped fuel the company 's rapid expansion and success :
There 's no way it ( KFC ) could have grown like it did without the Collectramatic . Stores were doing about $ 200 @,@ 000 a year in sales on average with the pots . . . but they could never have done the $ 900 @,@ 000 a year it became without Win 's fryer . He ( Shelton ) helped set the stage for that with true engineering thinking .
Although a number of franchisees bought the Collectramatic , which had the support of Colonel Sanders from 1970 onwards , John Y. Brown had given tacit approval to franchisees to exclusively use the older L S Hartzog fryer , saying " Though those old pots were damn dangerous , at least we knew they worked ! I was mostly afraid these new fryers would break down in the middle of business . " Brown warned franchisees that they were in violation of their contract if they used the Collectramatic . Brown held his ground on the issue until he learned that his father , John Y. Brown , Sr. , who owned multiple KFC franchises , was successfully using the Collectramatic in every franchise he owned . The issue was eventually resolved after Heublein purchased KFC , acquired Hartzog and nullified the contract . The Collectramatic has been an approved pressure fryer for KFC from 1972 onwards .
= = Advertising = =
Colonel Sanders was a key component of KFC advertising until his death in 1980 . Despite his death , Sanders remains a key symbol of the company as an " international symbol of hospitality " . Early official slogans for the company included " North America 's Hospitality Dish " ( from 1956 ) and " We fix Sunday dinner seven nights a week " . The " finger lickin ' good " slogan was used from 1956 , and went on to become one of the best @-@ known slogans of the 20th century . The trademark expired in the US in 2006 . The first KFC logo was introduced in 1952 and featured a " Kentucky Fried Chicken " typeface and a logo of the Colonel .
Advertising played a key role at KFC after it was sold by Sanders , and the company began to advertise on US television with a budget of US $ 4 million in 1966 . In order to fund nationwide advertising campaigns , the Kentucky Fried Chicken Advertising Co @-@ Op was established , giving franchisees ten votes and the company three when deciding on budgets and campaigns . In 1969 , KFC hired its first national advertising agency , Leo Burnett . A notable Burnett campaign in 1972 was the " Get a bucket of chicken , have a barrel of fun " jingle , performed by Barry Manilow . By 1976 KFC was one of the largest advertisers in the US .
= = Controversies and criticism = =
Since the turn of the 21st century , fast food has been criticized for its animal welfare record , its links to obesity and its environmental impact . Eric Schlosser 's book Fast Food Nation ( 2002 ) and Morgan Spurlock 's film Super Size Me ( 2004 ) reflected these concerns . Since 2003 , People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) has protested KFC 's choice of poultry suppliers worldwide . The exception is KFC Canada , which signed an agreement pledging to only use " animal friendly " suppliers . PETA have held thousands of demonstrations , sometimes in the home towns of KFC executives , and CEO David Novak was notably soaked in fake blood by a protester . President of KFC 's US division Gregg Dedrick said PETA mischaracterized KFC as a poultry producer rather than a purchaser of chickens . In 2008 , Yum ! stated : " [ As ] a major purchaser of food products , [ Yum ! ] has the opportunity and responsibility to influence the way animals supplied to us are treated . We take that responsibility very seriously , and we are monitoring our suppliers on an ongoing basis . "
In 2006 , Greenpeace accused KFC Europe of sourcing the soya bean for its chicken feed from Cargill , which had been accused of clearing large swathes of the Amazon rainforest in order to grow the crop .
In 2010 , the Australian arm of KFC was accused of racial insensitivity over a television commercial showing an outnumbered white cricket fan handing out pieces of fried chicken to appease a dancing , drumming and singing group of black West Indies supporters . The clip found its way around the world on the internet , prompting stinging criticism in the United States where fried chicken remains closely associated with long @-@ standing racist stereotypes about black people in the once segregated south .
In May 2012 , Greenpeace accused KFC of sourcing paper pulp for its food packaging from Indonesian rainforest wood . Independent forensic tests showed that some packaging contained more than 50 percent mixed tropical hardwood fiber , sourced from Asia Pulp & Paper ( APP ) . APP said such fiber can be found in recycled paper , or : " It can also come from tree residues that are cleared , after a forest area has become degraded , logged @-@ over or burned , as part of a sustainable development plan . APP has strict policies and practices in place to ensure that only residues from legal plantation development on degraded or logged @-@ over forest areas and sustainable wood fiber enters the production supply chain . " KFC said : " From a global perspective , 60 percent of the paper products that Yum ! ( our parent company ) sources are from sustainable sources . Our suppliers are working towards making it 100 percent . "
In December 2012 , the chain was criticised in China when it was discovered that a number of KFC suppliers had been using growth hormones and an excessive amount of antibiotics on its poultry in ways that violated Chinese law . In February 2013 , Yum ! CEO David Novak admitted that the scandal had been " longer lasting and more impactful than we ever imagined . " The issue is of major concern to Yum ! , which earns almost half of its profits from China , largely through the KFC brand . In March 2013 , Yum ! reported that sales had rebounded in February , but that lower sales in December and January would result in a decline in same @-@ store sales of 20 percent in the first quarter .
= Kevin and Kell =
Kevin and Kell is a furry comedy webcomic strip by syndicated cartoonist Bill Holbrook . The strip began on September 3 , 1995 . It is one of the oldest continuously running webcomics . As of April 25 , 2015 , the website has a banner at the top stating " The World 's Longest Running Daily Webcomic Since 1995 " .
The strip centers on the mixed marriage between a rabbit , Kevin and a grey wolf , Kell Dewclaw . In their society , their major difference is their diet : Kevin is a herbivore and Kell is a carnivore . Their family includes three children : Lindesfarne , a hedgehog adopted from Kevin 's first marriage ; Rudy , a wolf / fox hybrid born during Kell 's first marriage ; and their only biological child Coney , a carnivorous rabbit . The comic 's plot revolves around species @-@ related humor , satire , and interpersonal conflict .
Kevin and Kell receives over three million page views per month and is published in The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution . Holbrook has won honors from the Web Cartoonist 's Choice Awards and the Ursa Major Awards for the strip .
= = Setting = =
Kevin and Kell takes place in a town known as Domain , populated entirely by animals . The comic describes the world they live in as created by an organization of birds , commonly referred to by fans of the strip as the " Great Bird Conspiracy " ( GBC ) . Birds were the next species after humans to reach sapience . After humans left the planet , the birds traveled back in time to create a world without humans , and gave intelligence to fauna . However , their plan failed to remove the predator @-@ prey relationship and as a result , the world created is similar to that of twenty @-@ first century Earth , but with a greater likelihood of a violent death .
The society in Kevin and Kell rather than identifying people by race or social class has class distinctions based on diet such as " carnivores " , " herbivores " , and " insectivores " . There is also a " Wild " where civilized animals can leave civilization and act like normal animals , walking on all fours and not wearing clothing . Predation is central to strips and jokes are made about it being commonplace .
Humans exist in an alternate Domain , and are referred to as creatures with no natural defenses . Most believe that they are fictional creatures ; but a few , including the Dewclaws , know that they exist . This was developed further in 2003 by the introduction of the character Danielle , a human who enters the animal world via the Bermuda Triangle and transforms into a rabbit . However , she later has a son , Francis , who is born human . The series features jokes on a variety of topics . Many draw satirical parallels between its world and ours , making fun and sometimes social commentary on politics , sports , society , class @-@ snobbery , school , technology , pop culture and corporate culture , for example ; in January 2008 the Predator 's Union was described as going on strike , in a parody of the 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike .
= = Main characters = =
List of Kevin and Kell characters
The strip 's main characters are the Dewclaws , a blended family as a result of an interspecies marriage . The comic 's primary characters are Kevin Dewclaw , a rabbit , and his wife Kell Dewclaw , a wolf . They met in a web forum for carnivores , where Kevin was " lurking " . They began to fall in love , but it was not until they met each other in person that Kell discovered Kevin was a rabbit . The relationship they developed online leads them to continue dating and eventually marry , despite knowing that they would be outcasts from the rest of society .
Originally , Kevin worked as a system operator on a herbivore web forum , although he later became the co @-@ owner of his own internet service provider , Hare @-@ Link . Kell worked for Herd @-@ Thinners , a company that hunts down prey . Her job is to hunt down other animals . Originally she hunted down her own prey – any prey not eaten by her is later sold in grocery stores as " processed meat " – but she later became an executive and then CEO of the company , taking over from her old boss R.L. , a ruthless wolf whose face is never seen apart from his drooling mouth . Kell was eventually be pushed out of her executive position in a bloodless coup by R.L. , and started running her own start @-@ up company " Dewclaw 's Fine Meat Products " that exclusively doesn 't hunt rabbits .
The couple has three children . The eldest is Lindesfarne Dewclaw , an English hedgehog daughter Kevin adopted during his first marriage . The second eldest child is Rudy , Kell 's son from her first marriage to a fox . Rudy , a talented artist , once challenged Kevin for the position of alpha male , unable to accept a rabbit as head of the household and as his stepfather . He has since matured and has come to terms with the marriage . The youngest child is Coney , a carnivorous rabbit and their only child by birth . Although only five years old , she is a capable hunter , though Kevin 's mother , Dorothy , keeps trying to make her into an herbivore , as well having an artistic streak like her half @-@ brother ,
Other regular characters include Fenton Fuscus , a bat who went to high school and university with Lindesfarne , to whom he is now married
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; Fiona Fennec , a half @-@ red , half @-@ Fennec fox vixen who is Rudy 's girlfriend ; George Fennec , Fiona 's father who is married to Danielle , a sister of Kevin , and have a human son , Francis ( the first of its kind in this world ) since Danielle herself was human once ; and Ralph Dewclaw , Kell 's brother who was originally hostile to Kevin , but now accepts the rabbit as family after several unsuccessful hunting attempts . He now works for Kevin as part of Hare @-@ Link and is married to George 's former wife Martha . Another is Daisy , a daisy plant made intelligent by the GBC . It lives with the Dewclaws as a pet , having the same intelligence as a dog or cat in our world .
= = History = =
Kevin and Kell was one of the first comic strips to be syndicated online , although older webcomics exist . For example , Argon Zark ! was created on June 1995 , three months before Kevin and Kell . However , Holbrook was the first syndicated cartoonist to invest heavily in online comic strips . T Campbell wrote that Holbrook brought " an air of legitimacy and professionalism that many web cartoonists lacked then and still lack now . "
The strip started in black and white , changing to a color @-@ scheme on June 23 , 2000 . It is colored by husband and wife team Terrence and Isabel Marks . The strip has been considered for an animated television series , the latest attempt being filmed in Spring 2011 . Kevin and Kell has appeared daily in The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution since January 2004 , after winning a contest where several new comics , ( syndicated and / or on @-@ line ) were considered and voted on by readers ; Holbrook has stated that this constitutes the " bulk of his readership " , citing the paper 's circulation . In 2009 , Kevin and Kell survived a cull of several comic strips from the paper . In an online poll , the strip was voted as the favourite of readers of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution .
Holbrook currently writes two other strips ; On the Fastrack and Safe Havens . He uses a " three @-@ week schedule " , saying in several interviews , " During this week , for instance , I 'll be writing three @-@ week 's worth of Fastrack material , and drawing the 21 gags I wrote for Kevin & Kell last week . Next week I 'll write for Safe Havens while drawing the Fastrack batch . And on it goes … On a typical day I 'll begin by writing four gags by 2 : 00 , then I 'll begin drawing , usually doing about four strips . At night , after everyone goes to bed , I 'll write two gags . "
In 1998 , Holbrook was named " Cartoonist of the Year " at Pogofest , in part for his work on Kevin and Kell . In 2001 , the strip won the award for " Best Anthropomorphic Comic " at the Web Cartoonist 's Choice Awards , and was nominated for the same award in 2002 . In 2003 , Kevin and Kell won the award for " Best Anthropomorphic Comic Strip " at the Ursa Major Awards .
= = Supplemental Internet non @-@ Comic @-@ Strip content = =
Kevin and Kell has become more than just a webcomic . It has branched out into three other popular social network mediums ( a blog , a Facebook page and a Twitter channel ) , with several of its characters ostensibly participating :
= = = Lindesfarne ’ s Blog : Virtual Quill = = =
Since February 2006 , Lindesfarne has had her own blog titled " Virtual Quill " . Originally , she was posting it as a sort of private journal , using the interdimensional portal to make sure that if it were ever seen by others , it would only be seen by humans from her native dimension ( namely , our world ) , not the dimension she 's called home for the vast majority of her life . She would post generally once a week , talking about the various events in her life and those of her friends and family , providing additional information and insights into what was shown on the strip . Many fans commented back to her as if she were a real person , but she couldn ’ t see those comments at first because her interdimensional Internet connection was one @-@ way ( write @-@ only ) .
But beginning on Sunday , July 27 , 2008 , she activated a " portal receiver " that enabled her to , for the first time , read the comments on her blog , and post comments back to the readers . Since then , she has shared the existence of this interdimensional blog to some of her closest family and friends , some of whom have also posted comments ( though only Lindesfarne herself posts main entries ) . As with any other prolonged contact with humans , instinct loss soon sets in , so Lindesfarne must of necessity limit her participation to only one day per week ( usually on Sundays ) . There has even been participation from characters in other strips set in other dimensions that have had crossovers with Kevin and Kell .
The blog has since moved from being hosted on the webcomic 's servers to Tumblr .
= = = Catherine Aura 's Twitter channel = = =
Shortly after Lindesfarne had discovered her true origin as a human , Rudy 's former schoolteacher Catherine Aura ( a turkey buzzard ) and her young son Nigel used an interdimensional portal to travel to " our " world permanently , taking both Lindesfarne 's and Danielle 's places there to restore the balance and cure the global instinct loss crisis that would otherwise have forced both of them to return to the world of humans permanently . Since the portal transforms travelers into a sapient species found in the destination world ( which is how Lindesfarne became a hedgehog and Danielle a rabbit , though both were born humans in " our " world and had counterparts of those other species in the Kevin and Kell world ) , travelers from that world usually transform into humans , but Catherine and her son transformed into dolphins instead ( indicating that dolphins are , in fact , sapient , and perhaps more so than humans ) . That was the last time they were seen in the webcomic strip .
However , the adventures of Catherine and Nigel are available via Catherine 's Twitter channel . She posts updates about what she and Nigel are doing , which include covertly monitoring the activities of a certain human code @-@ named " Subject A " who appears to be psychically connected to the world of Kevin and Kell as well as of another mostly human world in which the King Features @-@ syndicated comic strips On the Fastrack and Safe Havens are set . " Subject A " is noted to be writing and drawing three comic strips for both worlds ( based on his presumed psychic connection to them ) , making it plain that he is , in fact , none other than cartoonist Bill Holbrook himself . She and Nigel are having other adventures as well , including finally transforming into humans to better monitor events in our society . She has married a human sea captain , and now has a daughter , Ursala , who is a bear @-@ like human child . Recently , she has been dealing with a conspiracy by rogue birds who wish to seize the portal by violence , and to re @-@ establish bird control over the " Kevin and Kell " world .
= = = Rudy Dewclaw 's Facebook Page = = =
Since February 12 , 2012 , Rudy Dewclaw has had his own Facebook page , usually consisting of witty comments and links to the daily strips and other visuals from the Kevin and Kell website .
= = Reception = =
Since its creation , Kevin and Kell been mainly been given positive reviews , although there has also been some criticism . Resident Zompist.com comic reviewer " Bob " praises the way the comic is written and illustrated , and its dealings with difficult issues such as divorce and death . However , he criticizes its suburban nature , saying : " All the family crises are defused within a week or two . No one has any aspirations besides a computer @-@ related job and a quiet heterosexual romance . There seem to be no cities , no foreign nations , no art , no teenage sex . " Another review from Disjointed Ramblings comments on the use of satire in the comic , writing that " while the satire is usually gentle , there 's plenty of it . "
Brandon Sanderson 's review in The Official Time Waster 's Guide cites the comic 's world design , longevity and a discomforting setting where intelligent animals are killed as strengths . However , Sanderson also complained that Holbrook does not enforce this aspect in the main characters , saying , " While Kell , Rudy , and others make kills every day , none of the main character herbivores ever really have to worry about being stalked and killed . When they are threatened ( such as when Lindesfarne is stalked by some cougars near the beginning of the comic 's run ) , the enemy predators are presented as dark , evil things to be defeated . … This sense of careless , off @-@ handed killing gives the comic a lot of its humor — however , to maintain that air of humor , Bill never allows the society to work its everyday worst on any of the main characters . "
During a review in webcomic podcast Digital Strips , commentator Daku describes Kevin and Kell as " one of the few anthropomorphic strips that I actually like , " saying that " this is as if animals had a society . " Zampzon praises the quality of the artwork , but complains that the strip relies on too many animal jokes .
Kevin and Kell and Holbrook are both popular within the furry fandom . Holbrook was first contacted by the fandom in late 1995 , soon after the strip was published . He attended his first furry convention , ConFurence , in January 1997 . Holbrook holds an annual " Kevin and Kell patron social " at Anthrocon for people who sponsor the strip . Holbrook also works occasionally with other cartoonists , both furry and non @-@ furry , and characters from his strip make cameos in other strips . Examples include Ozy and Millie , General Protection Fault , PartiallyClips , and Schlock Mercenary .
= = Products = =
There are 20 books containing collections of Kevin and Kell strips , including bonus strips . They are currently published by Holbrook 's own publishing label Pencil Rough Productions , with older books originally published by Plan 9 Publishing .
A role @-@ playing game based on Kevin and Kell was released in July 2005 by Comstar Games . Hare Link , the Internet Service Provider run by Kevin , is a real @-@ life ISP available at www.harelink.biz.
In November 2010 , a Kevin and Kell iPhone / iPod / iPad application was released to the iTunes App Store . The app is a joint product between the developers of the app , WareTo , and Bill Holbrook . Rather than selling a limited number of strips , this app allows users to read the entire Kevin & Kell library of cartoons . The app also contains additional features and content including video , cast descriptions , and hidden surprise " easter eggs . "
According to Write 2 Now 's December 2010 newsletter , Holbrook and Phil Rogers are working to get the strip made into an animated cartoon series , with a pitch to cable executives , but as of this writing no deal has been made .
= Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre de Pichilemu =
Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre de Pichilemu ( Spanish pronunciation : [ koˈlexjo ðe la pɾeˈsjosa ˈsaŋɡɾe ðe pitʃiˈlemu ] , English : " Pichilemu School of the Precious Blood " ) , often shortened to Preciosa Sangre , is a coeducational Roman Catholic private state @-@ subsidized day school , serving students in preschool ( Chile 's pre @-@ kínder ) through twelfth grade ( cuarto medio ) , located in the commune of Pichilemu , Libertador General Bernardo O 'Higgins Region , Chile .
It was founded in April 1947 by the Chilean Congregation of the Precious Blood as a girls ' school under the name of Escuela Doctor Eugenio Díaz Lira . The school has been fully coeducational since March 1979 , and was renamed to its current name in 1986 . Cardenal Caro Province newspaper El Expreso de la Costa declared Preciosa Sangre to be " the best school in Pichilemu " based on the results of 2011 standardized tests , while O 'Higgins Region newspaper El Rancagüino called the school " a regional icon " . It is the largest school in Pichilemu , with 534 students in the 2015 school year .
The school offers students several extracurricular activities , in the sports , religious and humanistic areas . Cheer C.P.S. , Preciosa Sangre 's cheerleading squad , has won several national competitions , and has also participated in two international ones . The school 's English debate team , informally called Kick @-@ Ass , reached second position in a regional competition in 2011 .
= = History = =
After the commune of Pichilemu was officially created in 1891 , Agustín Ross Edwards , a wealthy Chilean writer , member of parliament , government minister and politician , wanted to turn the town into " a touristic place , an elite resort , collecting the most important characteristics of European places , which would make it unique . " For this purpose , he constructed a hotel , a post office , a park , among other structures and buildings , which attracted wealthy families from Chile and Argentina . One of those families was that of Maria Luisa Lira Errázuriz , widow of Wenceslao Díaz Gallegos , a well @-@ known physician ; Lira , with her ten children , came from her El Olívar estate near San Fernando , and stayed at Ross ' facilities in Pichilemu in several occasions .
As years passed , Lira 's family decided to visit other beach resorts ; however , one of Lira 's children , Eugenio , decided to continue visiting Pichilemu , and after he completed his medicine studies in 1904 , he constructed a summer house near the center of the town . Eugenio Díaz Lira had a close relationship with several Catholic presbyters and bishops , whom he invited to his summer residence . During his summer stays in Pichilemu , Díaz Lira also created the first medical center in the town called San Rafael . However , he fell ill , and died on 12 June 1945 in Santiago , at age 65 .
After his death , Díaz Lira 's wife and his daughters decided to donate his summer residence to the Chilean Congregation of the Precious Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ . Under the request of the General Superioress of the Congregation Mother María Úrsula Montes Rojas , the house was turned into a free girls ' school , which was founded in April 1947 under the name of Escuela de Niñas Particular N ° 16 Doctor Eugenio Díaz Lira ( English : Doctor Eugenio Díaz Lira 16th Girls ' Private School ) , in honour of the late physician . The school 's main goal was to " educate girls in Catholic values , " with the " necessary training for their insertion in the society as Christian mothers and workers with a solid Human Christian formation . " The school 's first principal was Mother María Teresa Corvalán Guzmán .
The school was recognized by the Ministry of Education of Chile by Decree 12 @,@ 946 , on 31 December 1954 . It became a coeducational school in March 1979 . During the commemoration of the centennial of the Chilean Congregation of the Precious Blood , the school was renamed to Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre , a name which " represented better the school 's founders " , on 14 November 1986 . The school was authorized to dictate secondary education classes on 30 January 1995 , and started doing so that same year , with the first class graduating in 1998 .
In 2012 , Governor of Cardenal Caro Province Julio Ibarra Maldonado announced the Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre , in addition to several other high schools in the province , would host professional institute IPG ( Instituto Profesional IPG ) , which would let at least 300 people from Pichilemu obtain a technical degree . Also during that year , the school 's oldest building , which hosted the preschool classes , was demolished because of the damage it suffered from the 2010 Chile earthquake , and was re @-@ constructed ; the new building was inaugurated on 10 September 2012 .
= = Academics = =
As of 2012 , Preciosa Sangre 's class schedule varies with the student grade level , up to a maximum of 08 : 00 to 18 : 00 with ten periods for high school students . Students are not allowed to leave the school during school hours . Preciosa Sangre aims to give students " integral development , academic excellence " , with emphasis in religious values . The school has a Catholic religious orientation .
According to Cardenal Caro Province newspaper El Expreso de la Costa , the school is " the best in Pichilemu " , considering the scores obtained in 2011 from the Prueba de Selección Universitaria ( PSU ) , a standardized test for university admissions in Chile . From the 2 @,@ 945 high schools in Chile with students taking the PSU test , Preciosa Sangre ranked 1328th nationally in 2009 . It rose to the 849th position in 2010 , and in 2011 it placed 738th .
Preciosa Sangre " ranks higher than similar schools " in the Sistema de Medición de Calidad de la Educación ( in English : Education Quality Measurement System , SIMCE ) standardized tests , taken to students from fourth , eighth , tenth , and eleventh grades . The tests include reading , mathematics , history and social sciences , natural sciences , and English language .
Test scores
= = Students and faculty = =
In the 2015 school year , the Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre had an enrollment of 534 students from preschool ( pre @-@ kínder ) to twelfth grade ( cuarto medio ) with an average of 38 per grade . The school serves students aged between 4 and 19 years old . In 2012 , 159 students were classified as " prioritary " under the SEP law ( Ley de Subvención Escolar Preferencial , Preferential Scholar Subsidy Law in English ) ; " prioritary students " under the SEP law are those whose " homes ' socioeconomic status decreases their chance to participate in the educational process . " In 2012 , Preciosa Sangre 's faculty had 30 full @-@ time teachers . By 2014 , the faculty had 29 workers .
Admission begins each 1 November and ends on 9 December . Most people apply for entering the preschool ( pre @-@ kinder ) class , which has a maximum of 35 students . Preference is given to siblings or brothers of current or former Preciosa Sangre students . Applicants must be at least four years old , but in exceptional cases , students not meeting the prescribed age may take a test to be admitted . No payment is required for enrollment .
Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre is governed by the Chilean Congregation of the Precious Blood of Our Lord Jesus Christ . The school 's principal was , between 2006 and September 2012 , Mother Loreto Fuentes Parra . Mother Loreto was also the school 's director in the 1980s ; in 1987 , she was named by the Colegio Provincial de Profesores Cardenal Caro one of the best teachers in Cardenal Caro Province , in a ceremony held at the school 's hall . Since 2013 , Preciosa Sangre 's principal is Mother Elizabeth Carmen Arriagada Sanzana . The Pedagogical Technical Unit ( Unidad Técnica Pedagógica , UTP ) is directed since 2011 by teacher Graciela Vargas Urzúa . The school has an administrative staff of 45 people . The parents ' center ( centro de padres y apoderados ) of Preciosa Sangre is presided since 2012 by Mónica Cornejo Rojas .
The students ' center ( centro de alumnos ) of the Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre describes itself as a " representation instance for the school 's students , acting in different roles . " Students ' centers are student organizations , whose members ( president , vice president , secretary , among others ) are elected democratically by their peers .
= = Activities = =
There are numerous extracurricular activities available to Preciosa Sangre students . Excluding those from the sports area , the activities include choir , instrumental , dancing , scientific ( Explora ) , musical drama , handicrafts , folkloric dance ( cueca ) , pastoral , catechesis , language , and mathematics workshops . The school also conducts a preuniversitario , which consists of special courses to prepare the students for the Prueba de Selección Universitaria ( PSU ) test .
Additionally , an activity known as the Escuela para Padres ( School for Parents ) takes place every month , in which parents are given advice on how to educate their children .
= = = Athletics = = =
As of 2012 , Preciosa Sangre offers seven workshops related to sports . These sports are run by the Club Deportivo Cultural Colegio Preciosa Sangre ( Colegio Preciosa Sangre Cultural @-@ Athletic Club ) , and include football , tennis , volleyball , basketball , gymnastics , cheerleading , and cheerleading for newbies . Preciosa Sangre 's athletic club also has hosted tournaments , including CheerPichilemu , a cheerleading competition which , in 2007 , had fifteen participating teams . The club has also organized events such as the first family marathon in Cardenal Caro Province ( Primera Gran Gorrida Familiar Provincia de Cardenal Caro ) in 2011 .
Preciosa Sangre 's soccer and volleyball teams , Selección Colegio Preciosa Sangre or CPS Pichilemu , compete in the Liga Deportiva Cardenal Caro ( Cardenal Caro Athletic League ) , a provincial @-@ level league . The girls volleyball team placed second in the provincial league , in 2009 .
In 2007 , Trinidad Segura from the Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre placed first in the Women category of the Campeonato Estudiantil de Surf ( Student Surf Championship ) , which took place in Matanzas beach , in Navidad , and in La Puntilla beach in Pichilemu . In the Primary Students ( Men ) category , Felipe Sierra and Washington Saldías placed second and third , respectively . The competition was organized by the Commerce Chambers of Navidad and Pichilemu .
= = = = Cheer C.P.S. = = = =
The cheerleading squad of Preciosa Sangre , Cheer C.P.S. , is coached by physical education teacher Claudio Rojas Covarrubias , who founded it in 2007 . In 2009 , it consisted of 27 students . The team has won several national competitions , two of them making them eligible to participate in competitions held in the United States of America .
2009 US trip
In 2009 , Cheer C.P.S. was the only Chilean team to participate in the JAMfest Nationals international tournament in Tampa , USA , reaching the first place in the Senior All @-@ Music category , and fifth in the Grand Champion category , out of more than 150 teams from several countries . Diario VI Región reported Cheer C.P.S. reached the first place of an international team , and fifth overall . The team could participate in the US competition after winning a tournament held in Viña del Mar in 2008 .
According to a report by former councilor of Pichilemu Washington Saldías on online newspaper Pichilemu News , there were massive celebrations after a local radio reported the team 's achievement . Upon their arrival at Chile , the squad was received at the Palace of La Moneda by Government General Secretary Minister Carolina Tohá , mayor of Pichilemu Roberto Córdova , and Members of the Parliament , before coming back to Pichilemu , on 22 April 2009 . Their return to Pichilemu was described by Diario VI Región newspaper as " historic " , by saying " at Pichilemu , a historical reception was being prepared , as a multitude of people crowded the streets and avenues at the beach resort , waiting for them , in a journey that ended at Colegio Preciosa Sangre in that city . "
2013 US trip
In 2013 , Cheer C.P.S. participated in two international tournaments after winning a national tournament in 2012 : All Star USA 2013 and JAMfest Bash Series , both held in Orlando , Florida , United States . The team , composed of 28 teenagers — most of them Preciosa Sangre students — and their teacher Claudio Rojas , collected funds to travel to the United States by participating in several national tournaments and with the help of the municipality of Pichilemu and the O 'Higgins Region government . In the All Star USA 2013 competition , held on 30 March 2013 , Cheer C.P.S. made it to the second place , only surpassed by an unspecified Russian team , and cheerleader Noemí Pavez obtained the first place in the Jumping category . In the second competition , Jamfest Nationals ( Jam @-@ Bash Series Orlando ) , held on 6 April 2013 , they obtained the first place in the Senior ( Co @-@ Ed ) Cheer , Best Choreography category . After taking knowledge of the news of their accomplishment , Governor of Cardenal Caro Province Julio Ibarra Maldonado said that " Pichilemu is celebrating [ their triumph ] , " something which was also reported by the local media . Upon their arrival in Chile on 9 April , they were received by President Sebastián Piñera at the Palace of La Moneda in Santiago , along with the Governor of Cardenal Caro , and Mayor of Pichilemu Roberto Córdova . The team 's achievement was described by news program 24 Horas of state channel Televisión Nacional de Chile as " coming from a distant beach resort in the region of O 'Higgins to conquer North American lands . "
CheerPichilemu championship
The cheerleading squad has also organized the CheerPichilemu tournament , hosted for the first time on 29 September 2007 at the Municipal Stadium of Pichilemu ( Estadio Municipal de Pichilemu ) . According to Pichilemu News , CheerPichilemu was " the first national open cheerleading tournament . " There were four categories in the first edition : Senior Women , Senior Co @-@ Ed , Open Women , Open Co @-@ Ed , and Couples . The competition was supported by the Tourism Chamber of Pichilemu , the local government , and several other institutions and individuals .
= = = English debate team = = =
The English debate team , informally called Kick @-@ Ass , is led by English teacher Natalia Polanco Pino . The team participated for the first time in the National English Debates Tournament organized by the English Opens Doors program from the Chilean Ministry of Education in 2011 , and made it to the regional finals , reaching the second place , losing against the San Fernando College team from San Fernando , discussing the topic " This house believes that unhealthy food should be more expensive than healthy food . " Despite they only reached the second place in the competition , they were homaged by mayor of Pichilemu Roberto Córdova Carreño , and the Provincial Education Director , Abelardo Sepúlveda Vargas , in a ceremony held at the school on 26 October of that year .
In the 2012 tournament , Preciosa Sangre 's team Kick @-@ Ass passed to regional finals , along with the Colchagua Province teams from Liceo Santa Cruz from Santa Cruz , and San Fernando College from San Fernando , and the Cachapoal Province teams from Liceo San José from Requínoa , Liceo Bicentenario Ignacio Carrera Pinto from San Vicente de Tagua Tagua , Liceo Bicentenario Óscar Castro Zúñiga and Colegio Gabriela Mistral , both from Rancagua . The team reached fourth place in the 2012 regional finals , losing against Liceo Bicentenario Óscar Castro Zúñiga . The topic in the regional finals was " This house believes that social media should be censored . "
The Preciosa Sangre English debate team participated once again in 2013 . They passed to the Ministry of Education 's English Debate Tournament regional finals with 173 @.@ 5 points , the highest score of any of the Region of O 'Higgins participant schools . The Preciosa Sangre team was closely followed by the teams of Instituto San Andrés from Rancagua ( 173 points ) , San Fernando College from San Fernando ( 172 @.@ 5 points ) , and Liceo Bicentenario Óscar Castro Zúñiga , also from Rancagua ( 164 @.@ 5 points ) . Kick @-@ Ass , however , ultimately lost the regional finals against Colegio San Fernando College ; this latter reached the second national place , in August 2013 .
Their final participation in the Ministry 's English Debate Tournament was in 2014 . After obtaining the highest score in their region during a first round of debates , they ultimately obtained the third place in O 'Higgins Region after discussing whether " [ a ] dvertisement aimed at children should be banned " .
= = = Olimpíadas de Actualidad = = =
A team from Preciosa Sangre , led by Spanish language teacher Fabián Valle Silva , participated in the Olimpíadas de Actualidad ( News Olympics ) , a competition organized by the Chilean Asociación Nacional de Prensa ( National Press Association ) , INACAP , and El Rancagüino newspaper . Preciosa Sangre participated for the first time in the 2012 edition , reaching the regional finals . The team placed third , losing against Colegio El Salvador from San Vicente de Tagua Tagua and the Instituto Regional Federico Errázuriz from Santa Cruz .
Preciosa Sangre participated again in the 2013 edition of the Olimpíadas de Actualidad . However , they did not make it to the second round , obtaining the 19th score ( 32 points ) from 22 participating teams .
= = = Other activities = = =
Students from Preciosa Sangre have participated in several competitions and activities besides the English Debates Tournament and the Olimpiadas de Actualidad . One of those activities was the Modelo de la Organización de Estados Americanos ( MOEA ; Model of the Organization of American States ) , organized by the Institute of Public Affairs of the University of Chile . With the support of the Governor of Cardenal Caro , Julio Ibarra , seven students represented Preciosa Sangre in the activity , in August 2011 . The Preciosa Sangre team was led by history teacher Erna Pereira Arenas , and the students represented the country of Trinidad and Tobago . MOEA took place at the former National Congress in Santiago , and 32 other schools participated . According to Mother Loreto Fuentes Parra , principal of the school , Preciosa Sangre was one of the best three teams in the activity .
A team of second graders from Preciosa Sangre participated in the 2008 edition of a competition called Maratón Minera ( Mining Marathon ) , organized by the Chilean Ministries of Mining and Education . The competition was a four @-@ stage " marathon of knowledge " . From the 98 teams from the O 'Higgins Region which participated in the competition , only two were awarded a prize , one of them was Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre , whose team Los Cuchitos was given an honorific mention .
In the first edition of Sé Reportero ( Be a Reporter ) , a competition organized in 2011 by national newspaper El Mercurio and educarchile , Diego Grez Cañete from Preciosa Sangre was awarded the second place in the Opinion Column category , with an article called " ¿ Educación gratuita ? " ( " Free education ? " ) . In 2012 , the same student earned an honorific mention for his tale " Es un lindo día " ( It 's a Beautiful Day ) from the Andrés Bello University 's Interescolar de Cuentos en Español ( Interschool Contest of Spanish @-@ language Tales ) . " Es un lindo día " was published in a book commemorating the interschool contest of that year .
In October 2012 , a group of eleventh and twelfth grade Preciosa Sangre students , led by history teacher Erna Pereira Arenas , organized a debate ( Spanish : debate municipal ) between candidates for mayor of Pichilemu , which was held on the 23 of that month , just five days before the election took place . Candidates Mario Moraga Cáceres ( independent ) , Washington Araneda Carrasco ( Progressist Party ) , Cristián Tamayo Latapiat ( independent ) , and Carlos Acuña Arévalo ( National Renewal ) participated . According to Jorge Nasser Guerra from Radio Entreolas , and an article published on Diario VI Región , Roberto Córdova Carreño , who was eventually elected , rejected to participate in the debate because he " would not attend that kind of events " , while Iván Cabrera Martínez " never responded the students ' invitation " . Some of the issues discussed in the debate were " municipal and higher education , health , urbanization , municipal corruption , " amid other topics . The debate was broadcast live on local radio stations Entreolas and Isla FM . The debate was praised by local online newspaper Pichilemu News for being " the first ever debate held in Pichilemu " and " whose planification took care of every detail " .
Every year , Preciosa Sangre celebrates its anniversary in October or November , with activities and games during two days ; those include basketball , football , and Chilean games . The school is divided in two groups or alliances ; in 2011 , there was a red and a white alliance . The celebrations conclude with the presentation of carnival floats created by every alliance , and a gala party . During the 2012 celebrations , both alliances recorded a parody of the " Gangnam Style " music video by South Korean entertainer PSY ; since the videos were uploaded to YouTube , the red alliance video reached almost 4 @,@ 000 views as of February 2013 , while in contrast , the white alliance video has only reached 1 @,@ 800 in the same time span .
= = Notable alumni = =
Among former students of the Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre de Pichilemu are Jorge Vargas González ( born 1966 ) , a local politician who served as councilor of Pichilemu between 1992 and 1996 , and later as mayor of the commune , between 1996 and 2007 ; and Rebeca Cofré Calderón ( born 1962 ) , current mayor of Chépica , in Colchagua Province , who initially took office in December 2008 and was re @-@ elected in 2012 to a second term .
= Ralph Vary Chamberlin =
Ralph Vary Chamberlin ( January 3 , 1879 – October 31 , 1967 ) was an American biologist , ethnographer , and historian from Salt Lake City , Utah . He was a faculty member of the University of Utah for over 25 years , where he helped establish the School of Medicine and served as its first dean , and later became head of the zoology department . He also taught at Brigham Young University and the University of Pennsylvania , and worked for over a decade at the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University , where he described species from around the world .
Chamberlin was a prolific taxonomist who named over 4 @,@ 000 new animal species in over 400 scientific publications . He specialized in arachnids ( spiders , scorpions , and relatives ) and myriapods ( centipedes , millipedes , and relatives ) , ranking among the most prolific arachnologists and myriapodologists in history . He described over 1 @,@ 400 species of spiders , 1 @,@ 000 species of millipedes , and the majority of North American centipedes , although the quantity of his output was not always matched with quality , leaving a mixed legacy to his successors . He also did pioneering ethnobiological studies with the Goshute and other indigenous people of the Great Basin , cataloging
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00 , then Africa and Australia with around 100 horses each . The nine state studs that are part of the LIF represent almost one @-@ quarter of the horses in Europe . Sâmbăta de Jos , in Romania , has the greatest number of horses , with 400 , followed by Piber in Austria ( 360 ) , Lipica in Slovenia ( 358 ) , Szilvásvárad in Hungary ( 262 ) , Monterotondo in Italy ( 230 ) , Đakovo @-@ Lipik in Croatia ( 220 ) and Topoľčianky in Slovakia ( 200 ) . The other two studs are smaller , with Vučijak in Bosnia having 130 horses and Karađorđevo in Serbia having just 30 . Educational programs have been developed in order to promote the breed and foster adherence to traditional breeding objectives .
Because of the status of Lipizzans as the only breed of horse developed in Slovenia , via the Lipica stud that is now located within its borders , Lipizzans are recognized in Slovenia as a national animal . For example , a pair of Lipizzans is featured on the 20 @-@ cent Slovenian euro coins . Mounted regiments of Carabinieri police in Italy also employ the Lipizzan as one of their mounts . In October 2008 , during a visit to Slovenia , a Lipizzan at Lipica , named 085 Favory Canissa XXII , was given to Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom . She decided to leave the animal in the care of the stud farm .
= = Training and uses = =
The traditional horse training methods for Lipizzans were developed at the Spanish Riding School and are based on the principles of classical dressage , which in turn traces to the Ancient Greek writer Xenophon , whose works were rediscovered in the 16th century . His thoughts on development of horses ' mental attitude and psyche are still considered applicable today . Other writers who strongly influenced the training methods of the Spanish Riding School include Federico Grisone , the founder of the first riding academy in Naples , who lived during the 16th century ; and Antoine de Pluvinel and François Robichon de la Guérinière , two Frenchmen from the 17th and 18th centuries . The methods for training the Lipizzan stallions at the Spanish Riding School were passed down via an oral tradition until Field Marshal Franz Holbein and Johann Meixner , Senior Rider at the School , published the initial guidelines for the training of horse and rider at the School in 1898 . In the mid @-@ 20th century , Alois Podhajsky wrote a number of works that serve as textbooks for many dressage riders today .
The principles taught at the Spanish Riding School are based on practices taught to cavalry riders to prepare their horses for warfare . Young stallions come to the Spanish Riding School for training when they are four years old . Full training takes an average of six years for each horse , and schooling is considered complete when they have mastered the skills required to perform the " School Quadrille " . There are three progressively more difficult skill sets taught to the stallions , which are :
Forward riding , also called Straight riding or the Remontenschule - This is the name given to the skills taught in the first year of training , where a young horse learns to be saddled and bridled , learns basic commands on a longe line , and then is taught to be ridden , mostly in an arena in simple straight lines and turns , to teach correct responses to the rider 's legs and hands while mounted . The main goal during this time is to develop free forward movement in as natural a position as possible .
Campaign school , Campagneschule or Campagne , where the horse learns collection and balance through all gaits , turns and maneuvers . The horse learns to shorten and lengthen his stride , perform lateral movements to the side , and is introduced to the more complex double bridle . This is the longest training phase and may take several years .
High @-@ school dressage , the Haute école or Hohe Schule , which includes riding the horse with greater collection with increased use of the hindquarters , developing increased regularity , skill and finesse in all natural gaits . In this period , the horse learns the most advanced movements such as the half @-@ pass , counter @-@ canter , flying change , pirouette , passage , and piaffe . This is also when the horse may be taught the " Airs above the ground . " This level emphasizes performance with a high degree of perfection .
Although the Piber Stud trains mares for driving and under saddle , the Spanish Riding School exclusively uses stallions in its performances . Worldwide , the Lipizzan today competes in dressage and driving , as well as retaining their classic position at the Spanish Riding School .
= = " Airs above the ground " = =
The " airs above the ground " are the difficult " high school " dressage movements made famous by the Lipizzans . The finished movements include :
The levade : a position wherein the horse raises up both front legs , standing at a 30 @-@ degree angle entirely on its hind legs in a controlled form that requires a great deal of hindquarter strength . A less difficult but related movement is the pesade , where the horse rises up to a 45 @-@ degree angle .
The courbette : a movement where the horse balances on its hind legs and then essentially " hops , " jumping with the forelegs off the ground and hind legs together .
The capriole : a jump in place where the stallion leaps into the air , tucking his forelegs under himself , and kicks out with his hind legs at the top of the jump .
Other movements include :
The croupade and ballotade are predecessors to the capriole . In the croupade , the horse jumps with both fore and hind legs remaining tucked under the body and he does not kick out . In the ballotade , the horse jumps and untucks his hind legs slightly , he does not kick out , but the soles of the hind feet are visible if viewed from the rear .
The mezair : A series of successive levades in which the horse lowers its forefeet to the ground before rising again on hindquarters , achieving forward motion . This movement is no longer used at the Spanish Riding School .
= = In popular culture = =
Lipizzans have starred or played supporting roles in many movies , TV shows , books and other media .
The 1940 film Florian stars two Lipizzan stallions . It was based on a 1934 novel written by Felix Salten . The wife of the film 's producer owned the only Lipizzans in the US at the time that the movie was made . The rescue during World War II of the Lipizzan stallions is depicted in the 1963 Walt Disney movie Miracle of the White Stallions . The movie was the only live @-@ action , relatively realistic film set against a World War II backdrop that Disney has ever produced . In the feature film Crimson Tide , a discussion between the two main characters over whether Lipizzans came from Spain or Portugal , and whether they are born white or black , is used to represent the film 's suppressed racial conflict and the dividing of the world between two main powers during the Cold War .
Television programs featuring the Lipizzans include The White Horses , a 1965 children 's television series co @-@ produced by RTV Ljubljana ( now RTV Slovenija ) of Yugoslavia and BR @-@ TV of Germany , re @-@ broadcast in the United Kingdom . It followed the adventures of a teenage girl who visits a farm where Lipizzan horses are raised . Many books and poems mention or star Lipizzans . In 2011 , the Dutch writer Frank Westerman published a book on the history of the 20th century through the perspective of the Lipizzan horses , Brother Mendel 's Perfect Horse . In the 2004 novel The Star of Kazan by Eva Ibbotson , Lipizzan horses and the Spanish Riding School are key elements of both the plot and the setting . Lipizzans and the Spanish Riding School also play a crucial role in Mary Stewart 's 1965 novel Airs Above the Ground and Marguerite Henry 's 1964 children 's novel White Stallion of Lipizza . In the 1960s , the Slovene poet Edvard Kocbek wrote a poem dedicated to the Lipizzan horses . On June 21 , 2011 Annie Wedekind released " Mercury 's Flight : The Story of a Lipizzaner Stallion " through Breyer Horses as part of The Breyer Horse Collection book series . In the Season 1 episode of The Angry Beavers " Fancy Prance " Norbert confesses to Daggett that his lifelong dream is to become a Lipizzaner Stallion . Former concert promoter Gary Lashinsky owned The World Famous Lipizzaner Stallions until they filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy and permanently closed . A new movie based on the World War II evacuation of Lipizzaners from a Nazi breeding farm is expected to hit theaters in December 2016 .
= Walter Zinn =
Walter Henry Zinn ( December 10 , 1906 – February 14 , 2000 ) was a nuclear physicist who was the first director of the Argonne National Laboratory from 1946 to 1956 . He worked at the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory during World War II , and supervised the construction of Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the world ’ s first nuclear reactor , which went critical on December 2 , 1942 , at the University of Chicago . At Argonne he designed and built several new reactors , including Experimental Breeder Reactor I , the first nuclear reactor to produce electric power , which went live on December 20 , 1951 .
= = Early life = =
Walter Henry Zinn was born in Berlin ( now Kitchener ) , Ontario , on December 10 , 1906 , the son of John Zinn , who worked in a tire factory , and Maria Anna Stoskopf . He had an older brother , Albert , who also became a factory worker .
Zinn entered Queen 's University , where he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics in 1927 and a Master of Arts degree in 1930 . He then entered Columbia University in 1930 , where he studied physics , writing his Doctor of Philosophy thesis on " Two @-@ crystal study of the structure and width of K X @-@ ray absorption limits " . This was subsequently published in the Physical Review .
To support himself , Zinn taught at Queen 's University from 1927 to 1928 , and at Columbia from 1931 to 1932 . He became an instructor at the City College of New York in 1932 . While at Queen 's he met Jennie A. ( Jean ) Smith , a fellow student . They were married in 1933 and had two sons , John Eric and Robert James . In 1938 , Zinn became a naturalised United States citizen .
= = Manhattan Project = =
In 1939 , the Pupin Physics Laboratories at Columbia where Zinn worked were the center of intensive research into the properties of uranium and nuclear fission , which had recently been discovered by Lise Meitner , Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann . At Columbia , Zinn , Enrico Fermi , Herbert L. Anderson , John R. Dunning and Leo Szilard investigated whether uranium @-@ 238 fissioned with slow neutrons , as Fermi believed , or only the uranium @-@ 235 isotope , as Niels Bohr contended . Since pure uranium @-@ 235 was not available , Fermi and Szilard chose to work with natural uranium . They were particularly interested in whether a nuclear chain reaction could be initiated . This would require more than one neutron to be emitted per fission on average in order to keep the chain reaction going . By March 1939 , they established that about two were being emitted per fission on average . The delay between an atom absorbing a neutron and fission occurring would be the key to controlling a chain reaction .
At this point Zinn began working for Fermi , constructing experimental uranium lattices . To slow neutrons down requires a neutron moderator . Water was Fermi 's first choice , but it tended to absorb neutrons as well as slow them . In July , Szilard suggested using carbon , in the form of graphite . The critical radius of a spherical reactor was calculated to be :
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In order for a self @-@ sustaining nuclear chain reaction to occur , they needed k > 1 . For a practical reactor configuration , it needed to be at least 3 or 4 percent more ; but in August 1941 Zinn 's initial experiments indicated a disappointing value of 0 @.@ 87 . Fermi pinned his hopes of a better result on an improved configuration , and purer uranium and graphite .
In early 1942 , with the United States now embroiled World War II , Arthur Compton concentrated the Manhattan Project 's various teams working on plutonium at the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago . Zinn used athletes to build Fermi 's increasingly large experimental configurations under the stands of the disused Stagg Field . In July 1942 , Fermi measured a k = 1 @.@ 007 from a uranium oxide lattice . This raised hopes that pure uranium would yield a suitable value of k .
By December 1942 , Zinn and Anderson had the new configuration ready at Stagg Field . Some 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long , 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide and 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) high , it contained 385 @.@ 5 long tons ( 391 @.@ 7 t ) of graphite and 46 @.@ 5 long tons ( 47 @.@ 2 t ) of uranium metal and uranium oxide . When the experiment was carried out on the afternoon of December 2 , 1942 , the reactor , known as Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , reached criticality without incident . Since the reactor had no radiation shield , it was run at a maximum power of only 200 W , enough to power a light bulb , and ran for only three months . It was shut down on February 28 , 1943 , because the US Army did not want to risk an accident near densely populated downtown Chicago .
The Army leased a 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 ha ) of the Cook County Forest Preserves known as " Site A " to the Manhattan Project , and " the Country Club " to the hundred or so scientists , guards and others who worked there . Zinn was placed in charge of Site A , under Fermi . Chicago Pile @-@ 1 was disassembled and rebuilt , this time with a radiation shield , at Site A. The reactor , now known as Chicago Pile @-@ 2 , was operational again on March 20 , 1943 . Within a few months , Fermi began designing a new reactor , which became known as Chicago Pile @-@ 3 . This was a very different type of reactor . It was much smaller , being only 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in diameter and 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) high . It was power by 120 uranium metal rods , and moderated by 1 @,@ 200 US gallons ( 4 @,@ 500 l ; 1 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of heavy water . Once again Zinn was in charge of construction , which commenced on New Year 's Day in 1944 . Chicago Pile @-@ 3 went critical on May 15 , 1944 , and commenced operation on June 23 at its full power of 300 KW . When Fermi departed for the Hanford Site , Zinn became the sole authority at Site A.
On September 29 , 1944 , Zinn received an urgent call from Samuel Allison , the director of the Metallurgical Laboratory . The B Reactor at Hanford had shut down shortly after reaching full power , only to come back to life again some hours later . Norman Hilberry suspected a neutron poison was responsible . If so , it had a half life of around 9 @.@ 7 hours . Xenon @-@ 135 had a half life close to that , but had not been detected in Argonne or by the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . Zinn quickly brought Chicago Pile @-@ 3 up to full power , and within twelve hours , had made a series of measurements that confirmed the Hanford results .
Over the following months , some 175 technical personnel were transferred from the Metallurgical Laboratory to Hanford and Los Alamos . Zinn 's Argonne Laboratory was reduced to a skeleton staff , but Compton would not countenance its closure .
= = Argonne National Laboratory = =
On July 11 , 1946 , the Argonne laboratory officially became the Argonne National Laboratory , with Zinn as its first director . Alvin Weinberg characterized Zinn as " a model of what a director of the then @-@ emerging national laboratories should be : sensitive to the aspirations of both contractor and fund provider , but confident enough to prevail when this was necessary . "
One of the first problems confronting Zinn was that of accommodation . The Federal government had promised to restore Site A to the Cook County Forest Preserves after the war , and despite intervention from the Secretary of War , Robert P. Patterson , the most the Cook County Forest Preserves Commission would agree to was that the Argonne National Laboratory could continue to occupy a portion of the lease until a new site was found . Zinn rejected alternate sites outside the Chicago area , and the Army found a new site for the laboratory 's permanent home about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) away in DuPage County , Illinois , which became known as Site D.
Under Zinn , the Argonne National Laboratory adopted slightly more progressive hiring practices than other contemporary institutions . Three African American women and seven men , six of whom had worked on the Manhattan Project , were employed in research at Argonne at a time when the Los Alamos National Laboratory had no African American scientists . Argonne also appointed women to positions of authority , with Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer as a section leader in the theoretical physics division , and Hoylande Young as director of the technical information division .
The Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) replaced the Manhattan Project on January 1 , 1947 , and on January 1 , 1948 it announced that the Argonne National Laboratory would be " focused chiefly on problems of reactor development . " Zinn did not seek the additional responsibility , which he realised would divert the Laboratory away from research , and divert him from other responsibilities , such as designing a fast breeder reactor . He even obtained a written assurance from Carroll L. Wilson , the AEC 's general manager , that it would not . He was therefore willing to collaborate with Alvin Weinberg to allow the Oak Ridge National Laboratory to remain involved in reactor design . Nonetheless , reactor research accounted for almost half the laboratory 's budget in 1949 , and 84 percent of its research was classified .
Zinn did not get along well with Captain Hyman G. Rickover , the US Navy 's Director of Naval Reactors , but nonetheless Argonne assisted in the development of nuclear marine propulsion , eventually producing two reactors , a land @-@ based prototype Mark I and a propulsion reactor , the Mark II . The STR ( Submarine Thermal Reactor ) pressurized water reactor designed at Argonne powered the first nuclear @-@ powered submarine , the USS Nautilus , and became the basis of nearly all the reactors installed in warships .
The other branch of reactor development at the Argonne National Laboratory , and the one closer to Zinn 's heart , was the fast breeder reactor . At the time it was believed that uranium was a scarce resource , so it would be wise to make the best use of it . The breeders were designed to create more fissile material than they consumed . By 1948 , he had become convinced that it would be unwise to build large experimental reactors near Chicago , and the AEC acquired land around Arco , Idaho , which became an outpost of Argonne . The Experimental Breeder Reactor I ( EBR @-@ I , but known at Argonne as " ZIP " — Zinn 's Infernal Pile ) was the first reactor to be cooled by liquid metal , and the first to produce electricity . It proved the breeder concept . AEC Chairman Gordon Dean described it as a major milestone in nuclear history .
The BORAX Experiments were a series of destructive tests of boiling water reactors conducted by Argonne National Laboratory in Idaho . The BORAX @-@ 1 test was conducted under Zinn 's supervision in 1954 . He had the control rods removed to demonstrate that the reactor would shut down without trouble , and it immediately blew up with a loud bang and a tall column of dark smoke , a turn of events that he had not anticipated . He shouted to Harold Lichtenberg to put the control rods back in again , but Lichtenberg pointed out that one was already flying through the air . Zinn later had to testify on the experiment before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy .
= = Later life = =
After leaving the Argonne National Laboratory in 1956 , Zinn moved to Florida , where he founded his own consulting firm , General Nuclear Engineering , with its headquarters in Dunedin , Florida . The company was involved in the design and construction of pressurized water reactors . It was acquired by Combustion Engineering in 1964 , and he became a vice president and head of its nuclear division . He stepped down from this position in 1970 , but remained a board member until 1986 . He served as a member of the President 's Science Advisory Committee from 1960 to 1962 , and a member of the General Advisory Committee of the AEC and its successor , the Energy Research and Development Administration , from 1972 to 1975 .
Over the years Zinn received multiple awards for his work , including a special commendation from the AEC in 1956 , the Atoms for Peace Award in 1960 , the Enrico Fermi Award in 1969 , and the Elliott Cresson Medal from The Franklin Institute in 1970 . In 1955 he was elected as the first president of the American Nuclear Society ( ANS ) .
Zinn 's wife Jean died in 1964 . He married Mary Teresa Pratt in 1966 , and thereby acquired two stepsons , Warren and Robert Johnson . He died in Mease Countryside Hospital in Safety Harbor , Florida , on February 14 , 2000 , after suffering a stroke . He was survived by his wife Mary , sons John and Robert and stepson Warren . Robert had become a professor of astronomy at Yale University .
= = Walter H. Zinn Award = =
Since 1976 , the American Nuclear Society 's Operations and Power Division , has annually presented the Walter H. Zinn Award to recognize an individual " for a notable and sustained contribution to the nuclear power industry that has not been widely recognized . "
= It Was Written =
It Was Written is the second studio album by American rapper Nas , released July 2 , 1996 on Columbia Records in the United States . Following the moderate sales success of his acclaimed debut album , Illmatic ( 1994 ) , Nas chose to focus his efforts in a more mainstream direction . Primarily produced by Trackmasters , it is a departure for him from the raw , underground tone of his debut album towards a more polished , mainstream sound . The album features mafioso and gangsta themes , and marks the first appearance of Nas 's short @-@ lived supergroup The Firm , which included rappers Foxy Brown , AZ , and Cormega .
The album proved to be Nas ’ s most commercially successful release , debuting at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart . It also heralded Nas ’ s mainstream popularity and followed the success of other mafioso rap albums such as Raekwon 's Only Built 4 Cuban Linx … ( 1995 ) . However , his stylistic changes and increased mainstream success fostered accusations of selling out within the hip hop community . It has been viewed by music writers as one of Nas 's best records and remains Nas ' best @-@ selling release , with over 4 million copies in the United States alone .
= = Background and recording = =
Following the critical acclaim of his debut album Illmatic ( 1994 ) , Nas chose to concentrate his efforts in a more mainstream direction , in contrast to the raw , unpolished and underground tone of his debut . Despite its significant impact on hip hop at the time , Illmatic did not experience the larger sales of most major releases at the time in hip hop , such as Snoop Dogg 's Doggystyle ( 1993 ) . This was due in part to Nas 's shy personality and uninvolvement in promoting the record . Nas began to make appearances on other artists ' work , including Kool G Rap 's " 4 @,@ 5 @,@ 6 " ( 1995 ) and Raekwon 's " Verbal Intercourse " on his album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx … ( 1995 ) , which made Nas the first non Wu @-@ Tang Clan member to appear on one of its solo recordings . He began to dub himself as Nas Escobar on these guest appearances .
Meanwhile , his excessive spending habits left him with little money , and Nas was forced to ask for a loan to purchase clothes to wear to the Source Awards ceremony in 1995 . The success of fellow East Coast act The Notorious B.I.G. and promoter Puff Daddy at the awards show sent a message to Nas to change his commercial approach , resulting in his hiring of Steve " The Commissioner " Stoute as manager . While Illmatic attained gold status in the United States , Stoute convinced Nas to aim his efforts in a more mainstream , commercial direction for his second album , after which Nas enlisted the production team Trackmasters , who were known at the time for their mainstream success . Other producers for the album included DJ Premier , Dr. Dre , Havoc of Mobb Deep , L.E.S. , Live Squad , and MC Serch as executive producer . Premier and L.E.S. had previously served as producers for Nas 's Illmatic . The album was mastered by Tom Coyne at Sterling Sound in New York City . The album cover was designed by artist Aimée Macauley , and the photography was taken by Danny Clinch .
= = Composition = =
= = = Music and style = = =
In contrast to Illmatic , the album contains a more detailed and elaborate production , while it shares similarity to the G @-@ funk sound , relying heavily on sampled and looped funk grooves . It Was Written has Nas experimenting with a theatrical mafioso concept under the alias of " Nas Escobar " ( inspired by the Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar ) . The album 's subject matter has been noted for its focus on materialistic excess and other mafioso lyrical themes . Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote of Nas 's shift in lyrical themes from Illmatic , stating he " repeatedly cites the Colombian drug kingpin Pablo Escobar and drops brand names of clothes , cars , liquor and guns . " Nas also references lines from his previous material , a common element in his music that has been analyzed by one music writer as " return [ ing ] to his professional beginnings in those references . "
= = = Content = = =
The album opens with " Album Intro " in which a slave rebellion is heard , and it contains samples of Sam Cooke 's " A Change Is Gonna Come " ( 1964 ) and The Lost Generation 's " The Sly , the Slick , and the Wicked " ( 1970 ) . ( sample ) The opening song " The Message " features production by the Trackmasters , Poke & Tone , and scratching from Kid Capri . One critic described the song as a " bloody narrative " , and cited it as " one of the most visually evocative songs of Nas ' career " . The song 's title references the classic hip hop single " The Message " ( 1982 ) by Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five . Legendary producer DJ Premier had one production credit on the jazz fusion @-@ styled " I Gave You Power " , a song which depicts a first @-@ person narrative from the perspective of a gun . The song is accompanied by falling piano notes and stuttering drums .
The album contains the singles " If I Ruled the World " , which features guest vocals from Lauryn Hill , and " Street Dreams " . Music critic J.R. Reynolds wrote that the former has Nas " rapping his way to anarchy in an imagined world where he kicks discipline to the curb and good times rule . " In the song , he states that he would " open every cell in Attica / send them to Africa " . The latter is an account on the impact of drugs in Nas 's neighborhood . The song contains smooth bass lines and frail drums , and it features an interpolation of the Eurythmics ' " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " ( 1983 ) . The album also features guest appearances from Mobb Deep and The Firm , a supergroup which was initially composed of Nas , AZ , Cormega and Foxy Brown . The group makes an appearance on the song " Affirmative Action " , a tale of robbery and three characters with mob connections . Brett Berliner of Stylus Magazine described the song 's beat as " extremely mafioso , sounding straight out of Goodfellas , with strings and crescendos " , while he cited the song as " one of the best posse tracks of all time . "
Mobb Deep 's Havoc produced two tracks for the album , " The Set Up " , a story about revenge , and " Live Nigga Rap " , a freestyle performed by Nas and Mobb Deep with hard , gloomy percussion . " Black Girl Lost " is a sympathetic account on the struggle of African @-@ American women . It features vocals by R & B singer Joel " Jo @-@ Jo " Hailey of Jodeci . Music critic Krisex wrote of Nas 's lyricism , stating " The L.E.S.-produced song woos heavy rotation while the MC makes the type of passionate perusals that leave lyrical aficionadeos genuflecting at his mike stand . " The song 's title comes from the book of the same name by pulp writer Donald Goines ; his literary work has served as a popular source of reference for many gangsta rap artists . " Nas Is Coming " is a collaboration between Nas and West Coast rapper Dr. Dre . One writer cited it as " more of a gangsta , mainstream tune than anything Nas has ever recorded . " The song 's opening conversation , a skit , is a discussion between Nas and Dr. Dre about hip hop artists and fans over @-@ concerned with the East Coast @-@ West Coast rivalry , and that the two are producing a song that does not revolve around or contribute to the beef .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
It Was Written was released July 2 , 1996 in the United States , Canada and Europe on Columbia Records , while featuring distribution in the United Kingdom on Simply Vinyl Records as a double vinyl LP . It Was Written proved to be Nas ’ s most commercially successful album to date , selling 268 @,@ 000 copies at the time of its chart debut . It peaked at number one on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums and debuted at the top of the Billboard 200 , remaining on the latter chart at number one for four consecutive weeks , in the top 20 for eleven weeks , and a total of thirty @-@ four weeks in the top 200 .
The album 's first single " If I Ruled the World ( Imagine That ) " peaked at number 15 on the Hot Rap Singles chart , number 17 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks chart and number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart . The second single " Street Dreams " hit number one on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales chart , as well as number one on the Hot Rap Singles chart , while it peaked at number 18 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 . A remix version of " Street Dreams " was released on November 26 , 1996 featuring production by Poke & Tone and guest vocals from R & B singer R. Kelly . On September 6 , 1996 , It Was Written was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of two million copies in the United States . On January 8 , 1997 , " Street Dreams " was certified gold in sales by the RIAA for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies .
= = = Critical response = = =
It Was Written received generally positive reviews from critics . The Source called it an " audio anthology of ghetto stories told by one of hip @-@ hop 's most prolific writers . " Vibe magazine 's Krisex criticized the album 's " consistently aggressive attempts at pop music " , but also wrote that Nas " shines through " . Despite calling the album " adequate " and commending Nas for his lyricism and flow , Krisex concluded that It was Written " isn 't nearly as satisfying as his first one . " NME wrote that " Nas ' neat , considered lyrics treat the violence that surrounds him with a mixture of remorse , resignation and ebullience . " Christopher John Farley of Time stated " The lyrics in It Was Written could be sharper , but the music , energetic and engaging on many tracks , helps drive his message home . " Q magazine called Nas 's performance " angry , lean and full of drive . " Both the Chicago Tribune and Chicago Sun @-@ Times were favorable of the album 's sound and gave the album 3 ½ out of 4 stars . Los Angeles Times writer Cheo Coker called the album " poetic " , writing that it " demonstrates a continuing lyrical maturity that makes his already potent beats and rhymes all the more compelling " . Spin magazine preferred the " reach " of It Was Written to Nas 's " more suavely rapped debut " , praised the production , and described the songs ' choruses as " grainy , pop @-@ savvy " .
The album 's release followed the commercial success of other mafioso @-@ themed rap albums with similar subject matter , including Raekwon 's Only Built 4 Cuban Linx … ( 1995 ) , Jay @-@ Z 's Reasonable Doubt ( 1996 ) and AZ 's Doe or Die ( 1995 ) . Music writers criticized its mainstream , R & B and pop @-@ leaning sound , as well as the enlistment of a top production unit and popular guest artists . The album 's lyrics and themes were also poorly received and heavily dismissed as an attempt by Nas to follow the popularity of gangsta and mafioso rap . Rolling Stone 's Mark Coleman wrote negatively of Nas 's themes and called it " the latest blatant example of trashy tough @-@ guy talk " , writing " Certainly he strikes a note of creepy realism in his stories of heavyweight dealing and literally cutthroat competition . ' The Set Up ' , ' Shootouts ' and ' Affirmative Action ' [ ... ] are chilling in their how @-@ many @-@ grams @-@ to @-@ a @-@ kilo detail and utter amorality . On ' Watch Dem Niggas ' , Nas cites as inspirations both the boxing coach Cus D 'Amato and the murderous drug lord Pablo Escobar . What is this guy thinking ? " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that he " continually shifts perspective " and called it " late @-@ stage gangsta rap , starting to buckle under its own contradictions . " The Village Voice 's Robert Christgau gave the album a " neither " ( ) rating , indicating " may impress once or twice with consistent craft or an arresting track or two . Then it won 't . "
The album was ranked number 41 in NME 's critics ' poll of 1996 , and Jim Farber of the New York Daily News named it the sixth best album of 1996 . German @-@ based magazine Spex ranked it number four on its " End of Year " list , while the UK @-@ based magazine The Face named it the twenty @-@ fourth best album of 1996 . " If I Ruled the World ( Imagine That ) " was ranked number 29 on NME 's Singles of the Year list , and number 20 on The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . It was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance in 1997 .
= = = Retrospect = = =
Since its release , It Was Written remains Nas ' best @-@ selling release to date . By 2001 , it had sold more than 2 @.@ 13 million copies . Leo Stanley of Allmusic later praised Nas 's lyricism and ghetto @-@ themed vignettes , along with the album 's detailed production . For Stylus Magazine 's On Second Thought publication , critic Brett Berliner re @-@ examined the album , discussing its initial impact , and cited it as " one of the first hip @-@ hop albums to straddle the critical and commercial divide successfully . " While comparing It Was Written to Illmatic , Berliner stated " It ’ s a seriously good album with a bit of filler , worth of almost all of the praise Illmatic got . This is Nas ’ second classic , and should be considered one of the best albums of all time . " About.com later ranked " If I Ruled the World ( Imagine That ) " number 24 on its list of 50 Great Hip Hop Songs , while it also named the song the fourth best R & B / Rap Collaboration .
While later reviews of the album saw It Was Written in a different light than previous reviews had , the subject matter was still seen as a major flaw of the album . Music critics perceived Nas ' violent , fantastical mafioso stories as lacking the emotion and truthfulness of his debut album . Writer Joe Katz wrote in a review of the album for Sputnikmusic , stating " The lyrics were there , but some of the emotion was gone . Maybe it was the world around Nas changing , or maybe it was changing in himself , but no one can listen to this after Illmatic and not see a change ... If Illmatic was the kind of nightmare you can 't wake up from and don 't really want too , then IWW is a regular dream , not quite " real " but enjoyable all the same . " While Illmatic is often held as Nas 's magnum opus , It Was Written was not only perceived by critics as part of a sophomore jinx , but was also the first of Nas 's subsequent work to be heavily judged and compared to the former . However , It Was Written has been noted as his commercial breakthrough by critics , as it boosted the rapper 's image in the mainstream and helped attract a much larger fan @-@ base .
= = Legacy and influence = =
= = = Controversy = = =
" Nas is Coming " began a brief collaboration between Nas and West Coast hip hop producer Dr. Dre . The alliance also resulted in the formation of The Firm , who make their debut on track number eight , " Affirmative Action " . The pairing of the East Coast rapper and the West Coast producer , during the period of the East Coast @-@ West Coast rivalry , brought criticism from both sides . More controversy ensued when , during the recording of The Firm 's album , Cormega was fired from the group by Nas 's manager , Steve Stoute , and replaced with a young rapper named Nature . Cormega recorded an underground single , " Fuck Nas and Nature " , which began a rivalry with Nas that persisted — with brief periods of reconciliation — to the end of 2005 .
In addition , West Coast @-@ based rapper Tupac Shakur took offense to the opening line of the song " The Message " , and in retaliation insulted Nas on a song titled " Against All Odds " from his posthumously @-@ released album The Don Killuminati : The 7 Day Theory ( 1996 ) . In an interview for King magazine , Nas later confirmed that the song was intended as a diss towards The Notorious B.I.G. , with the line " There 's one life , one love , so there can only be one King . " Nas and Shakur eventually met and reconciled prior to the latter 's fatal shooting . As a result of his death , Shakur did not have the opportunity to remove the insults to Nas in " Against All Odds " on The 7 Day Theory .
= = = Hip hop artists = = =
It Was Written has been credited , along with Raekwon 's Only Built 4 Cuban Linx … ( 1995 ) , with helping usher in the era of the mafioso rap . According to writer Sam Chennault , while the hip hop subgenre would " run out of steam quickly , this release is a gem . " Chennault also discussed the significance of It Was Written during the period of its release , stating " after mastering stark street corner realism on Illmatic , Nas delivered a loose concept album that was , at the time , groundbreaking in its scope , approach and execution . " According to rapper Young Noble , a close friend of Tupac Shakur , the song " I Gave You Power " served as the main inspiration for Shakur 's " Me and My Girlfriend " ( 1996 ) . American hip hop artist Lupe Fiasco has cited It Was Written as his favorite album and his primary source of inspiration . Fiasco has stated that he based his debut album Food & Liquor ( 2006 ) on the conceptual style and " moods " of It Was Written . When asked of his musical influences in an interview with AllHipHop.com , Fiasco stated " You know I really tried to go back and recreate [ Nas ’ ] It Was Written , you know what I 'm saying like that ? [ I would play ] It Was Written and then I would play my album , and it was like , ‘ Do we got [ this ] record , do we got that record ? ’ " When asked in an interview with NobodySmiling.com about why he is comfortable admitting the album as a source of inspiration , Fiasco stated :
Cause it ’ s a classic . Like , people study @-@ you study the masters , you know what I ’ m saying ? Everybody that ’ s rapping studied someone to learn how to rap . They had a rapper who was they favorite rapper that they wanted to be like and wanted to rap like , know what I ’ m saying ? For me , I just look at it like I studied a master piece . I modeled my album after a master piece ; and not song for song ; not line for line ; not beat for beat . It was more @-@ for me it was like mood for mood . The way he set the mood on that album to me was just like incredible . And at the time in my life @-@ like , I fell in love with ‘ It Was Written ’ when I was seventeen , eighteen @-@ a very impressionable time @-@ so I was like I love that album . That ’ s my favorite Hip Hop album , so it ’ s like why not base your album on ‘ It Was Written ’ ?
American reggae and hip hop artist Matisyahu regards It Was Written as one of his influences as well . He cites the introduction of It Was Written , in which slaves rebel against their owner , as having a major influence on him . According to The Washington Post , " Matisyahu , too , felt enslaved . By what ? He didn 't know . Just felt the chains . The lyrics rocked him . The beat did , too . " Matisyahu stated that after listening to It Was Written , " I connected with hip @-@ hop , the hardness of it , the driving beat . It ’ s music with space , that has gaps in every little thing that happens . "
= = = Subsequent work by Nas = = =
While It Was Written earned a more favorable reputation among critics since its initial mixed reception , Nas 's subsequent releases have continued to be weighed against his critically acclaimed Illmatic , despite all of them outselling his debut . Against this standard , they have often been critically deemed as mediocre follow @-@ ups . It Was Written was the first of Nas 's albums to have been labeled as ' selling out ' by fans of Illmatic , due to his crossover sensibilities and radio @-@ friendly hits aimed at the pop charts . In addition , none of his following releases have been able to reach the sales success of It Was Written . The follow @-@ up , I Am … ( 1999 ) , fared almost as well as It Was Written , serving as Nas 's only other album to reach double platinum status . After the releases of I Am … and Nastradamus ( 1999 ) , which underwent considerable editing due to bootlegging of the recording sessions , many fans and critics feared that his career was deteriorating . Despite the chart @-@ topping success of I Am … , hip hop audiences were not ready for the more prophetic themes of Nastradamus , as it only sold 232 @,@ 000 copies by its first week ( less than half of I Am … ' s first @-@ week figures ) .
By 2001 , Illmatic and It Was Written were both selling at a rate of over 3 @,@ 000 copies a week , while Nastradamus was earning an average of little more than 2 @,@ 000 copies a week , despite its relative newness . Both I Am … and Nastradamus received further criticism for their commercially oriented sound . Reflecting this widespread perception in the hip hop community and adding to his ongoing feud with Jay @-@ Z at the time , Jay @-@ Z mocked him in the song " Takeover " ( 2001 ) for assuming a " Pablo Escobar " persona and having a " one hot album [ Illmatic ] every ten year average " . Nas , however , made something of a comeback with his fifth album Stillmatic ( 2001 ) and the follow @-@ up God 's Son ( 2002 ) , which both sold in excess of 1 million copies . Afterwards , his subsequent albums tended to receive more positive reviews , including the platinum @-@ selling Street 's Disciple ( 2004 ) and his untitled ninth album ( 2008 ) . Nevertheless , It Was Written has remained as Nas 's best @-@ selling album .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Chart procession and succession = = =
= The Banquet ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" The Banquet " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 8 , 2009 . It was written by Tucker Cawley and directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . In the episode , Leslie attends an award banquet for her mother , a veteran of local government politics , who encourages Leslie to resort to blackmail in order to get her way with a zoning board official .
The episode received positive reviews , with Entertainment Weekly claiming the series appears to have grown more " settled and focused " after this episode . According to Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 4 @.@ 64 million households in its original airing , continuing a downward trend in ratings since the pilot episode , although NBC had already committed to renewing the show for a second season . " The Banquet " and the rest of the first season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in the United States on September 8 , 2009 .
= = Plot = =
Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) is proud that her mother , school system employee Marlene Knope ( Pamela Reed ) , is to receive a public service award during an upcoming banquet . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) , excited to go to a social event after spending so much time taking care of her injured , freeloading boyfriend Andy ( Chris Pratt ) , is told by Leslie to dress very formally . Leslie visits an old @-@ fashioned barber , who unbeknownst to her only gives men 's haircuts ; she is given a very short , mannish hairstyle , which she is very proud of . Leslie and Ann , who is extremely overdressed in an expensive pink dress , arrive together at the banquet , where they are mistaken for a lesbian couple by many of the attendees . Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) sucks up to Marlene during his banquet speech , while Ron ( Nick Offerman ) sticks to a " fact @-@ based " speech ( " It is true that you have won this award . " )
Leslie sees Jeanine Restrepo ( Loretta Fox ) , an influential zoning board member who could help Leslie with her plans to turn the Sullivan Street pit into a park . Leslie is too nervous to approach her , so she practices with Mark ( Paul Schneider ) , who teasingly pinches her nose because he says as Jeanine , " I can do whatever I want " ; Ann pinches Mark 's nose and Leslie pinches Ann 's , and Mark summarizes , " It 's fun to pretend to be zoning board members . " Marlene suggests Leslie try sucking up to Jeanine in her speech , but it comes across awkwardly when Leslie claims to " love " Jeanine . When Leslie tries to approach her later , Jeanine suggests Leslie make an appointment with her secretary . Marlene says this means Jeanine is blowing them off , and tells Leslie to blackmail Jeanine with the knowledge that her husband has a DUI offense in Illinois . Leslie shares the advice with Ann , who says she believes it is unethical and wrong ; offended , Leslie accuses Ann of pampering Andy . ( " He 's got three crutches , and one of them is you . And the other two are crutches . " ) Ann storms off .
Tom wants to go bar @-@ hopping with Mark , who leaves even though he is enjoying hanging out with Leslie and Ann . Tom wears a goofy orange hat at the bar , which he calls " peacocking " , or standing out in a public setting like a peacock . The two talk to women at the bar , but Mark finds them boring and he leaves Tom alone . Ron enjoys the banquet 's bacon @-@ wrapped shrimp , " my number one favorite food , wrapped around my number three favorite food " . Leslie confronts Jeanine about her husband 's DUI , but when Jeanine grows angry , Leslie is unable to go through with the blackmail ; Jeanine splashes water in Leslie 's face , and she leaves ashamed . Leslie visits Ann and apologizes , and Ann acknowledges Leslie was partially right about Andy . The two hug and Andy gets angry because he thought Leslie was " a dude " due to her haircut . Mark comes back to the banquet hall to find Ann and Leslie , but is disappointed to see the banquet is over .
= = Production = =
" The Banquet " was written by Tucker Cawley and directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , a long @-@ time television director who worked with Poehler on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live . The " Modern Barber Shop " featured in the episode is an actual barber shop in Burbank , California . The interior is very similar to the inside of the actual barber shop . Every time McCarthy @-@ Miller visited the real Modern Barber Shop , the barber 's wife was always eating sunflower seeds next to the shop door . As a result , McCarthy @-@ Miller added an elderly woman with sunflower seeds into the episode 's barber scenes .
The " peacocking " element was not included into the script , but added to the episode during filming after actor Aziz Ansari mentioned to show co @-@ creator Greg Daniels that he believed the character would be interested in pickup artist tactics like those outlined in Neil Strauss ' book The Game : Penetrating the Secret Society of Pickup Artists . Ansari and Daniels asked the wardrobe for something silly for Ansari to wear in the bar , and they tried about a half @-@ dozen items before Ansari himself settled on the orange hat , which is actually a woman 's hat . The two women Mark and Tom talk to at the bar were meant to mirror Leslie and Ann from the banquet . Although they do not resemble Poehler and Jones , the two women had the same color hair ( brown and blond ) and were seated at the table in the same spots in relation to Mark that Leslie and Ann were seated around him at the banquet .
The scene in which water is splashed in Leslie 's face was only shot twice , because McCarthy @-@ Miller said Poehler would start anticipating it in more takes and it would not have appeared spontaneous . The first time the scene was acted , the cameras were accidentally not turned on , so only one take was usable for the episode . During the banquet for the Tellenson Awards , a video is shown of an ill Tony Tellenson ( for whom the award was named ) in his hospital room . McCarthy @-@ Miller shot the scene with minimal staff on a separate set . Multiple takes were filmed , and the severity of illness differed in each one . The final clip used in the episode shows Tellenson wearing a mask attached to an oxygen tank , which is one of the healthiest versions they filmed . The Jeanine Restrepo character was originally named Janet Restrepo , but was changed at the last moment . Poehler and the rest of the cast had already memorized the lines with the name Janet , and the actors had difficulty filming the scenes correctly as a result .
= = Cultural references = =
In an opening statement about the history of Pawnee , Indiana , Leslie says a pilgrim traded a baby to the Native Americans in exchange " for what is now Indianapolis " , the state capital . She said the pilgrim 's face was made into a dreamcatcher , a handmade Native American object with a willow hoop and loose web . The barber who gave Leslie her haircut also previously cut the hair of former @-@ U.S. Vice President Dan Quayle . Ron said he likes shrimp hors d 'œuvres wrapped in bacon so much , he would attend an event honoring pirates in Somalia to get them .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on May 7 , 2009 , " The Banquet " was watched by 4 @.@ 64 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , continuing a downward trend in ratings since the pilot episode , although NBC had already committed to renewing the show for a second season . The episode received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 8 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 2 @.@ 0 rating / 6 share among viewers between 18 and 49 . The poor rating for Parks and Recreation and Southland , another then @-@ new NBC series , contributed in bringing the network down to fourth place in the ratings for the evening , behind CBS , ABC and Fox . " The Banquet " , however , received generally positive reviews . Most reviewers particularly praised the opening scene with Leslie describing the murder of Pawnee pilgrim Nathanliel Bixby Mark at the hands of Native Americans , who used his body parts for various purposes because , " They used every part of the pioneer " .
Jeremy Medina of Entertainment Weekly said he believed although the show initially needed improvement , that it had arrived at a " settled and focused " series with " The Banquet " . He praised the episode as a whole , as well as individual small moments , like Leslie 's haircut , April calling her " sir " , Ron 's affinity for bacon @-@ wrapped shrimp , Tom 's coining of the phrase " peacockin " to mean standing out in bars . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said " The Banquet " was funnier than other recent Parks and Recreation episodes , although he said the Leslie character continues to too closely resemble a female Michael Scott , the protagonist of The Office . Sepinwall said of the show , " I know a lot of people have already given up , but I really feel like the show is a summer 's worth of tweaking away from being good . It 's not there yet , but I see glimmers . "
Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode " was able to rise a few notches above the last one " and that he enjoyed Leslie 's antics and many of Tom 's antics , including his suggestions for Leslie 's introduction for her mom . He also liked the scene in which Mark pinched Leslie 's nose , which he described as " a nice , playful scene that brought some much needed humanity to her cartoonish character " . Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the episode , particularly the characters Tom and Ann . He said of the episode , " The little things like ( Leslie 's haircut and Ann overdressing ) are what 's making this show work a little more with each episode . Finding humor in the small things of small government . " Brian Howard of The Journal News said the series is not great yet , but that " The Banquet " included glimpses of possible greatness in the future , particularly in the performances by Poehler , Jones , Ansari and Schneider . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club said the laughs in the episode , particularly involving Leslie 's haircut and her perceived romantic relationship with Ann , were " a bit thin " . Phipps also said he found himself disliking Leslie , of whom he said , " Here she seems more stupid than pleasantly naïve . "
= = DVD release = =
" The Banquet " , along with the five other first season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a one @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on September 8 , 2009 . The DVD included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode , as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes . The deleted scenes included on the DVD were originally featured on the official Parks and Recreation website after the episode aired .
In the first , an 80 @-@ second clip , Leslie gives everyone in the department tickets to the banquet . She tries to invite Andy , and when Ann says he cannot put on pants due to his cast , Leslie asks , " Does he have a formal kilt or something ? " The second clip features 100 seconds of extended banquet sequences , including Ann 's reaction to Leslie 's haircut , Ann 's awkward attempts to make small talk with April and more of Tom 's speech to Marlene . In the third , a 30 @-@ second clip , set at the bar , Tom describes to Mark his strategy in picking up a girl : he asked her what she did for a living , then , " I just yawned , gave her the middle finger and left . Pretty risky but I feel good about it . " In the final clip , which was 15 seconds long , an amused Tom shows a newspaper photo caption of Leslie and Ann from the banquet , with the caption , " Mr. Leslie Knope and wife Ann . "
= Merchants of Doubt =
Merchants of Doubt is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book by American historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway . It identifies parallels between the global warming controversy and earlier controversies over tobacco smoking , acid rain , DDT , and the hole in the ozone layer . Oreskes and Conway write that in each case " keeping the controversy alive " by spreading doubt and confusion after a scientific consensus had been reached , was the basic strategy of those opposing action . In particular , they say that Fred Seitz , Fred Singer , and a few other contrarian scientists joined forces with conservative think tanks and private corporations to challenge the scientific consensus on many contemporary issues .
The George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer , two of the subjects , have been critical of the book , but most reviewers received it favorably . One reviewer said that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Another reviewer saw the book as his choice for best science book of the year . It was made into a film , Merchants of Doubt , directed by Robert Kenner , released in 2014 .
= = Themes = =
Oreskes and Conway write that a handful of politically conservative scientists , with strong ties to particular industries , have " played a disproportionate role in debates about controversial questions " . The authors write that this has resulted in " deliberate obfuscation " of the issues which has had an influence on public opinion and policy @-@ making .
The book criticizes the so @-@ called Merchants of Doubt , some predominantly American science key players , above all Bill Nierenberg , Fred Seitz , and Fred Singer . All three are physicists : Singer was a rocket scientist , whereas Nierenberg and Seitz worked on the atomic bomb . They have been active on topics like acid rain , tobacco smoking , global warming and pesticides . The book claims that these scientists have challenged and diluted the scientific consensus in the various fields , as of the dangers of smoking , the effects of acid rain , the existence of the ozone hole , and the existence of anthropogenic climate change . Seitz and Singer been involved with institutions such as The Heritage Foundation , Competitive Enterprise Institute and George C. Marshall Institute in the United States . Funded by corporations and conservative foundations , these organizations have opposed many forms of state intervention or regulation of U.S. citizens . The book lists similar tactics in each case : " discredit the science , disseminate false information , spread confusion , and promote doubt " .
The book states that Seitz , Singer , Nierenberg and Robert Jastrow were all fiercely anti @-@ communist and they viewed government regulation as a step towards socialism and communism . The authors argue that , with the collapse of the Soviet Union , they looked for another great threat to free market capitalism and found it in environmentalism . They feared that an over @-@ reaction to environmental problems would lead to heavy @-@ handed government intervention in the marketplace and intrusion into people 's lives . Oreskes and Conway state that the longer the delay the worse these problems get , and the more likely it is that governments will need to take the draconian measures that conservatives and market fundamentalists most fear . They say that Seitz , Singer , Nierenberg and Jastrow denied the scientific evidence , contributed to a strategy of delay , and thereby helped to bring about the situation they most dreaded . The authors have a strong doubt about the ability of the media to differentiate between false truth and the actual science in question ; however , they stop short of endorsing censorship in the name of science . The journalistic norm of balanced reporting has helped , according to the authors , to amplify the misleading messages of the contrarians . Oreskes and Conway state : " small numbers of people can have large , negative impacts , especially if they are organised , determined and have access to power " .
The main conclusion of the book is that there would have been more progress in policymaking , if not for the influence of the contrarian " experts " , which tried on ideological reasons to undermine trust in the science base for regulation . Similar conclusions were already drawn , among others on Frederick Seitz and William Nierenberg in the book Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change ( 2010 ) by Australian academic Clive Hamilton .
= = Reception = =
Most reviewers received Merchants of Doubt enthusiastically .
Philip Kitcher in Science says that Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway are " two outstanding historians " . He calls Merchants of Doubt a " fascinating and important study " . Kitcher says that the apparently harsh claims against Nierenberg , Seitz , and Singer are " justified through a powerful dissection of the ways in which prominent climate scientists , such as Roger Revelle and Ben Santer , were exploited or viciously attacked in the press " .
In The Christian Science Monitor , Will Buchanan says that Merchants of Doubt is exhaustively researched and documented , and may be one of the most important books of 2010 . Oreskes and Conway are seen to demonstrate that the doubt merchants are not " objective scientists " as the term is popularly understood . Instead , they are " science @-@ speaking mercenaries " hired by corporations to process numbers to prove that the corporations ’ products are safe and useful . Buchanan says they are salesmen , not scientists .
Bud Ward published a review of the book in The Yale Forum on Climate and the Media . He wrote that Oreskes and Conway use a combination of thorough scholarly research combined with writing reminiscent of the best investigative journalism , to " unravel deep common links to past environmental and public health controversies " . In terms of climate science , the authors ' leave " little doubt about their disdain for what they regard as the misuse and abuse of science by a small cabal of scientists they see as largely lacking in requisite climate science expertise " .
Phil England writes in The Ecologist that the strength of the book is the rigour of the research and the detailed focus on key incidents . He said , however , that the climate change chapter is only 50 pages long , and recommends several other books for readers who want to get a broader picture of this aspect : Jim Hoggan ’ s Climate Cover @-@ Up , George Monbiot ’ s Heat : How to Stop the Planet Burning and Ross Gelbspan ’ s The Heat is On and Boiling Point . England also said that there is little coverage about the millions of dollars which Exxon Mobil has put into funding groups actively involved in promoting climate change denial and doubt .
A review in The Economist calls this a powerful book which articulates the politics involved and the degree to which scientists have sometimes manufactured and exaggerated environmental uncertainties , but opines that the authors fail to fully explain how environmental action has still often proved possible despite countervailing factors .
Robert N. Proctor , who coined the term " agnotology " to describe the study of culturally induced ignorance or doubt , wrote in American Scientist that Merchants of Doubt is a detailed and artfully written book . He set it in the context of other books which cover the " history of manufactured ignorance " : David Michaels ’ s Doubt is their Product ( 2008 ) , Chris Mooney ’ s The Republican War on Science ( 2009 ) , David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz ’ s Deceit and Denial ( 2002 ) , and his own book Cancer Wars ( 1995 ) .
Robin McKie in The Guardian states that Oreskes and Conway deserve considerable praise for exposing the influence of a small group of Cold War ideologues . Their tactic of spreading doubt has confused the public about a series of key scientific issues such as global warming , even though scientists have actually become more certain about their research results . McKie says that Merchants of Doubt includes detailed notes on all sources used , is carefully paced , and is " my runaway contender for best science book of the year " .
Sociologist Reiner Grundmann 's review in BioSocieties journal , acknowledges that the book is well researched and factually based , but criticizes the book as being written in a black and white manner whereas historians should write a more nuanced description . The book depicts special interests and contrarians misleading the public as being mainly responsible for stopping action on policy . He says this shows a lack of basic understanding of the political process and the mechanisms of knowledge policy , because the authors assume that public policy would follow on from an understanding of the science . While the book provides all the ( formal ) hallmarks of science , Grundmann sees it less as a scholarly work than a passionate attack and overall as a problematic book .
William O ’ Keefe and Jeff Kueter from the George C. Marshall Institute , which was founded by Seitz , say that although Merchants of Doubt has the appearance of a scholarly work , it discredits and undermines the reputations of people who in their lifetime contributed greatly to the American nation . They say that it does this by questioning their integrity ,
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@ 1940s jazz , blues and soul genres . However , music critics identified the record as a pop and R & B album with similarities to 1960s , 1970s and 1980s albums . Dorian Lyskey writing for The Guardian thought that the album 's concept " is so wide as to be meaningless " , while Serene Dominic from Phoenix New Times compared Back to Basics ' musical style to rock band The Beatles ' 1968 self @-@ titled album .
The first half disc incorporates strong elements from hip hop , urban , blending old @-@ school and modern R & B. It features horn samples and gospel choirs , making it sound like " a dusty old vinyl album " , according to Jenny Eliscu from Rolling Stone . Most songs from the disc employ samples , with the exception of " Without You " , " Still Dirrty " and " F.U.S.S. " " Makes Me Wanna Pray " featuring Steve Winwood features a gospel choir in its arrangement , while the pop / R & B and funk number " Ain 't No Other Man " features " aerobic oomph " that is similar to Beyoncé 's " Crazy in Love " . " Understand " is an R & B ballad , featuring soul influences that are similar to ballads done by Gladys Knight , while " Slow Down Baby " blends old @-@ school and modern R & B with hip hop and soul elements . The three follow @-@ ups " Oh Mother " , " On Our Way " , and " Without You " are the three piano ballads from disc one . " Still Dirrty " was described as a " filthy ghetto strut " with hip hop elements .
The second disc of Back to Basics opens with " Enter the Circus " , described as a " carnival @-@ creepy orchestration that sounds like Danny Elfman soundtracking Cabaret " by Tampa Bay Times , and followed by the soft rock @-@ inspired " Welcome " . " Candyman " draws inspirations from jazz , blues and swing , and was musically inspired by The Andrews Sisters ' 1941 hit " Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy " . Similarly , " Nasty Naughty Boy " also contains elements of jazz and blues and features " blaring horn section " in its arrangement . On " I Got Trouble " , Aguilera sings over a blues @-@ inspired theme that is reminiscent of songs by Bessie Smith . " Mercy on Me " features gospel elements , while the acoustic track " Save Me from Myself " is inspired by country rock genre , different from any other tracks on Back to Basics .
= = Lyrics = =
Most songs from Back to Basics were inspired by real @-@ life events that Aguilera had experienced . The track " Oh Mother " talks about Aguilera 's childhood with her abusive father ; its lyrical theme was compared to Madonna 's " Oh Father " ( 1989 ) . Her marriage with Jordan Bratman was the main theme of the album , with tracks inspired by the event including " Makes Me Wanna Pray " , " Ain 't No Other Man " , " On Our Way " , " Without You " , " Mercy on Me " , " Save Me from Myself " and " The Right Man " . On " The Right Man " , Aguilera expresses that she has found " the right man " for her imagined daughter as she hopes that the child would not have to experience an abusive childhood like her , " One day , My little girl will reach out her hand and she 'll know I found the right man " .
Aguilera expresses excitement toward old @-@ school music on " Back in the Day " , where she names classic artists including Etta James , Marvin Gaye , Coltrane and Aretha Franklin . " F.U.S.S. " ( which stands for " Fuck You Scott Storch " ) , is directly toward producer Scott Storch , who didn 't accept Aguilera 's offer to produce Back to Basics : " Looks like I didn 't need you / Still got the album out " . In the lyrics of " Slow Down Baby " , Aguilera tells a " lusty " man to leave her alone as she sings , " If you knew anything you 'd realise I 'm wearing a ring " . " Still Dirrty " was described as a sequel to Aguilera 's 2002 single " Dirrty " , in which Aguilera sings about her " sexual independence " , " Why is a woman 's sexuality always under so much scrutiny / Why can 't she do exactly as she please " and claims that she 's " still got the nasty " in her . " Here to Stay " tells how Aguilera is " not just a flash in the pan pop starlet " , while " Thank You ( Dedication to Fans ... ) " features voice mails from Aguilera 's fans , such as " You 're so amazing " or " You inspired me to carry on living ... "
= = Releases and marketing = =
In mid @-@ 2006 , Virgin Media reported that Back to Basics would be released on August 14 that year in the United States . Later , Back to Basics was planned to be released on August 15 , 2006 in the region , according to TMZ . The album was leaked in full on August 3 .
Aguilera decided to portray her different image and persona from her previous stage name Xtina by adopting a new alter ego called Baby Jane , named after a character of the 1962 film What Ever Happened to Baby Jane ? . She also changed her public appearance as she removed her piercings , and dyed her hair platinum blonde , inspired by classic Hollywood movie stars such as Marilyn Monroe , Marlene Dietrich , Carole Lombard and Greta Garbo . The album 's photography was taken by German photographer Ellen von Unwerth during three days ; on the first and second days , the photos were shot at the Hollywood Dell hotel . Aguilera and von Unwerth moved to Forty Deuce in Hollywood to take images inspired by 1920s burlesque clubs on the last day of the session . The album 's cover artwork was revealed in late @-@ June 2006 , featuring Aguilera with bright red lipstick and curly blonde hair dressed in white and lounging on a bed . Greg Kot from The Baltimore Sun labelled the cover as " a classy retro look , a sign that [ Aguilera ] is ready for her close @-@ up as the leading lady of the teen brat pack that emerged in the late ' 90s " .
The first track from the album to be made available to the public was " Ain 't No Other Man " , which was released as the lead single to US contemporary hit radio on June 6 , 2006 . Aguilera was featured in Pepsi 's commercial advertisement , which used " Here to Stay " , a track from Back to Basics as its main theme . Shot in multiple territories including Saudi Arabia , Prague , Rio de Janeiro , Tokyo , and in India , the 60 @-@ second advertisement premiered on July 14 , 2006 worldwide . Alongside the commercial , " Here to Stay " was available for digital download on mobile phones as a promotional record to Aguilera 's then @-@ upcoming album . " Hurt " and " Candyman " were serviced as the album 's second and third international singles on September 17 , 2006 , and February 20 , 2007 , respectively . " Slow Down Baby " was released in Australia only on July 28 , 2007 , while " Oh Mother " was released in several European territories only in late @-@ 2007 . In January 2008 , Aguilera released a music video for the track " Save Me from Myself " , following Aguilera giving birth to her son Max Bratman .
= = Promotion = =
Aguilera began her promotion of Back to Basics with a live performance of " Ain 't No Other Man " at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards on June 8 , 2006 . On July 20 , Aguilera held a 40 @-@ minute concert at Camden Palace Theatre in London , where she performed five songs from her then @-@ upcoming album and two previous singles . On August 16 , Aguilera held a release party for the album in New York City . Aguilera performed " Hurt " at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards on August 31 . On September 8 , she performed " Candyman " and " Bennie and the Jets " at the Fashion Rocks charity event , the latter was a duet with Elton John . Aguilera also sang " Ain 't No Other Man " , " Hurt " and " Steppin ' Out with My Baby " with Tony Bennett on Saturday Night Live on November 11 , 2006 . " Hurt " was also sung on the " NBC Christmas Thanksgiving Special " in November , and the German television series Wetten , dass .. ? in December of that year . On December 31 , 2006 , Aguilera appeared on Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve and performed " Candyman " and " Fighter " .
On February 10 , 2007 , Aguilera sang " Makes Me Wanna Pray " and " Candyman " at the " Clive Davis Pre @-@ Grammy Awards Party " . She performed " Candyman " on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . During 2006 and 2007 , Aguilera visited Asia , Europe , and Oceania during her Back to Basics Tour . It was promoted by the mobile phone network Orange and Sony Ericsson . The eighty @-@ show tour received positive reviews from critics , who complimented it as the strongest of her career . Grossing over $ 90 million worldwide , it became the ninth highest @-@ grossing tour ever for a female artist and the most profitable world tour by a female artist in 2007 . In February 2008 , the Back to Basics : Live and Down Under DVD was released .
= = Critical reception = =
On Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Back to Basics received an average score of 69 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , based on 17 reviews . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic appreciated the album 's production , commenting that the project was " all the more impressive " coming after the " near career suicide of Stripped " . Entertainment Weekly 's Jody Rosen opined that Aguilera " can make her own glorious kind of 21st @-@ century noise " and compared Aguilera 's vocal ability on the album to that of Mariah Carey . Mike Joseph of PopMatters felt that Aguilera " still shouts at times when a coo will do " , but felt that her choice in collaborators made for an " ultimately rewarding listen " . Sputnikmusic 's Amanda Murray noted Back to Basics as another " transitional " and " innovative " record for Aguilera . Lucy Davies from BBC Music said that Aguilera has a " stunning voice " , but stated that she could be more varied by cutting out some of the " y @-@ e @-@ e @-@ eeeh , woah yeh 's " on the second album .
Thomas Innskeep from Stylus Magazine preferred the first disc of the album over the " ridiculously overblown ballads " on the second disc , adding that Back to Basics was " one of 2006 's best when Linda Perry 's fingerprints aren 't present " . Similarly , Yahoo ! Music 's Dan Gennoe described the first disc as a " low @-@ down and dirty masterpiece " , but said the second disc found Aguilera " crashing straight back down again " . Paul Flynn from The Observer provided a mixed review , saying that the beginning of the album was " all craft and very little heart " ; however , he found the collaborations between her and Perry to be " deeply cinematic " . Rolling Stone 's Jenny Eliscu opined that the release was " overindulgent and self @-@ important " , but would have been " masterful " had it been condensed into a single disc . Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times gave a mixed review , stating that it " contains a roughly even number of great songs and lousy ones " , and sait that " her homages to World War II @-@ era pop music resemble skits more than songs " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine criticized Aguilera for using a sexual image to overshadow her vocals , but commented that Back to Basics was more " cohesive " than Stripped . Robert Christgau provided a negative review , classifying the album as a " dud " ( ) .
The album received a nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2007 Grammy Awards and won Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for " Ain 't No Other Man " . The following year , " Candyman " was nominated for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . In 2006 , Back to Basics was named the Best Pop Album of the Year by iTunes . In June 2008 , Entertainment Weekly listed the album at number 80 of the 100 best albums of the last twenty @-@ five years . By late 2009 , British magazine Daily Mail listed Back to Basics at number 17 on the list of 50 best albums of the 2000s decade .
= = Commercial performance = =
Upon its release , Back to Basics reached number one in over fifteen countries , including the United States , the United Kingdom , and Australia . With 346 @,@ 000 in first @-@ week sales , the album debuted atop the US Billboard 200 . It remained on the chart for forty @-@ four weeks , falling off after a final position of number 164 . The album placed at numbers 59 and 73 on the Billboard 200 Year @-@ End charts in 2006 and 2007 , respectively . Additionally , Back to Basics debuted at number two on the Billboard R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Album , spending forty @-@ six weeks on the chart . The album went on to be certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of one million copies . With sales of 24 @,@ 000 , Back to Basics also debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart . It attained a triple platinum certification there , reaching 300 @,@ 000 sales .
Back to Basics achieved similar success in Europe , peaking at number one on the European Top 100 Albums chart . In the United Kingdom , it became Aguilera 's first album to debut atop the UK Albums Chart . It charted for thirty @-@ three weeks in the top seventy @-@ five , and was eventually certified platinum in the country . The album placed at numbers 56 and 127 on the UK Albums Chart 's year @-@ end list for 2006 and 2007 , respectively . In Finland , Back to Basics charted for eighteen weeks on the country 's official albums chart , peaking at number six . It debuted at number ten on the French Albums Chart , where it spent fifty @-@ two weeks . The album proved be less successful on the Portuguese Albums Chart , where it peaked at number 26 and charted for two weeks .
The album achieved success in major markets in Oceania . It debuted at number one on the Australian Albums Chart and charted for forty weeks , while debuting at number two on the New Zealand RIANZ Albums Chart and charting for twenty @-@ seven . The album reached numbers 45 and 34 on Australia 's year @-@ end charts in 2006 and 2007 , respectively ; while charting at 43 in New Zealand in 2007 . Back to Basics went on the reach double platinum certification in the former and platinum in the latter . Japan became the only Asian market where Back to Basics , where it debuted at number seven on the Japanese Oricon Main Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 32 @,@ 241 units . It was later certified gold in the country for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . According to RCA frontman , Clive Davis , the album has sold approximately 5 million copies worldwide as of November 2013 .
= = Track listing = =
Credits are taken from Back to Basics booklet .
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
^ b signifies a co @-@ producer
^ c signifies a vocal producer
Sampling credits
" Intro ( Back to Basics ) " contains a sample of " The Thrill is Gone ( Live ) " , as performed by B.B. King , The Crusaders and The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra .
" Makes Me Wanna Pray " contains a sample from " Glad " , as performed by Traffic .
" Back in the Day " contains samples from " Charley " , as performed by Don Costa Orchestra , and " Troglodyte " , as performed by The Jimmy Castor Bunch .
" Ain 't No Other Man " contains samples from " Happy Skippy Moon Strut " , as performed by Moon People , and " The Cissy 's Thang " , as performed by The Soul Seven .
" Understand " contains a sample from " Nearer to You " , as performed by Betty Harris .
" Slow Down Baby " contains samples from " Window Raisin ' Granny " , as performed by Gladys Knight & the Pips and " So Seductive " , as performed by Tony Yayo .
" Oh Mother " contains a sample from " Vois Sur Ton Chemin " , written by Bruno Coluais and Christopher Barratler .
" On Our Way " contains a sample from " Sentimentale " , as performed by Claude Bolling .
" Here to Stay " contains a sample from " The Best Thing You Ever Had " , as performed by Candi Staton .
" Thank You ( Dedication to Fans ... ) " contains samples from " Can 't Hold Us Down " and " Genie in a Bottle " , as performed by Aguilera , and " Think Big " , as performed by Pudgie the Fat Bastard featuring The Notorious B.I.G. The track also features fan club recordings by Shane Burrows , Jessica Cavanaugh , She @-@ Tara Franklin , Michael Holmin , Warren Keller , Antoinette Litte , Gustavo Medina , Sarah Anne Moore , Joshua Pospisil , Cory Steale , Durant Searcy , Samantha Silver , Tammy Simpson and Shanna Nicole Wiles .
" Candyman " contains a sample from " Tarzan & Jane Swingin ' on a Vine " from Run To Cadence With U.S. Marines .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= = Release history = =
= Geography of Croatia =
The geography of Croatia is defined by its location — it is described as a part of Central and Southeast Europe , a part of the Balkans and Mitteleuropa . Croatia 's territory covers 56 @,@ 594 km2 ( 21 @,@ 851 sq mi ) , making it the 127th largest country in the world . Bordered by Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia in the east , Slovenia in the west , Hungary in the north and Montenegro and the Adriatic Sea in the south , it lies mostly between latitudes 42 ° and 47 ° N and longitudes 13 ° and 20 ° E. Croatia 's territorial waters encompass 18 @,@ 981 square kilometres ( 7 @,@ 329 sq mi ) in a 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) wide zone , and its internal waters located within the baseline cover an additional 12 @,@ 498 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 826 sq mi ) .
The Pannonian Basin and the Dinaric Alps , along with the Adriatic Basin , represent major geomorphological parts of Croatia . Lowlands make up the bulk of Croatia , with elevations of less than 200 metres ( 660 ft ) above sea level recorded in 53 @.@ 42 % of the country . Most of the lowlands are found in the northern regions , especially in Slavonia , itself a part of the Pannonian Basin plain . The plains are interspersed with horst and graben structures , believed to have broken the Pliocene Pannonian Sea 's surface as islands . The greatest concentration of ground at relatively high elevations is found in the Lika and Gorski Kotar areas in the Dinaric Alps , but high areas are found in all regions of Croatia to some extent . The Dinaric Alps contain the highest mountain in Croatia — 1 @,@ 831 @-@ metre ( 6 @,@ 007 ft ) Dinara — as well as all other mountains in Croatia higher than 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) . Croatia 's Adriatic Sea mainland coast is 1 @,@ 777 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 104 @.@ 4 mi ) long , while its 1 @,@ 246 islands and islets encompass a further 4 @,@ 058 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 522 mi ) of coastline — the most indented coastline in the Mediterranean . Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps , as well as throughout the coastal areas and the islands .
62 % of Croatia 's territory is encompassed by the Black Sea drainage basin . The area includes the largest rivers flowing in the country : the Danube , Sava , Drava , Mur and Kupa . The remainder belongs to the Adriatic Sea drainage basin , where the largest river by far is the Neretva . Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate as defined by the Köppen climate classification . The mean monthly temperature ranges between − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) and 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) . Croatia has a number of ecoregions because of its climate and geomorphology , and the country is consequently among the most biodiverse in Europe . There are four types of biogeographical regions in Croatia : Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland ; Alpine in the elevated Lika and Gorski Kotar ; Pannonian along the Drava and Danube ; and Continental in the remaining areas . There are 444 protected natural areas in Croatia , encompassing 8 @.@ 5 % of the country ; there are about 37 @,@ 000 known species in Croatia , and the total number of species is estimated to be between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 .
The permanent population of Croatia by the 2011 census reached 4 @.@ 29 million . The population density was 75 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square kilometre , and the overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth was 75 @.@ 7 years . The country is inhabited mostly by Croats ( 89 @.@ 6 % ) , while minorities include Serbs ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) , and 21 other ethnicities ( less than 1 % each ) recognised by the constitution . Since the counties were re @-@ established in 1992 , Croatia is divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb . The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities . The average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56 % , with a growing urban population and shrinking rural population . The largest city and the nation 's capital is Zagreb , with an urban population of 686 @,@ 568 in the city itself and a metropolitan area population of 978 @,@ 161 . The populations of Split and Rijeka exceed 100 @,@ 000 , and five more cities in Croatia have populations over 50 @,@ 000 .
= = Area and borders = =
Croatia 's territory covers 56 @,@ 594 square kilometres ( 21 @,@ 851 square miles ) , making it the 127th largest country in the world . The physical geography of Croatia is defined by its location — it is described as a part of Central Europe and Southeast Europe , a part of the Balkans and Mitteleuropa . Croatia borders Bosnia – Herzegovina ( for 1 @,@ 009 @.@ 1 km ) and Serbia ( for 317 @.@ 6 km ) in the east , Slovenia for 667 @.@ 8 km in the west , Hungary for 355 @.@ 5 km in the north and Montenegro for 22 @.@ 6 km and the Adriatic Sea in the south . It lies mostly between latitudes 42 ° and 47 ° N and longitudes 13 ° and 20 ° E. Part of the extreme south of Croatia is separated from the rest of the mainland by a short coastline strip around Neum belonging to Bosnia – Herzegovina .
Croatia 's 348 @-@ kilometre ( 216 mi ) border with Hungary was inherited from Yugoslavia . Much of the border with Hungary follows the Drava River or its former river bed ; that part of the border dates from the Middle Ages . The border in Međimurje and Baranya was defined as a border between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats , and Slovenes , later renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , pursuant to the Treaty of Trianon of 1920 . The present outline of the 956 @-@ kilometre ( 594 mi ) border with Bosnia – Herzegovina and 19 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) border with Montenegro is largely the result of the Ottoman conquest and subsequent recapture of territories in the Great Turkish War of 1667 – 1698 formally ending with the Treaty of Karlowitz , as well as the Fifth and Seventh Ottoman – Venetian Wars . This border had minor modifications in 1947 when all borders of the former Yugoslav constituent republics were defined by demarcation commissions implementing the AVNOJ decisions of 1943 and 1945 regarding the federal organisation of Yugoslavia . The commissions also defined Baranya and Međimurje as Croatian territories , and moreover set up the present @-@ day 314 @-@ kilometre ( 195 mi ) border between Serbia and Croatia in Syrmia and along the Danube River between Ilok and the Drava river 's mouth and further north to the Hungarian border ; the Ilok / Drava section matched the border between the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia and Bács @-@ Bodrog County that existed until 1918 ( the end of World War I ) . Most of the 600 @-@ kilometre ( 370 mi ) border with Slovenia was also defined by the commissions , matching the northwestern border of the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia , and establishing a new section of Croatian border north of the Istrian peninsula according to the ethnic composition of the territory previously belonging to the Kingdom of Italy .
Pursuant to the 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy the islands of Cres , Lastovo and Palagruža and the cities of Zadar and Rijeka and most of Istria went to communist Yugoslavia and Croatia , while carving out the Free Territory of Trieste ( FTT ) as a city @-@ state . The FTT was partitioned in 1954 as Trieste itself and the area to the north of it were placed under Italian control , and the rest under Yugoslav control . The arrangement was made permanent by the Treaty of Osimo in 1975 . The former FTT 's Yugoslav part was partitioned between Croatia and Slovenia , largely conforming to the area population 's ethnic composition .
In the late 19th century , Austria @-@ Hungary established a geodetic network , for which the elevation benchmark was determined by the Adriatic Sea 's average level at the Sartorio pier in Trieste . This benchmark was subsequently retained by Austria , adopted by Yugoslavia , and kept by the states that emerged after its dissolution , including Croatia .
= = = Extreme points = = =
The geographical extreme points of Croatia are Žabnik in Međimurje County as the northernmost point , Rađevac near Ilok in Vukovar @-@ Syrmia County as the easternmost point , Cape Lako near Bašanija in Istria County as the westernmost point and the islet of Galijula in Palagruža archipelago in Split @-@ Dalmatia County as the southernmost point . On the mainland , Cape Oštra of the Prevlaka peninsula in Dubrovnik @-@ Neretva County is the southernmost point .
= = = Maritime claims = = =
Italy and Yugoslavia defined their delineation of the continental shelf in the Adriatic Sea in 1968 , with an additional agreement on the boundary in the Gulf of Trieste signed in 1975 in accordance with the Treaty of Osimo . All the successor states of former Yugoslavia accepted the agreements . Prior to Yugoslavia 's breakup , Albania , Italy and Yugoslavia initially proclaimed 15 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) territorial waters , subsequently reduced to the international @-@ standard 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) ; all sides adopted baseline systems . Croatia also declared its Ecological and Fisheries Protection Zone ( ZERP ) — a part of its Exclusive Economic Zone — as extending to the continental shelf boundary . Croatia 's territorial waters encompass 18 @,@ 981 square kilometres ( 7 @,@ 329 sq mi ) ; its internal waters located within the baseline cover an additional 12 @,@ 498 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 826 sq mi ) .
= = = Border disputes = = =
= = = = Maritime border disputes = = = =
Croatia and Slovenia started negotiations to define maritime borders in the Gulf of Piran in 1992 but failed to agree , resulting in a dispute . Both countries also declared their economic zones , which partially overlap . Croatia 's application to become an EU member state was initially suspended pending resolution of its border disputes with Slovenia . These were eventually settled with an agreement to accept the decision of an international arbitration commission set up via the UN , enabling Croatia to progress towards EU membership . The dispute has caused no major practical problems in areas other than the EU membership negotiations progress , even before the arbitration agreement .
The maritime boundary between Bosnia – Herzegovina and Croatia was formally settled in 1999 , but a few issues are still contested — the Klek peninsula and two islets in the border area . The Croatia – Montenegro maritime boundary is disputed in the Bay of Kotor , at the Prevlaka peninsula . The situation was exacerbated by the peninsula 's occupation by the Yugoslav People 's Army and later by the Serbian @-@ Montenegrin army , which in turn was replaced by a United Nations observer mission that lasted until 2002 . Croatia took over the area with an agreement that allowed Montenegrin presence in Croatian waters in the bay , and the dispute has become far less contentious since the independence of Montenegro in 2006 .
= = = = Land border disputes = = = =
The land border disputes pertain to comparatively small strips of land . The Croatia – Slovenia border disputes are : along the Dragonja River 's lower course where Slovenia claims three hamlets on the river 's left bank ; the Sveta Gera peak of Žumberak where exact territorial claims were never made and appear to be limited to a military barracks on the peak itself ; and along the Mura River where Slovenia wants the border to be along the current river bed instead of along a former one and claims a ( largely if not completely uninhabited ) piece of land near Hotiza . These claims are likewise in the process of being settled by binding arbitration .
There are also land border disputes between Croatia and Serbia . The two countries presently control one bank of the present @-@ day river each , but Croatia claims that the border line should follow the cadastral borders between the former municipalities of SR Croatia and SR Serbia along the Danube , as defined by a Yugoslav commission in 1947 ( effectively following a former river bed ) ; borders claimed by Croatia also include the Vukovar and Šarengrad islands in the Danube as its territory . There is also a border dispute with Bosnia – Herzegovina , specifically Croatia claims Unčica channel on the right bank of Una as the border at Hrvatska Kostajnica , while Bosnia and Herzegovina claims Una River course as the border there .
= = Physical geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
Most of Croatia is lowlands , with elevations of less than 200 metres ( 660 ft ) above sea level recorded in 53 @.@ 42 % of the country . Most of the lowlands are found in the country 's northern regions , especially in Slavonia , representing a part of the Pannonian Basin . Areas with elevations of 200 to 500 metres ( 660 to 1 @,@ 640 ft ) above sea level encompass 25 @.@ 61 % of Croatia 's territory , and the areas between 500 and 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 and 3 @,@ 300 ft ) above sea level cover 17 @.@ 11 % of the country . A further 3 @.@ 71 % of the land is 1 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 3 @,@ 300 to 4 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level , and only 0 @.@ 15 % of Croatia 's territory is elevated greater than 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level . The greatest concentration of ground at relatively high elevations is found in the Lika and Gorski Kotar areas in the Dinaric Alps , but such areas are found in all regions of Croatia to some extent . The Pannonian Basin and the Dinaric Alps , along with the Adriatic Basin , represent major geomorphological parts of Croatia .
= = = = Adriatic Basin = = = =
Croatia 's Adriatic Sea mainland coast is 1 @,@ 777 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 104 @.@ 4 mi ) long , while its 1 @,@ 246 islands and islets have a further 4 @,@ 058 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 522 mi ) of coastline . The distance between the extreme points of Croatia 's coastline is 526 kilometres ( 327 mi ) . The number of islands includes all islands , islets , and rocks of all sizes , including ones emerging only at low tide . The largest islands in the Adriatic are Cres and Krk , each covering 405 @.@ 78 square kilometres ( 156 @.@ 67 sq mi ) ; the tallest is Brač , reaching 780 metres ( 2 @,@ 560 ft ) above sea level . The islands include 47 permanently inhabited ones , the most populous among them being Krk and Korčula .
The shore is the most indented coastline in the Mediterranean . The majority of the coast is characterised by a karst topography , developed from the Adriatic Carbonate Platform . Karstification there largely began after the final raising of the Dinarides in the Oligocene and Miocene epochs , when carbonate rock was exposed to atmospheric effects such as rain ; this extended to 120 metres ( 390 ft ) below the present sea level , exposed during the Last Glacial Maximum 's sea level drop . It is estimated that some karst formations are related to earlier drops of sea level , most notably the Messinian salinity crisis . The eastern coast 's largest part consists of carbonate rocks , while flysch rock is significantly represented in the Gulf of Trieste coast , on the Kvarner Gulf coast opposite Krk , and in Dalmatia north of Split . There are comparably small alluvial areas of the Adriatic coast in Croatia — most notably the Neretva river delta . Western Istria is gradually subsiding , having sunk about 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 ft 11 in ) in the past 2 @,@ 000 years .
In the Middle Adriatic Basin , there is evidence of Permian volcanism in the area of Komiža on the island of Vis , in addition to the volcanic islands of Jabuka and Brusnik . Earthquakes are frequent in the area around the Adriatic Sea , although most are too faint to be felt ; an earthquake doing significant damage happens every few decades , with major earthquakes every few centuries .
= = = = Dinaric Alps = = = =
The Dinaric Alps are linked to a Late Jurassic to recent times fold and thrust belt , itself part of the Alpine orogeny , extending southeast from the southern Alps . The Dinaric Alps in Croatia encompass the entire Gorski Kotar and Lika regions , as well as considerable parts of Dalmatia , with their northeastern edge running from 1 @,@ 181 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 875 ft ) Žumberak to the Banovina region , along the Sava River , and their westernmost landforms being 1 @,@ 272 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 173 ft ) Ćićarija and 1 @,@ 396 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 580 ft ) Učka mountains in Istria . The Dinaric Alps contain the highest mountain in Croatia — 1 @,@ 831 @-@ metre ( 6 @,@ 007 ft ) Dinara — as well as all other mountains in Croatia higher than 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 feet ) : Biokovo , Velebit , Plješivica , Velika Kapela , Risnjak , Svilaja and Snježnik .
Karst topography makes up about half of Croatia and is especially prominent in the Dinaric Alps . There are numerous caves in Croatia ; 49 of these are deeper than 250 metres ( 820 @.@ 21 ft ) , 14 deeper than 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 640 @.@ 42 ft ) and 3 deeper than 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 3 @,@ 280 @.@ 84 ft ) . The longest cave in Croatia , Kita Gaćešina , is at the same time the longest cave in the Dinaric Alps at 20 @,@ 656 metres ( 67 @,@ 769 ft ) .
= = = = Pannonian Basin = = = =
The Pannonian Basin took shape through Miocenian thinning and subsidence of crust structures formed during the Late Paleozoic Variscan orogeny . The Paleozoic and Mesozoic structures are visible in Papuk and other Slavonian mountains . The processes also led to the formation of a stratovolcanic chain in the basin 12 – 17 Mya ; intensified subsidence was observed until 5 Mya as well as flood basalts at about 7 @.@ 5 Mya . The contemporary tectonic uplift of the Carpathian Mountains severed water flow to the Black Sea and the Pannonian Sea formed in the basin . Sediments were transported to the basin from the uplifting Carpathian and Dinaric mountains , with particularly deep fluvial sediments being deposited in the Pleistocene epoch during the Transdanubian Mountains ' formation . Ultimately , up to 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) of sediment was deposited in the basin , and the sea eventually drained through the Iron Gate gorge .
The results are large plains in eastern Slavonia 's Baranya and Syrmia regions , as well as in river valleys , especially along the Sava , Drava and Kupa . The plains are interspersed by horst and graben structures , believed to have broken the Pannonian Sea 's surface as islands . The tallest among such landforms are 1 @,@ 059 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 474 ft ) Ivanšćica and 1 @,@ 035 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 396 ft ) Medvednica north of Zagreb — both are also at least partially in Hrvatsko Zagorje — as well as 984 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 228 ft ) Psunj and 953 @-@ metre ( 3 @,@ 127 ft ) Papuk that are the tallest among the Slavonian mountains surrounding Požega . Psunj , Papuk and adjacent Krndija consist mostly of Paleozoic rocks from 300 – 350 Mya . Požeška gora , adjacent to Psunj , consists of much more recent Neogene rocks , but there are also Upper Cretaceous sediments and igneous rocks forming the main , 30 @-@ kilometre ( 19 mi ) ridge of the hill ; these represent the largest igneous landform in Croatia . A smaller piece of igneous terrain is also present on Papuk , near Voćin . The two , as well as the Moslavačka gora mountains , are possibly remnants of a volcanic arc from the same tectonic plate collision that caused the Dinaric Alps .
= = = Hydrography = = =
The largest part of Croatia — 62 % of its territory — is encompassed by the Black Sea drainage basin . The area includes the largest rivers flowing in the country : the Danube , Sava , Drava , Mura and Kupa . The rest belongs to the Adriatic Sea drainage basin , where the largest river by far is the Neretva . The longest rivers in Croatia are the 562 @-@ kilometre ( 349 mi ) Sava , 505 @-@ kilometre ( 314 mi ) Drava , 296 @-@ kilometre ( 184 mi ) Kupa and a 188 @-@ kilometre ( 117 mi ) section of the Danube . The longest rivers emptying into the Adriatic Sea are the 101 @-@ kilometre ( 63 mi ) Cetina and an only 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) section of the Neretva .
The largest lakes in Croatia are 30 @.@ 7 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 11 @.@ 9 sq mi ) Lake Vrana located in the northern Dalmatia , 17 @.@ 1 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 6 sq mi ) Lake Dubrava near Varaždin , 13 @.@ 0 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 0 sq mi ) Peruća Lake ( reservoir ) on the Cetina River , 11 @.@ 1 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 3 sq mi ) Lake Prokljan near Skradin and 10 @.@ 1 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) Lake Varaždin reservoir through which the Drava River flows near Varaždin . Croatia 's most famous lakes are the Plitvice lakes , a system of 16 lakes with waterfalls connecting them over dolomite and limestone cascades . The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colours , ranging from turquoise to mint green , grey or blue . Croatia has a remarkable wealth in terms of wetlands . Four of those are included in the Ramsar list of internationally @-@ important wetlands : Lonjsko Polje along the Sava and Lonja rivers near Sisak , Kopački Rit at the confluence of the Drava and Danube , the Neretva Delta and Crna Mlaka near Jastrebarsko .
Average annual precipitation and evaporation rates are 1 @,@ 162 millimetres ( 45 @.@ 7 in ) and 700 millimetres ( 28 in ) , respectively . Taking into consideration the overall water balance , the total Croatian water resources amount to 25 @,@ 163 cubic metres ( 888 @,@ 600 cu ft ) per year per capita , including 5 @,@ 877 cubic metres ( 207 @,@ 500 cu ft ) per year per capita from sources inside Croatia .
= = = Climate = = =
Most of Croatia has a moderately warm and rainy continental climate ( Dfb ) as defined by the Köppen climate classification . Mean monthly temperatures range between − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) ( in January ) and 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) ( in July ) . The coldest parts of the country are Lika and Gorski Kotar where a snowy forested climate is found at elevations above 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) . The warmest areas of Croatia are at the Adriatic coast and especially in its immediate hinterland , which are characterized by a Mediterranean climate since temperatures are moderated by the sea . Consequently , temperature peaks are more pronounced in the continental areas : the lowest temperature of − 36 @.@ 0 ° C ( − 32 @.@ 8 ° F ) was recorded on 4 February 1929 in Gospić , and the highest temperature of 42 @.@ 8 ° C ( 109 @.@ 0 ° F ) was recorded on 5 August 1981 in Ploče .
The mean annual precipitation is 600 to 3 @,@ 500 millimetres ( 24 to 138 in ) depending on the geographic region and prevailing climate type . The least precipitation is recorded in the outer islands ( Vis , Lastovo , Biševo , and Svetac ) and in the eastern parts of Slavonia ; however , in the latter case it is mostly during the growing season . The most precipitation is observed on the Dinara mountain range and in Gorski Kotar , where some of the highest annual precipitation totals in Europe occur .
The prevailing winds in the interior are light to moderate northeast or southwest ; in the coastal area , the prevailing winds are determined by local area features . Higher wind velocities are more often recorded in cooler months along the coast , generally as buras or less frequently as siroccos . The sunniest parts of the country are the outer islands , Hvar and Korčula , where more than 2 @,@ 700 hours of sunshine are recorded per year , followed by the southern Adriatic Sea area in general , northern Adriatic coast , and Slavonia , all with more than 2 @,@ 000 hours of sunshine per year .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
Croatia can be subdivided between a number of ecoregions because of its climate and geomorphology , and the country is consequently one of the richest in Europe in terms of biodiversity . There are four types of biogeographical regions in Croatia : Mediterranean along the coast and in its immediate hinterland , Alpine in most of Lika and Gorski Kotar , Pannonian along the Drava and Danube , and continental in the remaining areas . Among the most significant are karst habitats ; these include submerged karst , such as Zrmanja and Krka canyons and tufa barriers , as well as underground habitats . The karst geology has produced approximately 7 @,@ 000 caves and pits , many of which are inhabited by troglobitic ( exclusively cave @-@ dwelling ) animals such as the olm , a cave salamander and the only European troglobitic vertebrate . Forests are also significant in the country , as they cover 26 @,@ 487 @.@ 6 square kilometres ( 10 @,@ 226 @.@ 9 sq mi ) representing 46 @.@ 8 % of Croatia 's land surface . The other habitat types include wetlands , grasslands , bogs , fens , scrub habitats , coastal and marine habitats . In terms of phytogeography , Croatia is part of the Boreal Kingdom ; specifically , it is part of the Illyrian and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region and the Adriatic province of the Mediterranean Region . The World Wide Fund for Nature divides land in Croatia into three ecoregions — Pannonian mixed forests , Dinaric Mountains mixed forests and Illyrian deciduous forests . Biomes in Croatia include temperate broadleaf / mixed forest and Mediterranean forests , woodlands and scrub ; all are in the Palearctic ecozone .
Croatia has 38 @,@ 226 known taxa , 2 @.@ 8 % of which are endemic ; the actual number ( including undiscovered species ) is estimated to be between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 . The estimate is supported by nearly 400 new taxa of invertebrates discovered in Croatia in 2000 – 2005 alone . There are more than a thousand endemic species , especially in the Velebit and Biokovo mountains , Adriatic islands and karst rivers . Legislation protects 1 @,@ 131 species . Indigenous cultivars of plants and breeds of domesticated animals are also numerous ; they include five breeds of horses , five breeds of cattle , eight breeds of sheep , two breeds of pigs and a poultry breed . Even the indigenous breeds include nine endangered or critically endangered ones .
There are 444 Croatian protected areas , encompassing 8 @.@ 5 % of the country . These include 8 national parks , 2 strict reserves and 11 nature parks , accounting for 78 % of the total protected area . The most famous protected area and the oldest national park in Croatia is the Plitvice Lakes National Park , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Velebit Nature Park is a part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme . The strict and special reserves , as well as the national and nature parks , are managed and protected by the central government , while other protected areas are managed by counties . In 2005 , the National Ecological Network was set up as the first step in preparation for EU membership and joining the Natura 2000 network .
Habitat destruction represents a threat to biodiversity in Croatia , as developed and agricultural land is expanded into previous natural habitats , while habitat fragmentation occurs as roads are created or expanded . A further threat to biodiversity is the introduction of invasive species , with Caulerpa racemosa and C. taxifolia identified as especially problematic ones . The invasive algae are monitored and regularly removed to protect the benthic habitat . Agricultural monocultures have also been identified as a threat to biodiversity .
= = = Ecology = = =
The ecological footprint of Croatia 's population and industry varies significantly between the country 's regions since 50 % of the population resides in 26 @.@ 8 % of the nation 's territory , with a particularly high impact made by the city of Zagreb and Zagreb County areas — their combined area comprises 6 @.@ 6 % of Croatia 's territory while encompassing 25 % of the population . The ecological footprint is most notably from the increased development of settlements and the sea coast leading to habitat fragmentation . Between 1998 and 2008 , the greatest changes of land use pertained to artificially developed areas , but the scale of development is negligible compared to EU member states .
The Croatian Environment Agency ( CEA ) , a public institution established by the Government of Croatia to collect and analyse information on the environment , has identified further ecological problems as well as various degrees of progress in terms of curbing their environmental impact . These problems include inadequate legal landfills as well as the presence of illegal landfills ; between 2005 and 2008 , 62 authorized and 423 illegal landfills were rehabilitated . In the same period , the number of issued waste management licenses doubled , while the annual municipal solid waste volume increased by 23 % , reaching 403 kilograms ( 888 pounds ) per capita . The processes of soil acidification and organic matter degradation are present throughout Croatia , with increasing soil salinity levels in the Neretva river plain and spreading areas of alkali soil in Slavonia .
Croatian air pollution levels reflect the drop in industrial production recorded in 1991 at the onset of the Croatian War of Independence — pre @-@ war emission levels were only reached in 1997 . The use of desulfurized fuels has led to a 25 % reduction of sulphur dioxide emissions between 1997 and 2004 , and a further 7 @.@ 2 % drop by 2007 . The rise in NOx emissions halted in 2007 and reversed in 2008 . The use of unleaded petrol reduced emissions of lead into the atmosphere by 91 @.@ 5 % between 1997 and 2004 . Air quality measurements indicate that the air in rural areas is essentially clean , and in urban centres it generally complies with legal requirements . The most significant sources of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in Croatia are energy production ( 72 % ) , industry ( 13 % ) and agriculture ( 11 % ) . The average annual increase of GHG emissions is 3 % , remaining within the Kyoto Protocol limits . Between 1990 and 2007 , the use of ozone depleting substances was reduced by 92 % ; their use is expected to be abolished by 2015 .
Even though Croatia has sufficient water resources at its disposal , these are not uniformly distributed and public water supply network losses remain high — estimated at 44 % . Between 2004 and 2008 , the number of stations monitoring surface water pollution increased by 20 % ; the CEA reported 476 cases of water pollution in this period . At the same time organic waste pollution levels decreased slightly , which is attributed to the completion of new sewage treatment plants ; their number increased 20 % , reaching a total of 101 . Nearly all of Croatia 's groundwater aquifers are top quality , unlike the available surface water ; the latter 's quality varies in terms of biochemical oxygen demand and bacteriological water analysis results . As of 2008 , 80 % of the Croatian population are served by the public water supply system , but only 44 % of the population have access to the public sewerage network , with septic systems in use . Adriatic Sea water quality monitoring between 2004 and 2008 indicated very good , oligotrophic conditions along most of the coast , while areas of increased eutrophication were identified in the Bay of Bakar , the Bay of Kaštela , the Port of Šibenik and near Ploče ; other areas of localized pollution were identified near the larger coastal cities . In the period between 2004 and 2008 , the CEA identified 283 cases of marine pollution ( including 128 from vessels ) , which was a drop of 15 % relative to the period encompassed by the previous report , 1997 to August 2005 .
= = = Land use = = =
As of 2006 , 46 @.@ 8 % of Croatia was occupied by 26 @,@ 487 @.@ 6 square kilometres ( 10 @,@ 226 @.@ 9 sq mi ) of forest and shrub , while a further 22 @,@ 841 square kilometres ( 8 @,@ 819 sq mi ) or 40 @.@ 4 % of the land was used for diverse agricultural uses including 4 @,@ 389 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 694 @.@ 6 sq mi ) , or 7 @.@ 8 % of the total , for permanent crops . Bush and grass cover was present on 4 @,@ 742 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 830 @.@ 9 sq mi ) or 8 @.@ 4 % of the territory , inland waters took up 539 @.@ 3 square kilometres ( 208 @.@ 2 sq mi ) or 1 @.@ 0 % and marshes covered 200 square kilometres ( 77 sq mi ) or 0 @.@ 4 % of the country . Artificial surfaces ( primarily consisting of urban areas , roads , non @-@ agricultural vegetation , sports areas and other recreational facilities ) took up 1 @,@ 774 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 685 @.@ 1 sq mi ) or 3 @.@ 1 % of the country 's area . The greatest impetus for land use changes is the expansion of settlements and road construction .
Because of the Croatian War of Independence , there are numerous leftover minefields in Croatia , largely tracing former front lines . As of 2006 , suspected minefields covered 954 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 368 @.@ 5 sq mi ) . As of 2012 , 62 % of the remaining minefields are situated in forests , 26 % of them are found in agricultural land , and 12 % are found in other land ; it is expected that mine clearance will be complete by 2019 .
= = = Regions = = =
Croatia is traditionally divided into numerous , often overlapping geographic regions , whose borders are not always clearly defined . The largest and most readily recognizable ones throughout the country are Central Croatia ( also described as the Zagreb macro @-@ region ) , Eastern Croatia ( largely corresponding with Slavonia ) , and Mountainous Croatia ( Lika and Gorski Kotar ; to the west of Central Croatia ) . These three comprise the inland or continental part of Croatia . Coastal Croatia consists of a further two regions : Dalmatia or the southern littoral , between the general area of the city of Zadar and the southernmost tip of the country ; and the northern littoral located north of Dalmatia , encompassing the Croatian Littoral and Istria . The geographical regions generally do not conform to county boundaries or other administrative divisions , and all of them encompass further , more specific , geographic regions .
= = Human geography = =
= = = Demographics = = =
The demographic features of the Croatian population are known through censuses , normally conducted in ten @-@ year intervals and analysed by various statistical bureaus since the 1850s . The Croatian Bureau of Statistics has performed this task since the 1990s . The latest census in Croatia was performed in April 2011 . The permanent population of Croatia at the 2011 census had reached 4 @.@ 29 million . The population density was 75 @.@ 8 inhabitants per square kilometre , and the overall life expectancy in Croatia at birth is 75 @.@ 7 years . The population rose steadily ( with the exception of censuses taken following the two world wars ) from 2 @.@ 1 million in 1857 until 1991 , when it peaked at 4 @.@ 7 million . Since 1991 , Croatia 's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate ; the natural growth rate of the population is thus currently negative . Croatia is currently in the demographic transition 's fourth or fifth stage . In terms of age structure , the population is dominated by the 15 ‑ to 64 ‑ year ‑ old segment . The median age of the population is 41 @.@ 4 , and the gender ratio of the total population is 0 @.@ 93 males per 1 female .
Croatia is inhabited mostly by Croats ( 89 @.@ 6 % ) , while minorities include Serbs ( 4 @.@ 5 % ) and 21 other ethnicities ( less than 1 % each ) recognised by the Constitution of Croatia . The demographic history of Croatia is marked by significant migrations , including : the Croats ' arrival in the area ; the growth of the Hungarian and German speaking population after the personal union of Croatia and Hungary ; joining of the Habsburg Empire ; migrations set off by the Ottoman conquests ; and the growth of the Italian @-@ speaking population in Istria and Dalmatia during the Venetian rule there . After Austria @-@ Hungary 's collapse , the Hungarian population declined , while the German @-@ speaking population was forced out or fled during the last part of and after World War II , and a similar fate was suffered by the Italian population . The late 19th century and the 20th century were marked by large scale economic migrations abroad . The 1940s and the 1950s in Yugoslavia were marked by internal migrations in Yugoslavia , as well as by urbanisation . The most recent significant migrations came as a result of the Croatian War of Independence when hundreds of thousands were displaced .
The Croatian language is Croatia 's official language , but the languages of constitutionally @-@ recognised minorities are officially used in some local government units . Croatian is the native language identified by 96 % of the population . A 2009 survey revealed that 78 % of Croatians claim knowledge of at least one foreign language — most often English . The largest religions of Croatia are Roman Catholicism ( 86 @.@ 3 % ) , Orthodox Christianity ( 4 @.@ 4 % ) and Islam ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) . Literacy in Croatia stands at 98 @.@ 1 % . The proportion of the population aged 15 and over attaining academic degrees has grown rapidly since 2001 , doubling and reaching 16 @.@ 7 % by 2008 . An estimated 4 @.@ 5 % of GDP is spent for education . Primary and secondary education are available in Croatian and in the languages of recognised minorities . Croatia has a universal health care system and in 2010 , the nation spent 6 @.@ 9 % of its GDP on healthcare . The net monthly income in September 2011 averaged 5 @,@ 397 kuna ( c . € 729 ) . The most significant sources of employment in 2008 were wholesale and retail trade , the manufacturing industry and construction . In October 2011 , the unemployment rate was 17 @.@ 4 % . Croatia 's median equivalent household income tops the average Purchasing Power Standard of the ten countries which joined the EU in 2004 , while trailing the EU average . The 2011 census recorded a total of 1 @.@ 5 million private households ; most owned their own housing .
= = = Political geography = = =
Croatia was first subdivided into counties in the Middle Ages . The divisions changed over time to reflect losses of territory to Ottoman conquest and subsequent liberation of the same territory , in addition to changes in the political status of Dalmatia , Dubrovnik and Istria . The traditional division of the country into counties was abolished in the 1920s , when the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes and the subsequent Kingdom of Yugoslavia introduced oblasts and banovinas respectively . Communist @-@ ruled Croatia , as a constituent part of post @-@ WWII Yugoslavia , abolished earlier divisions and introduced ( mostly rural ) municipalities , subdividing Croatia into approximately one hundred municipalities . Counties were reintroduced in 1992 by legislation , significantly altered in terms of territory relative to the pre @-@ 1920s subdivisions — for instance , in 1918 the Transleithanian part of Croatia was divided into eight counties with their seats in Bjelovar , Gospić , Ogulin , Požega , Vukovar , Varaždin , Osijek and Zagreb , while the 1992 legislation established 14 counties in the same territory . Međimurje County was established in the eponymous region acquired through the 1920 Treaty of Trianon . ( The 1990 Croatian Constitution provided for a Chamber of the Counties as part of the government , and for counties themselves without specifying their names or number . However , the counties were not actually re @-@ established until 1992 , and the first Chamber of the Counties was elected in 1993 . )
Since the counties were re @-@ established in 1992 , Croatia has been divided into 20 counties and the capital city of Zagreb , the latter having the authority and legal status of a county and a city at the same time ( Zagreb County outside the city is administratively separate as of 1997 ) . The county borders have changed in some instances since ( for reasons such as historical ties and requests by cities ) , with the latest revision taking place in 2006 . The counties subdivide into 127 cities and 429 municipalities .
The EU Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics ( NUTS ) division of Croatia is performed in several tiers . NUTS 1 level places the entire country in a single unit , while there are three NUTS 2 regions ; these are Central and Eastern ( Pannonian ) Croatia , Northwest Croatia and Adriatic Croatia . The last encompasses all counties along the Adriatic coast . Northwest Croatia includes the city of Zagreb and Krapina @-@ Zagorje , Varaždin , Koprivnica @-@ Križevci , Međimurje and Zagreb counties , and the Central and Eastern ( Pannonian ) Croatia includes the remaining areas — Bjelovar @-@ Bilogora , Virovitica @-@ Podravina , Požega @-@ Slavonia , Brod @-@ Posavina , Osijek @-@ Baranja , Vukovar @-@ Syrmia , Karlovac and Sisak @-@ Moslavina counties . Individual counties and the city of Zagreb represent NUTS 3 level subdivision units in Croatia . The NUTS Local administrative unit divisions are two @-@ tiered . The LAU 1 divisions match the counties and the city of Zagreb — in effect making these the same as NUTS 3 units — while the LAU 2 subdivisions correspond to the cities and municipalities of Croatia .
= = = Urbanisation = = =
The average urbanisation rate in Croatia stands at 56 % , with a growing urban population and shrinking rural population . The largest city and the nation 's capital is Zagreb , with an urban population of 686 @,@ 568 in the city itself . Zagreb 's metropolitan area encompasses 341 additional settlements and , by the year 2001 , the population of the area had reached 978 @,@ 161 ; approximately 60 % of Zagreb County 's residents live in Zagreb 's metropolitan area , as does about 41 % of Croatia 's urban population . The cities of Split and Rijeka are the largest settlements on the Croatian Adriatic coast , with each city 's population being over 100 @,@ 000 . There are four other Croatian cities exceeding 50 @,@ 000 people : Osijek , Zadar , Pula and Slavonski Brod ; the Zagreb district of Sesvete , which has the status of a standalone settlement but not a city , also has such a large population . A further eleven cities are populated by more than 20 @,@ 000 .
= Cleveland =
Cleveland ( / ˈkliːvlənd / KLEEV @-@ lənd ) is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County , the most populous county in the state . The city is located in northeastern Ohio on the southern shore of Lake Erie , approximately 60 miles ( 100 kilometers ) west of the Pennsylvania border . It was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the Cuyahoga River , and became a manufacturing center owing to its location on the lake shore , as well as being connected to numerous canals and railroad lines . Cleveland 's economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing , financial services , healthcare , and biomedical . Cleveland is also home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .
As of the 2013 Census Estimate , the city proper had a total population of 390 @,@ 113 , making Cleveland the 48th largest city in the United States , and the second largest city in Ohio after Columbus . Greater Cleveland , the Cleveland @-@ Elyria @-@ Mentor , OH Metropolitan Statistical Area , ranked 29th largest in the United States , and second largest in Ohio after Cincinnati with 2 @,@ 064 @,@ 725 people in 2013 . Cleveland is part of the larger Cleveland @-@ Akron @-@ Canton , OH Combined Statistical Area , which in 2013 had a population of 3 @,@ 501 @,@ 538 , and ranked as the country 's 15th largest CSA . Residents of Cleveland are called " Clevelanders " . Cleveland has many nicknames , the oldest of which in contemporary use being " The Forest City " .
= = History = =
Cleveland obtained its name on July 22 , 1796 when surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company laid out Connecticut 's Western Reserve into townships and a capital city they named " Cleaveland " after their leader , General Moses Cleaveland . Cleaveland oversaw the plan for what would become the modern downtown area , centered on Public Square , before returning home , never again to visit Ohio . The first settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter , who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River . The Village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23 , 1814 . In spite of the nearby swampy lowlands and harsh winters , its waterfront location proved to be an advantage . The area began rapid growth after the 1832 completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal . This key link between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes connected the city to the Atlantic Ocean via the Erie Canal and later via the St. Lawrence Seaway and the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi River . Growth continued with added railroad links . Cleveland incorporated as a city in 1836 .
In 1836 , the city , then located only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga River , nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two . Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854 .
The city 's prime geographic location as transportation hub on the Great Lakes has played an important role in its development as a commercial center . Cleveland serves as a destination point for iron ore shipped from Minnesota , along with coal transported by rail . In 1870 , John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland , and moved its headquarters to New York City in 1885 . Cleveland emerged in the early 20th Century as an important American manufacturing center , which included automotive companies such as Peerless , People 's , Jordan , Chandler , and Winton , maker of the first car driven across the U.S. Other manufacturers located in Cleveland produced steam @-@ powered cars , which included White and Gaeth , as well as the electric car company Baker . Because of the significant growth , Cleveland was known as the " Sixth City " during this period .
By 1920 , due in large part to the city 's economic prosperity , Cleveland became the nation 's fifth largest city . The city counted Progressive Era politicians such as the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson among its leaders . Many prominent Clevelanders from this era are buried in the historic Lake View Cemetery , including President James A. Garfield , and John D. Rockefeller .
In commemoration of the centennial of Cleveland 's incorporation as a city , the Great Lakes Exposition debuted in June 1936 along the Lake Erie shore north of downtown . Conceived as a way to energize a city after the Great Depression , it drew four million visitors in its first season , and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937 . The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the Great Lakes Science Center , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Burke Lakefront Airport , among others . Following World War II , the city experienced a prosperous economy . In sports , the Indians won the 1948 World Series and the Browns dominated professional football in the 1950s . Businesses proclaimed that Cleveland was the " best location in the nation " . In 1940 , non @-@ Hispanic whites represented 90 @.@ 2 % of Cleveland 's population . The city 's population reached its peak of 914 @,@ 808 , and in 1949 Cleveland was named an All @-@ America City for the first time . By the 1960s , the economy slowed , and residents sought new housing in the suburbs , reflecting the national trends of urban flight and suburban growth .
In the 1950s and 1960s , social and racial unrest occurred in Cleveland , resulting in the Hough Riots from July 18 to 23 , 1966 and the Glenville Shootout from July 23 to 25 , 1968 . In November 1967 , Cleveland became the first major American city to elect a black mayor , Carl Stokes ( who served from 1968 to 1971 ) .
Suburbanization changed the city in the late 19
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60s and 1970s , when financial difficulties and a notorious 1969 fire on the Cuyahoga River challenged the city . This , along with the city 's struggling professional sports teams , drew negative national press . As a result , Cleveland was often derided as " The Mistake on the Lake " .
In December 1978 , Cleveland became the first major American city to enter into a financial default on federal loans since the Great Depression . By the beginning of the 1980s , several factors , including changes in international free trade policies , inflation and the Savings and Loans Crisis contributed to the recession that impacted cities like Cleveland . While unemployment during the period peaked in 1983 , Cleveland 's rate of 13 @.@ 8 % was higher than the national average due to the closure of several production centers .
The metropolitan area began a gradual economic recovery under mayors George Voinovich and Michael R. White . Redevelopment within the city limits has been strongest in the downtown area near the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex — consisting of Progressive Field and Quicken Loans Arena — and near North Coast Harbor , including the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , FirstEnergy Stadium , and the Great Lakes Science Center . Cleveland has been hailed by local media as the " Comeback City " , while economic development of the inner @-@ city neighborhoods and improvement of the school systems are municipal priorities . In 1999 , Cleveland was identified as an emerging global city .
In the 21st century , the city has improved infrastructure , is more diversified , and has invested in the arts . Cleveland is generally considered an example of revitalization . The city 's goals include additional neighborhood revitalization and increased funding for public education . In 2009 , it was announced that Cleveland was chosen to host the 2014 Gay Games , the fourth city in the United States to host this international event . On July 8 , 2014 , it was announced that Cleveland was chosen to be the host city of the 2016 Republican National Convention .
= = Geography = =
= = = Topography = = =
According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 82 @.@ 47 square miles ( 213 @.@ 60 km2 ) , of which 77 @.@ 70 square miles ( 201 @.@ 24 km2 ) is land and 4 @.@ 77 square miles ( 12 @.@ 35 km2 ) is water . The shore of Lake Erie is 569 feet ( 173 m ) above sea level ; however , the city lies on a series of irregular bluffs lying roughly perpendicular to the lake . In Cleveland these bluffs are cut principally by the Cuyahoga River , Big Creek , and Euclid Creek . The land rises quickly from the lakeshore . Public Square , less than one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) inland , sits at an elevation of 650 feet ( 198 m ) , and Hopkins Airport , 5 miles ( 8 km ) inland from the lake , is at an elevation of 791 feet ( 241 m ) .
= = = Cityscape = = =
= = = = Architecture = = = =
Cleveland 's downtown architecture is diverse . Many of the city 's government and civic buildings , including City Hall , the Cuyahoga County Courthouse , the Cleveland Public Library , and Public Auditorium , are clustered around an open mall and share a common neoclassical architecture . Built in the early 20th century , they are the result of the 1903 Group Plan , and constitute one of the most complete examples of City Beautiful design in the United States . The Terminal Tower , dedicated in 1930 , was the tallest building in North America outside New York City until 1964 and the tallest in the city until 1991 . It is a prototypical Beaux @-@ Arts skyscraper . The two newer skyscrapers on Public Square , Key Tower ( currently the tallest building in Ohio ) and the 200 Public Square , combine elements of Art Deco architecture with postmodern designs . Another of Cleveland 's architectural treasures is The Arcade ( sometimes called the Old Arcade ) , a five @-@ story arcade built in 1890 and renovated in 2001 as a Hyatt Regency Hotel . Cleveland 's landmark ecclesiastical architecture includes the historic Old Stone Church in downtown Cleveland and the onion domed St. Theodosius Russian Orthodox Cathedral in Tremont , along with myriad ethnically inspired Roman Catholic churches . Running east from Public Square through University Circle is Euclid Avenue , which was known for its prestige and elegance . In the late 1880s , writer Bayard Taylor described it as " the most beautiful street in the world " . Known as " Millionaire 's Row " , Euclid Avenue was world @-@ renowned as the home of such internationally known names as Rockefeller , Hanna , and Hay .
= = = = Neighborhoods = = = =
Downtown Cleveland is centered on Public Square and includes a wide range of diversified districts . Downtown Cleveland is home to the traditional Financial District and Civic Center , as well as the distinct Cleveland Theater District , which is home to Playhouse Square Center . Mixed @-@ use neighborhoods such as the Flats and the Warehouse District are occupied by industrial and office buildings as well as restaurants and bars . The number of downtown housing units in the form of condominiums , lofts , and apartments has been on the increase since 2000 . Recent developments include the revival of the Flats , the Euclid Corridor Project , and the developments along East 4th Street . Cleveland residents geographically define themselves in terms of whether they live on the east or west side of the Cuyahoga River . The east side includes the neighborhoods of Buckeye @-@ Shaker , Central , Collinwood , Corlett , Euclid @-@ Green , Fairfax , Forest Hills , Glenville , Payne / Goodrich @-@ Kirtland Park , Hough , Kinsman , Lee Harvard / Seville @-@ Miles , Mount Pleasant , Nottingham , St. Clair @-@ Superior , Union @-@ Miles Park , University Circle , Little Italy , and Woodland Hills . The west side includes the neighborhoods of Brooklyn Centre , Clark @-@ Fulton , Detroit @-@ Shoreway , Cudell , Edgewater , Ohio City , Tremont , Old Brooklyn , Stockyards , West Boulevard , and the four neighborhoods colloquially known as West Park : Kamm 's Corners , Jefferson , Puritas @-@ Longmead , and Riverside . Three neighborhoods in the Cuyahoga Valley are sometimes referred to as the south side : Industrial Valley / Duck Island , Slavic Village ( North and South Broadway ) , and Tremont .
Several inner @-@ city neighborhoods have begun to gentrify in recent years . Areas on both the west side ( Ohio City , Tremont , Detroit @-@ Shoreway , and Edgewater ) and the east side ( Collinwood , Hough , Fairfax , and Little Italy ) have been successful in attracting increasing numbers of creative class members , which in turn is spurring new residential development . Furthermore , a live @-@ work zoning overlay for the city 's near east side has facilitated the transformation of old industrial buildings into loft spaces for artists .
= = = = Suburbs = = = =
Cleveland 's older , inner @-@ ring suburbs include Bedford , Bedford Heights , Brook Park , Brooklyn , Brooklyn Heights , Cleveland Heights , Cuyahoga Heights , East Cleveland , Euclid , Fairview Park , Garfield Heights , Lakewood , Linndale , Maple Heights , Newburgh Heights , Parma , Parma Heights , Shaker Heights , Solon , South Euclid , University Heights , and Warrensville Heights . Many are members of the Northeast Ohio First Suburbs Consortium .
= = = Climate = = =
Typical of the Great Lakes region , Cleveland exhibits a continental climate with four distinct seasons , which lies in the humid continental ( Köppen Dfa ) zone . Summers are warm to hot and humid while winters are cold and snowy . The Lake Erie shoreline is very close to due east @-@ west from the mouth of the Cuyahoga west to Sandusky , but at the mouth of the Cuyahoga it turns sharply northeast . This feature is the principal contributor to the lake effect snow that is typical in Cleveland ( especially on the city 's East Side ) from mid @-@ November until the surface of Lake Erie freezes , usually in late January or early February . The lake effect also causes a relative differential in geographical snowfall totals across the city : while Hopkins Airport , on the city 's far West Side , has only reached 100 inches ( 254 cm ) of snowfall in a season three times since record @-@ keeping for snow began in 1893 , seasonal totals approaching or exceeding 100 inches ( 254 cm ) are not uncommon as the city ascends into the Heights on the east , where the region known as the ' Snow Belt ' begins . Extending from the city 's East Side and its suburbs , the Snow Belt reaches up the Lake Erie shore as far as Buffalo .
The all @-@ time record high in Cleveland of 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) was established on June 25 , 1988 , and the all @-@ time record low of − 20 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) was set on January 19 , 1994 . On average , July is the warmest month with a mean temperature of 73 @.@ 5 ° F ( 23 @.@ 1 ° C ) , and January , with a mean temperature of 28 @.@ 1 ° F ( − 2 @.@ 2 ° C ) , is the coldest . Normal yearly precipitation based on the 30 @-@ year average from 1981 to 2010 is 39 @.@ 1 inches ( 990 mm ) . The least precipitation occurs on the western side and directly along the lake , and the most occurs in the eastern suburbs . Parts of Geauga County to the east receive over 44 inches ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) of liquid precipitation annually . Frequent thunderstorms are also common in Cleveland especially during spring and early summer .
= = Demographics = =
= = = 2010 census = = =
As of the census of 2010 , there were 396 @,@ 815 people , 167 @,@ 490 households , and 89 @,@ 821 families residing in the city . The population density was 5 @,@ 107 @.@ 0 inhabitants per square mile ( 1 @,@ 971 @.@ 8 / km2 ) . There were 207 @,@ 536 housing units at an average density of 2 @,@ 671 @.@ 0 per square mile ( 1 @,@ 031 @.@ 3 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 53 @.@ 3 % African American , 37 @.@ 3 % White , 0 @.@ 3 % Native American , 1 @.@ 8 % Asian , 4 @.@ 4 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 8 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 10 @.@ 0 % of the population .
There were 167 @,@ 490 households of which 29 @.@ 7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 22 @.@ 4 % were married couples living together , 25 @.@ 3 % had a female householder with no husband present , 6 @.@ 0 % had a male householder with no wife present , and 46 @.@ 4 % were non @-@ families . 39 @.@ 5 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10 @.@ 7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 29 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 11 .
The median age in the city was 35 @.@ 7 years . 24 @.@ 6 % of residents were under the age of 18 ; 11 % were between the ages of 18 and 24 ; 26 @.@ 1 % were from 25 to 44 ; 26 @.@ 3 % were from 45 to 64 ; and 12 % were 65 years of age or older . The gender makeup of the city was 48 @.@ 0 % male and 52 @.@ 0 % female .
= = = 2000 census = = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 478 @,@ 403 people , 190 @,@ 638 households , and 111 @,@ 904 families residing in the city . The population density was 6 @,@ 166 @.@ 5 inhabitants per square mile ( 2 @,@ 380 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . There were 215 @,@ 856 housing units at an average density of 2 @,@ 782 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 1 @,@ 074 @.@ 3 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 51 @.@ 0 % African American , 41 @.@ 5 % White , 0 @.@ 3 % Native American , 1 @.@ 3 % Asian , 0 @.@ 0 % Pacific Islander , 3 @.@ 6 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 2 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latinos of any race were 7 @.@ 3 % of the population . Ethnic groups include Germans ( 15 @.@ 2 % ) , Irish ( 10 @.@ 9 % ) , English ( 8 @.@ 7 % ) , Italian ( 5 @.@ 6 % ) , Poles ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) , and French ( 3 @.@ 0 % ) . Out of the total population , 4 @.@ 5 % were foreign born ; of which 41 @.@ 2 % were born in Europe , 29 @.@ 1 % Asia , 22 @.@ 4 % Latin American , 5 @.@ 0 % Africa , and 1 @.@ 9 % Northern America .
There are also substantial communities of Slovaks , Hungarians , French , Slovenes , Czechs , Ukrainians , Arabs , Dutch , Scottish , Russian , Scotch Irish , Croats , Puerto Ricans , West Indians , Romanians , Lithuanians , and Greeks . The presence of Hungarians within Cleveland proper was , at one time , so great that the city boasted the highest concentration of Hungarians in the world outside of Budapest . The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from the South . Between 1920 and 1960 , the black population of Cleveland increased from 35 @,@ 000 to 251 @,@ 000 .
Out of 190 @,@ 638 households , 29 @.@ 9 % have children under the age of 18 living with them , 28 @.@ 5 % were married couples living together , 24 @.@ 8 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 41 @.@ 3 % were nonfamilies . 35 @.@ 2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 1 % had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 44 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 19 . The population was spread out with 28 @.@ 5 % under the age of 18 , 9 @.@ 5 % from 18 to 24 , 30 @.@ 4 % from 25 to 44 , 19 @.@ 0 % from 45 to 64 , and 12 @.@ 5 % who are 65 years of age or older . The median age was 33 years . For every 100 females there were 90 @.@ 0 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 85 @.@ 2 males .
The median income for a household in the city was $ 25 @,@ 928 , and the median income for a family was $ 30 @,@ 286 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 610 versus $ 24 @,@ 214 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 14 @,@ 291 . 26 @.@ 3 % of the population and 22 @.@ 9 % of families were below the poverty line . Out of the total population , 37 @.@ 6 % of those under the age of 18 and 16 @.@ 8 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line .
= = = Languages = = =
As of 2010 , 88 @.@ 4 % ( 337 @,@ 658 ) of Cleveland residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language , while 7 @.@ 1 % ( 27 @,@ 262 ) spoke Spanish , 0 @.@ 6 % ( 2 @,@ 200 ) Arabic , and 0 @.@ 5 % ( 1 @,@ 960 ) Chinese . In addition 0 @.@ 9 % ( 3 @,@ 364 ) spoke a Slavic language ( 1 @,@ 279 - Polish , 679 Serbo @-@ Croatian , and 485 Russian ) . In total , 11 @.@ 6 % ( 44 @,@ 148 ) of Cleveland 's population age 5 and older spoke another language other than English .
= = Economy = =
Cleveland 's geographic location on the Cuyahoga River and Lake Erie has been key to its growth . The Ohio and Erie Canal coupled with rail links helped establish the city as an important business center . Steel and many other manufactured goods emerged as leading industries .
The city diversified its economy in addition to its manufacturing sector . Cleveland is home to the corporate headquarters of many large companies such as Applied Industrial Technologies , Cliffs Natural Resources , Forest City Enterprises , NACCO Industries , Sherwin @-@ Williams Company and KeyCorp . NASA maintains a facility in Cleveland , the Glenn Research Center . Jones Day , one of the largest law firms in the US , began in Cleveland . In 2007 , Cleveland 's commercial real estate market experienced rebound with a record pace of purchases , with a housing vacancy of 10 % .
The Cleveland Clinic is the city 's largest private employer with a workforce of over 37 @,@ 000 as of 2008 . It carries the distinction as being among America 's best hospitals with top ratings published in U.S. News & World Report . Cleveland 's healthcare sector also includes University Hospitals of Cleveland , a renowned center for cancer treatment , MetroHealth medical center , and the insurance company Medical Mutual of Ohio . Cleveland is also noted in the fields of biotechnology and fuel cell research , led by Case Western Reserve University , the Cleveland Clinic , and University Hospitals of Cleveland . Cleveland is among the top recipients of investment for biotech start @-@ ups and research . Case Western Reserve , the Clinic , and University Hospitals have recently announced plans to build a large biotechnology research center and incubator on the site of the former Mt . Sinai Medical Center , creating a research campus to stimulate biotech startup companies that can be spun off from research conducted in the city .
City leaders promoted growth of the technology sector in the first decade of the 21st century . Mayor Jane L. Campbell appointed a " tech czar " to recruit technology companies to the downtown office market , offering connections to the high @-@ speed fiber networks that run underneath downtown streets in several " high @-@ tech offices " focused on the Euclid Avenue area . Cleveland State University hired a technology transfer officer to cultivate technology transfers from CSU research to marketable ideas and companies in the Cleveland area , and appointed a vice president for economic development . Case Western Reserve University participated in technology initiatives such as the OneCommunity project , a high @-@ speed fiber optic network linking the area 's research centers intended to stimulate growth . In mid @-@ 2005 , Cleveland was named an Intel " Worldwide Digital Community " along with Corpus Christi , Texas , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , and Taipei . This added about $ 12 million for marketing to expand regional technology partnerships , created a city @-@ wide Wi @-@ Fi network , and developed a tech economy . In addition to this Intel initiative , in January 2006 a New York @-@ based think tank , the Intelligent Community Forum , selected Cleveland as the sole American city among its seven finalists for the " Intelligent Community of the Year " award . The group announced that it nominated the city for its OneCommunity network with potential broadband applications . OneCommunity collaborated with Cisco Systems to deploy a wireless network starting in September 2006 .
= = Culture = =
= = = Performing arts = = =
Cleveland is home to Playhouse Square Center , the second largest performing arts center in the United States behind New York City 's Lincoln Center . Playhouse Square includes the State , Palace , Allen , Hanna , and Ohio theaters within what is known as the Cleveland Theater District . Playhouse Square 's resident performing arts companies include Cleveland Play House , Cleveland State University Department of Theatre and Dance , and Great Lakes Theater Festival . The center hosts various Broadway musicals , special concerts , speaking engagements , and other events throughout the year .
One Playhouse Square , now the headquarters for Cleveland 's public broadcasters , was originally used as the broadcast studios of WJW ( AM ) , where disc jockey Alan Freed first popularized the term " rock and roll " . Located between Playhouse Square and University Circle is Karamu House , a well @-@ known African American performing and fine arts center , founded in the 1920s .
Cleveland is home to the Cleveland Orchestra , widely considered one of the finest orchestras in the world , and often referred to as the finest in the United States . It is one of the " Big Five " major orchestras in the United States . The Orchestra plays at Severance Hall in University Circle during the winter and at Blossom Music Center in Cuyahoga Falls during the summer . The city is also home to the Cleveland Pops Orchestra .
There are two main art museums in Cleveland . The Cleveland Museum of Art is a major American art museum , with a collection that includes more than 40 @,@ 000 works of art ranging over 6 @,@ 000 years , from ancient masterpieces to contemporary pieces . Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland showcases established and emerging artists , particularly from the Cleveland area , through hosting and producing temporary exhibitions .
The Gordon Square Arts District on Detroit Ave . , in the Detroit @-@ Shoreway neighborhood , features a movie theater called the Capitol Theatre and an Off @-@ Off @-@ Broadway playhouse , the Cleveland Public Theatre .
= = = Film and television = = =
Cleveland has served as the setting for several major studio and independent films . Players from the 1948 Cleveland Indians , winners of the World Series , appear in The Kid from Cleveland ( 1949 ) . Cleveland Municipal Stadium features prominently in both that film and The Fortune Cookie ( 1966 ) ; written and directed by Billy Wilder , the picture marked Walter Matthau and Jack Lemmon 's first on @-@ screen collaboration and features gameday footage of the 1965 Cleveland Browns . Director Jules Dassin 's first American film in nearly twenty years , Up Tight ! ( 1968 ) is set in Cleveland immediately following the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr . Set in 1930s Cleveland , Sylvester Stallone leads a local labor union in F.I.S.T. ( 1978 ) . Paul Simon chose Cleveland as the opening for his only venture into filmmaking , One @-@ Trick Pony ( 1980 ) ; Simon spent six weeks filming concert scenes at the Cleveland Agora . The boxing @-@ match @-@ turned @-@ riot near the start of Raging Bull ( 1980 ) takes place at the Cleveland Arena in 1941 . Clevelander Jim Jarmusch 's critically acclaimed and independently produced Stranger Than Paradise ( 1984 ) — a deadpan comedy about two New Yorkers who travel to Florida by way of Cleveland — was a favorite of the Cannes Film Festival , winning the Caméra d 'Or . The cult @-@ classic mockumentary This Is Spinal Tap ( 1984 ) includes a memorable scene where the parody band gets lost backstage just before performing at a Cleveland rock concert ( origin of the phrase " Hello , Cleveland ! " ) . Howard the Duck ( 1986 ) , George Lucas ' heavily criticized adaptation of the Marvel comic of the same name , begins with the title character crashing into Cleveland after drifting in outer space . Michael J. Fox and Joan Jett play the sibling leads of a Cleveland rock group in Light of Day ( 1987 ) ; directed by Paul Schrader , much of the film was shot in the city . Both Major League ( 1989 ) and Major League II ( 1994 ) reflected the actual perennial struggles of the Cleveland Indians during the 1960s , 1970s , and 1980s . Kevin Bacon stars in Telling Lies in America ( 1997 ) , the semi @-@ autobiographical tale of Clevelander Joe Eszterhas , a former reporter for The Plain Dealer . Cleveland serves as the setting for fictitious insurance giant Great Benefit in The Rainmaker ( 1997 ) ; in the film , Key Tower doubles as the firm 's main headquarters . A group of Cleveland teenagers try to scam their way into a Kiss concert in Detroit Rock City ( 1999 ) , and several key scenes from director Cameron Crowe 's Almost Famous ( 2000 ) are set in Cleveland . Antwone Fisher ( 2002 ) recounts the real @-@ life story of the Cleveland native . Brothers Joe and Anthony Russo — native Clevelanders and Case Western Reserve University alumni — filmed their comedy Welcome to Collinwood ( 2002 ) entirely on location in the city . American Splendor ( 2003 ) — the biographical film of Harvey Pekar , author of the autobiographical comic of the same name — was also filmed on location throughout Cleveland , as was The Oh in Ohio ( 2006 ) . Much of The Rocker ( 2008 ) is set in the city , and Cleveland native Nathaniel Ayers ' life story is told in The Soloist ( 2009 ) . Kill the Irishman ( 2011 ) follows the real @-@ life turf war in 1970s Cleveland between Irish mobster Danny Greene and the Cleveland crime family . More recently , the teenage comedy Fun Size ( 2012 ) takes place in and around Cleveland on Halloween night , and the film Draft Day ( 2014 ) followed Kevin Costner as general manager for the Cleveland Browns .
Cleveland has often doubled for other locations in film . The wedding and reception scenes in The Deer Hunter ( 1978 ) , while set in the small Pittsburgh suburb of Clairton , were actually shot in the Cleveland neighborhood of Tremont ; U.S. Steel also permitted the production to film in one of its Cleveland mills . Francis Ford Coppola produced The Escape Artist ( 1982 ) , much of which was shot in Downtown Cleveland near City Hall and the Cuyahoga County Courthouse , as well as the Flats . A Christmas Story ( 1983 ) was set in Indiana , but drew many of its external shots — including the Parker family home — from Cleveland . Much of Double Dragon ( 1994 ) and Happy Gilmore ( 1996 ) were also shot in Cleveland , and the opening shots of Air Force One ( 1997 ) were filmed in and above Severance Hall . A complex chase scene in Spider @-@ Man 3 ( 2007 ) , though set in New York City , was actually filmed along Cleveland 's Euclid Avenue . Downtown 's East 9th Street also doubled for New York in the climax of The Avengers ( 2012 ) ; in addition , the production shot on Cleveland 's Public Square as a fill @-@ in for Stuttgart , Germany . More recently , Jackass Presents : Bad Grandpa ( 2013 ) , Miss Meadows ( 2014 ) and Captain America : The Winter Soldier ( 2014 ) each filmed in Cleveland . Future productions in the Cleveland area are the responsibility of the Greater Cleveland Film Commission .
In television , the city is well known as the setting for the popular network sitcom The Drew Carey Show , starring Cleveland native Drew Carey . Real @-@ life crime series Cops , Crime 360 , and The First 48 regularly film in Cleveland and other U.S. cities . Hot in Cleveland , a comedy airing on TV Land , premiered on June 16 , 2010 .
= = = Literature = = =
The American modernist poet Hart Crane was born in nearby Garrettsville , Ohio in 1899 . His adolescence was divided between Cleveland and Akron before moving to New York City , finally in 1916 . Aside from factory work during the first world war , he served as reporter to The Plain Dealer for a short period , before achieving recognition in the Modernist literary scene . A diminutive memorial park is dedicated to Crane along the left bank of the Cuyahoga in Cleveland . In University Circle , a historical marker sits at the location of his Cleveland childhood house on E. 115 near the Euclid Ave intersection . On Case Western Reserve University campus , a statue of him stands immediately behind the Kelvin Smith Library .
Langston Hughes , preeminent poet of the Harlem Renaissance and child of an itinerant couple , lived in Cleveland as a teenager and attended Central High School in Cleveland in the 1910s . He wrote for the school newspaper and started writing his earlier plays , poems and short stories while living in Cleveland . The African @-@ American avant garde poet Russell Atkins also lived in Cleveland .
Cleveland was the home of Joe Shuster and Jerry Siegel , who created the comic book character Superman in 1932 . Both attended Glenville High School , and their early collaborations resulted in the creation of " The Man of Steel " . D. A. Levy wrote : " Cleveland : The Rectal Eye Visions " . Mystery author Richard Montanari 's first three novels , Deviant Way , The Violet Hour , and Kiss of Evil are set in Cleveland . Mystery writer , Les Roberts 's Milan Jacovich series is also set in Cleveland . Author and Ohio resident , James Renner set his debut novel , The Man from Primrose Lane in present @-@ day Cleveland .
Harlan Ellison , noted author of speculative fiction , was born in Cleveland in 1934 ; his family subsequently moved to the nearby suburb of Painesville , though Ellison moved back to Cleveland in 1949 . As a youngster , he published a series of short stories appearing in the Cleveland News ; he also performed in a number of productions for the Cleveland Play House .
The Cleveland State University Poetry Center serves as an academic center for poetry . Cleveland continues to have a thriving literary and poetry community , with regular poetry readings at bookstores , coffee shops , and various other venues .
Cleveland is the site of the Anisfield @-@ Wolf Book Award , established by poet and philanthropist Edith Anisfield Wolf in 1935 , which recognizes books that have made important contributions to understanding of racism and human diversity . Presented by the Cleveland Foundation , it remains the only American book prize focusing on works that address racism and diversity . In an early Gay and Lesbian Studies anthology titled Lavender Culture , a short piece by John Kelsey " The Cleveland Bar Scene in the Forties " discusses the gay and lesbian culture in Cleveland and the unique experiences of amateur female impersonators that existed alongside the New York and San Francisco LGBT subcultures .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Cleveland 's melting pot of immigrant groups and their various culinary traditions have long played an important role in defining the local cuisine . Examples of these can particularly be found in neighborhoods such as Little Italy , Slavic Village , and Tremont .
Local mainstays of Cleveland 's cuisine include an abundance of Polish and Central European contributions , such as kielbasa , stuffed cabbage and pierogies . Cleveland also has plenty of corned beef , with nationally renowned Slyman 's , on the near East Side , a perennial winner of various accolades from Esquire Magazine , including being named the best corned beef sandwich in America in 2008 . Other famed sandwiches include the Cleveland original , Polish Boy , a local favorite found at many BBQ and Soul food restaurants . With its blue @-@ collar roots well intact , and plenty of Lake Erie perch available , the tradition of Friday night fish fries remains alive and thriving in Cleveland , particularly in church @-@ based settings and during the season of Lent . Ohio City is home to a growing brewery district , which includes Great Lakes Brewing Company ( Ohio 's oldest microbrewery ) ; Market Garden Brewery located next to the historic West Side Market and Platform Beer Company .
Cleveland is noted in the world of celebrity food culture . Famous local figures include chef Michael Symon and food writer Michael Ruhlman , both of whom achieved local and national attentions for their contributions in the culinary world . On November 11 , 2007 , Symon helped gain the spotlight when he was named " The Next Iron Chef " on the Food Network . In 2007 , Ruhlman collaborated with Anthony Bourdain , to do an entire episode of his Anthony Bourdain : No Reservations focusing on Cleveland 's restaurant scene .
The national food press — including publications Gourmet , Food & Wine , Esquire and Playboy — has heaped praise on several Cleveland spots for awards including ' best new restaurant ' , ' best steakhouse ' , ' best farm @-@ to @-@ table programs ' and ' great new neighborhood eateries ' . In early 2008 , the Chicago Tribune ran a feature article in its ' Travel ' section proclaiming Cleveland , America 's " hot new dining city " .
= = = Tourism = = =
Five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of downtown Cleveland is University Circle , a 550 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 2 km2 ) concentration of cultural , educational , and medical institutions , including the Cleveland Botanical Garden , Case Western Reserve University , University Hospitals , Severance Hall , the Cleveland Museum of Art , the Cleveland Museum of Natural History , and the Western Reserve Historical Society . A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Cleveland 17th most walkable of fifty largest U.S. cities . Cleveland is home to the I. M. Pei @-@ designed Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , located on the Lake Erie waterfront at North Coast Harbor downtown . Neighboring attractions include Cleveland Browns Stadium , the Great Lakes Science Center , the Steamship Mather Museum , and the USS Cod , a World War II submarine . Cleveland has an attraction for visitors and fans of A Christmas Story : A Christmas Story House and Museum to see props , costumes , rooms , photos and other materials related to the Jean Shepherd film . Cleveland is home to many festivals throughout the year . Cultural festivals such as the annual Feast of the Assumption in the Little Italy neighborhood , the Harvest Festival in the Slavic Village neighborhood , and the more recent Cleveland Asian Festival in the Asia Town neighborhood are popular events . Vendors at the West Side Market in Ohio City offer many different ethnic foods for sale . Cleveland hosts an annual parade on Saint Patrick 's Day that brings hundreds of thousands to the streets of downtown .
Fashion Week Cleveland , the city 's annual fashion event , is the third @-@ largest fashion show of its kind in the United States . In addition to the cultural festivals , Cleveland hosted the CMJ Rock Hall Music Fest , which featured national and local acts , including both established artists and up @-@ and @-@ coming acts , but the festival was discontinued in 2007 due to financial and manpower costs to the Rock Hall . The annual Ingenuity Fest , Notacon and TEDxCLE conference focus on the combination of art and technology . The Cleveland International Film Festival has been held annually since 1977 , and it drew a record 66 @,@ 476 people in March 2009 . Cleveland also hosts an annual holiday display lighting and celebration , dubbed Winterfest , which is held downtown at the city 's historic hub , Public Square .
Cleveland also has the Jack Cleveland Casino . Phase I opened on May 14 , 2012 , on Public Square , in the historic former Higbee 's Building at Tower City Center . Phase II will open along the bend of the Cuyahoga River behind Tower City Center .
The new Greater Cleveland Aquarium is on the west bank of the Cuyahoga River near Downtown .
= = Sports = =
Cleveland 's major professional sports teams include the Cleveland Indians ( Major League Baseball ) , Cleveland Browns ( National Football League ) , and Cleveland Cavaliers ( National Basketball Association ) . Local sporting facilities include Progressive Field , FirstEnergy Stadium , Quicken Loans Arena and the Wolstein Center .
The Cleveland Indians won the World Series in 1920 and 1948 . They also won the American League pennant , making the World Series in the 1954 , 1995 , and 1997 seasons . Between 1995 and 2001 , Progressive Field ( then known as Jacobs Field ) sold out 455 consecutive games , a Major League Baseball record until it was broken in 2008 .
The Cavaliers won the Eastern Conference in 2007 and 2015 , but were defeated in the NBA Finals by the San Antonio Spurs and then by the Golden State Warriors , respectively . The Cavs won the Conference again in 2016 and won their first NBA Championship , finally defeating the Golden State Warriors . Afterwards , an estimated 1 @.@ 3 million people attended a parade held in the Cavs honor .
Historically , the Browns have been among the winningest franchises in American football history winning eight titles during a short period of time — 1946 , 1947 , 1948 , 1949 , 1950 , 1954 , 1955 , and 1964 . The Browns have never played in a Super Bowl . Former owner Art Modell 's relocation of the Browns after the 1995 season ( to Baltimore creating the Ravens ) , caused tremendous heartbreak and resentment among local fans . Cleveland mayor , Michael R. White , worked with the NFL and Commissioner Paul Tagliabue to bring back the Browns beginning in 1999 season , retaining all team history .
From 1964 to 2016 , the city 's failure to win a trophy in any major professional sport earned the name , the Cleveland sports curse , where ESPN often proclaimed Cleveland as the " most tortured sports city . "
A notable Cleveland athlete is Jesse Owens , who grew up in the city after moving from Alabama when he was nine . He participated in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin , where he achieved international fame by winning four gold medals . A statue commemorating his achievement can be found in Downtown Cleveland at Fort Washington Park .
Cleveland State University alum and area native , Stipe Miocic , won the UFC World Heavyweight Championship at UFC 198 in 2016 . In defense of his title , the first ever UFC World Championship fight in the city of Cleveland will be held September 2016 .
The AHL Lake Erie Monsters won the 2016 Calder Cup , becoming the first Cleveland pro sports team to do so since the 1964 Cleveland Barons .
The city is also host to the Cleveland Gladiators of the Arena Football League , AFC Cleveland of the National Premier Soccer League , and the Cleveland Fusion of the Women 's Football Alliance .
Collegiately , NCAA Division I Cleveland State Vikings have 16 varsity sports , nationally known for their Cleveland State Vikings men 's basketball team . NCAA Division III Case Western Reserve Spartans have 19 varsity sports , most known for their Case Western Reserve Spartans football team . The headquarters of the Mid @-@ American Conference ( MAC ) are located in Cleveland . The conference also stages both its men 's and women 's basketball tournaments at Quicken Loans Arena .
Several chess championships have taken place in Cleveland . The second American Chess Congress , a predecessor the current U.S. Championship , was held in 1871 , and won by George Henry Mackenzie . The 1921 and 1957 U.S. Open Chess Championship also took place in the city , and were won by Edward Lasker and Bobby Fischer , respectively . The Cleveland Open is currently held annually .
The Cleveland Marathon has been hosted annually since 1978 .
= = Parks and gardens = =
Cleveland is home to four of the parks in the countywide Cleveland Metroparks system , as well as the : Washington Park , Brookside Park and parts of the Rocky River and Washington Reservations . Known locally as the " Emerald Necklace " , the Olmsted @-@ inspired Metroparks encircle Cuyahoga county . Included in the system is the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo . Located in Big Creek valley , the zoo contains one of the largest collection of primates in North America . In addition to the Metroparks system , the Cleveland Lakefront State Park district provides public access to Lake Erie . This cooperative between the City of Cleveland and the State of Ohio contains six parks : Edgewater Park , located on the city 's near west side between the Shoreway and the lake ; East 55th Street Marina , Euclid Beach Park and Gordon Park . The Cleveland Public Parks District is the municipal body that oversees the city 's neighborhood parks , the largest of which is the historic Rockefeller Park , notable for its late @-@ 19th century historical landmark bridges and Cultural Gardens .
= = Law and government = =
Cleveland 's position as a center of manufacturing established it as a hotbed of union activity early in its history . While other parts of Ohio , particularly Cincinnati and the southern portion of the state , have historically supported the Republican Party , Cleveland commonly breeds the strongest support in the state for the Democrats . At the local level , elections are nonpartisan . However , Democrats still dominate every level of government . Cleveland is split between two congressional districts . Most of the western part of the city is in the 9th District , represented by Marcy Kaptur . Most of the eastern part of the city , as well as most of downtown , is in the 11th District , represented by Marcia Fudge . Both are Democrats .
During the 2004 Presidential election , although George W. Bush carried Ohio by 2 @.@ 1 % , John Kerry carried Cuyahoga County 66 @.@ 6 % – 32 @.@ 9 % , his largest margin in any Ohio county . The city of Cleveland supported Kerry over Bush by the even larger margin of 83 @.@ 3 % – 15 @.@ 8 % .
The city of Cleveland operates on the mayor @-@ council ( strong mayor ) form of government . The mayor is the chief executive of the city , and the office is held in 2010 by Frank G. Jackson . Previous mayors of Cleveland include progressive Democrat Tom L. Johnson , World War I era War Secretary and founder of Baker Hostetler law firm Newton D. Baker , United States Supreme Court Justice Harold Hitz Burton , Republican Senator George V. Voinovich , two @-@ term Ohio Governor and Senator , former United States Representative Dennis Kucinich of Ohio 's 10th congressional district , Frank J. Lausche , and Carl B. Stokes , the first African American mayor of a major American city . The state of Ohio lost two Congressional seats as a result of the 2010 Census , which affects Cleveland 's districts in the northeast part of the state .
= = = Crime = = =
Between about 1935 to 1938 , the Cleveland Torso Murderer killed and dismembered at least a dozen and perhaps twenty people in the area . No arrest was ever made .
From 2002 to 2014 , Ariel Castro held three women as sex slaves in his home in Cleveland . Police became aware of the crime when one of the women escaped . Castro was sentenced to one thousand years in jail , but committed suicide .
Based on the Morgan Quitno Press 2008 national crime rankings , Cleveland ranked as the 7th most dangerous city in the nation among US cities with a population of 100 @,@ 000 to 500 @,@ 000 and the 11th most dangerous overall . Violent crime from 2005 to 2006 was mostly unchanged nationwide , but increased more than 10 % in Cleveland . The murder rate dropped 30 % in Cleveland , but was still far above the national average . Property crime from 2005 to 2006 was virtually unchanged across the country and in Cleveland , with larceny @-@ theft down by 7 % but burglaries up almost 14 % .
In September 2009 , the local police arrested Anthony Sowell , who was known in press reports as the Cleveland Strangler . He was convicted of eleven murders as well as other crimes and sentenced to death .
In October 2010 , Cleveland had two neighborhoods appear on ABC News 's list of ' America 's 25 Most Dangerous Neighborhoods ' : both in sections just blocks apart in the city 's Central neighborhood on the East Side . Ranked 21st was in the vicinity of Quincy Avenue and E. 40th Streets , while an area near E. 55th and Scovill Avenue ranked 2nd in the nation , just behind a section of the Englewood neighborhood in Chicago , which ranked 1st .
A study in 1971 – 72 found that although Cleveland 's crime rate was significantly lower than other large urban areas , most Cleveland residents feared crime . In the 1980s , gang activity was on the rise , associated with crack cocaine . A task force was formed and was partially successful at reducing gang activity by a combination of removing gang @-@ related graffiti and educating news sources to not name gangs in news reporting .
The distribution of crime in Cleveland is highly heterogeneous . Relatively few crimes take place in downtown Cleveland 's business district , but the perception of crime in the downtown has been pointed to by the Greater Cleveland Growth Association as damaging to the city 's economy . More affluent areas of Cleveland and its suburbs have lower rates of violent crime than areas of lower socioeconomic status . Statistically speaking , higher incidences of violent crimes have been noted in some parts of Cleveland with higher populations of African Americans , although the causes of these crimes are complex and ambiguous . A study of the relationship between employment access and crime in Cleveland found a strong inverse relationship , with the highest crime rates in areas of the city that had the lowest access to jobs . Furthermore , this relationship was found to be strongest with respect to economic crimes . A study of public housing in Cleveland found that criminals tend to live in areas of higher affluence and move into areas of lower affluence to commit crimes .
In 2012 , Cleveland 's crime rate were 84 murders , 3 @,@ 252 robberies , and 9 @,@ 740 burglaries . In 2014 , the United States Department of Justice published a report that investigated the use of force by the Cleveland Police Department from 2010 @-@ 2013 . The Justice Department found a pattern of excessive force including the use of firearms , tasers , fists , and chemical spray that unnecessarily escalated nonviolent situations , including against the mentally ill and people who were already restrained . As a result of the Justice Department report , the city of Cleveland has agreed to a consent decree to revise its policies and implement new independent oversight over the police force .
On May 26 , 2015 , the City of Cleveland and the U.S. Department of Justice ( DOJ ) released a 105 @-@ page agreement addressing concerns about Cleveland Division of Police ( CDP ) use @-@ of @-@ force policies and practices .
= = = = Consent Decree with Department of Justice = = = =
The agreement follows a two @-@ year Department of Justice investigation , prompted by a request from Cleveland Mayor Frank Jackson , to determine whether the CDP engaged in a pattern or practice of the use of excessive force in violation of the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution and the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 , 42 U.S.C § 14141 ( Section 14141 " ) . Under Section 14141 , the Department of Justice is granted authority to seek declaratory or equitable relief to remedy a pattern or practice of conduct by law enforcement officers that deprives individuals of rights , privileges , or immunities secured by the Constitution or federal law .
U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder and U.S. Attorney Steven Dettelbach announced the findings of the DOJ investigation in Cleveland on December 4 , 2014 . After reviewing nearly 600 use @-@ of @-@ force incidents from 2010 to 2013 and conducting thousands of interviews , the investigators found systemic patterns insufficient accountability mechanisms , inadequate training , ineffective policies , and inadequate community engagement .
At the same time as the announcement of the investigation findings , the City of Cleveland and the Department of Justice issued a Joint Statement of Principles agreeing to begin negotiations with the intention of reaching a court @-@ enforceable settlement agreement .
The details of the settlement agreement , or consent decree , were released on May 26 , 2015 . The agreement mandates sweeping changes in training for recruits and seasoned officers , developing programs to identify and support troubled officers , updating technology and data management practices , and an independent monitor to ensure that the goals of the decree are met . The agreement is not an admission or evidence of liability , nor is it an admission by the City , CDP , or its officers and employees that they have engaged in unconstitutional , illegal , or otherwise improper activities or conduct . Pending approval from a federal judge , the consent decree will be implemented and the agreement is binding .
= = = = = Provisions of the consent decree = = = = =
The Cleveland Consent Decree is divided into 15 divisions , with 462 enumerated items . At least some of the provisions have been identified as unique to Cleveland :
a civilian inspector general who will review the work of the police officers . This position will be appointed by the Mayor but report to the Police Chief . It is intended to provide an additional layer of accountability and scrutiny .
an equipment inventory that must result in a study by the police that shows what is needed .
On June 12 , 2015 , Chief U.S. District Judge Solomon Oliver Jr. approved and signed the consent decree . The signing of the agreement starts the clock for numerous deadlines that must be met in an effort to improve the department 's handling of use @-@ of @-@ force incidents .
= = = Fire department = = =
Cleveland is served by the firefighters of the Cleveland Division of Fire . The fire department operates out of 22 active fire stations , located throughout the city in five Battalions . Each Battalion is commanded by a Battalion Chief , who reports to an on @-@ duty Assistant Chief .
The Division of Fire operates a fire apparatus fleet of twenty two engine companies , eight ladder companies , three tower companies , two task force rescue squad companies , hazardous materials ( " haz @-@ mat " ) unit , and numerous other special , support , and reserve units . The current Chief of Department is Patrick Kelly .
Cleveland EMS is operated by the city as its own department ; however , a merger between the fire and EMS departments is in progress . Cleveland EMS units are now based out of most of the city 's fire stations as of 2013 . City officials are currently negotiating with Cleveland Fire and EMS to form a new union contract that will merge the two systems entirely . No set projection for a full merger has been established . Neither the Fire nor EMS unions have been able to come to an agreement with city officials on fair terms of merger as of yet .
= = Education = =
= = = Public schools = = =
The Cleveland Metropolitan School District is the largest K – 12 district in the state of Ohio , with 127 schools and an enrollment of 55 @,@ 567 students during the 2006 – 2007 academic year . It is the only district in Ohio that is under direct control of the mayor , who appoints a school board .
Approximately 1 square mile ( 2 @.@ 6 km2 ) of Cleveland , adjacent the Shaker Square neighborhood , is part of the Shaker Heights City School District . The area , which has been a part of the Shaker school district since the 1920s , permits these Cleveland residents to pay the same school taxes as the Shaker residents , as well as vote in the Shaker school board elections .
= = = Private schools = = =
Benedictine High School
Birchwood School
Cleveland Central Catholic High School
Eleanor Gerson School
Montessori High School at University Circle
St. Ignatius High School
St. Joseph Academy
Villa Angela @-@ St. Joseph High School
Urban Community School
Saint Martin de Porres
The Bridge Avenue School
= = = Colleges and universities = = =
Cleveland is home to a number of colleges and universities . Most prominent among these is Case Western Reserve University , a world @-@ renowned research and teaching institution located in University Circle . A private university with several prominent graduate programs , CWRU was ranked 37th in the nation in 2012 by U.S. News & World Report . University Circle also contains Cleveland Institute of Art and the Cleveland Institute of Music . Cleveland State University ( CSU ) , based in Downtown Cleveland , is the city 's public four @-@ year university . In addition to CSU , downtown hosts the metropolitan campus of Cuyahoga Community College , the county 's two @-@ year higher education institution . Ohio Technical College is also based in Cleveland .
= = Media = =
= = = Print = = =
Cleveland 's sole remaining daily newspaper is The Plain Dealer . Defunct major newspapers include the Cleveland Press , an afternoon publication which printed its last edition on June 17 , 1982 ; and the Cleveland News , which ceased publication in 1960 . Additional newspaper coverage includes : the Thursdays @-@ only Sun Post @-@ Herald , which serves a few neighborhoods on the city 's west side ; and the Call and Post , a weekly newspaper that primarily serves the city 's African @-@ American community . The city is also served by Cleveland Magazine , a regional culture magazine published monthly ; Crain 's Cleveland Business , a weekly business newspaper ; Cleveland Jewish News , a weekly Jewish newspaper ; and Cleveland Scene , a free alternative weekly paper which absorbed its competitor , the Cleveland Free Times , in 2008 . In addition , nationally distributed rock magazine Alternative Press was founded in Cleveland in 1985 , and the publication 's headquarters remain based in the city .
= = = Television = = =
Combined with nearby Akron and Canton , Cleveland is ranked as the 19th @-@ largest television market by Nielsen Media Research ( as of 2013 – 14 ) . The market is served by 10 stations affiliated with major American networks , including : WEWS @-@ TV ( ABC ) , WJW ( Fox ) , WKYC ( NBC ) , WOIO ( CBS ) , WVIZ ( PBS ) , WBNX @-@ TV ( The CW ) , WUAB ( MyNetworkTV ) , WVPX @-@ TV ( ION ) , WQHS @-@ DT ( Univision ) , and WDLI @-@ TV ( TBN ) . The Mike Douglas Show , a nationally syndicated daytime talk show , began in Cleveland in 1961 on KYW @-@ TV ( now WKYC ) , while The Morning Exchange on WEWS @-@ TV served as the model for Good Morning America . Tim Conway and Ernie Anderson first established themselves in Cleveland while working together at KYW @-@ TV and later WJW @-@ TV ( now WJW ) . Anderson both created and performed as the immensely popular Cleveland horror host Ghoulardi on WJW @-@ TV 's Shock Theater , and was later succeeded by the long @-@ running late night duo Big Chuck and Lil ' John .
= = = Radio = = =
Cleveland is directly served by 31 AM and FM radio stations , 22 of which are licensed to the city . Commercial FM music stations are frequently the highest rated stations in the market : WAKS ( contemporary hit radio ) , WDOK ( adult contemporary ) , WENZ ( mainstream urban ) , WHLK ( adult hits ) , WGAR @-@ FM ( country ) , WMJI ( classic hits ) , WMMS ( active rock / hot talk ; Indians and Cavaliers FM flagship ) , WNCX ( classic rock ; Browns co @-@ flagship ) , WQAL ( hot adult contemporary ) , and WZAK ( urban adult contemporary ) . WCPN public radio functions as the local NPR affiliate , and sister station WCLV airs a classical music format . College radio stations include WBWC ( Baldwin Wallace University ) , WCSB ( Cleveland State University ) , WJCU ( John Carroll University ) , and WRUW @-@ FM ( Case Western Reserve University ) .
News / talk station WTAM serves as the AM flagship for both the Cleveland Cavaliers and Cleveland Indians . WKNR and WWGK cover sports via ESPN Radio , while WKRK @-@ FM covers sports via CBS Sports Radio ( WKNR and WKRK @-@ FM are also co @-@ flagship stations for the Cleveland Browns ) . As WJW ( AM ) , WKNR was once the home of Alan Freed − the Cleveland disc jockey credited with first using and popularizing the term " rock and roll " to describe the music genre . News / talk station WHK was one of the first radio stations to broadcast in the United States and the first in Ohio ; its former sister station , rock station WMMS , dominated Cleveland radio in the 1970s and 1980s and was at that time one of the highest rated radio stations in the country . In 1972 , WMMS program director Billy Bass coined the phrase " The Rock and Roll Capital of the World " to describe Cleveland . In 1987 , Playboy named WMMS DJ Kid Leo ( Lawrence Travagliante ) " The Best Disc Jockey in the Country " .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Healthcare = = =
Cleveland is home to several major hospital systems , two of which are in University Circle . Most notable is the world renowned Cleveland Clinic , which is supplemented by University Hospitals and its Rainbow Babies & Children 's Hospital . Additionally MetroHealth System , which operates the level one trauma center for northeast Ohio , has various locations throughout greater Cleveland . Cleveland 's Global Center
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for Health Innovation opened with 235 @,@ 000 square feet ( 21 @,@ 800 m2 ) of display space for healthcare companies across the world .
= = = Transportation = = =
= = = = Airports = = = =
Cleveland Hopkins International Airport is the city 's major airport and an international airport that formerly served as a main hub for United Airlines . It holds the distinction of having the first airport @-@ to @-@ downtown rapid transit connection in North America , established in 1968 . In 1930 , the airport was the site of the first airfield lighting system and the first air traffic control tower . Originally known as Cleveland Municipal Airport , it was the first municipally owned airport in the country . Cleveland Hopkins is a significant regional air freight hub hosting FedEx Express , UPS Airlines , United States Postal Service , and major commercial freight carriers . In addition to Hopkins , Cleveland is served by Burke Lakefront Airport , on the north shore of downtown between Lake Erie and the Shoreway . Burke is primarily a commuter and business airport .
= = = = Seaport = = = =
The Port of Cleveland , located at the Cuyahoga River 's mouth , is a major bulk freight terminal on Lake Erie , receiving much of the raw materials used by the region 's manufacturing industries .
= = = = Railroads = = = =
Amtrak , the national passenger rail system , provides service to Cleveland , via the Capitol Limited and Lake Shore Limited routes , which stop at Cleveland Lakefront Station . Cleveland has also been identified as a hub for the proposed Ohio Hub project , which would bring high @-@ speed rail to Ohio . Cleveland hosts several inter @-@ modal freight railroad terminals . There have been several proposals for commuter rail in Cleveland , including an ongoing ( as of January 2011 ) study into a Sandusky – Cleveland line .
= = = = Transit systems = = = =
Cleveland has a bus and rail mass transit system operated by the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority ( RTA ) . The rail portion is officially called the RTA Rapid Transit , but local residents refer to it as The Rapid . It consists of two light rail lines , known as the Green and Blue Lines , and a heavy rail line , the Red Line . In 2008 , RTA completed the HealthLine , a bus rapid transit line , for which naming rights were purchased by the Cleveland Clinic and University Hospitals . It runs along Euclid Avenue from downtown through University Circle , ending at the Louis Stokes Station at Windermere in East Cleveland . In 2007 , the American Public Transportation Association named Cleveland 's mass transit system the best in North America . Cleveland is the only metropolitan area in the Western Hemisphere with its rail rapid transit system having only one center @-@ city area rapid transit station ( Tower City @-@ Public Square ) . During construction of the Red Line rapid transit line in the 1950 's the citizens of Cleveland voted to build the Downtown Distributor Subway which would have provided a number of Center City stations . The plan was quashed by highway promoting County Engineer Albert S. Porter and the full development and growth of center city Cleveland has since been significantly impeded due to the resulting inaccessibility .
= = = = Inter @-@ city bus lines = = = =
National intercity bus service is provided at a Greyhound station , located just behind the Playhouse Square theater district . Megabus provides service to Cleveland and has a stop at the Stephanie Tubbs Jones Transit Center on the east side of downtown . Lakefront Trailways provides regional inter @-@ city bus service to popular destinations from their terminal south of Cleveland in Brook Park . Akron Metro , Brunswick Transit Alternative , Laketran , Lorain County Transit , and Medina County Transit provide connecting bus service to the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority . Geauga County Transit and Portage Area Regional Transportation Authority ( PARTA ) also offer connecting bus service in their neighboring areas .
= = = = Roads = = = =
Cleveland 's road system consists of numbered streets running roughly north @-@ south , and named avenues , which run roughly east @-@ west . The numbered streets are designated " east " or " west " , depending where they lie in relation to Ontario Street , which bisects Public Square . The numbered street system extends beyond the city limits into some suburbs on both the west and east sides . The named avenues that lie both on the east side of the Cuyahoga River and west of Ontario Street receive a " west " designation on street signage . The two downtown avenues which span the Cuyahoga change names on the west side of the river . Superior Avenue becomes Detroit Avenue on the west side , and Carnegie Avenue becomes Lorain Avenue . The bridges that make these connections are often called the Detroit – Superior Bridge and the Lorain – Carnegie Bridge .
= = = = Freeways = = = =
Three two @-@ digit Interstate highways serve Cleveland directly . Interstate 71 begins just southwest of downtown and is the major route from downtown Cleveland to the airport . I @-@ 71 runs through the southwestern suburbs and eventually connects Cleveland with Columbus and Cincinnati . Interstate 77 begins in downtown Cleveland and runs almost due south through the southern suburbs . I @-@ 77 sees the least traffic of the three interstates , although it does connect Cleveland to Akron . Interstate 90 connects the two sides of Cleveland , and is the northern terminus for both I @-@ 71 and I @-@ 77 . Running due east – west through the west side suburbs , I @-@ 90 turns northeast at the junction with and I @-@ 490 , and is known as the Innerbelt through downtown . At the junction with the Shoreway , I @-@ 90 makes a 90 @-@ degree turn known in the area as Dead Man 's Curve , then continues northeast , entering Lake County near the eastern split with Ohio State Route 2 . Cleveland is also served by two three @-@ digit interstates , Interstate 480 , which enters Cleveland briefly at a few points and Interstate 490 , which connects I @-@ 77 with the junction of I @-@ 90 and I @-@ 71 just south of downtown .
Two other limited @-@ access highways serve Cleveland . The Cleveland Memorial Shoreway carries State Route 2 along its length , and at varying points also carries US 6 , US 20 and I @-@ 90 . The Jennings Freeway ( State Route 176 ) connects I @-@ 71 just south of I @-@ 90 to I @-@ 480 near the suburbs of Parma and Brooklyn Heights . A third highway , the Berea Freeway ( State Route 237 in part ) , connects I @-@ 71 to the airport , and forms part of the boundary between Cleveland and Brook Park .
= = = = Walkability = = = =
In 2011 , Walk Score ranked Cleveland the seventeenth most walkable of the fifty largest cities in the United States . As of 2014 , Walk Score increased Cleveland 's rank to being the sixteenth most walkable US city , with a Walk Score of 57 , a Transit Score of 47 , and a Bike Score of 51 . Cleveland 's most walkable and transient areas can be found in the Downtown , Ohio City , Detroit @-@ Shoreway , University Circle , and Buckeye @-@ Shaker Square neighborhoods .
= = Notable people = =
= = Sister cities and international relations = =
Cleveland is home to the Consulate General of the Republic of Slovenia .
As of 2015 , Cleveland has twenty @-@ two sister cities :
In addition , Cleveland enjoys an unofficial supportive relationship with the State of Israel .
= Saint Anselm College =
Saint Anselm College is a nationally ranked , Catholic , Benedictine , liberal arts college in Goffstown , New Hampshire , United States . Founded in 1889 by Abbot Hilary Pfrängle , O.S.B. of Saint Mary 's Abbey in Newark , New Jersey , at the request of Bishop Denis Mary Bradley of Manchester , New Hampshire , it is the third @-@ oldest Catholic college in New England . Named for Saint Anselm of Canterbury ( Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093 to 1109 ) , the college continues to have a fully functioning and independent Benedictine abbey attached to it , Saint Anselm Abbey . As of 2015 , its enrollment is approximately 2 @,@ 000 .
According to the college , the student body is selected not only for their academic abilities but also for their personal character . The college 's academic curriculum requires several philosophy and theology courses , as well as the new " Conversatio " program . The administration 's commitment to an anti @-@ grade inflation policy helped the college receive national media attention from the Fox News Channel in 2006 , as well as a Tier 1 ranking from U.S. News and World Report , which in 2016 ranked the college 112th among national liberal arts colleges , with an admissions rate that is deemed " selective " at 73 @.@ 7 % . U.S. News & World Report also ranked the college as the most popular New Hampshire venue for presidential candidates.Forbes magazine has ranked St. Anselm as the 85th best college in the nation , as well as the 40th in the Northeast . In 2015 , Saint Anselm was recognized by Time magazine as one of the " 50 Best Liberal Arts Colleges " in the nation .
Since the 1950s , the college has played an important role in the " first in the nation " New Hampshire primary , and has served as the national stage for many future presidents , candidates , and supporters . Presidents John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon each delivered important policy speeches there . The college has been home to several national presidential debates which have attracted extensive media attention . The Washington Post recently referred to Saint Anselm College as " the Benedictine college with a box seat on America 's most riveting political theater " .
In 2013 , Dr. Steven DiSalvo , the former president of Marian University was named the 10th president of Saint Anselm . DiSalvo replaced Father Jonathan DeFelice , O.S.B. after 24 years of service to the college . Father DeFelice was the longest serving college president in the state of New Hampshire . In 2015 , Dr. DiSalvo announced that the Saint Anselm had applied to enter the exploratory phase of NCAA Division III membership for all athletic programs .
= = History = =
The first bishop of Manchester , Denis Mary Bradley , invited the Benedictine monks of St. Mary 's Abbey in Newark , New Jersey , to form a college and preparatory school in his diocese . The monks that came to Manchester from Saint Mary 's were primarily of German descent . This is due to the fact that Manchester was heavily populated with French Canadian and Irish immigrant mill workers , and Bradley was unable to find a suitable religious community that would not stir up ethnic tensions . The German monks accepted , and founded the third Catholic college in New England . On August 1 , 1889 , the New Hampshire legislature approved the incorporation of the Order of Saint Benedict of New Hampshire “ for religious and charitable purposes , for the education of youth , for establishing churches and conducting services therein . ” This historic date marked the founding of Saint Anselm College . A six @-@ year curriculum in philosophy and theology was developed . In 1892 , as Alumni Hall neared completion , a fire destroyed the college on a cold winter night in February . The fire was most likely caused from an ember from the heating stove 's gate as it was not closed properly . Thankfully , no one was seriously hurt because of the fire . The monks were forced to rebuild the college , spending considerably less money on the construction , as they had received only $ 55 @,@ 000 from the Insurance Commissioner of the State of New Hampshire . To save money , many bricks were salvaged from the previous structure and pieces of granite were cut from large granite rocks still visible on the current quad . In 1893 , the current building that remains the center of campus was completed ; the fire delayed the first academic semester by one year . The monks rebuilt the college , and on October 11 , 1893 the college was officially rededicated . To avoid the possibility of another fire , a power house , which today serves as the college print shop , was constructed separately from the building . Two years later , in 1895 , the New Hampshire legislature granted Saint Anselm College the right to bestow standard academic degrees upon its graduates . In 1912 , the bell tower and ivy were added to the building ; in 1923 , the college 's second chapel ( the first being located on the second floor at the present @-@ day business office ) was constructed as a connecting wing . The second chapel serves today as the Alva deMars Megan Chapel Arts Center .
The Abbey Shield was designed by Pierre de Chaignon la Rose of Harvard University . It incorporates the personal coat of Saint Anselm of Canterbury and the first seal of the state of New Hampshire . In 1927 , by a monastic vote , the shield design was incorporated as the official shield of Saint Anselm Abbey and the college . The drops in each quadrant represent the three drops of blood on Anselm 's coat of arms , and the sheaf of five arrows is taken from the first shield of the State of New Hampshire , representing the five original counties of the state . Hence , the Abbey Shield has been interpreted as Saint Anselm of New Hampshire .
One goal of the early college was to be a self @-@ sufficient institution . The college had a farm that was over 100 acres ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) in size , complete with chickens , pigs and cows . The farm also included a full vegetable garden which extended from the lawn of Alumni Hall to the current parking lot located between Joan of Arc Hall and Davison Hall . Due to the hard work of the monks and several lay members from the local community , the college was agriculturally independent of the local community . Fr . Bonaventure Ostendarp , O. S. B. founded the Studio of Christian Art in 1893 in order to sell paintings to local Catholic churches throughout the region . The current Raphael House of the Courts dorms was the original art studio for the monks , built in 1895 .
The Benedictines who established Saint Anselm founded a preparatory school , as well . The preparatory school was a prestigious boarding school for elite men from around New England . In 1935 , the monks decided to close the preparatory school to save money for the college 's expansion . A notable alum of Saint Anselm Preparatory was Connecticut Senator Thomas J. Dodd .
In 1942 , Saint Anselm became one of the institutions selected by the War Department for training of Army Aviation cadets . Thousands of young men were sent to the college to receive training and education before entering World War II . Cadets trained on large open fields which were located directly behind the present @-@ day Coffee Shop . The U.S. government paid the college for training the cadets , and after the war , the college acquired two prefabricated government buildings which have been transformed into the modern @-@ day coffee shop and bookstore . During World War II , several members of the monastic community served as Army chaplains ; their names are inscribed on a monument in front of Alumni Hall dedicated to all graduates who have served in the armed forces . Also inscribed on the monument is the Latin and English versions of the Benedictine community 's song . For more information see Saint Anselm Abbey Community Song .
Saint Anselm came out of the tumultuous decade of the 1960s with no major disturbances or riots on campus despite various bomb threats called into campus , often from parties outside the college . Fr . Placidus Riley , O.S.B. successfully lead the college through these challenging times . Despite the backlash against the U.S. military on college campuses nationwide , the presence of a National Guard armory did not result in any major problems . However , in May 1970 , final exams for that year were made optional as students showed support for the students of Kent State after the massacre of several unarmed college students protesting the Vietnam War . Students , faculty and members of the monastic community held prayer services and rallies throughout campus after the shootings .
The Institute of Saint Anselm Studies was founded in 2000 , and the New Hampshire Institute of Politics was founded in 2001 . In 2009 , the college lost a notable trustee , Dominic DiMaggio , an All @-@ Star center fielder for Boston Red Sox who served on the college 's Board of Trustees from 1978 to 2009 .
= = Campus = =
Saint Anselm 's campus has been noted as one of the most beautiful college campuses in the United States , exemplified by the Princeton Review 's number # 17 " Most Beautiful Campus " ranking in 2011 . The campus is situated in Goffstown , New Hampshire , with a portion of the athletic fields occupying the adjoining town of Bedford . The mailing address for students and faculty is Manchester , New Hampshire . There are a total of 60 buildings on campus , which spans over 450 acres ( 1 @.@ 8 km2 ) . Since 1977 , over 40 buildings have been built . The oldest building on campus is Alumni Hall , which was originally constructed in 1891 , and rebuilt in 1893 after a fire ; at that time , the building was the entire original school .
Within the next ten years , there are plans to change the current roads and re @-@ route the traffic flow of the entire campus .
= = = Alumni Hall = = =
Alumni Hall was constructed by the Benedictine monks and local contractors from 1891 through the winter of 1892 ; the building was designed by Patrick W. Ford , an Irish @-@ American architect from Boston . Nearing completion in February 1892 , all that remained was for workers to continue to plaster the interior walls ; sadly , a fire which was most likely caused by a heating stove 's gate not closed completely , sparked an ember and destroyed the entire structure . Thankfully , no one was seriously hurt because of the fire . The monks were forced to rebuild the college , spending considerably less money on the construction , as they had only received $ 55 @,@ 000 from the Insurance Commissioner of the State of New Hampshire . In an effort to save money , many bricks were salvaged from the previous structure and pieces of granite were cut from large granite rocks still visible on the current quad . In 1893 , the current building that remains the center of campus was completed ; the fire delayed the first academic semester by one year . To avoid the possibility of another fire , a power house was constructed separately from the building . Farmland complete with livestock , beanpoles and tomato plants lined the present @-@ day quad and adjacent fields , as the monks were completely self @-@ sufficient . In 1912 , the bell tower ( the inside is pictured to the right ) and ivy were added to the building ; in 1923 , the college 's second chapel ( the first being located on the second floor at the present @-@ day business office ) was constructed as a connecting wing . Today this second chapel is the college 's Chapel Arts Center , which hosts art exhibits and other cultural events . It still boasts ornate stained glass windows and painted ceilings .
Today , Alumni Hall houses faculty offices , administrative offices , the Chapel Arts Center , a women 's residence hall named The Streets , and several " smart classrooms " . Beneath the Chapel Arts Center is a photography lab , darkroom , and several faculty and student publication offices . Beneath " The Streets " and the bell tower are the offices of the Dean of Students , the Registrar 's Office , and the Office of Residential Life . Until 1919 , the college consisted solely of Alumni Hall . Before this expansion , the monks lived on the second floor and students lived on the third and fourth floors . The first floor and basement had classrooms , a library and cafeteria .
= = = Saint Anselm Abbey Church and monastery = = =
The Abbey Church is the liturgical center of the college . It is frequently cited as the " heart of campus . " The upper church allows the college community to join with the monastic community for the daily celebration of the Eucharist and the Liturgy of the Hours . The lower church permits smaller groups of the community to assemble for worship and houses the Lady Chapel , the Saint Basil Byzantine Chapel , the former offices of Campus Ministry ( relocated to Cushing Center ) , and meeting rooms . The Lower Church is the location of the weekly 9 p.m. Mass held on Wednesday nights . The original monastery was Alumni Hall . An interim monastery existed between 1919 and 1955 in what is now Joseph Hall , adjacent to Alumni Hall . The current monastery , built in 1955 , is staffed with only a cook , as the monks perform all other tasks such as cleaning , maintenance and upkeep . Having four floors , including a basement , the monastery can house up to one hundred monks ; as of 2012 approximately 30 rooms were filled . The Dean of the College and several members of the board of trustees live in the monastery , as they are practicing Benedictine monks . Since 2012 , Abbot Mark Cooper , O.S.B has been the fifth elected Abbot of Saint Anselm Abbey . Male students frequently dine in the monastery as guests ; they are required to comply with the Benedictine rule of silence while eating , which allows for contemplation and prayer . The monastery has a refectory , a smaller guest refectory , a smaller chapel , two welcoming rooms near the main entrance and is complete with elevator access to all four floors . The monastery also serves as the mother house for the Woodside Priory School and the abbot serves as the spiritual father for the monks who live there . Saint Anselm Abbey is a member of the American @-@ Cassinese Congregation of the Benedictine Confederation . Saint Anselm Abbey was originally founded from Saint Mary 's Abbey in Newark , New Jersey .
= = = Geisel Library = = =
The Saint Anselm College Geisel Library has three floors and over 60 @,@ 000 square feet ( 5 @,@ 600 m2 ) of space housing books , resources and electronic equipment . The library is complete with several reference desks , over 30 computers , and the Institute of Saint Anselm Studies . On the second floor , there are three enclosed study areas ; two are group study rooms that are available for student use , and the third is named the Creaghe Room , a locked , faculty @-@ only study .
Geisel Library 's collection of over 200 @,@ 000 books originated in a sack of books brought by Father Hugo Paff , O.S.B. from Saint Mary 's Abbey in Newark , New Jersey ; these books are still in the library and date back to the mid- to late @-@ 19th century . The college 's first library , shaped around this initial collection , was situated on the first floor of Alumni Hall . During the early years of the college , Benedictines served as librarians on an ad hoc basis , but by 1929 , Saint Anselm had its first official librarian , Father Cuthbert Redmond , O.S.B. New books were purchased under Father Edwin Davitt , O.S.B. By 1937 , Saint Anselm could boast 8 @,@ 000 books in several mini @-@ libraries , as well as the main repository , by this time located on the second floor .
The college performed a self @-@ study in 1950 that revealed the need for a larger library . Joseph Geisel , a prominent Manchester businessman , contributed $ 500 @,@ 000 in stock , and in 1959 the college broke ground on Geisel Library ; the library opened its doors in the fall of 1960 . The 20 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 900 m2 ) library featured reading rooms , study areas , a reference center , a music room , seating for 385 students , and space for 100 @,@ 000 volumes . Two expansions , one in 1973 and the final in 1992 , each increased the library 's area by 20 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 900 m2 ) . In 2012 , the college updated several areas of the library ; the computer work stations were moved , and new desks , tables , lamps , paint , couches and chairs , as well as the addition of two cutting @-@ edge " media : scape " tables , which are designed to facilitate online group work , were added . In addition , Internet Technology ( IT ) has moved its Help Desk to the library .
= = = Performing Arts – Dana Center = = =
The Dana Center for the Humanities is the premier performing arts center on the campus of Saint Anselm College . The center was home to the nationally recognized humanities program , " Portraits of Human Greatness " , and is also the headquarters for the student theater group , the Anselmian Abbey Players . The Anselmian Abbey Players have been a center of theater , culture and music on campus for over 60 years . This tradition began in the fall of 1949 with a production of " Career Angel " . Since then , this student @-@ run organization has enjoyed a long record of excellence . The Abbey Players offer students the opportunity to develop their artistic talents both on and off the stage , stressing the importance of self @-@ esteem , teamwork , and leadership . The Dana Center also hosts many touring companies throughout the year . These performances include classical theater , contemporary dance , concerts , and films . These performances attract visitors from throughout the region . On stage , international and domestic performers stage both traditional and modern programs ranging from contemporary Indian dance to Piedmont blues to Russian classical music .
The Dana Center has continued to be the site of the presidential debates since 2000 . In 2009 , the Saint Anselm College Choir earned the 8th most searched college choirs under Google search .
= = = Residence halls = = =
34 buildings on campus are devoted to student housing , with approximately 95 % of the student body living on campus . The majority of freshman males live in Dominic Hall , while most freshman females reside in either Joan of Arc Hall ( commonly referred to as JOA ) or Baroody Hall . Dominic Hall is a freshman dorm , located adjacent to the Coffee Shop and in close proximity to Alumni Hall and Bradley House . Dominic Hall houses over 205 students , offering mostly doubles , very few singles and several " quads " , or four @-@ person rooms . Dominic is affectionately nicknamed " Dirty Dom " ; however , new lights , windows , doors and ceiling tiles have been installed and the custodial staff cleans the hallways and communal bathrooms five days a week . Joan of Arc is a female freshman residence hall where double @-@ type rooms predominate . However , freshmen may be placed in any residence hall on campus . The Lowers are located near the NHIOP at the bottom of Saint Anselm Drive ; these apartments were built in the mid @-@ 1990s and have a kitchen , one and a half bathrooms , a family room and bedrooms . A similar setup is available in Uppers ; however , these dorms are slightly newer and are the favorite of seniors because they are located closer to central campus . Traditionally , residence halls have been single sex , though this began to change in the 2007 – 2008 academic year , when Brady Hall had female residents on its third floor while the bottom two floors were male . Hilary , Bertrand and Brady Halls are some of the largest on campus , as they can house over 120 students each . Holy Cross Hall , formerly named Building M has mostly singles and very few doubles ; these rooms connect to a central hallway , two bathrooms and a large common room to form a " Pod " .
= = = Joseph Hall = = =
The campus underwent a substantial facelift in 2009 , as new faculty offices and instructional spaces were created within the newly renovated Saint Joan of Arc Convent , which is now known as Joseph Hall . Joseph Hall is named after the third Abbot of Saint Anselm Abbey and former Bishop of Portland , Maine , Bishop Joseph John Gerry . At an estimated cost of $ 2 @.@ 5 million , Joseph Hall has a Bloomberg trading room , where business students learn to use a Bloomberg terminal for real @-@ time tracking of financial markets . Constructed in 1919 , Joseph Hall served as the first monastery outside of Alumni Hall for over 100 Benedictine monks . In 1955 , when the current abbey was built , the Sisters of Saint Joan of Arc , from Quebec , Canada moved in from Bradley House ( across campus ) , and the building was renamed the " Saint Joan of Arc Convent . " Their departure in 2008 ended over 50 years of service to the college , as the sisters were cooks , seamstresses and performed other domestic services for the monastic community .
= = = Athletic facilities = = =
The college opened a $ 2 million , 9 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 840 m2 ) fitness center in February 2009 . The addition to Carr is a three @-@ story glass center , with floor to ceiling windows overlooking the baseball and football fields , constructed on the south side of the building . The additions brought 37 cardiovascular machines , 39 strength pieces and 7 @,@ 000 pounds of weights . Connecting to the addition are three indoor basketball / tennis courts equipped with scoreboards and a sound system . The basement of Carr has the varsity gym , football locker room , general locker rooms and administrative offices for the athletic department . In 2012 , the college spent 1 @.@ 3 million dollars by installing a synthetic turf field at Grappone Stadium , and added lights for nighttime practice .
= = = Quad and dormitory = = =
Construction began on " New Hall " in the summer of 2013 . The project was expected to cost over $ 9 @.@ 5 million and is situated near the lower entrance of campus in back of Brady Hall . The dorm is able to hold 150 students , and has expanded the residential options for undergraduates and should eliminate the need for triple occupancy rooms . The dormitory 's common spaces are air @-@ conditioned to a certain extent , while the individual rooms are not air @-@ conditioned . " New Hall " also features student @-@ friendly amenities such as a recycling room , bike storage , general storage space for students , and an elevator . Additionally , over 3 @,@ 000 square feet ( 280 m2 ) is dedicated to common space , including modern kitchenettes and individual study areas on each floor .
A new parking lot has been constructed on college @-@ owned land between Sullivan Arena and privately owned Clarke Farm in Bedford . This parking lot has replaced the former Joan of Arc parking lot , which was located between the Dana Center , Davison Dining Hall , and the Joan of Arc dormitory ( JOA ) . The former parking lot was torn down , and a grassy open quadrangle was constructed during the summer of 2012 . A grotto has been built between JOA and Gadbois Hall and was dedicated in late 2014 , with the placement of a religious statue . The quadrangle is yet to be named , and has new lights and walkways ; the centerpiece is a large granite seal of the college . The project is the first place on campus where electronic gates have been installed . The gates are used to cordon off the roads of the new quad during the regular semester and can be opened for emergency vehicles and during move in / out days .
= = = Environmental responsibility = = =
Saint Anselm College RECYCLES was a greening movement which started on campus in 2009 . Up to that time , recycling was limited on campus , and students had to resort to their own methods of recycling containers and other recyclables in dorms . An impromptu recycling program — Saint Anselm College RECYCLES — was started through the Knights of Columbus and the Club Soccer organization that served the Uppers section of campus , every Saturday , averaging around 650 pounds of material per week . In the 2010 spring semester , this plan funded by Club Soccer and the Knights of Columbus provided over fifty recycle bins , purchased from the city of Providence , Rhode Island . In the spring of 2010 , the New Hampshire Institute of Politics installed seven recycling bins throughout its facilities . Inspired by this student @-@ led activity , the college 's physical plant purchased 120 bins for all of the apartments in the Uppers , Lowers and Falvey and Collins Houses . In the fall of 2010 , Physical Plant installed five Waste Management recycling dumpsters throughout campus . Campus @-@ wide recycling is planned by 2013 .
On May 22 , 2010 , Saint Anselm had its first " Green Graduation " . A proposal submitted by the three student founders of Saint Anselm College RECYCLES , Eric Ricci , Ryan McCarty , and Kevin McIntyre was accepted by the executive vice president of the college , Dr. Suzanne Mellon . Programs were printed on recycled paper , recycling containers were available for usage on the quad , plastic cups replaced bottled water , and water canisters replaced the large amounts of plastic required in previous years .
= = Academics = =
According to the college website , Saint Anselm " seeks to help you develop into a precise and critical thinker , articulate and clear communicator , and an active and compassionate citizen . " Saint Anselm used to require the completion of a nationally recognized two @-@ year Humanities program . The " Portraits of Human Greatness " program began freshman year and would end at the completion of a student 's sophomore year . Seeking to develop a well @-@ rounded student , the College replaced the program with the " Conversatio " lecture series . However , this has caused significant outcry from some alumni , charging that this " new humanities program " is too watered down . After the addition of " Conversatio " in 2014 , the number of classes taken by full @-@ time students dropped from 5 classes to 4 classes per semester , with the credit hours of each class increasing . By studying the humanities , comprising art , science , literature , philosophy , and theology , faculty and students attempt to understand profound issues , specifically focusing on the human condition . In addition , three philosophy and three theology courses are required in order for a student to graduate . Two out of the three required courses for philosophy are " Nature and the Human Person " , which details the philosophy and psyche of the human being ; " Ethics " , which discusses issues ranging from medical to sexual ethics ; and an elective of the student 's choosing . One of the required theology courses is " Biblical Theology " , which is an overview of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible .
While the college does not have an established " Honor Code " , there is a " faith based honor code " , which requires students to remain faithful to the college 's mission , faith and identity .
= = = Anti @-@ grade inflation policy = = =
Saint Anselm College has resisted what the college sees as the grade inflation trend at many of America 's college 's and universities . At Saint Anselm , the top 25 % of the class has a 3 @.@ 1 GPA ; the median grade at the college is around a 2 @.@ 5 GPA . While the Dean 's List at most schools begin at a 3 @.@ 5 GPA , Saint Anselm awards students with the honor at a 3 @.@ 0 GPA . According to a 2006 Fox News article , former Dean of the College Father Peter Guerin , O.S.B. , is quoted as saying that today 's " parents may view universities as a consumer market in which they 're in a way paying for the diploma .... Students who attend class on a regular basis and are paying tuition feel that they should be receiving that A , even if they have not deserved it . " Some professors and administrators believe that inflating grades makes it harder for students to realize their academic strengths and weaknesses and may encourage students to take classes based on grade expectations . The practice also makes it harder for parents and students to determine whether or not the grade was earned . A curriculum committee was set up in 1980 to meet with the academic dean and review the grading polices on a monthly basis . The previous president of the college , Father Jonathan DeFelice , is quoted as saying , " I cannot speak for everyone , but if I 'm headed for the operating room , I will take the surgeon who earned his or her ' A ' the honest way " .
= = = Admissions profile = = =
The majority of the applicant pool is from the New England area . The selection process is composed of a comprehensive review of the applicant 's high school transcript to determine whether he or she has taken the most challenging courses , personal recommendations from teachers and guidance counselor , an essay , and extracurricular involvement . As of 2010 , SAT / ACT scores are optional for applicants . The acceptance rate is 67 % , and labeled " selective " by US News and World Report . The college 's applicant pool is relatively small , around 3 @,@ 500 students , and the retention rate of Saint Anselm students from freshman to sophomore year is 76 % . The average accepted high school GPA is a 3 @.@ 2 on a scale of 4 .
= = = Rankings = = =
In 2015 , Saint Anselm was recognized by Time magazine as one of the " 50 Best Liberal Arts Colleges " in the nation . St. Anselm was ranked # 18 among liberal arts colleges in the country for the best return on investment ( ROI ) according to " Payscale.com " . In the same vein , the College was named # 171 by The Economist 's ranking of over 1 @,@ 000 colleges , for best economic value . U.S. News and World Report 's 2016 college rankings ranked Saint Anselm # 112 in the nation .
In 2011 , Forbes magazine ranked Saint Anselm as the 85th best college in the United States as well as 76th for private college and 40th in the Northeast . Recently , Saint Anselm was listed # 100 among national liberal arts institutions that Kiplinger 's judged as offering the best value . The Princeton Review 's Best 373 Colleges publication has described Saint Anselm as " one of the country 's best institutions for undergraduate education . " The Princeton Review describes the college as academically challenging , but rewarding , with " passionate professors " who make time to work individually with students . The college was also cited for providing opportunities for community and political engagement on its " absolutely gorgeous " campus , which earned the school the # 17 " Most Beautiful Campus " ranking . The college was ranked # 10 in the nation for the quality of food in The Princeton Review 's 2015 rating . St. Anselm was ranked 20th on The Princeton Review 's list of " Most Religious Students " , and 12th with best " Gown and Town " relations . U.S. News & World Report has continually named Saint Anselm as one of the country 's " Colleges with Conscience " for several years . The Washington Monthly ranked Saint Anselm College 153rd among " Liberal Arts Colleges " in 2011 . In 2009 , the Saint Anselm College Choir was the 8th most @-@ searched college choir under Google search . In 2001 , USNWR ranked Saint Anselm as # 3 on the list of " Most Comprehensive Bachelor 's Program " .
= = = Faculty = = =
Saint Anselm has a student @-@ faculty ratio of 11 : 1 and an average class size of 18 students . Saint Anselm does not have teaching assistants or graduate assistants . Saint Anselm has 145 full @-@ time faculty and 62 part @-@ time instructors ; almost all faculty members ( 90 % ) have terminal degrees in their respective fields .
= = = Majors and minors = = =
Saint Anselm College offers majors in 32 subject areas ; however , the college does not offer double majors . The following majors are available : Accounting , Biochemistry , Biology , Business , Chemistry , Classics , Computer Science , Criminal Justice , Economics , English , Environmental Science , Finance , Fine Arts , French , History , Liberal Arts and Engineering , Liberal Studies in the Great Books , Mathematics , Natural Science , Nursing , Philosophy , Politics , Psychology , Sociology , Spanish , Theology , International Business , International Relations , Physics , and Education .
In addition to the one major required for graduation , students can also pursue as many minors as their course schedule allows . Awarded to a limited number of students , the courses required for a minor are fulfilled through a student 's elective courses . Saint Anselm offers the following minors : Asian Studies , Catholic Studies , Communication , Computational Physical Science , Education , Environmental Studies , Fine Arts , Forensics , French , German , Gender Studies , Greek , Human Relations and Work , International Studies , Latin , Latin American Studies , Medieval Studies , Neuroscience , Public Policy Studies , Russian Area Studies , Spanish , Sports Studies , and Web Design .
= = = = Special academic programs = = = =
Some majors and minors offer special academic programs . Completion of these programs does not result in any minor or other recognition . If a student wishes to enter a professional school after graduation , he or she may undertake one of the pre @-@ professional programs offered . Internships are required for some majors , where students can experience life outside of the classroom , however any student can enroll in an internship for elective credit . Saint Anselm participates in an archaeological excavation program allowing students to travel to Italy and unearth ancient Roman treasures . For prospective engineers , the college has agreements with other schools through the cooperative engineering program .
Pre @-@ professional programs include Pre @-@ Law , Pre @-@ Medicine / Pre @-@ Dental / Pre @-@ Veterinary , and Pre @-@ Theology . Starting freshman year , students are paired up with advisors who will help the student decide which courses to take and offer general guidance throughout their time at Saint Anselm . However , pre @-@ professional students often complain about the quality of their advisors , as they are often labelled as inexperienced , and many students choose to side step the process entirely . The program culminates with a " pre @-@ professional interview " where three professors hold a mock professional interview with a student .
Internships – Students from virtually every major participate in internships ; examples range from investment firms on Wall Street to the Massachusetts General Hospital .
Archaeological excavation – The Classics Department sponsors an excavation at Castel Viscardo , a city near Orvieto in Italy . Faculty and students from the college are excavating a site that was occupied from the early Etruscan to the late Roman periods . The excavation have yielded many historical and archaeological finds ; Saint Anselm College sends over 25 students each summer to the Coriglia excavation , just outside town .
The Cooperative Engineering Program is a five @-@ year cooperative liberal arts and engineering program in affiliation with the University of Notre Dame , the University of Massachusetts Lowell , The Catholic University of America , and Manhattan College in Riverdale , New York . Three years are spent fulfilling undergraduate liberal arts courses at Saint Anselm , and two years are spent at one of the universities above for an engineering degree .
= = = Honor societies = = =
Saint Anselm College participates in the following national and international honor societies . Invitations from these societies are organized through each academic department , as students are usually invited membership by junior or senior year .
Delta Epsilon Sigma , the Catholic equivalent to Phi Beta Kappa , is the oldest honor society at the college . Open to all majors , the Tau Chapter , founded in 1940 , accepts only 40 members from the senior and junior classes .
Other societies include the debate honor society Delta Sigma Rho , international social science honor society Pi Gamma Mu , history honor society Phi Alpha Theta , economics honor society Omicron Delta Epsilon , nursing honor society Sigma Theta Tau , Spanish language honor society Sigma Delta Pi , French honor society Pi Delta Phi , psychology honor society Psi Chi , politics honor society Pi Sigma Alpha , and biology honor society Beta Beta Beta . The Dean 's List of Scholars is an internal honor society accepting students that fulfill its requirements of a 3 @.@ 0 semester GPA in at least five
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student newspaper of Saint Anselm College . This was done to separate student opinion from official college news released by Saint Anselm 's public relations department .
The Hilltop , founded in 2009 , was an independent student newsletter . It was published bi @-@ weekly , and sought to provide substance over entertainment and integrity over controversy , as some students had supported this publication over the " Crier . " claiming the latter 's quality had deteriorated . In the Fall of 2010 , " The Hilltop " merged with " The Saint Anselm Crier " after an agreement was made at the urging of the " Crier 's " advisor , Fr . Jerome Day , O.S.B. , PhD. who claimed that Saint Anselm College is not large enough for two student newspapers . " The Hilltop 's " staff agreed to become part of the " Crier 's " staff and " The Saint Anselm Crier " will attempt to focus on its quality , including a page called the " The Hilltop " devoted to substantial issues .
The Saint Anselm Whiner , founded in February 2010 , is an underground joke newspaper independently published by a group of anonymous students . It is published bi @-@ weekly . The Whiner parodies The Crier and The Hilltop and lampoons various Saint Anselm College issues . The motto of the Saint Anselm Whiner is " Unreliability You Can Count On . "
The Quatrain , published annually by a small group of students with the help of the English Department and the printing office , is a collection of students ' poetry , short stories , and artwork ( photographic and otherwise ) that is collected via submissions over the course of the academic year and is freely distributed to the student population near the end of the second semester .
The Shank , published each semester , is the History Department 's journal consisting exclusively of students ' work . The journal is open to all students regardless of their major , as long as the paper submitted was written in a history class .
Lucubrations is the cultural magazine for the Saint Anselm Community . It publishes all forms of creative content including art , music , photography , literature , poetry , philosophy , commentary , and video from students , faculty , staff , and alumni of the college . It was founded in 2009 by student Dana Nolan ( Class of 2011 ) . It is published online at http : / / lucubrations.org . Submissions are published on an ongoing basis and also collected into digest issues two times a semester , for four issues per academic year . The word lucubrations is based on the Latin word lucubrare and means study by candlelight , nocturnal study or meditation , and the writings or thoughts that result .
= = Notable alumni = =
L. A. " Skip " Bafalis – 1952 – member of the United States House of Representatives from Florida 's 10th congressional district , 1973 to 1983
King Banaian - 1979 - member of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Harvey C. " Barney " Barnum – 1962 – Medal of Honor recipient ( Vietnam )
William J. Baroody , Sr. – 1936 – President of American Enterprise Institute , and appointed Chairman of the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars by President Richard Nixon
Michael Buckley – 1997 – YouTube celebrity host of the " WhattheBuck ! ? " show
Vincent Colapietro , Ph.D. – 1973 – philosophy professor at Pennsylvania State University , author of many published articles and several published books
Sharon Dawley - 1979 - head coach of the University of Massachusetts Amherst women 's basketball team
Thomas J. Dodd – 1926 – U.S. senator from Connecticut ; influential force at the Nuremberg Trials
Bishop Joseph John Gerry – 1950 – former Bishop of Portland , Maine , and former Abbot of Saint Anselm Abbey
Robert W. Heagney – 1975 – Connecticut state representative ( Simsbury )
Daniel T.K. Hurley – 1964 – lawyer and judge , serving on the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida
Tim Karalexis – 2001 – professional soccer player in the USL First Division
Gérald Lacroix - Roman Catholic cardinal , Archbishop of Quebec and Primate of Canada
Martin F. Loughlin – 1947 – lawyer and judge , served on the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire
William C. Martel – Associate Professor of International Security Studies at The Fletcher School , Tufts University
Hubie McDonough – 1986 – NHL player for the Los Angeles Kings , San Jose Sharks and the New York Islanders
Ray " Scooter " McLean – 1940 - NFL player for the Chicago Bears and coach of the Green Bay Packers
Henry J. Meade – 1951 – Chief of Chaplains of the U.S. Air Force
Ralph Mollis – 1978 – current Secretary of State of Rhode Island
Rómulo O 'Farril , Jr . – 1937 – multi @-@ millionaire Mexican businessman ; founder of Televisa in Mexico City
Archbishop Joseph Rummel – 1896 – Archbishop of New Orleans and civil rights activist who desegregated New Orleans Catholic Schools in 1962
Mark J. Sullivan – 1977 – former director of United States Secret Service
Rob Surette – 1993 – public motivational speaker and speed painter
Matthew Szulik – 1978 – former chief executive officer and president of the S & P 500 Red Hat software company ; 2010 Chairman of the Science and Technology Board for State of North Carolina 's Economic Development Board
= Washington State Route 223 =
State Route 223 ( SR 223 ) is a 3 @.@ 81 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 13 km ) long state highway located entirely in Yakima County , Washington , United States . It has served the role of connecting the city of Granger to the county seat , Yakima via Interstate 82 and to SR 22 since its establishment in 1967 , serving between 4 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 500 cars per day on average in 2009 .
= = Route description = =
SR 223 begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with SR 22 , headed easterly over a level crossing with a BNSF Railway line through rural farmland . The highway turns northeasterly as it passes over the Yakima River and passes to the east of Hisey Park. as it enters the city limits of Granger Continuing through town SR 223 crosses over another rail line before terminating at a diamond interchange with exit 58 on Interstate 82 ( I @-@ 82 ) . Except for the last 0 @.@ 39 mi ( 0 @.@ 63 km ) of the highway , the speed limit is posted as 55 miles per hour ( 89 km / h ) .
Every year the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WSDOT calculated that as few as 4 @,@ 300 cars traveled through the intersection at SR 22 , and as many as 8 @,@ 500 cars at the interchange with I @-@ 82 .
= = History = =
The rail line that SR 223 crosses has existed since at least 1910 , originally belonging to the Spokane , Portland and Seattle Railway as part of their Yakima Valley Subdivision . SR 223 was completed in 1967 , and was connected to I @-@ 82 in 1981 , two years after the opening of the Interstate in 1979 . Two additional bridges are included on SR 223 , including a 243 @.@ 8 @-@ metre ( 800 ft ) long concrete continuous box beam bridge carrying the highway over the Yakima River , and an overpass over the BNSF Railway line ( former Northern Pacific Railway ) in Granger completed in 1969 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Yakima County .
= Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis =
Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis is a table tennis simulation video game developed by Rockstar San Diego and published by Rockstar Games . The game was first released for the Xbox 360 on May 23 , 2006 in North America , and on May 26 , 2006 in Europe . It was later released for the Wii on October 17 , 2007 in North America , and on October 19 , 2007 in Europe . The game is a realistic simulation of the sport table tennis , with the main objective to make the opponent fail to hit the ball .
The game features various methods of serving and returning the ball , designed for players to beat their opponent . Players can compete against the game 's artificial intelligence , while the game 's multiplayer mode lets two players compete in matches , either through local multiplayer or online . Initially developed specifically for the Xbox 360 console , the development team took advantage of the hardware 's graphical power , allowing the game to play at a faster pace than with previous hardware . The game was the first to be developed using Rockstar 's proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine , later used in games such as Grand Theft Auto IV and Red Dead Redemption .
Its announcement in March 2006 led to confusion and surprise , due to its significantly different style from Rockstar 's previous projects . It received generally positive reviews upon release , with praise particularly directed at its simplicity , replayability and detailed visuals .
= = Gameplay = =
Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis is a realistic simulation of the sport of table tennis . In the game , two players hit a ball back and forth from one another . The goal of the game is to make the opponent fail to return the ball . Players have the ability to challenge a multiplayer partner , either offline or online , or can select to challenge the game 's artificial intelligence . Players can select from a roster of eleven characters , which are unlocked as they progress through the game ; each character has particular skills in different areas . The game features two modes : Tournament , which involves players participating against a variety of players in different circuits ; and Exhibition , which involves players challenging individual opponents in non @-@ ranked matches .
When preparing to serve the ball , players enter a stance . During this stance , players aim the ball , followed by selecting the amount of spin and power to place on the ball , as indicated by the spin meter . Players can also place a level of spin on their ball , curving it in a different direction . After the opponent returns the ball , players have the ability to " charge " their shots . As the shots are charged , the Focus meter increases ; when the meter fills , players enter the Full Focus state , in which their shots are faster and more accurate . Players can also perform soft shots and smashes , respectively decreasing and increasing the speed of the ball , and Focus Shots , high powered returns that help players counter difficult shots .
The Wii port of the game offers three different control schemes : Standard , using the Wii Remote ; Sharp Shooter , which uses the Nunchuk 's analog control to place the ball ; and Control Freak , using the Nunchuk 's analog stick to control the player 's position .
= = Development = =
Preliminary work on Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis began in 2005 , prior to the announcement of the Xbox 360 , which the game was developed for . Rockstar San Diego , the core team behind the game , found that the hardware allowed them to develop games at a faster pace than with the previous hardware . Rockstar president Sam Houser felt that Rockstar San Diego was a suitable developer for the game due to their demonstration of skill in developing advanced engines , particularly early in a console generation , citing Midnight Club : Street Racing and Smuggler 's Run ( both 2000 ) , which were launch games for the PlayStation 2 . Houser also said that , though the game 's physics were achievable on the old hardware , the team waited for the possibility to develop for the Xbox 360 due to the " different level of production and technology " that it allowed . In developing the game 's concept , the team was fascinated with concentrating the entire power of a particular hardware into one activity . The game runs off the proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) , and is the first game to do so ; the engine was later used for other projects such as Grand Theft Auto IV ( 2008 ) , Red Dead Redemption ( 2010 ) , Max Payne 3 ( 2012 ) and Grand Theft Auto V ( 2013 ) .
Network programmer John Gierach found the development of the online multiplayer mode challenging , due to the level of realism the development team attempted to create . In addition , the speed and accuracy required for the game was also a challenge for the team , due to the fast pace of the matches . When discussing the possibility of porting the game to the Wii , the team agreed almost immediately , as they felt that the console was a " perfect fit " for the game . While developing the Wii version , the team particularly considered how to serve all types of players , thus allowing a range of different control schemes .
The game was first announced by Rockstar Games on March 3 , 2006 . Journalists noted the surprised reactions that the announcement caused within the gaming industry , which they owed to the game 's significant difference when compared to Rockstar 's reputation of developing mature titles . The game was released for the Xbox 360 on May 23 , 2006 in North America , and on May 26 , 2006 in Europe . On July 18 , 2007 , Rockstar announced that the game would be ported to the Wii , taking advantage of the motion sensing Wii Remote . The Wii version was released on October 17 , 2007 in North America , and on October 19 , 2007 in Europe .
= = Reception = =
Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis was released to generally positive reviews . Metacritic assigned a average score of 81 out of 100 based on 75 reviews for the Xbox 360 version , and 68 out of 100 based on 36 reviews for the Wii version . GameRankings assigned it an average review score of 82 % based on 85 reviews for the Xbox 360 version , and 70 % based on 36 reviews for the Wii version . Reviewers particularly praised its gameplay , detailed visuals , simplicity , and online multiplayer .
The technical aspects of the game , such as the graphics and animation , received acclaim . IGN 's Douglass C. Perry felt that the graphics and motion capture are " exceptional " , and the animation is " beautiful " , as well as praising the stable frame rate . Ryan Davis of GameSpot wrote that the characters were designed with " phenomenal detail " , though felt that " there 's not much else to look at " . GamesRadar 's Dan Amrich commended the game 's player models and lighting effects , stating that they " put the hardware to impressive yet playful use " . Tom Orry of VideoGamer.com felt that the visuals improve the gameplay , particularly applauding smaller details such as the player models and ball physics .
Many reviewers found the gameplay simple yet effective . Perry of IGN found the gameplay " deep and addictive " , and the controls intuitive . GamesRadar 's Amrich echoed similar remarks , writing that the controls " feel accessible without alienating ' serious ' sports gamers " , and Orry of VideoGamer.com called the controls " slick " . Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell also praised the game 's simplicity .
The game 's multiplayer mode was commended by many reviewers . GamesRadar 's Amrich felt that the multiplayer mode extended the game 's replayability , giving players a reason to return to the game " long after [ they 've ] learned the weaknesses " of the playable characters . Orry of VideoGamer.com and Bramwell of Eurogamer both named the online multiplayer " excellent " ; the former noted minor lag but wrote that the " performance was generally very good " .
When the game was ported to the Wii , the additional Wii Remote controls received positive reactions . IGN 's Mark Bozon felt that they were an improvement over the original controls , calling it a " huge testament to Rockstar 's design " . Eurogamer 's Ellie Gibson found that the altered controls work " perfectly " , finding them intuitive and " easy to grasp " . GameSpot 's Davis wrote that the controls " work pretty well " , though felt that they fail to complement the gameplay . Conversely , Orry of VideoGamer.com felt that the original controls " have more depth " than those on the Wii .
Following its previews at the Electronic Entertainment Expo , the game won Best Sports Game from GameSpot , and received a nomination from IGN . At the end of the year , the game received nominations for Best Sports Game from GameTrailers .
= Thomas White ( Australian politician ) =
Sir Thomas Walter White , KBE , DFC ( 26 April 1888 – 13 October 1957 ) was an Australian politician and First World War pilot . He was one of the first airmen trained for the Australian Flying Corps in 1914 , and among the first to see action when he deployed to the Middle East with the Mesopotamian Half Flight in 1915 . He was captured in November that year but escaped in July 1918 . Awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and twice mentioned in despatches , White began his parliamentary career in 1929 when he was elected Member for Balaclava in Victoria . He served as Minister for Trade and Customs in Joseph Lyons ' United Australia Party government from 1932 to 1938 , but resigned when he was excluded from Lyons ' inner cabinet . He joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during the Second World War and saw service in Australia and the United Kingdom . Returning to parliament as a member of the newly formed Liberal Party in 1945 , he served as Minister for Air and Minister for Civil Aviation in Robert Menzies ' government from 1949 to 1951 . His term coincided with the commitment of RAAF squadrons to the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency . Australia 's High Commissioner to the United Kingdom from 1951 to 1956 , White was knighted in 1952 and died in October 1957 .
= = Early life and First World War = =
Thomas Walter White was born on 26 April 1888 at Hotham , North Melbourne , the son of Charles James White , a brass @-@ finisher from England , and Emily Jane Jenkins of Victoria . Educated at Moreland State School , White was commissioned in the 5th Australian Regiment , Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) , in 1911 . In August 1914 , two weeks after the outbreak of the First World War , he became one of the first four students to commence training at Point Cook as a pilot in the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) . He was later described by a biographer as " pugnacious and impatient for success , with a disdain for authority and a suspicion of elites " . White recalled flying in the school 's Bristol Boxkite thus : " The senses took the place of the instruments . One 's eyes and ears did duty as engine counters ; the rush of the air in the face told whether the climb or glide was at the right angle . " He graduated with his four fellow students , who included future Chief of the Air Staff ( Sir ) Richard Williams , in November .
In April 1915 , White was appointed a captain in the Australian Imperial Force and adjutant of the Mesopotamian Half Flight , the first AFC unit to see active service . Based initially in Basra and operating primitive Maurice Farman biplanes , the Half Flight assisted the Indian Army during the Mesopotamian campaign , conducting reconnaissance and sabotage missions . White successfully carried out several operations that involved landing behind enemy lines . On a mission in October 1915 , he was forced to land owing to engine trouble and , rather than risk attempting repairs , taxied the aircraft some twenty @-@ four kilometres ( fifteen miles ) past enemy encampments while his observer kept watch with his rifle at the ready ; the " Keystone Cops adventure " , as historian Alan Stephens described it , culminated in the engine finally powering up and allowing White to take off and fly to the safety of the Australian base . White himself touted the feat as " a taxi @-@ ing record " .
On 13 November 1915 , White was captured while attempting to cut telegraph wires near Baghdad . He was mentioned in despatches in July 1916 . Imprisoned in Turkey , he escaped from a train in Constantinople in July 1918 , and managed to stow away on a cargo ship to Odessa , Ukraine , before travelling to London . His experience of the Soviets in Odessa helped inform his subsequent anti @-@ communism . White was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross in June 1919 . In December , he was again mentioned in despatches , for " valuable services whilst in captivity " . Still in London , he met Vera Deakin , daughter of former Australian Prime Minister Alfred Deakin , and promptly became engaged to her . White was discharged from the AIF in January 1920 , and married Vera on 22 March at St John 's Church of England in Toorak , despite the opposition of some of the Deakin family . That year he also became managing director of his father 's hardware company , C.J. White & Sons Pty Ltd . From 1926 to 1931 , he commanded the 6th Battalion , CMF , as a lieutenant colonel . In 1928 he published an account of his wartime exploits as Guests of the Unspeakable .
= = Parliamentary career and Second World War = =
White ran unsuccessfully as a Nationalist for the House of Representatives seat of Maribyrnong in the 1925 elections . In 1927 , he failed to win the Victorian Legislative Assembly seat of Prahran . Denied pre @-@ selection as a Nationalist for the Senate the following year , he won the seat of Balaclava at a by @-@ election held on 3 August 1929 . He succeeded retiring member William Watt . The United Australia Party ( UAP ) came to power in the 1931 elections and in March 1933 he was appointed Minister for Trade and Customs in the first Lyons Ministry , replacing Henry Gullett , who had stood down due to ill @-@ health . White had given up the directorship of C.J. White & Sons the previous year . His portfolio was responsible for reducing tariffs and attempting to increase trade with Britain as opposed to the United States and Japan , and also with book and film censorship ; for the latter he established an advisory board , chaired by Robert Garran , to make recommendations to him . In 1934 , White became Australian chairman of the Royal Life Saving Society , serving until 1951 ; he was also an active supporter of such organisations as Legacy and the Royal Flying Doctor Service .
In July 1938 , White represented Australia at an inter @-@ governmental conference on Jewish refugees held at Évian , France , to discuss the growing numbers of Jewish emigrants seeking to leave Germany and occupied territories . He expressed remorse after listening to stories from refugees during the conference , but ultimately hedged his offer of support , saying that , " As we have no real racial problem , we are not desirous of importing one by encouraging any scheme of large @-@ scale foreign migration " . Australia would go on to accept 15 @,@ 000 refugees over three years . White 's reaction to the Australian government 's support for the Munich Agreement was to diarise : " I think we should hang our heads that we did not stand up to the bully of Europe ... It may yet mean peace but at what price ? " He called for stronger preparations at home in case of war , including the introduction of conscription . On 8 November 1938 , he resigned his portfolio , having discovered that Joseph Lyons had established an inner cabinet from which he was excluded . Lyons ' response in parliament to White 's resignation publicly highlighted the divisions in the UAP . White stood for the UAP 's leadership after Lyon 's death the following year but was eliminated early in the balloting , and Robert Menzies eventually became leader .
With the outbreak of the Second World War , White became a flight lieutenant ( temporary squadron leader ) in the part @-@ time Citizen Air Force . He took leave from parliament in April 1940 and was appointed the inaugural commanding officer of No. 1 Initial Training School at Somers , Victoria . The following year he travelled to England , where he administered Australian airmen at Bournemouth , served as Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) Liaison Officer with RAF Training Command , and commanded RAF Station Brighton . According to the Parliamentary Library of Australia , White also " surreptitiously flew on several sorties as a second @-@ pilot " . He paid tribute to the men of the Empire Air Training Scheme with the narrative poem Sky Saga in 1943 . Returning to Melbourne later that year , White served at RAAF Staff School until his discharge as an honorary group captain in October 1944 . The same month , he attended the conference that resulted in the establishment of the Liberal Party ; the new party was officially launched in August 1945 .
Following the election of the Menzies Liberal government in the 1949 elections , White was appointed Minister for Air and Minister for Civil Aviation , despite his personal animosity for Menzies , which partly stemmed from the latter 's failure to serve in the First World War . In January 1950 , White and the Minister for Supply and Development , Richard Casey , announced that the English Electric Canberra had been selected to replace the RAAF 's Avro Lincoln bombers , and that the new jet would be manufactured by the Government Aircraft Factory in Victoria . White 's term as Minister for Air saw the deployment of RAAF squadrons to the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency in mid @-@ 1950 , and the establishment of the Women 's Royal Australian Air Force , the successor organisation to the wartime Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force , that November . The following year he gave his approval for the manufacture of a licensed version of the North American F @-@ 86 Sabre jet fighter for the RAAF , and played a major part in the controversial decision to replace the long @-@ serving Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal ( Sir ) George Jones , with an RAF officer , Air Vice Marshal ( later Air Chief Marshal Sir ) Donald Hardman . White also sought to strengthen the Citizen Air Force , and personally ordered the establishment of No. 24 ( City of Adelaide ) Squadron at Mallala , South Australia .
= = Later life = =
On 21 June 1951 , White resigned from parliament to become Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom , a position he held until 1956 . He was succeeded as the member for Balaclava by Liberal Percy Joske . White was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in January 1952 . As High Commissioner he advocated continued British migration to Australia , and participated in the renewal of the assisted passage scheme between the two countries in 1954 . He suffered from emphysema and on 13 October 1957 died of a heart attack at his home in the Melbourne suburb of South Yarra . Survived by his wife and four daughters , he was accorded a state funeral at St Paul 's Cathedral , Melbourne , and interred at Point Lonsdale cemetery . His daughters donated his papers to the National Library of Australia in 1997 and 1998 .
= Dude Ranch ( Modern Family ) =
" Dude Ranch " is the third season premiere of the American sitcom Modern Family and the 49th episode overall . The episode originally aired on September 21 , 2011 on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) and ran back @-@ to @-@ back with " When Good Kids Go Bad " . The episode was written by Paul Corrigan , Brad Walsh & Dan O 'Shannon and directed by Jason Winer .
" Dude Ranch " features guest stars Tim Blake Nelson as Hank and Reid Ewing as Dylan . Serving as the first part of the one @-@ hour season premiere , the episode revolves around the three families traveling to a dude ranch .
" Dude Ranch " received positive reviews from critics with many praising Nolan Gould 's performance as Luke Dunphy , with Alan Sepinwall calling him the MVP of the episode . The episode was viewed by more than 14 @.@ 54 million viewers and received a 6 @.@ 1 rating / 15 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , marking an 18 @-@ percent rise from the second season premiere , " The Old Wagon " . The episode also became the highest @-@ rated and most viewed episode of the series . It also ranked as the highest @-@ rated ABC series for the week of broadcast and fourth overall .
This episode won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . Season one episode " En Garde " won the same award back in 2010 .
= = Plot = =
The three families travel to a dude ranch in Wyoming . In the Pritchett family storyline , Gloria ( Sofía Vergara ) experiences hearing difficulty following the plane ride while a cowboy , Hank ( Tim Blake Nelson ) , flirts with her . Gloria 's husband , Jay ( Ed O 'Neill ) , takes notice , but Gloria is oblivious to his behavior . Later , Hank grabs Gloria 's butt causing Jay to tell him to back off , which he does . He said if it were not for him being the bad guy Jay would not have been a hero , but Gloria fights back and says Jay is always a hero .
Meanwhile , in the Dunphy family , Dylan ( Reid Ewing ) , Haley 's boyfriend , tags along on the trip , much to Claire 's chagrin . However , Phil ( Ty Burrell ) eventually convinces her that she should try to get to know Dylan . She attempts to , but suddenly Dylan proposes to Haley ( Sarah Hyland ) around the campfire one night . This causes Claire ( Julie Bowen ) to instantly say no for Haley , leading to Dylan running away . The families go off and look for him , during which Haley criticizes Claire for interfering and reveals she would not have accepted Dylan 's proposal . It is also revealed that Dylan gets a job at the ranch and decides to permanently stay in Wyoming , breaking up with Haley .
During the trip , a teenage boy named Jimmy ( Matthew Gumley ) flirts with Alex ( Ariel Winter ) and later kisses her . In addition , Phil attempts to impress Jay and prove he has earned Jay 's respect , and Jay eventually tells Phil that he does truly respect Phil .
Cameron ( Eric Stonestreet ) and Mitchell ( Jesse Tyler Ferguson ) reveal that they are adopting a boy from the United States . Mitchell worries that he will not be able to do all the father / son things because of his sexuality and his inability to participate in " manly " activities such as catching and shooting . Despite this , he reassures himself after he blows up a birdhouse with a firecracker with Luke ( Nolan Gould ) .
= = Production and themes = =
" Dude Ranch " was written by Paul Corrigan , Brad Walsh & Dan O 'Shannon . The episode was directed by Jason Winer , his first director 's credit since the first season . It aired on September 21 , 2011 , back @-@ to @-@ back with the " When Good Kids Go Bad " . " Dude Ranch " was filmed between August 17 and August 19 , 2011 on location in Jackson Hole , Wyoming . Other cities that were under consideration were Tucson , Arizona and Bozeman , Montana . Tim Blake Nelson guest starred in the episode as a cowboy who " intimidates the guys and sends the girls ' hearts a @-@ twitter " . Reid Ewing returned as Dylan , in his final appearance for the series until he reappeared in the episode entitled " Disneyland . "
Near the end of the second season , there were rumors alluding to the producers recasting the role of Lily , and changing her age from a baby to a toddler . In July 2011 , a casting call for a " 3- to 4 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Mitchell and Cameron " was put out by the producers . Co @-@ creator and executive producer Steven Levitan stated that :
" It was a hard decision , and this was not remotely having to do with us wanting to upgrade the acting ability or jump the character in age . The twins who play the part ( Jaden and Ella Hiller ) were not happy . We started feeling like we were just being mean to these little girls , making them come to the stage . And the character is reaching an age where she would talk , and that was going to be an asset to us to have Cam and Mitch communicating with her . "
They eventually cast Aubrey Anderson @-@ Emmons to play the toddler @-@ aged , Lily , replacing twin sisters , Jayden and Ella Hiller . The episode also features the addition of two new writers , Ben Karlin as a consulting producer and Cindy Chupack as co @-@ executive producer .
The episode mainly deals with the male characters in the show and " the flaws and foibles of the menfolk " , hence the episode title , " Dude Ranch " . Mitchell deals with being not manly enough to raise a boy while Jay deals with the cowboy flirting with Gloria . Phil attempts to gain Jay 's respect , a recurring theme in several other episodes . Eventually , all the characters gain their confidence with Mitchell blowing up a birdhouse with Luke , Jay standing up to the cowboy and Phil standing up to Jay .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast , " Dude Ranch " alongside the following episode , " When Good Kids Go Bad " , was viewed by an estimated 14 @.@ 54 million households and received a 6 @.@ 1 rating / 15 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 6 @.@ 1 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 15 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked an 18 % rise in the ratings from the second season premiere , " The Old Wagon " , making it the highest @-@ rated and most @-@ viewed episode of the series and became ABC 's top @-@ rated season premiere in six years . The episode also ranked first in its timeslot , beating the highly promoted new Fox reality series The X Factor , CBS drama series Criminal Minds , NBC drama series Harry 's Law and CW reality series , America 's Next Top Model . Added with DVR viewers , who viewed the episode within three days of the original broadcast , the episode received a 7 @.@ 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 7 rating to the original viewership . " Dude Ranch " was the third most @-@ watched scripted show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 and the eleventh most watched show among all viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received positive reviews from critics .
Maris Kreizman of New York called the episode " not all that surprising and a little sentimental , but charming nonetheless . " She also complimented the development of Alex 's character commenting that it " was nice to see a bit of real character development for Alex . " .
The A.V. Club reviewer Donna Bowman compared the episode to the second season episode " Halloween " for its use of the whole ensemble , and ultimately gave the episode a B + .
HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall felt that " Dude Ranch " was the weaker episode of the hour , and commented that " Sitcom vacation episodes , as a rule , tend to not be very good . There have been exceptions [ ... ] " Dude Ranch " was unfortunately not one of them . Despite this , he complimented the subplots for the kids , but criticized the plots for the adults calling them " much less memorable " .
Entertainment Weekly writer Sandra Gonzalez praised the episode , saying it proved the show deserved the second Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series . Despite her mainly positive review , she criticized the Gloria storyline , writing that she " wish she [ Sofia Vergara ] had more to do than scream the entire episode " .
Henry Hanks of CNN said the episode was equal in quality to the first @-@ season episode , " Hawaii " saying that the episode " [ showed ] once again why it 's one of the most consistently funny shows on TV . He also noted that his favorite moment " had to be Jay 's struggles with the horse " and called Jay the MVP of the episode , saying Ed O 'Neill deserved to win the Emmy over Ty Burrell .
Paste writer Christina Ziemba said that the episode proved that the series deserved to win at the Emmy 's saying it was " rife with great gags , jokes and one @-@ liners " . She ultimately gave this episode and " When Good Kids Go Bad " an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 calling it " commendable " .
Zac Oldenburg of Television Blend criticized the Phil @-@ Jay subplot for repeating ideas . He eventually called the episode a " rough start " and considered it worse than the following episode .
Multiple critics praised Nolan Gould 's performance in the episode , as Luke . Sepinwall called him the MVP of the episode . Other critics also called the episode superior to the second half @-@ hour , " When Good Kids Go Bad " .
= Joel Otto =
Joel Stuart Otto ( born October 29 , 1961 ) is an American former professional ice hockey center in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Calgary Flames and Philadelphia Flyers . An undrafted player , Otto signed with the Flames as a free agent in 1984 and played 11 seasons with the team . He was one of the top defensive centers in the league during his career and one of the NHL 's best at
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channels , might not be in her favour . A promotional video , containing scenes from the music videos of " Burning Up " , " Borderline " , " Lucky Star " , " Like a Virgin " and " Material Girl " was made by Warner Bros. Records and aired in the United Kingdom . The video was included on the promotional @-@ only video compilations It 's That Girl and She 's Breathless .
= = Composition = =
" Angel " begins with a laugh and an echo , panning from left to the right . The song is built on an ascending hook consisting of three chord sequence , which serves for the verse and chorus . It consists of a constant 8th rhythm throughout the song , making it sound similar to the songs of the band Machine . Vocal harmonies are also added beneath the main chorus . It is a two @-@ bar phrase song , and laughter is again added as the song slowly fades out . Madonna sings in her lower register at the beginning , and shifts to the higher one in the line " I can see it in your e @-@ e @-@ e @-@ eyye @-@ e @-@ s " . The line was taken from the song " Death Disco " ( 1979 ) , by the British musical group Public Image Ltd . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , by Alfred Publishing , the song is set in the time signature of common time , with a medium tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of G major , with Madonna 's voice spanning from the high @-@ note of G3 to the low @-@ note of B4 . The song has a basic sequence of Dm7 – Em7 – F – Dm7 – Em7 – F as its chord progression . The lyrics continuously repeat the angel @-@ like image of Madonna 's saviour .
= = Critical reception = =
Rikky Rooksby , author of Madonna : The Complete Guide to Her Music , commented that " Angel " is a song " that is less than even the sum of its parts . " Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández and Freya Jarman @-@ Ivens , authors of Madonna 's Drowned Worlds : New Approaches to Her Cultural Transformations , felt that " the pizzicato synthesizer line that opens ' Angel ' was indeed classical Madonna . " John Leland from Spin called it a rehash of Madonna 's previous single " Lucky Star " ( 1984 ) , with " an even lamer melody and punch . [ ... ] ' Angel ' is Nile Rodgers doing what he does best : turning crass product into cash product . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic called the song " an excellent standard @-@ issue dance @-@ pop . " Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine called the song sugary . While reviewing the album in 1995 , Dave Karger from Entertainment Weekly felt that the song comes off as a bit repetitious and immature . Alfred Soto of Stylus Magazine commented that " ' Angel ' is a particular stunner , certainly the apex of Rodgers ' post @-@ Chic skills . [ ... ] It does a better job than the two big singles of delineating the boundaries of Madonna 's determined shallowness , an act that confounds Philistines today and made the appreciation of her musical skills a lot harder than it took these critics to dismiss Cyndi Lauper as the real charlatan . " Nancy Erlich from Billboard called the song " romantic , uncontroversial techno @-@ pop . [ ... ] [ Madonna 's ] reign continues as ' 85 's premier media obsession . "
= = Chart performance = =
After its release , " Angel " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 48 on the issue dated April 27 , 1985 , while her previous single " Crazy for You " was at number @-@ two on the chart . After ten weeks , " Angel " reached a peak position of five on the chart . The song tied Madonna with Olivia Newton @-@ John , as the female artist with the most consecutive top @-@ five hits on the Hot 100 at that time . " Angel " debuted on the Adult Contemporary chart for the issue dated May 11 , 1985 , and reached a peak of five . The song debuted at number 40 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart on June 1 , 1985 , and reached the top after three weeks . It also charted on a number of Billboard charts , such as reaching the top of the Hot Dance Singles Sales and the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at position 71 . On July 30 , 1985 , " Angel " and " Into the Groove " were together certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for the shipment of one million copies across United States — the requirement for a gold single prior to 1989 . It was the first 12 @-@ inch single to be certified gold , since Frankie Smith 's " Double Dutch Bus " ( 1981 ) . " Angel / Into the Groove " placed at number 81 on the year @-@ end chart for 1985 , with Madonna becoming the top pop artist for the year .
In Canada , the song debuted at number 80 on the RPM issue dated May 4 , 1985 . After eight weeks , the song reached a peak of five on the chart . " Angel " was present on the chart for 25 weeks and ranked at number 56 on the 1985 RPM Year @-@ end chart . The song was released in the United Kingdom with " Burning Up " as its B @-@ Side , and debuted at number ten on the UK Singles Chart on September 9 , 1985 . It reached a peak of five next week , and was present for a total of 12 weeks on the chart . The song was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for the shipment of 250 @,@ 000 copies of the single across United Kingdom . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 205 @,@ 000 copies there . In Australia , " Angel " charted as a combined single with " Into the Groove " and reached the top of the Kent Music Report chart . It was the second highest selling single of 1985 in Australia . The song reached the top 20 in the charts of Belgium , Ireland , Netherlands , New Zealand , Spain , Switzerland and the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles .
= = Live performance = =
The song was performed as part of Madonna 's 1985 Virgin Tour ; it was the fifth song of the setlist . Madonna wore a blue see @-@ through crop @-@ top , revealing her characteristic black bra . She also had lacy leggings and crucifixes around an ear and her neck . As she finished the vigorous performance of " Everybody " , the lights were dimmed and the introduction music of the song started . Rotating lights fell on the stage . Madonna appeared sitting on top of the stairs and gradually descended . During the intermediate bridge , she and her dancers moved energetically around the whole stage , as white balloons fell on them from above . Madonna continued singing as the lights were dimmed again . She finished the performance and disappeared behind the wings for a costume change . " Angel " did not appear in the final home video release Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – writer , vocals , background vocals
Steve Bray – writer
Nile Rodgers – producer , guitars
Jimmy Bralower – drum programming
Rob Sabino – bass synthesizer , assorted synthesizers
Curtis King – background vocals
Frank Simms – background vocals
George Simms – background vocals
Herb Ritts – photography
Jeri McManus – design
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Adam Carter =
Adam Henry Carter is a fictional character from the BBC espionage television series Spooks , which follows the exploits of Section D , a counter @-@ terrorism division of MI5 . He is portrayed by British actor Rupert Penry @-@ Jones . The character is a former MI6 officer who takes charge as the chief of Section D , and hence the head protagonist following the departure of Tom Quinn in series three .
Adam Carter was created with the knowledge that Matthew Macfadyen , who played Tom Quinn , would leave the series . The intention was that Adam would be different from Tom ; the producers wanted a character who was a husband with an MI6 background . Rupert Penry @-@ Jones was cast after three auditions . Before the sixth series finale aired , it was announced that Penry @-@ Jones would leave the series . In the premiere episode of series seven , Carter is killed in a car bomb . His death was voted the fourth most shocking death in the series . Rupert Penry @-@ Jones was awarded " Best Actor " at the Crime Thriller Awards for his portrayal of Adam Carter .
= = Role in Spooks = =
Before joining Section D , Adam Carter was an MI6 officer who specialised in the Middle East . Oliver Mace ( Tim McInnerny ) , chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee , describes Carter as a " loose cannon " . He is a fluent Arabic speaker and has good countersurveillance skills . In one past operation , Adam worked a case in Damascus to recruit Syrian intelligence officer Farook Sukkarieh as a double agent to work with the Israelis and stop a string of suicide attacks . He used Farook 's wife , Fiona ( Olga Sosnovska ) as a way in . Fiona and Adam subsequently fell in love and started an affair . When Farook discovered this , he had Adam brutally tortured . After he escaped , Adam framed Farook , persuading the Syrians that he was a traitor , and Farook was supposedly hanged for this . Adam subsequently married Fiona and together they had a son , Wes .
Adam first appears in the series three opening episode " Project Friendly Fire " , hired by head of Section D Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) to help clear Tom Quinn ( Matthew Macfadyen ) who has been framed for the assassination of the Chief of the Defence Staff . Ultimately Tom is cleared and returns to duty , only to be decommissioned in the following episode after sabotaging an operation . Harry decides to have Adam transferred to MI5 , replacing Tom as head of Section D. In the series four episode " Syria " , Adam learns that Farook had faked his own death ; he is in England , where he kidnaps Fiona during an operation of hers . At the end of the episode Adam guns Farook down , but not before Farook fatally shoots Fiona , who dies in Adam 's arms . Harry later relieves Adam of duty until he receives a psychological evaluation . In the series four finale , Adam is shot by rogue MI5 officer Angela Wells ( Lindsay Duncan ) . At the opening of season five , Adam appears to have made a complete recovery and has returned to the Grid .
In series five Adam hires a nanny , Jenny ( Gugu Mbatha @-@ Raw ) , to look after Wes while he takes part in operations . Midway through the series , she and Adam start a brief love affair , which ends in the penultimate episode . In the fifth series , particularly in its later episodes , Adam suffers from several mental breakdowns following the loss of Fiona . He has recurring nightmares that involve his being wounded and unable to return home to his son , and in the eighth episode , he has a panic attack after learning that Wes has briefly run away from home ; this attack jeopardises his life during an operation . In the series finale , Adam is revealed to be suicidally depressed , wishing he had died in Fiona 's place . But after another panic attack , he is able to pull through , save fellow officer Ros Myers ( Hermione Norris ) , and escape from the Thames Barrier before they both drown .
In the sixth series , Adam has recovered from his breakdown — said to have been caused by post @-@ traumatic stress — after receiving psychiatric counseling . He has an affair with Ana Bakhshi ( Agni Scott ) , wife of Iranian Special Consul Dariush Bakhshi ( Simon Abkarian ) . Ana later realises she is pregnant ; whether Adam or Dariush is the father of her child is never resolved . Halfway through the series Adam is mugged , and his assailant is seriously injured during their struggle . The man , who is identified as a journalist , later dies , and Adam is wanted for murder . It is later revealed that the man was no journalist ; Adam was set up , to prevent his stopping a deal that would have allowed Iran to become a nuclear power . He has a brief affair with Ros , and later fakes her death to protect her from CIA retaliation after it is exposed that she has worked with the anti @-@ American shadow organisation Yalta .
In the first episode of the seventh series , Adam works with officer Lucas North ( Richard Armitage ) , newly returned from imprisonment in Russia , to rescue a kidnapped British soldier in London . Later , Adam discovers that an Al @-@ Qaeda operative has positioned a car bomb to explode at a Remembrance Sunday ceremony . Adam is able to drive the car to an unpopulated zone , but it explodes just as he exits the car , killing him . It is later revealed that FSB head @-@ of @-@ operations in London , Arkady Kachimov , withheld his knowledge of the bomb plot . Harry Pearce kills him in revenge . Ros Myers succeeds Adam as section chief .
= = Conceptual history = =
The producers were aware that Matthew Macfadyen would leave the series after playing Tom Quinn for two years , and they did not know whether he would return for the first two episodes . An eight- to nine @-@ member team came up with the new character of Adam Carter . They wanted Adam to have a different dynamic than Tom ; the producers set up a girlfriend / boyfriend storyline in the first series – with Adam , they wanted him to have a wife ( Fiona Carter ) who works in the Security Service , since married couples working in that environment are common . They wanted Adam to be more animated and energetic than Tom . Writer Howard Brenton wanted him to have an MI6 background , and have something awful happen to him in the past . Brenton invented the backstory of Syria early on into the third series , which he wanted to revisit in the fourth series .
Early on in the development process , the producers wanted to cast a " brilliant actor " with a strong screen presence . They discussed casting Rupert Penry @-@ Jones for the role of Adam Carter early in the process , though it took months to finally decide to cast him . Though Penry @-@ Jones was aware of Spooks and its success , he had never seen any episodes . To be interested in the role , he spent a weekend catching up on the entire first and second series . He did not take long to decide , since his last leading role was four years previously , in 2000 in the Channel 4 drama North Square . Adam was originally meant to be older , and more " street . " When he found acting " street " was too difficult , Penry @-@ Jones acted more like himself . He had to audition three times before the producers included him , four months before filming commenced .
On his first day for filming series three , Penry @-@ Jones participated in a fight scene in the middle of the first episode . He felt a little wary replacing Matthew Macfadyen . After two months of filming , Penry @-@ Jones began to feel more at ease with the role . He felt especially so after he started working for the fourth series . He returned to the fourth series because he thought his character took off by the end of the last series , and wanted to see which direction he would go to next . The crew wanted Adam to go from a " happy @-@ go @-@ lucky " figure to wanting him to deal with things that would make it hard for Adam to be jokey towards the end of the fourth series ; this involved Fiona 's death .
Before the sixth series finale aired in December 2007 , it was announced that Rupert Penry @-@ Jones would leave the series sometime in series seven . Penry @-@ Jones wanted to leave the series as he felt the character had run its course , as well as wanting to explore other venues . He also stated that working in Spooks was " great , " but felt he was " getting to the point where I needed to move on . " Before the seventh series aired , Penry @-@ Jones revealed his character would leave in what he believed was " one of the best " Spooks exits . He found that his last days on Spooks was generally upsetting and " welled up " on his final day . Penry @-@ Jones did not envisage lasting as long as he did , because he believed the series would not last as long as it has .
= = Reception = =
Rupert Penry @-@ Jones noted that the initial fan reaction towards Adam Carter was negative , " because Matthew [ Macfadyen ] was so successful and loved . " It took a while for fans to accept him . Penry @-@ Jones also felt that his role in Spooks , " definitely took my profile up several notches . " In the " best of drama " viewer polls at BBC Online , Penry @-@ Jones was voted third in the " Best Actor " category , beating co @-@ stars Matthew Macfadyen , who was fifth , David Oyelowo , who was seventh , and Peter Firth , who was tenth . He was later voted fifth in 2005 , and ninth in 2006 .
In a DVD review of the third series of Spooks , Michael Mackenzie of Home Cinema had mixed views of Adam 's introduction , stating " despite ardent protests from both cast and crew , Tom and Adam are almost exactly the same character . " In the fifth series , Mackenzie felt more open towards Adam , stating Adam Carter " isn 't exactly James Bond [ ... ] he doesn 't jet around the world , bedding multiple women and engaging in fisticuffs atop precarious construction rigs , but he does rush around London with a gun in his hand and occasionally ends up on the receiving end of the odd beating . " David Blackwell of Enterline Media was receptive of Adam in the fourth series , as he felt Adam became " more fleshed out and interesting . " However , Blackwell was critical of Adam 's role in the following fifth series , stating it is " too much " about him .
Fans and critics alike displayed shock towards the character 's death in the first episode of the seventh series . Fans voted Adam 's death as the fourth most shocking death scene in the series . The Radio Times stated the shock factor of his death was " spectacular " and said that " driving a primed car bomb to a safe place is so run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill for the spooks they wouldn 't normally break a sweat . This time , however , it went off . Me @-@ Me @-@ Me.tv has said that Adam 's death was " bound to happen " and stated " just when we 've formed a deep , meaningful and totally healthy relationship with the lead gentleman [ ... ] they go and blow him up " , adding " It 's just not fair . " The Times 's Hilary Rose noted that fans will remember Adam 's " dramatic exit , " and said that " the nation 's women duly went into mourning , " regarding that " pretty much every woman with a pulse seems to fancy Rupert . " She then noted that some would find " consolation in the shape of new Spooks totty Richard Armitage . "
In 2008 , Rupert Penry @-@ Jones won a Crime Thriller Award for " Best Actor " for his portrayal as Adam Carter . Penry @-@ Jones won the award against Ashes to Ashes ' Philip Glenister , Midnight Man and Murphy 's Law 's James Nesbitt , The Wire ' Dominic West , and Criminal Justice ' Ben Whishaw . In the same ceremony , co @-@ star Hermione Norris won " Best Actress " .
= Corinthian War =
The Corinthian War was an ancient Greek conflict lasting from 395 BC until 387 BC , pitting Sparta against a coalition of four allied states , Thebes , Athens , Corinth , and Argos , who were initially backed by Persia . The immediate cause of the war was a local conflict in northwest Greece in which both Thebes and Sparta intervened . The deeper cause was hostility towards Sparta provoked by that city 's " expansionism in Asia Minor , central and northern Greece and even the west " .
The war was fought on two fronts , on land near Corinth ( hence the name ) and Thebes and at sea in the Aegean . On land , the Spartans achieved several early successes in major battles , but were unable to capitalize on their advantage , and the fighting soon became stalemated . At sea , the Spartan fleet was decisively defeated by a Persian fleet early in the war , an event that effectively ended Sparta 's attempts to become a naval power . Taking advantage of this fact , Athens launched several naval campaigns in the later years of the war , recapturing a number of islands that had been part of the original Athenian Empire during the 5th century BC .
Alarmed by these Athenian successes , the Persians stopped backing the allies and began supporting Sparta . This defection forced the allies to seek peace . The Peace of Antalcidas , commonly known as the King 's Peace , was signed in 387 BC , ending the war . This treaty declared that Persia would control all of Ionia , and that all other Greek cities would be independent . Sparta was to be the guardian of the peace , with the power to enforce its clauses . The effects of the war , therefore , were to establish Persia 's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta 's hegemonic position in the Greek political system .
= = Events leading to the war = =
In the Peloponnesian War , which had ended in 404 BC , Sparta had enjoyed the support of nearly every mainland Greek state and the Persian Empire , and in the months and years following that war , a number of the island states of the Aegean had come under its control . This solid base of support , however , was fragmented in the years following the war . Despite the collaborative nature of the victory , Sparta alone received the plunder taken from the defeated states and the tribute payments from the former Athenian Empire . Sparta 's allies were further alienated when , in 402 BC , Sparta attacked and subdued Elis , a member of the Peloponnesian League that had angered the Spartans during the course of the Peloponnesian War . Corinth and Thebes refused to send troops to assist Sparta in its campaign against Elis .
Thebes , Corinth and Athens also refused to participate in a Spartan expedition to Ionia in 398 BC , with the Thebans going so far as to disrupt a sacrifice that the Spartan king Agesilaus attempted to perform in their territory before his departure . Despite the absence of these states , Agesilaus campaigned effectively against the Persians in Lydia , advancing as far inland as Sardis . The satrap Tissaphernes was executed for his failure to contain Agesilaus , and his replacement , Tithraustes , bribed the Spartans to move north , into the satrapy of Pharnabazus . Agesilaus did so , but simultaneously began preparing a sizable navy .
Unable to defeat Agesilaus ' army , Pharnabazus decided to force Agesilaus to withdraw by stirring up trouble on the Greek mainland . He dispatched Timocrates of Rhodes , an Asiatic Greek , to distribute ten thousand gold darics in the major cities of the mainland and incite them to act against Sparta . Timocrates visited Athens , Thebes , Corinth , and Argos , and succeeded in persuading powerful factions in each of those states to pursue an anti @-@ Spartan policy . The Thebans , who had previously demonstrated their antipathy towards Sparta , undertook to bring about a war .
= = Early events ( 395 BC ) = =
= = = Initial fighting = = =
Xenophon claims that , unwilling to challenge Sparta directly , the Thebans instead chose to precipitate a war by encouraging their allies , the Locrians , to collect taxes from territory claimed by both Locris and Phocis . In response , the Phocians invaded Locris , and ransacked Locrian territory . The Locrians appealed to Thebes for assistance , and the Thebans invaded Phocian territory ; the Phocians , in turn , appealed to their ally , Sparta , and the Spartans , pleased to have a pretext to discipline the Thebans , ordered general mobilization . A Theban embassy was dispatched to Athens to request support ; the Athenians voted to assist Thebes , and a perpetual alliance was concluded between Athens and the Boeotian confederacy .
The Spartan plan called for two armies , one under Lysander and the other under Pausanias , to rendezvous at and attack the Boeotian city of Haliartus . Lysander , arriving before Pausanias , successfully persuaded the city of Orchomenus to revolt from the Boeotian confederacy , and advanced to Haliartus with his troops and a force of Orchomenians . There , he was killed in the Battle of Haliartus after bringing his force too near the walls of the city ; the battle ended inconclusively , with the Spartans suffering early losses but then defeating a group of Thebans who pursued the Spartans onto rough terrain where they were at a disadvantage . Pausanias , arriving a day later , took back the bodies of the Spartan dead under a truce , and returned to Sparta . There , he was put on trial for his life for failing to arrive and support Lysander at the designated time . He fled to Tegea before he could be convicted .
= = = Alliance against Sparta expands = = =
In the wake of these events , both the Spartans and their opponents prepared for more serious fighting to come . In late 395 BC , Corinth and Argos entered the war as co @-@ belligerents with Athens and Thebes . A council was formed at Corinth to manage the affairs of this alliance . The allies then sent emissaries to a number of smaller states and received the support of many of them .
Alarmed by these developments , the Spartans prepared to send out an army against this new alliance , and sent a messenger to Agesilaus ordering him to return to Greece . The orders were a disappointment to Agesilaus , who had looked forward to further successful campaigning . It is said he wryly observed , but for ten thousand Persian " archers " , he would have vanquished all Asia . Thus , he turned back with his troops , crossing the Hellespont and marched west through Thrace .
= = War on land and sea ( 394 BC ) = =
= = = Nemea = = =
After a brief engagement between Thebes and Phocis , in which Thebes was victorious , the allies gathered a large army at Corinth . A sizable force was sent out from Sparta to challenge this force . The forces met at the dry bed of the Nemea River , in Corinthian territory , where the Spartans won a decisive victory . As often happened in hoplite battles , the right flank of each army was victorious , with the Spartans defeating the Athenians while the Thebans , Argives , and Corinthians defeated the various Peloponnesians opposite them ; the Spartans then attacked and killed a number of Argives , Corinthians , and Thebans as these troops returned from pursuing the defeated Peloponnesians . The coalition army lost 2 @,@ 800 men , while the Spartans and their allies lost only 1 @,@ 100 .
= = = Cnidus = = =
The next major action of the war took place at sea , where both the Persians and the Spartans had assembled large fleets during Agesilaus 's campaign in Asia . By levying ships from the Aegean states under his control , Agesilaus had raised a force of 120 triremes , which he placed under the command of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Peisander , who had never held a command of this nature before . The Persians , meanwhile , had already assembled a joint Phoenician , Cilician , and Cypriot fleet , under the command of the experienced Athenian admiral Conon , which had seized Rhodes in 396 BC . These two fleets met off the point of Cnidus in 394 BC . The Spartans fought determinedly , particularly in the vicinity of Peisander 's ship , but were eventually overwhelmed ; large numbers of ships were sunk or captured , and the Spartan fleet was essentially wiped from the sea . Following this victory , Conon and Pharnabazus sailed along the coast of Ionia , expelling Spartan governors and garrisons from the cities , although they failed to reduce the Spartan bases at Abydos and Sestos under the command of Dercylidas .
= = = Coronea = = =
By this time , Agesilaus 's army , after brushing off attacks from the Thessalians during its march through that country , had arrived in Boeotia , where it was met by an army gathered from the various states of the anti @-@ Spartan alliance . Agesilaus 's force from Asia , composed largely of emancipated helots and mercenary veterans of the Ten Thousand , was augmented by half a Spartan regiment from Orchomenus , and another half a regiment that had been transported across the Gulf of Corinth . These armies met each other at Coronea , in Theban territory ; as at Nemea , both right wings were victorious , with the Thebans breaking through while the rest of the allies were defeated . Seeing that the rest of their force had been defeated , the Thebans formed up to break back through to their camp . Agesilaus met their force head on , and in the struggle that followed a number of Thebans were killed before the remainder were able to force their way through and rejoin their allies . After this victory , Agesilaus sailed with his army across the Gulf of Corinth and returned to Sparta .
= = Later events ( 393 – 388 BC ) = =
The events of 394 BC left the Spartans with the upper hand on land , but weak at sea . The coalition states had been unable to defeat the Spartan phalanx in the field , but had kept their alliance strong and prevented the Spartans from moving at will through central Greece . The Spartans would continue to attempt , over the next several years , to knock either Corinth or Argos out of the war ; the anti @-@ Spartan allies , meanwhile , sought to preserve their united front against Sparta , while Athens and Thebes took advantage of Sparta 's preoccupation to enhance their own power in areas they had traditionally dominated .
= = = Persian assistance , rebuilding at Athens , civil strife at Corinth = = =
In 393 BC , Conon and Pharnabazus sailed to mainland Greece , where they raided the coast of Laconia and seized the island of Cythera , where they left a garrison and an Athenian governor . They then sailed to Corinth , where they distributed money and urged the members of the council to show the Persian king that they were trustworthy . Pharnabazus then dispatched Conon with substantial funds and a large part of the fleet to Attica , where he joined in the rebuilding of the long walls from Athens to Piraeus , a project that had been initiated by Thrasybulus in 394 BC . With the assistance of the rowers of the fleet , and the workers paid for by the Persian money , the construction was soon completed . Athens quickly took advantage of its possession of walls and a fleet to seize the islands of Scyros , Imbros , and Lemnos , on which it established cleruchies ( citizen colonies ) .
At about this time , civil strife broke out in Corinth between the democratic party and the oligarchic party . The democrats , supported by the Argives , launched an attack on their opponents , and the oligarchs were driven from the city . These exiles went to the Spartans , based at this time at Sicyon , for support , while the Athenians and Boeotians came up to support the democrats . In a night attack , the Spartans and exiles succeeded in seizing Lechaeum , Corinth 's port on the Gulf of Corinth , and defeated the army that came out to challenge them the next day . The anti @-@ Spartan allies then attempted to invest Lechaeum , but the Spartans launched an attack and drove them off .
= = = Peace conferences break down = = =
In 392 BC , the Spartans dispatched an ambassador , Antalcidas , to the satrap Tiribazus , hoping to turn the Persians against the allies by informing them of Conon 's use of the Persian fleet to begin rebuilding the Athenian empire . The Athenians learned of this , and sent Conon and several others to present their case to the Persians ; they also notified their allies , and Argos , Corinth , and Thebes dispatched embassies to Tiribazus . At the conference that resulted , the Spartans proposed a peace based on the independence of all states ; this was rejected by the allies , as Athens wished to hold the gains it had made in the Aegean , Thebes wished to keep its control over the Boeotian league , and Argos already had designs on assimilating Corinth into its state . The conference thus failed , but Tiribazus , alarmed by Conon 's actions , arrested him , and secretly provided the Spartans with money to equip a fleet . Although Conon quickly escaped , he died soon afterward . A second peace conference was held at Sparta in the same year , but the proposals made there were again rejected by the allies , both because of the implications of the autonomy principle and because the Athenians were outraged that the terms proposed would have involved abandoning the Ionian Greeks to Persia .
In the wake of the unsuccessful conference in Persia , Tiribazus returned to Susa to report on events , and a new general , Struthas , was sent out to take command . Struthas pursued an anti @-@ Spartan policy , prompting the Spartans to order their commander in the region , Thibron , to attack him . Thibron successfully ravaged Persian territory for a time , but was killed along with a number of his men when Struthas ambushed one of his poorly organized raiding parties . Thibron was later replaced by Diphridas , who raided more successfully , securing a number of small successes and even capturing Struthas 's son @-@ in @-@ law , but never achieved any dramatic results .
= = = Lechaeum and the seizure of Corinth = = =
At Corinth , the democratic party continued to hold the city proper , while the exiles and their Spartan supporters held Lechaeum , from where they raided the Corinthian countryside . In 391 BC , Agesilaus campaigned in the area , successfully seizing several fortified points , along with a large amount of prisoners and booty . While Agesilaus was in camp preparing to sell off his spoils , the Athenian general Iphicrates , with a force composed almost entirely of light troops and peltasts ( javelin throwers ) , won a decisive victory against the Spartan regiment that had been stationed at Lechaeum in the Battle of Lechaeum . During the battle , Iphicrates took advantage of the Spartans ' lack of peltasts to repeatedly harass the regiment with hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks , wearing the Spartans down until they broke and ran , at which point a number of them were slaughtered . Agesilaus returned home shortly after these events , but Iphicrates continued to campaign around Corinth , recapturing many of the strong points which the Spartans had previously taken , although he was unable to retake Lechaeum . He also campaigned against Phlius and Arcadia , decisively defeating the Phliasians and plundering the territory of the Arcadians when they refused to engage his troops .
After this victory , an Argive army came to Corinth , and , seizing the acropolis , effected the merger of Argos and Corinth . The border stones between Argos and Corinth were torn down , and the citizen bodies of the two cities were merged .
= = = Later land campaigns = = =
After Iphicrates 's victories near Corinth , no more major land campaigns were conducted in that region . Campaigning continued in the Peloponnese and the northwest . Agesilaus had campaigned successfully in Argive territory in 391 BC , and he launched two more major expeditions before the end of the war . In the first of these , in 389 BC , a Spartan expeditionary force crossed the Gulf of Corinth to attack Acarnania , an ally of the anti @-@ Spartan coalition . After initial difficulties in coming to grips with the Acarnanians , who kept to the mountains and avoided engaging him directly , Agesilaus was eventually able to draw them into a pitched battle , in which the Acarnanians were routed and lost a number of men . He then sailed home across the Gulf . The next year , the Acarnanians made peace with the Spartans to avoid further invasions .
In 388 BC , Agesipolis led a Spartan army against Argos . Since no Argive army challenged him , he plundered the countryside for a time , and then , after receiving several unfavorable omens , returned home .
= = = Later campaigns in the Aegean = = =
After their defeat at Cnidus , the Spartans began to rebuild a fleet , and , in fighting with Corinth , had regained control of the Gulf of Corinth by 392 BC . Following the failure of the peace conferences of 392 BC , the Spartans sent a small fleet , under the commander Ecdicus , to the Aegean with orders to assist oligarchs exiled from Rhodes . Ecdicus arrived at Rhodes to find the democrats fully in control , and in possession of more ships than him , and thus waited at Cnidus . The Spartans then dispatched their fleet from the Gulf of Corinth , under Teleutias , to assist . After picking up more ships at Samos , Teleutias took command at Cnidus and commenced operations against Rhodes .
Alarmed by this Spartan naval resurgence , the Athenians sent out a fleet of 40 triremes under Thrasybulus . He , judging that he could accomplish more by campaigning where the Spartan fleet was not than by challenging it directly , sailed to the Hellespont . Once there , he won over several major states to the Athen
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leather . The wine is best to drink while it is young .
= The Deposition ( The Office ) =
" The Deposition " is the twelfth episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's sixty @-@ fifth episode overall . Written by consulting producer Lester Lewis and directed by Julian Farino , the episode originally aired in the United States on November 15 , 2007 on NBC . " The Deposition " was the last original episode of the show to air before the show went on hiatus due to the 2007 Writers Guild of America strike .
Jan and Michael travel to New York City for the deposition of Jan 's lawsuit against the company . While Michael originally intends to be a witness against the company , he ends up defending the company . Meanwhile , Kelly talks smack to Pam after Darryl beats Jim in a game of ping pong , prompting Jim to spend the entire day practicing in the conference room .
= = Plot = =
After his girlfriend Jan Levenson ( Melora Hardin ) sues her former employer Dunder Mifflin for wrongful termination , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) finds himself forced by Jan to be a witness against his employer . Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) wants to make sure Michael won 't say anything against Dunder Mifflin because Jan 's his girlfriend . Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) comes along as the HR representative , against Michael 's protests . The deposition goes well for Jan at first , as she claims that she was terminated due to discrimination over her breast augmentation . To counter evidence that she had a romantic relationship with Michael before they disclosed it to corporate , Jan submits Michael 's personal diary , which she brought to the deposition without his knowledge or permission . Michael is further incensed against Jan when he learns that she gave him a scathing performance review after they had begun dating . Michael learns he was never a contender when interviewing for Jan 's former position at the corporate office , with the CFO insisting repeatedly that he is a nice guy , but ultimately unsuited for the position . Michael defends the company anyway , and later states that " you expect to get screwed by your company , but you never expect to get screwed by your girlfriend . " Jan and Michael drive home , clearly angry at each other over the events of the day .
Back at the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of Dunder Mifflin , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) repeatedly loses to warehouse foreman Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) at ping pong , prompting Darryl 's girlfriend Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) to gloat to Jim 's girlfriend Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) over her boyfriend 's superior skills . Unable to tolerate Kelly ’ s trash @-@ talk , Pam builds a makeshift ping pong table in the conference room for Jim to practice against other office employees . Throughout the day , Jim practices against his coworkers , eventually discovering Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) prowess at the game . When Jim and Darryl have a rematch , Jim again loses to Darryl . Fed up with Kelly 's continued taunting , Pam challenges her to a game of ping pong , but the two are pathetically incompetent players . Jim and Darryl quickly bore of watching them and decide to play ping pong in the conference room . The episode concludes with Dwight playing a high @-@ intensity game of ping pong against his cousin Mose Schrute ( Michael Schur ) , with the two at an apparent stalemate .
= = Production = =
" The Deposition " was the first episode of The Office to be written by Lester Lewis . Lewis also works for the show as a consulting producer . The episode was the second of the show to be directed by Julian Farino . Farino also directed the third season episode " Back from Vacation " . " The Deposition " was the last original episode of The Office to air in 2007 due to the effects of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . The Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) went on strike at 12 : 01AM Eastern Standard Time on November 5 , 2007 . Filming of The Office immediately halted on that date , as Steve Carell , who is a member of the WGA , refused to cross WGA picket lines . Members of Writers Guild of America , East and Writers Guild of America , West voted to end the 100 @-@ day strike on February 12 , 2008 . Writers were allowed to return to work on the same day . The WGA allowed for show runners to return to work on February 11 , in preparation for the conclusion of the strike . The show runner for The Office , Executive Producer Greg Daniels , returned on the February 11 , while the show 's writers returned to work on February 13 . The Office finally returned with original episodes on April 10 , 2008 , with the episode " Dinner Party " .
Executive producer and show runner Greg Daniels stated that one of the main purposes of " The Deposition " was to add on to the tension building between Michael and Jan. This tension would finally end its build @-@ up with the splitting of Michael and Jan in the episode " Dinner Party " . The scene where Michael pushes Toby 's lunch tray off the table was not scripted . The crew was doing one last take of the scene and actor Paul Lieberstein suggested that Steve Carell push his food off the table . The ping pong game between Dwight and Mose was made using Computer @-@ generated imagery . Rainn Wilson and Michael Schur mimed the actions of a ping pong game , and during the stages of editing and post @-@ production the ping pong ball was added in as an effect .
= = Cultural references = =
Dwight names Zoran Primorac , Jan @-@ Ove Waldner , Wang Tao , Jorg Rosskopf , Ashraf Helmy , Hugo Hoyama , and Andrzej Grubba as his personal heroes ; all of whom are professional table tennis players .
= = Reception = =
" The Deposition " received a 5 @.@ 1 Nielsen rating and an 8 % Share . The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 86 million viewers and achieved a 4 @.@ 8 / 11 in the key adults 18 to 49 demographic , meaning that 4 @.@ 8 percent of all people 18 to 49 watched the episode , and 11 percent of all people 18 to 49 watching television at the time watched the episode .
Rick Porter of Zap2It.com praised the writing of the episode , as well as the acting of Mindy Kaling and Jenna Fischer . Porter also praised the final scene of the episode , when Jan and Michael drive home after the day . Porter stated " I don 't know whether to laugh or turn away in shame from that final scene , though , as they bicker about what to eat while they 're driving home . It was like watching two friends fight -- fascinating and incredibly uncomfortable at the same time . " Christine Fenno , of Entertainment Weekly , stated " ' The Deposition ' was a simmering slow cooker of corporate intrigue , flavored by Michael Scott 's ridiculousness , with spicy smack talk on the side . " Fenno , like Porter , also praised the acting of Jenna Fischer , saying that she " stole the low @-@ key opening scenes " . Travis Fickett , of IGN , stated that " this happens to be the best episode of the season and one of the best episodes of the series . It 's almost as if the writers planned it this way - to emphasize their importance and remind us how much we 'll miss them when they 're gone . " Fickett went on to praise the acting between Steve Carell ( Michael ) and Paul Lieberstein ( Toby ) . BuddyTV Senior Writer Oscar Dahl stated that the episode was an oddity among the series , saying " The Deposition " was an atypical episode of The Office , one that basically put the character of Michael Scott on trial and humiliated him over and over again . "
= Dwight Christmas =
" Dwight Christmas " is the ninth episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office . The episode was written by Robert Padnick and directed by Charles McDougall . It originally aired on NBC on December 6 , 2012 . The episode guest stars Robert R. Shafer as Bob Vance and Mark Proksch as Nate .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) gets everyone to celebrate with a traditional Schrute Pennsylvania Dutch Christmas . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) fears that Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) has forgotten to include him in the new job in Philadelphia . Pete ( Jake Lacy ) teaches Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) about his favorite movie , Die Hard .
" Dwight Christmas " received generally positive reviews from television critics , with many noting that it resembled past Christmas episodes of The Office . The episode was also viewed by 4 @.@ 16 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking fourth in its timeslot . The episode , however , ultimately ranked as the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
The party planning committee drops the ball on the annual Christmas party , and on the behest of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) gets everyone to celebrate with a traditional Schrute Pennsylvania Dutch Christmas . He dresses up as the traditional winter Christmas gift @-@ bringer figure Belsnickel , cooks German food , and plays a game similar to " Naughty or Nice " . The festivities cause displeasure among all the employees save Jim and Pam , who are amused by Dwight 's antics . Jim , however , announces he is leaving the party early to arrive in Philadelphia for his sports marketing job . In response , Dwight repeatedly hits Jim with his switch . When Meredith Palmer requests that Dwight use the switch on her buttocks , he ends the festivities in disgust , and a " normal " Christmas party is started . Although Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) tries to cheer him up , she too is saddened by Jim 's absence . Jim returns later , having found that there is a 5 a.m. bus the next morning , and both Dwight and Pam are delighted by his return . During the party , Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) fears that Jim has forgotten to include him in the new job in Philadelphia , and gets extremely drunk . When he goes to confront Jim , Jim — not knowing that Darryl was upset — excitedly tells him that he has arranged an interview for him . Darryl , appeased , turns around but passes out and crashes down on the catering table .
Meanwhile , Pete Miller ( Jake Lacy ) teaches Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) about his favorite movie , Die Hard , and attempts to recite all the dialogue from memory while an impressed Erin checks his accuracy using an online transcript . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , who is still away in the Caribbean after sailing his family 's boat , emails Erin and says that he is going to stay for a few weeks . Hurt , Erin decides to watch Die Hard with Pete rather than just hear him quote it . While watching the movie , Erin begins to cry and Pete tries to comfort her by placing his arm around her . In the meantime , Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) tells Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) about the Scranton Strangler case he was on . After boring her for what is implied to be several hours , she hushes him , before gently kissing him . Toby then whips off his glasses and kisses her back .
= = Production = =
" Dwight Christmas " was written by executive story editor Robert Padnick , marking his fourth writing credit for the series after joining the writing staff in the seventh season . It was directed by Charles McDougall , his first directing credit for the season . McDougal 's first job for the series was directing its first Christmas episode during the show 's second season . The basic plot of the episode , involving Belsnickel , had originally been conceived during the writing for fourth season and was going to air as that year 's Christmas installment . However , the 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike halted production , and the unfinished script was never used . According to executive producer and showrunner Greg Daniels , the writing staff wanted to use the premise for many years , but could never find a right time to implement it , until an opportunity during the show 's last season presented itself . Before the episode aired , Kemper , in an interview with TV Guide said that " I feel like I might be expected to say this because it is the last one , but I truly love this episode so much " and that she " specifically love [ s ] Dwight 's storyline " because " he brings in his family Christmas traditions . I 've always held Dwight as one of my favorite characters and now ' Dwight Christmas ' just takes it to a new level . " Fischer said that filming the last Christmas episode was " emotional " and regretted not being able to have Mindy Kaling , who portrayed Kelly Kapoor on the series , film a karaoke scene . This is the second episode of season nine to not feature Andy or Clark . Ed Helms , who portrayed Andy , left the show temporarily in the season 's sixth episode " The Boat " in order to film The Hangover Part III , whereas Clark Duke , who portrayed Clark , left for a few episodes to film Kick @-@ Ass 2 .
= = Cultural references = =
Dwight , who dresses up as Belsnickel , has one of the warehouse workers , Nate , dress up as Belsnickel 's assistant , Zwarte Piet , before the office vetoes the idea , feeling that it is racist . Dwight presents the camera with a picture of he and his brother celebrating Christmas , and a version of the same photo decorated in the style of the 1999 science fiction film The Matrix . When Jim is trying to convince the office to do Dwight 's idea , he mispronounces one of the German character 's names , calling him " Hufflepuff " , one of the four houses of the magical school Hogwarts from the book series Harry Potter by J.K. Rowling . Creed Bratton ( a fictionalized version of the actual Creed Bratton ) mentions that , for this years party , he wants a " Tapas Swiss Miss " -themed party , which is a combination of Spanish tapas and Swiss Miss hot cocoa . Andy , via email , tells Erin that he saw the 2012 movie Life of Pi , an adaptation of the book of the same name . He also notes that he wants to see the first part of Peter Jackson 's 2012 film The Hobbit : An Unexpected Journey . Pete and Kevin make several references to the film Die Hard by quoting lines from the movie , with Erin and Pete eventually watching the movie .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Dwight Christmas " aired on NBC on December 6 , 2012 . In its original American broadcast , the episode was viewed by 4 @.@ 16 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The Office ranked fourth in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 % rating , an entry of the CBS series Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 9 / 8 % , and an installment of the Fox program Glee , which earned a 2 @.@ 2 / 6 % rating . In addition , The Office was the highest @-@ rated NBC television program . The episode ranked number one in its timeslot for men aged 18 – 34 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics . Andrea Reiher of Zap2it named " Dwight Christmas " the best comedy TV episode of 2012 . She wrote that the episode " was not only funny but had a huge nostalgia factor " , and continued the show 's trend of strong holiday episodes . Reiher also praised the episode 's two subplots , writing that " drunk Darryl and Die Hard " helped produce " a classic episode of The Office that brought back the warm and fuzzy feelings of the early seasons of the show . "
Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste awarded the episode an 8 out of 10 . Although she noted that Erin and Pete 's subplot " could 've easily been ripped from the season two Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Roy storyline " , she concluded that " The Office successfully found a way to make its final Christmas count . " Damon Houx of Screen Crush called the episode " a really good Christmas episode " that " got [ the ] central three characters absolutely right " . Although he wrote that the show was missing several cast members , like Helms and Duke , it was " as good as the post @-@ Carell Office has been " . Cindy White of IGN awarded the episode a 9 out of 10 , denoting an " amazing episode " . She wrote that it " harkens back to forgotten holiday traditions of old , like good Christmas episodes of The Office " . She also concluded that " the nostalgia swirling around Dwight Christmas was particularly noticeable " which she deduced was probably " a conscious effort here on the part of the writers to recapture that old Office magic and make this one to remember , and I think that effort paid off . "
Brett Davinger of the California Literary Review wrote that , while the episode 's plot was " not particularly notable " on the surface , it manages to work " because of Rainn Wilson ’ s commitment to it " . Furthermore , he wrote that the episode concluded the first half of the season in a " respectable and respectful " manner . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and called it " a worthy extension of [ The Office Christmas ] tradition " and " definitely one of the best episodes of this final season " . He praised Dwight 's antics as well as Kevin 's humorous lines . Michael Tedder Vulture awarded the episode four stars out of five and wrote that " part of the charm of this episode was that the writers didn 't try to stuff it with too much plot " . One of the very few mixed reviews was written by Caroline Framke of The A.V. Club , who awarded the episode a " B – " and argued that " Dwight Christmas " was trying too hard to replicate the humor of the second season episode " Christmas Party " . She concluded that the episode " ranks as more impish than admirable . "
= The Year of the Sex Olympics =
The Year of the Sex Olympics is a 1968 television play made by the BBC and first broadcast on BBC2 as part of Theatre 625 . It stars Leonard Rossiter , Tony Vogel , Suzanne Neve and Brian Cox . It was directed by Michael Elliott . The writer was Nigel Kneale , best known as the creator of Quatermass .
Influenced by concerns about overpopulation , the counterculture of the 1960s and the societal effects of television , the play depicts a world of the future where a small elite control the media , keeping the lower classes docile by serving them an endless diet of lowest common denominator programmes and pornography . The play concentrates on an idea the programme controllers have for a new programme which will follow the trials and tribulations of a group of people left to fend for themselves on a remote island . In this respect , the play is often cited as having anticipated the craze for reality television .
Kneale had fourteen years earlier adapted George Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four as a classic and controversial BBC broadcast and the play reflects much of Kneale 's assimilation of Orwell 's concern about the power of the media and Kneale 's experience of the evolving media industry .
= = Plot summary = =
In the future , society is divided between ' low @-@ drives ' that equate with the labouring classes and ' hi @-@ drives ' who control the government and media . The low @-@ drives are controlled by a constant broadcast of pornography that the hi @-@ drives are convinced will pacify them , though one hi @-@ drive , Nat Mender ( Tony Vogel ) , believes that the media should be used to educate the low @-@ drives . After the accidental death of a protester during the Sex Olympics gets a massive audience response , the Co @-@ ordinator Ugo Priest ( Leonard Rossiter ) decides to commission a new programme . In The Live Life Show , Nat Mender , his partner Deanie ( Suzanne Neve ) and their daughter Keten ( Lesley Roach ) are stranded on a remote Scottish island while the low @-@ drive audience watches . Mender 's former colleague , Lasar Opie ( Brian Cox ) , realising that “ something got to happen ” , decides to spice up the show by introducing a psychopath , Grels ( George Murcell ) to the island . When Grels goes on a murderous rampage , Ugo Priest is horrified when the audience reacts with laughter to the slaughter and The Live Life Show is deemed a triumph .
= = Background = =
= = = Origins = = =
Nigel Kneale was a Manx television playwright who had come to prominence in the 1950s thanks to his adaptation of Orwell 's Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four and his three Quatermass serials , all of which had been made by the BBC . Kneale had since become disenchanted with the BBC , mainly because he had received no extra money when the BBC sold the film rights to The Quatermass Experiment , and had turned to freelance writing , producing scripts for Associated Television and for Hammer Films . When approached by the BBC for a script for the BBC2 anthology series Theatre 625 , Kneale , still upset over the sale of the film rights to The Quatermass Experiment turned them down . The Director General of the BBC , Sir Hugh Greene intervened and arranged a £ 3 @,@ 000 ex gratia payment to Kneale in recognition of Quatermass ' success . Kneale accepted a commission from Theatre 625 producer Michael Bakewell on Friday , 7 April 1967 for what would become The Year of the Sex Olympics .
Kneale 's concept concerned " the world of the future , and a way of keeping the population happy without being active " . According to Kneale , the notion for the play came from the " worldwide dread of populations exploding out of all control " leading him to devise a world where pornography hooks the population " on a substitute for sex rather than the real thing and so keeping the population down " . Kneale was also influenced by the dropout counterculture of the late 1960s , recalling " I didn 't like the Sixties at all because of the whole thing of ' let it all hang out ' and let 's stop thinking [ ... ] which was the all too frequent theme of the Sixties which I hated " . Dissatisfaction with the youth culture of the time was a preoccupation of Kneale 's : in the mid @-@ sixties he had worked on an unmade script , The Big , Big , Giggle , about a teenage suicide cult and following The Year of the Sex Olympics , returned to the theme of youth out of control in his 1969 play Bam ! Pow ! Zapp ! and in the fourth and final Quatermass serial in 1979 . Many cultural icons of the youth movement including members of The Beatles , Pink Floyd and Monty Python , were fans of Kneale 's work . For The Year of the Sex Olympics Kneale extrapolated the possible consequences of the youth movement 's desire for freedom from " traditional " cultural inhibitions , asking as the academic John R. Cook puts it , " In a world of no limits , will the result quickly be apathy if there is nothing any more to get excited about , nothing precious or illicit to fight for in the teeth of the censor ? " .
Kneale also sought to make " a comment on television and the idea of the passive audience " , depicting a world where the media is controlled by an elite who feed the population with a diet of low quality programmes and echoing the Orwellian concept of language reduction , where vocabulary has been eroded through exposure to advertising slogans , mediaspeak and predominantly visual media . He later recalled , " I thought people in those conditions would have very , very , reduced language — they wouldn 't be really a verbal society any more , and I think we 're heading towards that . Television is mainly responsible for it , the fact that people are now conditioned to image . The pictures they see on television screens more and more dominate their thinking , as far as people do a lot of thinking , and if you had a verbally reduced society , you would get the kind of language — possibly — that you did get in the play " .
= = = Production = = =
Kneale 's script was accepted on 25 October 1967 by Ronald Travers , who had taken over as producer from Michael Bakewell on Theatre 625 . Production began in early 1968 with Michael Elliot as director . Elliot initially asked Leo McKern to take on the key role of Co @-@ ordinator Ugo Priest but with McKern unavailable he turned to Leonard Rossiter . Writing to Rossiter , offering him the part , Elliot described The Year of the Sex Olympics as " the most important play Nigel Kneale has written since Quatermass " . Cast as Lasar Opie was Brian Cox who would go on to have a distinguished career in film and television .
The Year of the Sex Olympics proved to be a difficult production when the ' Clean @-@ Up TV ' campaigner Mary Whitehouse of the National Viewers and Listeners Association obtained a copy of the script and attempted to block the production . Her objections were overruled by Hugh Greene . Location filming — for the outdoor scenes set on the island that appears in The Live Life Show — took place on the Isle of Man between 8 and 10 May 1968 . A mishap occurred during the shoot when Tony Vogel slipped and broke his wrist . Filming continued at Ealing Film Studios between 13 and 15 May covering the elements that would be played into the screens on the set during studio recording such as the Sportsex , Artsex and Foodshow programmes as well as the audience reaction shots . The scene where Kin Hodder falls to his death was also shot at Ealing . Following rehearsals , the production moved to BBC Television Centre between 12 and 14 June . Industrial action by BBC electricians interrupted the production and by the end of the recording session , the final ten minutes of the play remained untaped , leading to a remount on 23 June to complete the outstanding scenes .
BBC2 was the only UK television station broadcasting in colour at the time . The Year of the Sex Olympics presented a production with gaudy sets , costumes and makeup . In a contemporary review of the play for The Sun newspaper , Nancy Banks @-@ Smith commented that , " If you didn 't see it in colour , you didn 't really see it " .
The Year of the Sex Olympics was broadcast at 9 : 08pm on BBC2 on Monday , 29 July 1968 . Appearing on arts programme Late Night Line Up later that night to discuss the play , Kneale said , " You can 't write about the future . One can play with the processes that might occur in the future , but one is really always writing about the present because that is what we know . It 's largely an image of television as I know it " . Sean Day @-@ Lewis , writing in The Daily Telegraph hailed the programme as a " highly original play written with great force and making as many valid points about the dangers of the future as any science fiction I can remember — including 1984 ! " . The Year of the Sex Olympics was watched by 1 @.@ 5 million viewers . Audience Research Report indicated that many viewers found the play impenetrable . It was repeated on BBC1 in 1970 with 15 minutes cut from the running time , as part of The Wednesday Play strand .
As often happened in this era , the colour master tapes of The Year of the Sex Olympics were wiped some time after broadcast and the play was believed lost until the 1980s when a black and white telerecording was discovered . This copy was released on DVD , with an introduction by film and television historian Kim Newman , a commentary by actor Brian Cox and a copy of the original script , by the British Film Institute in 2003 .
= = Cultural significance = =
One of the first to draw comparisons with The Year of the Sex Olympics and the rise of reality television programmes ( soap operas without professional actors ) , such as Big Brother , Castaway 2000 and Survivor , was the journalist Nancy Banks @-@ Smith in a review of the first series of the UK version of Big Brother for The Guardian in 2000 , a theme she later expounded upon in 2003 , writing that the play " foretold the reality show and , in the scramble for greater sensation , its logical outcome " . Banks @-@ Smith had long been an admirer of The Year of the Sex Olympics , having written in The Sun following its original broadcast in 1968 : " Quite apart from the excellent script and the ' big big ' treatment , the play radiated ripples . Is television a substitute for living ? Does the spectacle of pain at a distance atrophy sympathy ? Can this coffin with knobs on furnish all we need to ask ? " . Another admirer , the writer and actor Mark Gatiss , has said that upon seeing Big Brother he yelled at the television , " Don 't they know what they 're doing ? [ ... ] It 's The Year of the Sex Olympics ! Nigel Kneale was right ! " . When The Year of the Sex Olympics was repeated on BBC Four on 22 May 2003 , Paul Hoggart in The Times noted that " in many respects Kneale was right on the money [ ... ] when you consider that nothing gets contemporary reality show audiences more excited than an emotional train @-@ wreck on live TV " .
Although the reality television of The Live Life Show is the aspect most commentators pick up on , The Year of the Sex Olympics is also a wider satire on sensationalist television and the media in general . Mark Gatiss has noted that the Artsex and Foodshow programmes that also appear in the play " ingeniously depicted the future of lowest common denominator TV " . This view is echoed by the writer and critic Kim Newman who has said that " as an extreme exercise in revolutionary self @-@ criticism on the part of television professionals , who also lampoon their own world of chattering commentators and ratings @-@ chasing sensationalism , the play [ ... ] is a trenchant contribution to a series of debates that is still raging " and has concluded that " Nigel Kneale might be quite justified in shouting , " I was right ! I was right ! " " .
= Sviatoslav I of Kiev =
Sviatoslav I Igorevich ( Old East Slavic : С ~ тославъ / Свѧтославъ Игорєвичь , Sventoslavŭ / Svantoslavŭ Igorevičǐ ; Old Norse : Sveinald Ingvarsson ; Russian : Святослав Игоревич , Sviatoslav Igorevich ; Ukrainian : Святослав Ігорович , Sviatoslav Ihorovych ; Belarusian : Святаслаў Ігаравіч , Sviataslaŭ Iharavich ; Bulgarian : Светослав , Svetoslav , Greek : Σφενδοσθλάβος , Sphendosthlabos ) ( c . 942 – March 972 ) , also spelled Svyatoslav , Grand prince of Kiev . The son of Igor of Kiev and Olga , Sviatoslav is famous for his persistent campaigns in the east and south , which precipitated the collapse of two great powers of Eastern Europe , Khazaria and the First Bulgarian Empire . He also conquered numerous East Slavic tribes , defeated the Alans and attacked the Volga Bulgars , and at times was allied with the Pechenegs and Magyars .
His decade @-@ long reign over the Kievan Rus ' was marked by rapid expansion into the Volga River valley , the Pontic steppe , and the Balkans . By the end of his short life , Sviatoslav carved out for himself the largest state in Europe , eventually moving his capital in 969 from Kiev ( modern @-@ day Ukraine ) to Pereyaslavets ( identified as the modern village of Nufăru , Romania ) on the Danube . In contrast with his mother 's conversion to Christianity , Sviatoslav remained a staunch pagan all of his life . Due to his abrupt death in ambush , his conquests , for the most part , were not consolidated into a functioning empire , while his failure to establish a stable succession led to a fratricidal feud among his three sons , resulting in two of them being killed .
= = Name = =
Sviatoslav is the first ruler of the Kievan Rus ' recorded in the Primary Chronicle with a name of Slavic origin ( as opposed to his predecessors , whose names derived from Old Norse ) . This name , however , is not recorded in other medieval Slavic countries . Nevertheless , Sveinald is the Old East Norse cognate with the Slavic form as attested in the patronymic Old East Norse name of Vladimir : Valdamarr Sveinaldsson . This patronymic naming convention , continues namely in Icelandic and in East Slavic languages . Even in Rus ' , it was attested only among the members of the house of Rurik , as were the names of Sviatoslav 's immediate successors : Vladimir , Yaroslav , and Mstislav . This is questionable , however , as these names follow conventions well established in other Slavic lands , and it ignores Vladimir of Bulgaria , who ruled between 889 @-@ 893 . Some scholars speculate that the name of Sviatoslav , composed of the Slavic roots for " holy " and " glory " , was an artificial derivation combining those of his predecessors Oleg and Rurik ( they mean " holy " and " glorious " in Old Norse , respectively ) . On the other hand , such a compound structure name was already known from Great Moravia , as in the rulers named Svatopluk . Clearly Sviatoslav 's name belongs to this tradition , as he had a son by the name of Yaropolk , of much the same form , and a grandson by the same name , Sviatopolk .
= = Early life and personality = =
Virtually nothing is known about Sviatoslav 's childhood and youth , which he spent reigning in Novgorod . Sviatoslav 's father , Igor , was killed by the Drevlians around 945 , and his mother , Olga , ruled as regent in Kiev until Sviatoslav reached maturity ( ca . 963 ) . Sviatoslav was tutored by a Varangian named Asmud . The tradition of employing Varangian tutors for the sons of ruling princes survived well into the 11th century . Sviatoslav appears to have had little patience for administration . His life was spent with his druzhina ( roughly , " company " ) in permanent warfare against neighboring states . According to the Primary Chronicle , he carried on his expeditions neither wagons nor kettles , and he boiled no meat , rather cutting off small strips of horseflesh , game , or beef to eat after roasting it on the coals . Nor did he have a tent , rather spreading out a horse @-@ blanket under him and setting his saddle under his head , and all his retinue did likewise .
Sviatoslav 's appearance has been described very clearly by Leo the Deacon , who himself attended the meeting of Sviatoslav with John I Tzimiskes . Following Deacon 's memories , Sviatoslav was a blue @-@ eyed male of average height but of stalwart build , much more sturdy than Tzimiskes . He shaved his blond head and his beard but wore a bushy mustache and a sidelock as a sign of his nobility . He preferred to dress in white , and it was noted that his garments were much cleaner than those of his men , although he had a lot in common with his warriors . He wore a single large gold earring bearing a carbuncle and two pearls .
= = Religious beliefs = =
Sviatoslav 's mother , Olga , converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity at the court of Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus in 957 . However , Sviatoslav remained a pagan all of his life . In the treaty of 971 between Sviatoslav and the Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes , the Rus ' are swearing by Perun and Veles . According to the Primary Chronicle , he believed that his warriors ( druzhina ) would lose respect for him and mock him if he became a Christian . The allegiance of his warriors was of paramount importance in his conquest of an empire that stretched from the Volga to the Danube .
= = Family = =
Very little is known of Sviatoslav 's family life . It is possible that he was not the only ( or the eldest ) son of his parents . The Russo @-@ Byzantine treaty of 945 mentions a certain Predslava , Volodislav 's wife , as the noblest of the Rus ' women after Olga . The fact that Predslava was Oleg 's mother is presented by Vasily Tatishchev . He also speculated that Predslava was of a Hungarian nobility . George Vernadsky was among many historians to speculate that Volodislav was Igor 's eldest son and heir who died at some point during Olga 's regency . Another chronicle told that Oleg ( ? - 944 ? ) was the eldest son of Igor . At the time of Igor 's death , Sviatoslav was still a child , and he was raised by his mother or under her instructions . Her influence , however , did not extend to his religious observance .
Sviatoslav had several children , but the origin of his wives is not specified in the chronicle . By his wives , he had Yaropolk and Oleg . By Malusha , a woman of indeterminate origins , Sviatoslav had Vladimir , who would ultimately break with his father 's paganism and convert Rus ' to Christianity . John Skylitzes reported that Vladimir had a brother named Sfengus ; whether this Sfengus was a son of Sviatoslav , a son of Malusha by a prior or subsequent husband , or an unrelated Rus ' nobleman is unclear .
= = Eastern campaigns = =
Shortly after his accession to the throne , Sviatoslav began campaigning to expand Rus ' control over the Volga valley and the Pontic steppe region . His greatest success was the conquest of Khazaria , which for centuries had been one of the strongest states of Eastern Europe . The sources are not clear about the roots of the conflict between Khazaria and Rus ' , so several possibilities have been suggested . The Rus ' had an interest in removing the Khazar hold on the Volga trade route because the Khazars collected duties from the goods transported by the Volga . Historians have suggested that the Byzantine Empire may have incited the Rus ' against the Khazars , who fell out with the Byzantines after the persecutions of the Jews in the reign of Romanus I Lecapenus .
Sviatoslav began by rallying the East Slavic vassal tribes of the Khazars to his cause . Those who would not join him , such as the Vyatichs , were attacked and forced to pay tribute to the Kievan Rus ' rather than to the Khazars . According to a legend recorded in the Primary Chronicle , Sviatoslav sent a message to the Vyatich rulers , consisting of a single phrase : " I want to come at you ! " ( Old East Slavic : " хощю на вы ити " ) This phrase is used in modern Russian ( usually misquoted as " Иду на вы " ) and in modern Ukrainian ( " Іду на ви " ) to denote an unequivocal declaration of one 's intentions . Proceeding by the Oka and Volga rivers , he attacked Volga Bulgaria . He employed Oghuz and Pecheneg mercenaries in this campaign , perhaps to counter the superior cavalry of the Khazars and Bulgars .
Sviatoslav destroyed the Khazar city of Sarkel around 965 , possibly sacking ( but not occupying ) the Khazar city of Kerch on the Crimea as well . At Sarkel he established a Rus ' settlement called Belaya Vyezha ( " the white tower " or " the white fortress " , the East Slavic translation for " Sarkel " ) . He subsequently destroyed the Khazar capital of Atil . A visitor to Atil wrote soon after Sviatoslav 's campaign : " The Rus ' attacked , and no grape or raisin remained , not a leaf on a branch . " The exact chronology of his Khazar campaign is uncertain and disputed ; for example , Mikhail Artamonov and David Christian proposed that the sack of Sarkel came after the destruction of Atil .
Although Ibn Haukal reports the sack of Samandar by Sviatoslav , the Rus ' leader did not bother to occupy the Khazar heartlands north of the Caucasus Mountains permanently . On his way back to Kiev , Sviatoslav chose to strike against the Ossetians and force them into subservience . Therefore , Khazar successor statelets continued their precarious existence in the region . The destruction of Khazar imperial power paved the way for Kievan Rus ' to dominate north @-@ south trade routes through the steppe and across the Black Sea , routes that formerly had been a major source of revenue for the Khazars . Moreover , Sviatoslav 's campaigns led to increased Slavic settlement in the region of the Saltovo @-@ Mayaki culture , greatly changing the demographics and culture of the transitional area between the forest and the steppe .
= = Campaigns in the Balkans = =
The annihilation of Khazaria was undertaken against the background of the Rus ' -Byzantine alliance , concluded in the wake of Igor 's Byzantine campaign in 944 . Close military ties between the Rus ' and Byzantium are illustrated by the fact , reported by John Skylitzes , that a Rus ' detachment accompanied Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros Phokas in his victorious naval expedition to Crete .
In 967 or 968 , Nikephoros sent to Sviatoslav his agent , Kalokyros , with the task of talking Sviatoslav into assisting him in a war against Bulgaria . Sviatoslav was paid 15 @,@ 000 pounds of gold and set sail with an army of 60 @,@ 000 men , including thousands of Pecheneg mercenaries .
Sviatoslav defeated the Bulgarian ruler Boris II and proceeded to occupy the whole of northern Bulgaria . Meanwhile , the Byzantines bribed the Pechenegs to attack and besiege Kiev , where Olga stayed with Sviatoslav 's son Vladimir . The siege was relieved by the druzhina of Pretich , and immediately following the Pecheneg retreat , Olga sent a reproachful letter to Sviatoslav . He promptly returned and defeated the Pechenegs , who continued to threaten Kiev .
Sviatoslav refused to turn his Balkan conquests over to the Byzantines , and the parties fell out as a result . To the chagrin of his boyars and his mother ( who died within three days after learning about his decision ) , Sviatoslav decided to move his capital to Pereyaslavets in the mouth of the Danube due to the great potential of that location as a commercial hub . In the Primary Chronicle record for 969 , Sviatoslav explains that it is to Pereyaslavets , the centre of his lands , " all the riches flow : gold , silks , wine , and various fruits from Greece , silver and horses from Hungary and Bohemia , and from Rus ' furs , wax , honey , and slaves " .
In summer 969 , Sviatoslav left Rus ' again , dividing his dominion into three parts , each under a nominal rule of one of his sons . At the head of an army that included Pecheneg and Magyar auxiliary troops , he invaded Bulgaria again , devastating Thrace , capturing the city of Philippopolis , and massacring its inhabitants . Nikephoros responded by repairing the defenses of Constantinople and raising new squadrons of armored cavalry . In the midst of his preparations , Nikephoros was overthrown and killed by John Tzimiskes , who thus became the new Byzantine emperor .
John Tzimiskes first attempted to persuade Sviatoslav into leaving Bulgaria , but he was unsuccessful . Challenging the Byzantine authority , Sviatoslav crossed the Danube and laid siege to Adrianople , causing panic on the streets of Constantinople in summer 970 . Later that year , the Byzantines launched a counteroffensive . Being occupied with suppressing a revolt of Bardas Phokas in Asia Minor , John Tzimiskes sent his commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Bardas Skleros , who defeated the coalition of Rus ' , Pechenegs , Magyars , and Bulgarians in the Battle of Arcadiopolis . Meanwhile , John , having quelled the revolt of Bardas Phokas , came to the Balkans with a large army and promoting himself as the liberator of Bulgaria from Sviatoslav , penetrated the impracticable mountain passes and shortly thereafter captured Marcianopolis , where the Rus ' were holding a number of Bulgar princes hostage .
Sviatoslav retreated to Dorostolon , which the Byzantine armies besieged for sixty @-@ five days . Cut off and surrounded , Sviatoslav came to terms with John and agreed to abandon the Balkans , renounce his claims to the southern Crimea , and return west of the Dnieper River . In return , the Byzantine emperor supplied the Rus ' with food and safe passage home . Sviatoslav and his men set sail and landed on Berezan Island at the mouth of the Dnieper , where they made camp for the winter . Several months later , their camp was devastated by famine , so that even a horse 's head could not be bought for less than a half @-@ grivna , reports the Kievan chronicler of the Primary Chronicle . While Sviatoslav 's campaign brought no tangible results for the Rus ' , it weakened the Bulgarian statehood and left it vulnerable to the attacks of Basil the Bulgar @-@ Slayer four decades later .
= = Death and aftermath = =
Fearing that the peace with Sviatoslav would not endure , the Byzantine emperor induced the Pecheneg khan Kurya to kill Sviatoslav before he reached Kiev . This was in line with the policy outlined by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in De Administrando Imperio of fomenting strife between the Rus ' and the Pechenegs . According to the Slavic chronicle , Sveneld attempted to warn Sviatoslav to avoid the Dnieper rapids , but the prince slighted his wise advice and was ambushed and slain by the Pechenegs when he tried to cross the cataracts near Khortitsa early in 972 . The Primary Chronicle reports that his skull was made into a chalice by the Pecheneg khan .
Following Sviatoslav 's death , tensions between his sons grew . A war broke out between his legitimate sons , Oleg and Yaropolk , in 976 , at the conclusion of which Oleg was killed . In 977 Vladimir fled Novgorod to escape Oleg 's fate and went to Scandinavia , where he raised an army of Varangians and returned in 980 . Yaropolk was killed , and Vladimir became the sole ruler of Kievan Rus ' .
= = Art and literature = =
Sviatoslav has long been a hero of Belarusian , Russian , and Ukrainian patriots due to his great military successes . His figure first attracted attention of Russian artists and poets during the Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1768 – 1774 ) , which provided obvious parallels with Sviatoslav 's push towards Constantinople . Russia 's southward expansion and the imperialistic ventures of Catherine II in the Balkans seemed to have been legitimized by Sviatoslav 's campaigns eight centuries earlier .
Among the works created during the war was Yakov Knyazhnin 's tragedy Olga ( 1772 ) . The Russian playwright chose to introduce Sviatoslav as his protagonist , although his active participation in the events following Igor 's death is out of sync with the traditional chronology . Knyazhnin 's rival Nikolai Nikolev ( 1758 – 1815 ) also wrote a play on the subject of Sviatoslav 's life . Ivan Akimov 's painting Sviatoslav 's Return from the Danube to Kiev ( 1773 ) explores the conflict between military honour and family attachment . It is a vivid example of Poussinesque rendering of early medieval subject matter .
Interest in Sviatoslav 's career increased in the 19th century . Klavdiy Lebedev depicted an episode of Sviatoslav 's meeting with Emperor John in his well @-@ known painting , while Eugene Lanceray sculpted an equestrian statue of Sviatoslav in the early 20th century . Sviatoslav appears in the 1913 poem of Velimir Khlebnikov Written before the war ( # 70 . Написанное до войны ) as an epitome of militant Slavdom :
Sviatoslav is the villain of the novel The Lost Kingdom , or the Passing of the Khazars , by Samuel Gordon , a fictionalized account of the destruction of Khazaria by the Rus ' . The Slavic warrior figures in a more positive context in the story " Chernye Strely Vyaticha " by Vadim Viktorovich Kargalov ; the story is included in his book Istoricheskie povesti .
In 2005 , reports circulated that a village in the Belgorod region had erected a monument to Sviatoslav 's victory over the Khazars by the Russian sculptor Vyacheslav Klykov . The reports described the 13 @-@ meter tall statue as depicting a Rus ' cavalryman trampling a supine Khazar bearing a Star of David and Kolovrat . This created an outcry within the Jewish community of Russia . The controversy was further exacerbated by Klykov 's connections with Pamyat and other anti @-@ Semitic organizations , as well as by his involvement in the " letter of 500 " , a controversial appeal to the Prosecutor General to review all Jewish organizations in Russia for extremism . The Press Center of the Belgorod Regional Administration responded by stating that a planned monument to Sviatoslav had not yet been constructed but would show " respect towards representatives of all nationalities and religions . " When the statue was unveiled , the shield bore a twelve @-@ pointed star .
Svyatoslav is the main character of the books " Knyaz " ( " Князь " ) and " The Hero " ( " Герой " ) , written by Russian writer Alexander Mazin .
On 7 November 2011 Ukrainian fisherman Sergei Pjankow fished up a one metre long frankish sword from the waters of the Dnieper not far from the spot where Svyatoslav is believed to have been killed in 972 . The handle is made out of four different metals including gold and silver , and it is very possible that it belonged to Sviatoslav himself .
= Gin Tama =
Gin Tama ( Japanese : 銀魂 , Hepburn : Gintama , lit . " Silver Soul " ) , also styled as Gintama , is a Japanese manga written and illustrated by Hideaki Sorachi and serialized , beginning on December 8 , 2003 , in Shueisha 's Weekly Shōnen Jump . Set in Edo which has been conquered by aliens named Amanto , the plot follows life from the point of view of samurai Gintoki Sakata , who works as a freelancer alongside his friends Shinpachi Shimura and Kagura in order to pay the monthly rent . Sorachi added the science fiction setting to develop characters to his liking after his editor suggested doing a historical series .
The series has been adapted into an original video animation ( OVA ) by Sunrise and was featured at Jump Festa 2006 Anime Tour in 2005 . This was followed by a full anime series , which debuted on April 4 , 2006 in TV Tokyo and finished on March 25 , 2010 . A sequel titled Gintama ' first premiered in Japan on April 4 , 2011 and ended on March 26 , 2012 , before returning once again for a brief run from October 4 , 2012 to March 28 , 2013 . A continuation of the TV anime series titled Gintama ° began airing on April 8 , 2015 and ended on March 30 , 2016 . Two animated films have also been produced . Besides the anime series , there have been various light novels and video games based on Gin Tama .
The manga has been licensed by Viz Media in North America . In addition to publishing the individual volumes of the series , Viz serialized its first chapters in their Shonen Jump manga anthology . It debuted in the January 2007 issue , and was serialized at a rate of one chapter a month . Sentai Filmworks initially licensed the series . The website Crunchyroll purchased the anime 's streaming rights and home video rights .
In Japan , the Gin Tama manga has been popular , selling over 50 million copies . The anime and its DVDs have been featured , at various time , in Top Ten of their respective media , while TV Tokyo has announced that the first Gin Tama anime was responsible for high sales overseas along with the anime adaptation from Naruto . Publications for manga , anime and others have commented on the Gin Tama manga . Positive response have focused on the comedy and characters from the series , while negative responses concern the manga 's artwork .
= = Plot = =
The story is set in an alternate late Edo period . Humanity is attacked by aliens called " Amanto " ( 天人 , " Sky People " ) . The samurai of Japan join the battle against the aliens , but when the Shogun realizes the power of aliens , he betrays the samurai and surrenders to the aliens . The Shogun writes an unequal contract with aliens which allows the aliens to enter the country and places a ban on carrying swords in public . The swords of samurai are taken away so they can no longer resist the aliens . After that the Shogunate becomes a puppet government .
The plot is focused on an eccentric samurai , Gintoki Sakata ( aka Odd Jobs Gin ) who helps a teenager named Shinpachi Shimura save his sister Tae from a group of aliens who want to make her part of a brothel . Impressed with Gintoki , Shinpachi becomes his apprentice and works with him as a freelance odd @-@ jobs man in order to pay the monthly rent on Gintoki 's combination home and office , as well as to know more about him .
The two of them rescue a teenage alien girl named Kagura from a group of Yakuza who wanted to use her superhuman strength to kill people . Kagura joins Shinpachi and Gintoki to work as freelancers and the three become known as " Yorozuya " ( 万事屋 , " We do everything " or literally " The Anything Store " ) .
While doing their job , they encounter the police force Shinsengumi several times , who normally ally with Odd Jobs Gin in their work since the jobs commonly involve dangerous criminals . They eventually meet some of Gintoki 's former comrades from the fight against the Amanto 's invasion , including the revolutionary Kotaro Katsura who maintains a friendly relationship with them despite his terrorist activities against the bakufu . On the other hand , Shinsuke Takasugi acts as a major antagonist throughout the series , as he wants to destroy the bakufu and sees his former comrades as enemies .
Although the series ' story is commonly episodic , there are also a few story arcs which are developed through several chapters . Across several story arcs Takasugi starts gaining allies including Kagura 's brother , Kamui , and the elite unit Mimawarigumi to prepare for his large scale coup d 'état .
= = Themes and style = =
Hideaki Sorachi 's main focus in Gin Tama is the use of gags ; during the manga 's second year of serialization he started to add more drama to the story while still keeping the comedy . Various jokes from the manga are comments regarding clichés from other shōnen series . For example , in the first chapter after Gintoki fights a group of aliens to protect Shinpachi and Tae , Shinpachi complains that he only fought for " one page " and Gintoki replies , " Shut up ! One page is a long time for a manga artist ! " Gintoki 's exaggerated desire to read the Weekly Shōnen Jump ( which causes him to fight other readers in order to get it ) also makes fun of shōnen , since during those parts characters quote them . Other types of comic situations are more general , so that the reader must know about Japanese culture to understand them . The humour is described by publications as being " bizarre " and " weird " . It is also described as being divided between two categories : " sci @-@ fi comedy " and a " samurai comedy " with the former referring to the aliens . It tends to point out " an irritating foible about modern society " including celebrations days or famous mythical figures . Additionally , there are references to several historical figures with a few characters from the story being based on them . Besides the series ' comedy , the aliens ' invasion in Japan bring several social issues between them and the humans with the most recurring one being the lack of social equality . As a result , one of the main themes involves society trying to preserve their own way of living rather than fulfilling a dream like in other shōnen series .
= = Production = =
In 2003 , Hideaki Sorachi was an up @-@ and @-@ coming manga artist who had already created two one @-@ shots for the Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine . Although he was preparing to write his first serialized series , his editor suggested he create a manga series based on the Shinsengumi , mostly inspired by an upcoming TV @-@ drama about the 1860s troupe as depicted by idol actors . Sorachi attempted to create this series since he admitted to liking the Shinsengumi , but ultimately failed to get anything off the ground . Instead of abandoning the idea completely , he remained focused on the historical Japanese era but began to create his own story , adding in elements of science fiction and fictionalizing many of the figures from the era to create a story more to his own liking . The original title of the series was meant to be " Yorozuya Gin @-@ san " ( 万事屋銀さん , lit . " General Merchant Gin @-@ san " ) , but it did not have any impact on Sorachi . After great debate , he decided to go with the name Gin Tama after discussing it with his family , deciding on a name that sounded close to the edge without being completely off it . Although Sorachi considered the one @-@ shot " Samuraider " to be very poor , the setting of such one @-@ shot served as the base for Gin Tama such as the addition of alien characters . Sorachi liked the Bakumatsu and Sengoku periods due to how both were eras of change and thus presented the positive and negative points of humanity . The series was then set in an alternate Bakumatsu to give a bigger significance to the characters ' bushido as in that time samurais were at the low point of their lives .
The main character of the series was originally meant to be Toshiro Hijikata as Sorachi was a fan of the Shinsengumi , most notably from Hijikata Toshizō ( the Shinsengumi who was the base for the one of Gin Tama ) , after he saw the film Burn ! Sword ! . When Sorachi could not " shake off " Hijikata 's initial design , he decided not to use him as the lead character , but added him along with the Shinsengumi to the story . The pilot chapter from the series had a different plot to the one from the serialization : Shinpachi already met Gintoki in the story and there were more Shinsengumi to the story such as one based on Harada Sanosuke . As all these new Shinsengumi were older than most of the recurring characters from the series , Sorachi removed them thinking they were not entertaining . When asked by a fan , Sorachi mentioned that most characters from the series are based on real @-@ life Edo citizens while Gintoki 's character is roughly based on the folk hero Sakata Kintoki .
When starting serialization the manga was unpopular and was close to being cancelled . Although Sorachi was pleased with the first tankōbon selling all of its copies , he later learned Shueisha was afraid of poor sales which resulted in the minimum printed . In order to increase its popularity , the author introduce new characters , the Shinsengumi , who felt memorable to his assistants . Sorachi had little hope on the manga 's popularity , as he noted that people used to tell him the manga would not surpass the number of two tankōbon volumes . However , once the third volume was released , Sorachi found that he did not have " any fresh material to use . " During the first year of the series , Sorachi believed that the source of the popularity of Gin Tama was partially connected to the Shinsengumi drama . While the drama ran during the first year of the series , when the manga was mostly shorter stories that established the characters and the world , he felt uncomfortable of making things related to the drama . By the second year and beyond , he became more daring in his stories and concepts , creating longer storylines that included more drama while keeping his sense of humor and satirization of modern Japan by way of his fictionalized past . Although Sorachi has already planned the series ' ending , he is not sure when the manga is going to reach that point due to the characters requiring development to behave the way he wants .
When working on a chapter of Gintama , Sorachi sometimes has problems finishing the manuscript , leaving his supervisor to take it before he can revise it . He figures out what to write by staying in his room or going for a walk . Although he commented that some of his ideas are " random , " he focuses on the fact that they are all related to the manga , and when he has problems coming up with ideas , Sorachi is often helped by his editor . Thinking of Gin Tama as a " non @-@ sense manga , " before writing a chapter , Sorachi decides whether it should be a comedy or a drama . Sorachi defines Gin Tama as a " science fiction human drama pseudo @-@ historical comedy . "
When Sorachi is illustrating Gin Tama , he usually uses a felt @-@ tip pen , a fountain pen , a brush @-@ tip pen , and a multiliner , but for the major characters he only uses a felt @-@ tip pen and a fountain pen , and does their outlines with a multiliner @-@ 0 @.@ 8 .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
The manga chapters of Gin Tama are written and illustrated by Hideaki Sorachi . They have been serialized for the manga anthology book Weekly Shōnen Jump from Shueisha since December 8 , 2003 . Shueisha is also publishing the first chapters of Gin Tama online on their Weekly Shōnen Jump official website . Viz Media licensed Gin Tama for publication in North America . A 55 @-@ page preview from the series was first featured in the January 2006 Shonen Jump issue . Viz acquired the license to publish chapters from the series in the Shonen Jump during the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in 2006 . The chapters were serialized in Shonen Jump from January to May 2007 at a rate of one chapter a month .
Shueisha has been collecting the chapters in tankōbon volumes with the first being published on April 2 , 2004 . Sixty @-@ four volumes have been released in Japan . In North America tankōbon were published under Viz 's " Shonen Jump Advanced " imprint . The first volume was published on July 3 , 2007 , while on August 2 , 2011 Viz published the twenty @-@ third volume . Publication of the series by Viz Media ended with that volume with no reasons given .
= = = Original video animations = = =
Two original video animations ( OVA ) of Gin Tama were developed by Sunrise for the Jump Festa Anime Tour 2005 and 2008 . The first one , having the same title , is composed of various autoconclusive stories meant to introduce the characters from the series . The second OVA titled Shiroyasha Kotan ( 白夜叉降誕 , lit . " White Demon 's Birth " ) is initially set in the war between aliens and samurais and it is later revealed to be a hoax . On September 30 , 2009 , a DVD named Gintama Jump Anime Tour 2008 & 2005 was published by Aniplex . It contains the 2005 and 2008 OVAs and an audio commentary . On Weekly Shōnen Jump 's 34th issue of 2014 , it was announced that Gin Tama anime will return for a one @-@ episode special for the year 's Jump Special Anime Festa tour . The anime special DVD will be bundled with limited edition of the 58th manga volume to be released on April 3 , 2015 . It was announced in Weekly Shōnen Jump 's 8th issue of 2016 that the 65th and 66th volumes of the manga will be bundled with an original animation DVD each , the 65th manga volume scheduled to release on August 4 , 2016 , and the 66th manga volume scheduled to release on November 4 , 2016 . Both OADs will adapt the Love Potion arc in the manga .
= = = Anime series = = =
= = = = Gintama = = = =
An anime adaptation by Sunrise debuted on TV Tokyo on April 4 , 2006 . The first ninety @-@ nine episodes were initially directed by Shinji Takamatsu . Episodes 100 to 105 were directed by Takamatsu and Yoichi Fujita , while the following episodes are being directed only by Fujita . The subtitle for the Gintama anime could be loosely translated as " The starting point is the utmost importance for anything , so trying to outdo oneself is just about right . " During January 2009 , Fujita mentioned he was not going to work in the fourth season of the series starting in such year . However , in February 2009 , it was confirmed that the anime would continue for a fourth year , once again directed by Fujita . The series ended on March 25 , 2010 with a total of 201 episodes .
In Japan , Aniplex distributes the anime in DVD format . A total of thirteen volumes were released for the first season , between July 26 , 2006 and June 26 , 2007 . The second season was released over another set of thirteen volumes between July 25 , 2007 and July 23 , 2008 . Season 3 was also released in thirteen volumes from August 27 , 2008 to August 26 , 2009 . The fourth season was collected released in thirteen DVD volumes from October 28 , 2009 to October 27 , 2010 .
In November 2008 , an agreement was reached between TV Tokyo and the streaming video service Crunchyroll . Crunchyroll would stream English @-@ subtitled episodes for free one week after they had aired in Japan . Paying subscribers can watch new episodes an hour after they air in Japan . On January 8 , 2009 , Crunchyroll uploaded their first episode ( episode 129 ) to the service . Alongside new episodes each week , Crunchyroll also uploads episodes from the beginning of the series . The anime is licensed in North America by Sentai Filmworks , with distribution from Section23 Films . Section23 Films ' Chris Oarr commented that only the first two seasons were licensed , with an option on the rest . The first collection containing thirteen English @-@ subtitled episodes was released on DVD , April 27 , 2010 . Only 49 episodes were released before the releases stalled . However , shortly after licensing the Gin Tama film , Sentai Filmworks announced that based on the film 's performance , they would consider releasing more of the series in North America , possibly with an English dub . On July 1 , 2016 , Crunchyroll announced that they will re @-@ release the series on Blu @-@ ray and DVD with an English dub .
= = = = Yorinuki Gintama @-@ san = = = =
On April 5 , 2010 , TV Tokyo stations began airing high @-@ definition reruns of older episodes of Gintama under the title Yorinuki Gintama @-@ san ( よりぬき銀魂さん , literally " The Very Best of Gintama " ) , the title being a parody of the " best of " reruns of the anime Sazae @-@ san . In addition to being broadcast in HD , new opening and ending animations and themes have been made . The opening and ending for episodes 1 @-@ 9 are Does 's " Bakuchi Dancer " ( バクチ ・ ダンサー , Bakuchi Dansā , lit . " Fullspeed Dancer " ) and " Bokutachi no Kisetsu " ( 僕たちの季節 , lit . " Our Season " ) . Starting with episode 10 and going to 26 , the opening was changed to Joe Inoue 's " Kaze no Gotoku " ( 風のごとく , lit . " Like the Wind " ) and the ending was changed to Vijandeux 's " WAVE " . Starting with episode 27 , the opening changed to Chiaki Kuriyama 's " Kanōsei Girl " ( 可能性ガール , Kanōsei Gāru , " Probable Girl " ) and the ending changed to Azu 's " IN MY LIFE " . Starting with episode 40 , the opening changed to FLiP 's " Karto Niago " ( カートニアゴ , Kātoniago ) and the ending changed to Piko 's " Sakurane " ( 桜音 , " Sakura Sound " ) .
= = = = Gintama ' = = = =
In March 2010 , Yoichi Fujita hinted the anime would continue once the staff get enough material to work on it . Shinji Takamatsu claimed the TV series " is absolutely not over . It hasn 't even begun yet ! It will definitely return . " In December 2010 , Shueisha stated that the Gintama anime would resume in April 2011 . Gintama ' ( 銀魂 ’ ) , the sequel to the original Gintama anime , premiered in Japan on April 4 , 2011 . The main staff from the first TV series remain in Gintama ' with Fujita as the director . Crunchyroll simulcasted the premiere of Gintama ' to subscribers from its site . The first DVD from the series was released on July 27 , 2011 . The episode released on September 26 , 2011 contains Sket Dance as a crossover special . The series ended on March 26 , 2012 with a total of 51 episodes , which were collected in thirteen DVDs by Aniplex .
= = = = Gintama ' : Enchousen = = = =
The series premiered in TV Tokyo on October 4 , 2012 . It is a continuation of the second Gintama ' anime that ended in March 2012 . The main staff from the second TV series remain in Gintama with Yoichi Fujita as the director . The series ended on March 28 , 2013 with a total of 13 episodes The episodes were collected in a total of four DVDs from December 19 , 2012 to May 22 , 2013 .
= = = = Gintama ° = = = =
On December 21 , 201
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and one was given an F2 rating with estimated wind speeds of 113 – 157 mph ( 181 – 253 km / h ) .
After stalling offshore for almost a day , a mid- to upper @-@ tropospheric trough over the central U.S. slowly pulled Tropical Storm Gordon northward then north @-@ northeastward towards Florida 's west coast . The storm made landfall between Ft . Myers and Naples with 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) winds . The eastward component of the storm 's movement increased , and Gordon moved northeastward onto the Florida Peninsula at 10 mph ( 17 km / h ) . The storm barely weakened as it crossed the landmass keeping its 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) winds . Crossing the peninsula in a mere six hours , the storm continued to pick up speed . Early on November 17 , back over the open ocean , the storm 's central pressure began to fall . Improved organization was not apparent and wind shear was pulling at the core of the deep convection when , on November 17 , Gordon suddenly spawned 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds and was upgraded to a Category 1 hurricane .
= = Third Florida landfall and demise = =
The shortwave trough that had been steering Gordon across Florida moved ahead of the storm and its influence was replaced by a mid @-@ tropospheric ridge over the eastern United States . Under the influence of this new ridge the storm , which had been speeding northeast at 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) , turned to the north late on November 17 . The hurricane 's loop continued , and as it moved to a west @-@ northwesterly heading Gordon briefly threatened North Carolina 's Outer Banks before stalling offshore once again . In the presence of weak steering currents once again , Gordon lost strength and slipped back to tropical storm status with 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds . On November 18 , about 90 mi ( 150 km ) off the Outer Banks , Gordon began a southward drift away from the North Carolina coast . In its brush with the Mid @-@ Atlantic States , Gordon dropped 2 – 5 in ( 5 – 13 cm ) with a maximum of 5 @.@ 25 in ( 13 @.@ 3 cm ) recorded at Norfolk , Virginia . Warm waters improved its organization , but this did not result in stronger winds and the storm continued to weaken . Strong upper @-@ level winds battered the storm from the northwest . They sheared away Gordon 's upper @-@ level convection while polluting the storm with colder and dryer air that weakened its lower level convection .
A high pressure system over the central United States drifted east and added a westward component to Gordon 's southward motion , pulling the storm southwest towards Florida . The persistent shear and a continued lack of deep convection eventually reduced the storm 's winds to below tropical storm force , and on the morning on November 20 Gordon became a tropical depression . The high pressure system over the continent continued pulling the depression towards the west until it made its final landfall near Cape Canaveral that night with winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . Between its three Floridian landfalls , Hurricane Gordon dumped 5 – 10 in ( 13 – 25 cm ) of rain on Florida , with a station at Cooperstown recording 16 @.@ 1 in ( 40 @.@ 9 cm ) . The storm moved northward across Florida , northeastward across Georgia , and finally merged with a frontal system over South Carolina .
= = = Track and forecasting = = =
Gordon 's track was likened to Hurricane Dawn in 1972 . The National Hurricane Center described the storm as " a complex system , [ which ] followed an unusual , erratic path over the western Caribbean Sea and islands , Florida and the southwestern Atlantic . " Due to the path , the agency had difficulties in forecasting Gordon , and the forecast errors were 10 % to 30 % above the average of the previous decade .
= Operation Ladbroke =
Operation Ladbroke was a glider landing by British airborne troops during the Second World War near Syracuse , Sicily , that began on 9 July 1943 as part of Operation Husky , the Allied invasion of Sicily . The first Allied mission using large numbers of the aircraft , the operation was carried out from Tunisia by glider infantry of the British 1st Airlanding Brigade , commanded by Brigadier Philip Hicks , with a force of 136 Wacos and eight Horsas . The objective was to establish a large invasion force on the ground near the town of Syracuse , secure the Ponte Grande Bridge and ultimately take control of the city itself with its strategically vital docks , as a prelude to the full @-@ scale invasion of Sicily .
En route to Sicily , sixty @-@ five gliders released too early by the American and British towing aircraft crashed into the sea , drowning approximately 252 men . Of the remainder , only eighty @-@ seven men arrived at the Pont Grande Bridge , although they successfully captured the bridge and held it beyond the time they were to be relieved . Finally , with their ammunition expended and only fifteen soldiers remaining unwounded , the Allied troops surrendered to Italian forces . The Italians , having gained control of the bridge , sought to destroy the structure , but were frustrated by troopers of the 1st Airlanding Brigade who had removed the previously attached explosive charges . Other troops from the brigade , who had landed elsewhere in Sicily , aided further by destroying communications links and capturing gun batteries .
= = Background = =
By December 1942 , with Allied forces advancing through Tunisia , the North African Campaign was coming to a close ; with victory there imminent , discussions began among the Allies regarding the nature of their next objective . Many Americans argued for an immediate invasion of Northern France , while the British , as well as General Dwight David Eisenhower , argued that the island of Sardinia was the best subsequent target of the Allied troops . In January 1943 the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt settled at the Casablanca Conference on the island of Sicily , whose invasion and occupation could potentially provide the Allies with Mediterranean shipping routes and airfields nearer to mainland Italy and Germany . The codename Operation Husky was decided upon for the Allied invasion of Sicily , and planning for Husky began in February . Initially the British Eighth Army , under the command of General Bernard Law Montgomery , were to land on the south @-@ eastern corner of the island and advance north to the port of Syracuse . Two days later the U.S. Seventh Army , commanded by Lieutenant General George Patton , would land on the western corner of the island and move towards the port of Palermo .
In March it was decided that the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division , under Major General Matthew Bunker Ridgway , and the British 1st Airborne Division , under Major @-@ General George Frederick Hopkinson , would be dropped by parachute and glider just prior to the amphibious landings ; they would land a few miles behind the beaches and neutralize their defenders , thereby aiding the landing of the Allied ground forces . However , in early May these directives were radically changed at the insistence of General Montgomery ; he argued that with Allied forces landing separately at either end of the island , the defending Axis forces would have the opportunity to defeat each Allied Army in turn before both could unite . Instead , the plans were altered to land both the Eighth and Seventh Armies simultaneously along a 100 miles ( 160 km ) stretch of coastline on Sicily 's south @-@ eastern corner . At the same time , the plans for the two airborne divisions were also adjusted ; Montgomery believed that the airborne troops should be landed near Syracuse , so that they could seize the valuable port . The commander of the 82nd Airborne Artillery , Brigadier General Maxwell D. Taylor , further asserted that dropping behind the island 's beaches and overcoming its defences was not a suitable mission for the airborne troops , as they were only lightly armed and vulnerable to the ' friendly fire ' of the planned Allied naval bombardment . In the revised blueprint for the airborne divisions , a reinforced regimental combat team ( the 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment , under Colonel James Maurice Gavin ) from the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division would be dropped by parachute north @-@ east of the port of Gela to block the movement of Axis reserves towards the Allied beachheads . The British 1st Airborne Division was now to conduct three brigade @-@ size airborne operations : the Ponte Grande road bridge south of Syracuse was to be captured by the 1st Airlanding Brigade , under Brigadier Philip Hicks , the port of Augusta was to be seized by Brigadier Ernest E. Down 's 2nd Parachute Brigade , and finally the Primasole Bridge over the River Simeto was to be taken and secured by Brigadier Gerald Lathbury 's 1st Parachute Brigade .
= = Planning = =
As there were insufficient transport aircraft for all three brigades to conduct their operations simultaneously , it was decided that the first operation would be Ladbroke , whose objective was the capture of the Ponte Grande Bridge . The mission , under the command of Brigadier Philip Hicks , was conducted just prior to the amphibious landings , on the night of 9 July , while the remaining two operations took place on successive two nights . The 1st Airlanding Brigade was also given the additional tasks of capturing Syracuse harbour and the urban area that adjoined it , and either destroying or confiscating a coastal artillery battery that was in range of the amphibious landings . When training began for the operation , difficulties immediately arose . The original plan for the airborne operations had called for all three to employ parachutists , but in May Montgomery altered the plan ; after determining that airborne troops would be at a considerable distance from Allied ground forces , he believed that the force sent to capture Syracuse would be served best by gliders in order to provide them with the maximum possible amount of firepower . His airborne advisor , Group Captain Cooper of the Royal Air Force , argued that a glider landing conducted at night with inexperienced aircrews was not practical , but the decision was left unchanged .
Montgomery 's orders raised several issues , the first with the transport aircraft of the Troop Carrier Wings assigned to the airborne operations . When they had arrived in North Africa , it had been decided that the 52nd Troop Carrier Wing would operate with 1st Airborne Division and its counterpart , the 51st , with 82nd Airborne Division . A few weeks later this arrangement was switched , with the 52nd now operating with 82nd Airborne Division and the 51st with 1st Airborne Division ; this seemed a logical decision , as each Wing had operational experience with the division it had been paired with . However , the decision to turn the Syracuse assault into a glider @-@ based one was problematic ; the 51st had practically no glider experience , whilst the 52nd had much more but was already training for a parachute @-@ based mission . To switch both was impractical and would have led to a number of problems , which left 1st Airborne Division , and thus 1st Airlanding Brigade , with an inexperienced Troop Carrier Wing .
= = = Glider problems = = =
Further problems were encountered with the gliders to be used in the operation , and the glider pilots themselves . Until a few months prior to the operation , there was a notable shortage of serviceable gliders in North Africa . In late March a small number of Wacos arrived at Accra on the Gold Coast , but pilots sent to ferry them to North Africa found that they were in poor condition . Due to neglect and the deleterious effects of tropical weather , the pilots were able to assemble only a small number of Wacos and fly them back on 22 April . On 23 April , a larger number of the American gliders began to arrive in North African ports , but were not immediately available for use as the crates holding them were unloaded haphazardly , instructions were often found to be missing , and those men assigned to assemble the gliders were often inexperienced . However , when the decision was made to conduct a glider @-@ borne assault with 1st Airlanding Brigade , assembly was improved , and by 12 June 346 gliders had been put together and delivered to the Troop Carrier Wings . A small number of Horsa gliders were transported to North Africa for use by the brigade . Thirty took off from England and undertook a trip of approximately 1 @,@ 500 miles ( 2 @,@ 400 km ) in Operation Turkey Buzzard . After attacks from Luftwaffe fighter patrols and experiencing often turbulent weather , a total of 27 Horsas were delivered to North Africa in time for the operation .
When sufficient gliders had arrived in North Africa , however , they were not all usable even in training ; on 16 June , most of the gliders were grounded for repairs , and on 30 June , large numbers of them had developed weaknesses in their tail @-@ wiring , necessitating another grounding period of three days . Given these problems and delays , 51st Troop Carrier Wing was not able to conduct a large @-@ scale glider exercise until mid @-@ June . On 14 June , fifty @-@ four Wacos were flown over 70 miles ( 110 km ) and then released to land at an airfield , and a larger exercise was conducted on 20 June ; but even these limited exercises were unrealistic , as they were conducted in broad daylight . The British glider pilots themselves also caused difficulties ; although there were a sufficient number of them to conduct the operation , they were highly inexperienced . Detached from the Glider Pilot Regiment for the operation , they had no experience with the Waco gliders and night operations involving them , as British doctrine had deemed such operations impossible . On average , the pilots had eight hours of flight experience in gliders . Few were rated as being ' operationally ready ' and none had combat experience . Colonel George Chatterton , the commander of the Glider Pilot Regiment , had protested their participation as he believed they were entirely unfit for any operation . When the training period for the brigade ended with a total of two exercises completed , the glider pilots had an average of 4 @.@ 5 hours training in flying the unfamiliar Waco , which included an average of 1 @.@ 2 hours night flying .
= = = 1st Airlanding Brigade = = =
The units of the 1st Airlanding Brigade were : the 1st Battalion , Border Regiment ; 2nd Battalion , South Staffordshire Regiment ; 181st ( Airlanding ) Field Ambulance and 9th Field Company , Royal Engineers . The Staffords were tasked with securing the bridge and the area to the south , while the Borders were to capture Syracuse . For the mission the 1st Airlanding Brigade were allocated 136 Waco and eight Horsa gliders . With the shortage of space in the gliders - Wacos could only accommodate fifteen troops , half that of the Horsa , thus the whole brigade could not be deployed . Six of the Horsas carrying ' A ' and ' C ' companies from the Staffords were scheduled to land at the bridge at 23 : 15 on 9 July in a coup @-@ de @-@ main operation . The remainder of the brigade would arrive at 01 : 15 on 10 July using a number of landing @-@ zones between 1 @.@ 5 and 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 and 4 @.@ 8 km ) away , then converge on the bridge to reinforce the defence .
= = = Italian forces = = =
The Ponte Grande Bridge was immediately outside the area defended by the Italian 206 Coastal Division , which would oppose the British seaborne landing . The fortress commander was Rear Admiral Primo Leonardi , with Colonel Mario Damiani in command of the army contingent . The Augusta @-@ Syracuse Naval Fortress Area , which included the Coastal Division , was protected by six medium and six heavy coastal artillery batteries , with eleven additional dual @-@ purpose coastal and anti @-@ aircraft batteries , with six batteries only of anti @-@ aircraft guns . Finally the Fortress contained an armoured train with four 120 mm guns . The army contingent was the 121st Coastal Defence Regiment , which included four battalions . There were also naval and air force battalions available , while the 54 Infantry Division Napoli was in a position to send reinforcements if required .
= = Mission = =
On 9 July 1943 , a contingent of 2 @,@ 075 British troops , along with seven jeeps , six anti @-@ tank guns and ten mortars , boarded their gliders in Tunisia and took off at 18 : 00 , bound for Sicily . In the hours that preceded the landing , twelve Boeing B @-@ 17 and six Vickers Wellington equipped with radar jamming devices flew back and forth along the coast in the Siracusa @-@ Licata sector ; between 21 : 00 and 21 : 30 , 55 Wellingtons of 205th Group carried out a diversionary bombing of the port and airport of Syracuse , causing a number of civilian and military casualties , including the commander of the Italian naval base , Commander Giuseppe Giannotti . 280 puppets dressed in paratrooper uniforms were launched north of the landing area , in order to deceive the Italian defense . En route , the gliders encountered strong winds , poor visibility and at times were subjected to anti @-@ aircraft fire . To avoid gunfire and searchlights , pilots of the towing aircraft climbed higher or took evasive action . In the confusion surrounding these manoeuvres , some gliders were released too early and sixty @-@ five of them crashed into the sea , drowning around 252 men . Of the remainder , only twelve landed in the right place . Another fifty @-@ nine landed up to 25 miles ( 40 km ) away while the remainder were either shot down or failed to release and returned to Tunisia . About 200 American paratroopers , having been mistakenly parachuted in the area assigned to the Eighth Army , were captured by the Italian 146th Coastal Regiment ( 206th Coastal Division ) in the early hours of 10 July .
Only one Horsa with a platoon of infantry from the Staffords landed near the bridge . Its commander , Lieutenant Withers , divided his men into two groups , one of which swam across the river and took up position on the opposite bank . Thereafter the bridge was captured following a simultaneous assault from both sides . The Italian defenders from the 120th Coastal Infantry Regiment abandoned their pillboxes on the north bank .
The British platoon then dismantled some demolition charges that had been fitted to the bridge and dug @-@ in to wait for reinforcement or relief . Another Horsa landed roughly 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the bridge but exploded on landing , killing all on board . Three of the other Horsas carrying the coup @-@ de @-@ main party landed within 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of the bridge — their occupants eventually finding their way to the site . Reinforcements began to arrive at the bridge , but by 06 : 30 they numbered only eighty @-@ seven men .
Elsewhere , about 150 men landed at Cape Murro di Porco and captured a radio station . Based on a warning of imminent glider landings transmitted by the station 's previous occupants , the local Italian commander ordered a counter @-@ attack but his troops failed to receive his message . The scattered nature of the landings now worked in the Allies ' favour as they were able to cut all telephone wires in the immediate area . The glider carrying the brigade deputy commander , Colonel O. L. Jones , landed beside an Italian coastal artillery battery ; at daylight the staff officers and radio operators attacked and destroyed the battery 's five guns and their ammunition dump . Other isolated groups of Allied soldiers tried to aid their comrades , assaulting Italian defences and targeting reinforcements . Another attack by a group of patratroopers on three 149 / 35 mm Italian coastal batteries failed , and the batteries were able to open fire on Allied landing craft and troops at 6 : 15 on 10 July . At 9 : 15 , the 1st Battalion of the Italian 75th Infantry Regiment ( " Napoli " Division ) captured another 160 American paratroopers on the Palazzolo Acreide @-@ Syracuse road . Another group of paratroopers attacked an Italian patrol led by Major Paoli , commander of the 126th Artillery Group ; Paoli was killed and his unit fell in disarray , and was thus unable to intervene in the later fight against British tanks near the bridge .
The first counterattack on the bridge was by two companies of Italian sailors , who were repulsed by the British . As the Italians responded to the Allied landings , they gathered more troops and brought up artillery and mortars to bombard the Allied @-@ controlled Pont Grande Bridge . The British defenders came under attack from the Italians while the expected British 5th Infantry Division relief did not appear at 10 : 00 as planned . At 11 : 30 the Italian 385th Coastal Battalion arrived at the bridge , followed soon afterward by the 1st Battalion , 75th ( Napoli ) Infantry Regiment . The Italians were positioned to attack the bridge from three sides . By 14 : 45 there were only fifteen British troops defending the bridge that had not been killed or wounded ( four officers and eleven soldiers ) . At 15 : 30 , with their ammunition consumed , the British stopped fighting . Some men on the south side of the bridge escaped into the countryside , but the rest became prisoners of war . With the bridge back in Italian hands , the first unit from 5th Infantry Division , the 2nd Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers , of 17th Infantry Brigade , arrived at the bridge at 16 : 15 and mounted a successful counter @-@ attack , which had been made possible by the prior removal of demolition charges from the bridge , preventing its destruction by the Italians . The 1st Battalion of the 75th Infantry Regiment , having no artillery , was unable to oppose the British tanks and had to retreat after suffering heavy losses . The survivors from the 1st Airlanding Brigade took no further part in the fighting and were withdrawn back to North Africa on 13 July . During the landings , the losses by 1st Airlanding Brigade were the most severe of all British units involved . The casualties amounted to 313 killed and 174 missing or wounded . Fourteen accompanying glider pilots were killed , and eighty @-@ seven were missing or wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
After an enquiry into the problems with the airborne missions in Sicily , the British Army and Royal Air Force submitted recommendations in the aftermath of Operation Ladbroke . Aircrew were to be trained in parachute and glider operations , and pathfinders were to be landed before the main force , to set out their beacons . The landing plan was simplified with complete brigades landing on a drop zone , instead of the smaller battalion landing areas used on Sicily . Gliders were no longer released at night while still over water , and their landing zones would be large enough to accommodate the aircraft with room to spare . Following a friendly fire incident over an Allied convoy , more training was given to ship 's crews in aircraft recognition ; Allied aircraft were also painted with three large white stripes . Training for pilots of the Glider Pilot Regiment was increased , and improvements to the gliders were implemented , including better inter @-@ aircraft communication . To provide another method of delivering jeeps and artillery by air , the Royal Air Force started experimenting with how to use parachutes to drop them into combat , the jeeps and guns being carried in aircraft 's bomb bays . A second Royal Air Force transport group , No. 46 , was formed and equipped solely with C @-@ 47 Dakotas , instead of the mixture of aircraft in No. 38 Group . Together , the Royal Air Force groups were capable of supplying eighty @-@ eight Albermarles , eighty @-@ eight Stirlings , thirty @-@ six Halifaxes and 150 Dakotas , a total of 362 planes which did not include aircraft held as reserves .
= Crystal Palace Dinosaurs =
The Crystal Palace Dinosaurs , also known as Dinosaur Court , are a series of sculptures of extinct animals ( including dinosaurs ) and mammals in Crystal Palace Park , now in the London borough of Bromley . Commissioned in 1852 to accompany the Crystal Palace after its move from the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park and unveiled in 1854 , they were the first dinosaur sculptures in the world , pre @-@ dating the publication of Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species by six years . While to varying degrees inaccurate by modern standards , the models were designed and sculpted by Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins under the scientific direction of Sir Richard Owen , representing the latest scientific knowledge at the time . The models were classed as Grade II listed buildings from 1973 , extensively restored in 2002 , and upgraded to Grade I listed in 2007 .
The models represent fifteen genera of extinct animals , not all dinosaurs . They are from a wide range of geological ages , and include true dinosaurs , ichthyosaurs , and plesiosaurs mainly from the Mesozoic era , and some mammals from the more recent Cenozoic era .
= = History = =
Following the closure of the Great Exhibition in October 1851 , Joseph Paxton 's Crystal Palace was bought and moved to Penge Place atop Sydenham Hill , South London by the newly formed Crystal Palace Company . The grounds that surrounded it were then extensively renovated and turned into a public park with ornamental gardens , replicas of statues and two new man @-@ made lakes . As part of this renovation , Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins was commissioned to build the first @-@ ever life @-@ sized models of extinct animals . He had originally planned to just re @-@ create extinct mammals before deciding on building dinosaurs as well , which he did with advice from Sir Richard Owen , a celebrated biologist and palaeontologist of the time . Hawkins set up a workshop on site at the park and built the models there . The models were displayed on three islands acting as a rough timeline , the first island for the Paleozoic era , a second for the Mesozoic , and a third for the Cenozoic . The models were given more realism by making the water level in the lake rise and fall , revealing different amounts of the dinosaurs . To mark the launch of the models , Hawkins held a dinner on New Year 's Eve 1853 inside the mould of one of the Iguanodon models .
Hawkins benefited greatly from the public 's reaction to the dinosaurs , which was so strong it allowed for the sale of sets of small versions of the dinosaur models , priced at £ 30 for educational use . But the building of the models was costly ( having cost around £ 13 @,@ 729 ) and in 1855 , the Crystal Palace Company cut Hawkins 's funding . Several planned models were never made , while those half finished were scrapped , despite protest from sources including the Sunday newspaper , The Observer .
With progress in palaeontology , the reputation of the models declined . In 1895 , the American fossil hunter Othniel Charles Marsh scorned the dinosaurs ' friends as doing them a great injustice , and spoke angrily of the models . The models and the park fell into disrepair as the years went by , a process aided by the fire that destroyed the Crystal Palace itself in 1936 , and the models became obscured by overgrown foliage . A full restoration of the animals was carried out in 1952 by Victor H.C. Martin , at which time the mammals on the third island were moved to less well @-@ protected locations in the park , where they were exposed to wear and tear . The limestone cliff was blown up in the 1960s .
In 2002 , the display was totally renovated . The destroyed limestone cliff was completely replaced using 130 large blocks of Derbyshire limestone , many weighing over 1 tonne ( 0 @.@ 98 long tons ; 1 @.@ 1 short tons ) , rebuilt according to a small model made from the same number of polystyrene blocks . Fibreglass replacements were created for the missing sculptures , and badly damaged parts of the surviving models were recast . For example , some of the animals ' legs had been modelled in lead , fixed to the bodies with iron rods ; the iron had rusted , splitting the lead open .
The models and other elements of Crystal Palace Park were classed as Grade II listed buildings from 1973 . The models were extensively restored in 2002 , and upgraded to Grade I listed in 2007 .
= = The Dinosaur Park = =
Fifteen genera of extinct animals , not all dinosaurs , are represented in the park . At least three other genera ( Dinornis , a mastodon , and Glyptodon ) were planned , and Hawkins began to build at least the mastodon before the Crystal Palace Company cut his funding in 1855 . An inaccurate map of the time shows planned locations of the Dinornis and mastodon .
= = = Palaeozoic era = = =
The Palaeozoic era is represented in the park by the model rock exposure showing a succession of beds , namely the Carboniferous ( including Coal Measures and limestone ) and Permian .
Crystal Palace 's two Dicynodon models are based on incomplete Permian fossils found in South Africa , along with Owen 's guess that they were similar to turtles . There is no evidence of any shelled Dicynodon , and recent more complete fossils show that they looked more like Hippopotamus .
= = = Mesozoic era = = =
The Mesozoic era is represented in the park by the model rock exposure showing a succession of beds , namely the Jurassic and Cretaceous , by models of dinosaurs and other animals known from mesozoic fossils , and by suitable vegetation - both living plants and models .
Curiously , it is Hylaeosaurus , from the Cretaceous of England , not Iguanodon , that most resembles the giant iguana stereotype of early ideas of dinosaurs . The model Hylaeosaurus is depicted much like Ankylosaurus , as a smallish quadrupedal herbivore with a knobbled armoured back , and spines along its sides . Hawkins 's depiction is of a large Iguana @-@ like beast with long sharp spines along its back , which Owen noted were " accurately given in the restoration [ by Hawkins , to Owen 's instructions , but ] necessarily at present conjectural " . The head of the Hylaeosaurus model is a fiberglass replica ; the original head is on the ground , on a hill above the ichthyosaur end of the lake .
The Ichthyosaurus models are based on Triassic or Jurassic fossils from Europe . Though the three ichthyosaurs are partly in water , they are implausibly shown basking on land like seals . Owen supposed they resembled crocodiles or plesiosaurs . Better fossil evidence shows that they have more in common with sharks , having a dorsal fin and fish @-@ like tail , whereas in Hawkins 's models the tail is a flat protuberance from a straight backbone . A further discrepancy is that the models ' eyes have exposed bony sclerotic plates , Owen conjecturing that with such large eyes they had " great powers of vision , especially in the dusk " . They became one of the three mascots of Crystal Palace Park , along with the Iguanodon and Megalosaurus ( although ichthyosaurs are not dinosaurs ) . The models more closely resemble more basic ichthyosaurs such as Cymbospondylus .
The Iguanodon models represent fossils from the Jurassic and Cretaceous of Europe . Gideon Mantell sketched the original fossil , found in Sussex in 1822 by his wife , Mary Ann Mantell , as like a long slender lizard climbing a branch ( on four legs ) , balancing with a whiplike tail ; lacking a skull , he conjectured that the thumb bone was a nose horn . The nose horn in particular is used repeatedly in popular textbooks and documentaries about dinosaurs to make fun of Victorian inaccuracies ; actually , even in 1854 , Owen commented " the horn [ is ] more than doubtful " .
Three Labyrinthodon models were made for Crystal Palace , based on Owen 's guess that , being amphibian in lifestyle , the Triassic animals might have resembled frogs ; he named them Batrachia , from the Greek ' Batrachios ' , frog . One is smooth skinned and is based on the species " Labyrinthodon salamandroides " ( Mastodonsaurus jaegeri ) ; the other two were based on " Labyrinthodon pachygnathus " ( Cyclotosaurus pachygnathus ) . Casts of Chirotherium footprints that Owen thought were made by the animals were included in the ground around the models .
Gigantic and visually impressive , the Megalosaurus became one of the park 's three ' mascot dinosaurs ' along with the Iguanodon and ( less so ) the Ichthyosaurs . Working from fragmentary evidence from Jurassic fossils found in England , consisting mainly of a hip and femur ( thigh bone ) , with a rib and a few vertebrae , Owen conjectured the animal was quadrupedal ; palaeontologists now believe it to have been bipedal ( standing like Tyrannosaurus rex ) . The first suggestion that some dinosaurs might have been bipedal came in 1858 , just too late to influence the model .
When the models were built , only skulls of the Cretaceous fossil Mosasaurus had been discovered in the Netherlands , so Hawkins only built the head and back of the animal . He submerged the model deep in the lake , leaving the body unseen and undefined . The Mosasaurus at Crystal Palace is positioned in an odd place near the secondary island that was originally a waterfall , and much of it is not visible from the lakeside path .
The three Plesiosaurus models represents three species of marine reptile , P. macrocephalus , P. dolichoderius and P. hawkinsii , from the Jurassic of England . Two of them have implausibly @-@ flexible necks .
Owen noted that the Pterodactylus fossils from the Jurassic of Germany had scales , not feathers , and while " somewhat bird @-@ like " they had conical teeth , suggesting they were predatory . The two surviving models are perched on a rock outcrop ; there were originally two more ' pterodactyls of the Oolite ' .
Owen correctly identified Teleosaurus as slender Jurassic Crocodilians with very long thin jaws and small eyes , inferring from the sediment in which they were found that they were " more strictly marine than the crocodile of the Ganges [ the gharial ] . "
= = = Cenozoic era = = =
Anoplotherium is an extinct mammal from the Eocene to Oligocene epochs , first found near Paris . Hawkins 's models draw on Owen 's speculation about its camel @-@ like appearance . ( They are now thought to be related to hippopotamus and pigs ) . Three models were made , forming a small herd .
Megaloceros or Irish Elk is a species from the Pliocene to Pleistocene epochs in Eurasia . Hawkins built a family unit of male , female and fawn ; the adult male bore antlers made from actual fossil antlers , long since replaced . Moved from the third island , they had fallen into disrepair as they were in a place easily accessible by vandals . With their original but fragile antlers , the Irish Elks were the most accurate of the models ; since they are of recent geological age ( dying out 11 @,@ 000 years ago ) , Hawkins was able to model them on living deer .
The giant ground sloth Megatherium is from the Pliocene to Pleistocene epochs in South America , where Charles Darwin had excavated some fossils in 1835 . The model was built hugging a live tree which subsequently grew and broke the model 's arm . The arm was replaced and later the tree died . This model used to be in the children 's zoo which has now been demolished .
The models of Palaeotherium represent an extinct Eocene mammal thought by Cuvier to be tapir @-@ like . They have suffered the most wear and tear of all of the models , and the standing model no longer looked much like the original made by Hawkins . During the 1960s these models were lying discarded in the bushes about fifty yards from the original site and , prior to the 2002 restoration , they were in such bad shape that they were removed and put into store . Some sources state that these models were added at a later date , but an Illustrated London News illustration of Hawkins 's workshop shows them in the background . Models of the " fearfully great bird " Dinornis of New Zealand ( extinct by 1500 AD ) , and of the extinct elephant @-@ like Mastodon ( Deinotherium ) of the Miocene and Pliocene of America , were planned for the ' Tertiary Islands ' but not completed .
= = In literature and popular culture = =
Charles Dickens 's 1853 novel , Bleak House , begins with a description of muddy streets , whose primordial character is emphasized by the first ever mention of any dinosaur in a popular work , Megalosaurus :
" Implacable November weather . As much mud in the streets as if the waters had but newly retired from the face of the earth , and it would not be wonderful to meet a Megalosaurus , forty feet long or so , waddling like an elephantine lizard up Holborn Hill . "
George Baxter , a pioneer of colour printing , made a well @-@ known engraving which imagines Crystal Palace , set in its landscaped grounds with tall fountains and the dinosaurs in the foreground , before the 1854 opening .
In H G Wells 's 1905 novel Kipps , Kipps and Ann visit Crystal Palace and sit " in the presence of the green and gold Labyrinthodon that looms so splendidly above the lake " to discuss their future . There is a brief description of the dinosaurs and their surroundings and the impact they have on the characters . Several of E. Nesbit 's children 's books reference the Crystal Palace dinosaur sculptures , and their coming to like , including The Enchanted Castle of 1907 . The 1932 novel Have His Carcase , by Dorothy L. Sayers , has the character Lord Peter Wimsey mention the " antediluvian monsters " of the Crystal Palace . Ann Coates 's 1970 children 's book Dinosaurs Don 't Die , illustrated by John Vernon Lord , tells the story of a young boy who lives near Crystal Palace Park and discovers that Hawkins ' models come to life ; he befriends one of the Iguanodon and names it ' Rock ' and they visit the Natural History Museum .
In travel writer Paul Theroux 's 1989 novel My Secret History , the novel 's narrator , Andre Parent , accidentally learns of his wife 's infidelity when his young son , Jack , reveals that he has visited the dinosaurs in the company of his mother 's ' friend ' during Andre 's prolonged absence gathering material for a travel book . The title story in Penelope Lively 's 1991 novel Fanny and the Monsters is about a Victorian girl who visits the Crystal Palace dinosaurs and becomes fascinated by prehistoric creatures . Brett Anderson used the line " So I went and sat in Crystal Palace , by the plastic dinosaurs " on his solo track To The Winter , from his 2007 self @-@ titled album . The Lie Tree , a 2015 children 's mystery @-@ fantasy by Frances Hardinge features a dream scene with some of the dinosaur models coming to life .
= Battle of the Strait of Otranto ( 1917 ) =
The 1917 Battle of the Strait of Otranto was the result of an Austro @-@ Hungarian raid on the Otranto Barrage , an Allied naval blockade of the Strait of Otranto . The battle took place on 14 – 15 May 1917 , and was the largest surface action in the Adriatic Sea during World War I. The Otranto Barrage was a fixed barrier , composed of lightly armed drifters with anti @-@ submarine nets coupled with minefields and supported by Allied naval patrols .
The Austro @-@ Hungarian navy planned to raid the Otranto Barrage with a force of three light cruisers and two destroyers under the command of Commander ( later Admiral ) Miklós Horthy , in an attempt to break the barrier to allow U @-@ boats freer access to the Mediterranean , and Allied shipping . An Allied force composed of ships from three navies responded to the raid and in the ensuing battle , heavily damaged the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Novara . However , the rapid approach of the Austro @-@ Hungarian relief force persuaded Rear Admiral Acton , the Allied commander , to retreat .
= = Disposition of forces = =
Under the command of Horthy , three Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers : Novara , Saida , and Helgoland , modified to resemble large British destroyers , were to attack the drifters on the night of 14 May and attempt to destroy as many as possible before daybreak . The destroyers Csepel and Balaton were to mount a diversionary raid off the Albanian coast in order to confuse any Allied counter @-@ attack . Two Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats — U @-@ 4 and U @-@ 27 , along with the German U @-@ boat UC @-@ 25 — were to participate in the operation as well . A supporting force composed of the armored cruiser Sankt Georg , two destroyers , and a number of torpedo boats was on standby if the raiders ran into trouble . The old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Budapest and a screen of torpedo boats were also available if necessary .
An Allied destroyer patrol was in the area on the night of 14 May , to the north of the Barrage . The Italian flotilla leader Mirabello was accompanied by the French destroyers Commandant Rivière , Bisson , and Cimeterre . The Italian destroyer Borea was also in the area , escorting a small convoy to Valona . A support force was based in the port of Brindisi , consisting of the British cruisers Dartmouth and Bristol and several French and Italian destroyers .
= = Raid on the drifters = =
The Italian convoy escorted by Borea was attacked by the Austro @-@ Hungarian destroyers Csepel and Balaton at approximately 03 : 24 . The Austro @-@ Hungarians sank Borea and a munitions ship , and a second was set on fire and abandoned .
The three cruisers were able to pass through the line of drifters , and at 03 : 30 began attacking the small barrage ships . The Austro @-@ Hungarians frequently gave the drifter crews warning to abandon ship before opening fire . In some instances , the drifter crews chose to fight : Gowan Lee returned fire on the Austo @-@ Hungarian ships . The ship was heavily damaged , but remained afloat ; her captain — Joseph Watt — was later awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions during the battle .
There were 47 drifters in Barrage on the night of 14 May ; the Austro @-@ Hungarians managed to sink 14 drifters and damage four more . The lack of sufficient Allied escorts forced the withdrawal of the remaining blockading ships , although only for a short time .
= = Battle = =
By this time , the Allied naval forces in the area were aware of the raid , and were in a position to block the Austro @-@ Hungarian retreat . Rear Admiral Alfredo Acton — the commanding officer of the Italian Scouting Division — ordered Mirabello 's group southward at 04 : 35 , while he embarked on the British light cruiser HMS Dartmouth . By 06 : 45 , the cruisers Dartmouth and Bristol — along with the Italian destroyers Mosto , Pilo , Schiaffino , Acerbi , and Aquila — were sailing north in an attempt to cut off the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers . The Italian light cruiser Marsala , the flotilla leader Racchia , and the destroyers Insidioso , Indomito , and Impavido were readying to sail in support as well .
The Mirabello group engaged the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers at 07 : 00 , but were heavily outgunned , and instead attempted to shadow the fleeing cruisers . At 07 : 45 , Rear Admiral Acton 's ships encountered the destroyers Csepel and Balaton . After 20 minutes , the Italian destroyers were able to close the distance to the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships ; the two groups engaged in a short artillery duel before a shot from Csepel struck Aquila and disabled the ship 's boilers . By this time , the Austro @-@ Hungarian destroyers were under the cover of the coastal batteries at Durazzo , and were able to make good their escape .
At 09 : 00 , Bristol 's lookouts spotted the smoke from the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers to the south of her position . The Allied ships turned to engage the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships ; the British ships had both a superiority in numbers and in firepower ; Dartmouth was armed with eight 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns and Bristol had two 6 inch and ten 4 in ( 100 mm ) , compared to the nine 3 @.@ 9 in ( 99 mm ) guns on each of the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships . Unfortunately for the Allies , their numerical superiority was quickly lost , as their destroyers were either occupied with mechanical problems , or protecting those destroyers suffering from breakdowns . The support forces of both sides — the Sankt Georg group for the Austro @-@ Hungarians , and the Marsala group for the Allies — were quickly dispatched to the battle .
Dartmouth — faster than Bristol — closed to effective engagement range with the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships , and opened fire . A shell from Dartmouth struck Novara , at which point the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships laid a smoke screen in order to close the distance . Dartmouth was struck several times , and by 11 : 00 , Acton ordered the ship to reduce speed to allow Bristol to catch up . Novara was hit several more times , and her main feed pumps and starboard auxiliary steam pipe had been damaged , which caused the ship to begin losing speed . At 11 : 05 , Acton turned away in an attempt to separate Saida from Novara and Helgoland . At this point , Sankt Georg was approaching the scene , which prompted Acton to temporarily withdraw to consolidate his forces . This break in the action was enough time for the Austro @-@ Hungarians to save the crippled Novara ; Saida took the ship under tow while Helgoland covered them .
Unaware that Novara had been disabled , and fearing that his ships would be drawn too close to the Austrian naval base at Cattaro , Acton broke off the pursuit . The destroyer Acerbi misread the signal , and attempted to launch a torpedo attack , but was driven off by the combined fire of Novara , Saida , and Helgoland . At 12 : 05 , Acton realized the dire situation Novara was in , but by this time , the Sankt Georg group was too close . The Sankt Georg group rendezvoused with Novara , Saida , and Helgoland , and Csepel and Balaton reached the scene as well . The entire group returned to Cattaro together .
At 13 : 30 , the submarine UC @-@ 25 torpedoed Dartmouth , causing serious damage . The escorting destroyers forced UC @-@ 25 from the area , but Dartmouth had to be abandoned for a period of time , before it could be towed back to port . The French destroyer Boutefeu attempted to pursue the German submarine , but struck a mine laid by UC @-@ 25 that morning and sank rapidly .
= = Aftermath = =
As a result of the raid , it was decided by the British naval command that unless sufficient destroyers were available to protect the barrage , the drifters would have to be withdrawn at night . The drifters would only be operating for less than twelve hours a day , and would have to leave their positions by 15 : 00 every day . Despite the damage received by the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers during the pursuit by Dartmouth and Bristol , the Austro @-@ Hungarian forces inflicted more serious casualties on the Allied blockade . In addition to the sunk and damaged drifters , the cruiser Dartmouth was nearly sunk by the German submarine UC @-@ 25 , the French destroyer Boutefeu was mined and sunk , and a munitions convoy to Valona was interdicted .
However , in a strategic sense , the battle had little impact on the war . The barrage was never particularly effective at preventing the U @-@ boat operations of Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary in the first place . The drifters could cover approximately .5 mi ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) apiece ; of the 40 mi ( 64 km ) -wide Strait , only slightly more than ½ was covered . The raid risked some of the most advanced units of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet on an operation that offered minimal strategic returns .
= New York State Route 148 =
New York State Route 148 ( NY 148 ) is a state highway in Niagara County , New York , in the United States . It runs in a north – south direction for 7 @.@ 53 miles ( 12 @.@ 12 km ) between an intersection with NY 104 in the town of Hartland and a junction with NY 18 north of the village of Barker in the town of Somerset . The entire length of NY 148 is named Quaker Road and maintained by Niagara County as part of County Route 15 ( CR 15 ) . The concurrent county route number is unsigned , as are all county routes in Niagara County . NY 148 was assigned in 1960 , supplementing the preexisting CR 15 .
= = Route description = =
NY 148 begins at an intersection with NY 104 ( Ridge Road ) and Quaker Road in the town of Hartland , just east of the Hartland Central Cemetery . The highway proceeds north through Hartland as a two @-@ lane rural road , maintained by Niagara County as part of the unsigned CR 15 . NY 148 proceeds north , running along a short residential strip before the intersection with Chapman Road . After Chapman Road , NY 148 continues to pass homes until its junction with Seaman Road , where it enters more rural surroundings . The route crosses a canal as it proceeds northward through Hartland , bending northeast into the town of Somerset at Town Line Road .
In Somerset , NY 148 remains a two @-@ lane roadway , passing through sparsely developed areas on its way to the village of Barker . In the southern part of the community , the route meets Coleman and West Somerset roads ( CR 2 and CR 3 , respectively ) . Through Barker , NY 148 is a two @-@ lane residential street , passing west of Barker Free Library and east of Barker High School . After Haight Road , NY 148 leaves the village , continuing north through a lightly populated area . At Arlington Road , the number of homes along NY 148 rises once again as the route enters the hamlet of Somerset , located at the junction of NY 148 and NY 18 ( Lake Road ) . This junction serves as the northern terminus of NY 148 , while CR 15 continues north through Somerset towards Lake Ontario .
= = History = =
Quaker Road was established as a north – south highway between Hartland and Somerset sometime prior to 1897 . By 1915 , the segment of Quaker Road between Ridge Road and Lake Road in the hamlet of Somerset was taken over by Niagara County and designated as CR 15 . On March 10 , 1915 , the county awarded a contract worth $ 65 @,@ 258 ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 53 million in 2016 ) to rebuild the highway . Construction on the road began sometime around May 1 , and it was reopened to traffic around November 1 . The project finished slightly over @-@ budget with a final cost of $ 65 @,@ 554 ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 53 million in 2016 ) . A celebration commemorating the completion of the rebuilt road was organized by the Barker Chamber of Commerce and held on December 6 , 1915 . The portion of Quaker Road between Ridge and Lake roads ( then U.S. Route 104 and NY 18 , respectively ) was designated as NY 148 by the state of New York in 1960 ; however , ownership and maintenance of the route remained in the hands of Niagara County .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Niagara County .
= McDonnell XF @-@ 85 Goblin =
The McDonnell XF @-@ 85 Goblin was an American prototype fighter aircraft conceived during World War II by McDonnell Aircraft . It was intended to be deployed from the bomb bay of the giant Convair B @-@ 36 bomber as a parasite fighter . The XF @-@ 85 's intended role was to defend bombers from hostile interceptor aircraft , a need demonstrated during World War II . Two prototypes were constructed before the program was terminated .
The XF @-@ 85 was a response to a United States Army Air Forces ' ( USAAF ) requirement for a fighter to be carried within the Northrop XB @-@ 35 and B @-@ 36 , then under development . This was to address the limited range of existing interceptor aircraft compared to the greater range of new bomber designs . The XF @-@ 85 was a diminutive jet aircraft featuring a distinctive egg @-@ shaped fuselage and a forked @-@ tail stabilizer design . The prototypes were built and underwent testing and evaluation in 1948 . Flight tests showed promise in the design , but the aircraft 's performance was inferior to the jet fighters it would have faced in combat , and there were difficulties in docking . The XF @-@ 85 was swiftly canceled , and the prototypes were thereafter relegated to museum exhibits . The 1947 successor to the USAAF , the United States Air Force ( USAF ) , continued to examine the concept of parasite aircraft under Project MX @-@ 106 " Tip Tow " , Project FICON and Project " Tom @-@ Tom " following the cancellation .
= = Design and development = =
During World War II , American bombers such as the Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress , Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator and Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress were protected by long @-@ range escort fighters such as the Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt and North American P @-@ 51 Mustang . These fighters could not match the range of the Northrop B @-@ 35 or Convair B @-@ 36 , the next generation of bombers developed by the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) . The development cost for longer @-@ ranged fighters was high , while aerial refueling was still considered risky and technologically difficult . Pilot fatigue had also been a problem during long fighter escort missions in Europe and the Pacific , giving further impetus to innovative approaches .
The USAAF considered a number of different options including the use of remotely piloted vehicles before choosing parasite fighters as the most viable B @-@ 36 defense . The concept of a parasite fighter had its origins in 1918 , when the Royal Air Force examined the viability of Sopwith Camel parasite fighters operating from R23 airships . In the 1930s , the U.S. Navy had a short @-@ lived operational parasite fighter , the Curtiss F9C Sparrowhawk , aboard the airships Akron and Macon . Starting in 1931 , aircraft designer Vladimir Vakhmistrov conducted experiments in the Soviet Union as part of the Zveno project during which up to five fighters of various types were carried by Polikarpov TB @-@ 2 and Tupolev TB @-@ 3 bombers . In August 1941 , these combinations flew the only combat missions ever undertaken by parasite fighters – TB @-@ 3s carrying Polikarpov I @-@ 16SPB dive bombers attacked the Cernavodă bridge and Constantsa docks , in Romania . After that attack , the squadron , based in the Crimea , carried out a tactical attack on a bridge over the river Dnieper at Zaporozhye , which had been captured by advancing German troops . Later in World War II , the Luftwaffe experimented with the Messerschmitt Me 328 as a parasite fighter , but problems with its pulsejet engines could not be overcome . Other late @-@ war rocket @-@ powered parasite fighter projects such as the Arado E.381 and Sombold So 344 were unrealized " paper projects " .
On 3 December 1942 , the USAAF sent out a Request for Proposals ( RfP ) for a diminutive piston @-@ engined fighter . By January 1944 , the Air Technical Service Command refined the RfP and in January 1945 , the specifications were further revised in MX @-@ 472 to specify a jet @-@ powered aircraft . Although a number of aerospace companies studied the feasibility of such aircraft , McDonnell was the only company to submit a proposal to the original 1942 request and later revised requirements . The company 's Model 27 proposal was completely reworked to meet the new specifications .
The initial concept for the Model 27 was for the fighter to be carried half @-@ exposed under the B @-@ 29 , B @-@ 35 or B @-@ 36 . The USAAF rejected this proposal , citing increased drag , and hence reduced range for the composite bomber @-@ fighter configuration . On 19 March 1945 , McDonnell 's design team led by Herman D. Barkey , submitted a revised proposal , the extensively redesigned Model 27D . The smaller aircraft had an egg @-@ shaped fuselage , three fork @-@ shaped vertical stabilizers , horizontal stabilizers with a significant dihedral , and 37 ° swept @-@ back folding wings to allow it to fit in the confines of a bomb bay . The diminutive aircraft measured 14 ft 10 in ( 4 @.@ 52 m ) long ; the folding wings spanned 21 ft ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) . Only a limited fuel supply of 112 US gal ( 93 imp gal ; 420 l ) was deemed necessary for the specified 30 @-@ minute combat endurance . A hook was installed along the aircraft 's center of gravity ; in flight , it retracted to lie flat in the upper part of the nose . The aircraft had an empty weight just short of 4 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 t ) . To save weight , the fighter had no landing gear . During the testing program , a fixed steel skid under the fuselage and spring @-@ steel " runners " at the underside of the wingtips were installed in case of an emergency landing . Despite the cramped quarters , a pilot was provided with a cordite ejection seat , bail @-@ out oxygen bottle and high @-@ speed ribbon parachute . Four .50 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns in the nose made up the aircraft 's armament .
In service , the parasite fighter would be launched and retrieved by a trapeze . With the trapeze fully extended , the engine would be airstarted and the release from the mother ship was accomplished by the pilot pulling the nose back to disengage from the hook . In recovery , the aircraft would approach the mother ship from underneath and link up with the trapeze using the retractable hook in the aircraft 's nose . The anticipated production shift would see a mixed B @-@ 36 fleet with both " fighter carriers " and bombers employed on missions . There were plans that , from the 24th B @-@ 36 onward , provisions would be made to accommodate one XF @-@ 85 , with a maximum of four per bomber envisioned . Up to 10 percent of the B @-@ 36s on order were to be converted to fighter carriers with three or four F @-@ 85s instead of a bomb load .
On 9 October 1945 , the USAAF signed a letter of intent covering the engineering development for two prototypes ( US serial numbers 46 @-@ 523 / 4 ) , although the contract was not finalized until February 1947 . After the successful conclusion of two reviews of a wooden mock @-@ up in 1946 and 1947 by USAAF engineering staff , McDonnell constructed two prototypes in late 1947 . The Model 27D was re @-@ designated XP @-@ 85 , but by June 1948 , it was changed to XF @-@ 85 and given the name " Goblin " . There were plans to acquire 30 production P @-@ 85s , but the USAAF took the cautious approach – if test results from the two prototypes were positive , production orders for more than 100 Goblins would be finalized later .
= = Operational history = =
During wind tunnel testing at Moffett Field , California , the first prototype XF @-@ 85 was accidentally dropped from a crane at a height of 40 ft ( 12 m ) , causing substantial damage to the forward fuselage , air intake and lower fuselage . The second prototype had to be substituted for the remainder of the wind tunnel tests and the initial flight tests .
As a production series B @-@ 36 was unavailable , all XF @-@ 85 flight tests were carried out using a converted EB @-@ 29B Superfortress mother ship that had a modified , " cutaway " bomb bay complete with trapeze , front airflow deflector and an array of camera equipment and instrumentation . Since the EB @-@ 29B , named Monstro , was smaller than the B @-@ 36 , the XF @-@ 85 would be flight tested , half @-@ exposed . In order to carry the XF @-@ 85 , a special " loading pit " was dug into the tarmac at South Base , Muroc Field , where all the flight tests originated . On 23 July 1948 , the XF @-@ 85 flew the first of five captive flights , designed to test whether the EB @-@ 29B and its parasite fighter could fly " mated " . The XF @-@ 85 was carried in a stowed position , but was sometimes tethered and extended into the airstream with the engine off , for the pilot to gain some feel for the aircraft in flight .
McDonnell test pilot Edwin Schoch was assigned to the project , riding in the XF @-@ 85 while it was stowed aboard the EB @-@ 29B , before attempting a " free " flight on 23 August 1948 . After Schoch was released from the bomber at a height of 20 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 000 m ) , he completed a 10 @-@ minute proving flight at speeds between 180 and 250 mph ( 290 – 400 km / h ) , testing controls and maneuverability . When he attempted a hook @-@ up , it became obvious the Goblin was extremely sensitive to the bomber 's turbulence , as well as being affected by the air cushion created by the two aircraft operating in close proximity . Constant but gentle adjustments of throttle and trim were necessary to overcome the cushioning effect . After three attempts to hook onto the trapeze , Schoch miscalculated his approach and struck the trapeze so violently that the canopy was smashed and ripped free and his helmet and mask were torn off . He saved the prototype by making a belly landing on the reinforced skid at the dry lake bed at Muroc . All flight testing was suspended for seven weeks while the XF @-@ 85 was repaired and modified . Schoch used the down period to undertake a series of problem @-@ free dummy dockings with a Lockheed P @-@ 80 Shooting Star fighter .
After boosting the trim power by 50 percent , adjusting the aerodynamics , and other modifications , two further mated test flights were carried out before Schoch was able to make a successful release and hookup on 14 October 1948 . During the fifth free flight on 22 October 1948 , Schoch again found it difficult to hook the Goblin to the bomber 's trapeze , aborting four attempts before hitting the trapeze bar and breaking the hook on the XF @-@ 85 's nose . Again , a forced landing was successfully carried out at Muroc .
With the first prototype 's repairs completed , it also joined the flight test program , completing captive flights . While in flight , the Goblin was stable , easy to fly , and recoverable from spins , although initial estimates of a 648 mph ( 1 @,@ 043 km / h ) top speed proved optimistic . The first test flights revealed that turbulence during approach to the B @-@ 29 was significant , leading to the addition of upper and lower fins at the extreme rear fuselage , as well as two wingtip fins to compensate for the increased directional instability in docking . All the initial flights had the hook secured in a fixed position , but when the hook was stowed and later raised , the resulting buffeting added to the difficulty in attempting a hookup . To address the problem , small aerodynamic fairings were added to the hook well that reduced the buffeting when the hook was extended and retracted . When testing resumed , on the 18 March 1948 test flight , Schoch continued to have difficulty in hooking up , striking and damaging the trapeze 's nose @-@ stabilizing section , before resorting to another emergency belly landing . After repairs to the trapeze , Schoch flew the first prototype on 8 April 1949 , completing a 30 @-@ minute free flight test , but after three attempts , abandoned his efforts and resorted to another belly landing at Muroc .
Aware of the problems revealed in flight tests , McDonnell reviewed the program and proposed a new development based on a more conventional design promising a Mach 0 @.@ 9 capability , using alternatively a 35 ° swept wing and delta wing . McDonnell also considered adding a telescoping extension to the docking trapeze that would extend the device below the turbulent air under the mother ship . Before any further work on the trapeze , other modifications to the XF @-@ 85 , or continued design studies on its follow @-@ up could be carried out , the USAF canceled the XF @-@ 85 program on 24 October 1949 .
Two main reasons contributed to the cancellation . The XF @-@ 85 's deficiencies revealed in flight testing included a lackluster performance in relation to contemporary jet fighters , and the high demands on pilot skill experienced during docking revealed a critical shortcoming that was never fully corrected . The development of practical aerial refueling for conventional fighters used as bomber escort was also a factor in the cancellation . The two Goblins flew seven times , with a total flight time of 2 hours and 19 minutes with only three of the free flights ending in a successful hookup . Schoch was the only pilot who ever flew the aircraft .
= = Further developments = =
Despite the cancellation of the XF @-@ 85 , the USAF continued to examine the concept of parasite aircraft as defensive fighters through a series of projects including Project MX @-@ 106 " Tip Tow " , Project FICON , and Project " Tom @-@ Tom " which involved fighter aircraft attached to bomber aircraft by their wingtips . Project FICON ( "
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fighter conveyor " ) emerged as an effective Convair GRB @-@ 36D and Republic RF @-@ 84K Thunderflash combined bomber @-@ reconnaissance @-@ fighter , although the role was changed to that of strategic reconnaissance . Project FICON drew heavily on data from the abortive XF @-@ 85 project and closely followed McDonnell 's recommendations in designing a more refined trapeze . A total of 10 converted B @-@ 36s and 25 reconnaissance fighters saw limited service with the Strategic Air Command in 1955 – 1956 , before being supplemented by more effective aircraft and satellite systems .
= = Aircraft on display = =
After the program 's termination , the two XF @-@ 85 prototypes were stored , before being surplussed and relegated to museum display in 1950 .
46 @-@ 0523 - National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton , Ohio . Following the cancellation of the program , the aircraft was transferred to the museum on 23 August 1950 and was one of the first experimental aircraft to be displayed at the new Air Force Museum . For several decades , the aircraft was displayed alongside the museum 's Convair B @-@ 36 . In 2000 , the aircraft was moved to the museum 's Experimental Aircraft Hangar . Museum staff and visitors objected to this move , believing the aircraft should be displayed alongside the B @-@ 36 to properly represent its original design intentions .
46 @-@ 0524 - Strategic Air and Space Museum in Ashland , Nebraska . It was originally transferred to the Norton Air Force Base ( near San Bernardino , California ) in 1950 , still in a damaged state after its last emergency landing . When the base museum was closed and its collection dispersed , the second XF @-@ 85 prototype languished in an unrestored condition as part of the Tallmantz private collection in California , until being acquired by Offutt AFB . It is now refurbished and displayed on its ground @-@ handling trestle , nestled under the wing of a B @-@ 36J bomber ( serial number 52 @-@ 2217 ) .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters , Boeing , National Museum of the United States Air Force .
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 14 ft 10 in ( 4 @.@ 5 m )
Wingspan : 21 ft 1 in ( 6 @.@ 4 m )
Height : 8 ft 3 in ( 2 @.@ 5 m )
Wing area : 90 sq ft ( 8 @.@ 3 m ² )
Empty weight : 3 @,@ 740 lb ( 1 @,@ 700 kg )
Loaded weight : 4 @,@ 550 lb ( 2 @,@ 050 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 5 @,@ 600 lb ( 2 @,@ 500 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Westinghouse XJ34 @-@ WE @-@ 22 turbojet , 3 @,@ 000 lbf ( 13 @.@ 3 kN )
Performance
Maximum speed : 650 mph ( estimated ) ( 565 knots ; 1 @,@ 069 km / h )
Service ceiling : 48 @,@ 000 ft ( 14 @,@ 600 m )
Rate of climb : 12 @,@ 500 ft / min ( 3 @,@ 800 m / min )
Wing loading : 51 lb / sq ft ( 247 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 0 @.@ 66
Armament
4 x .50 cal in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M3 Browning machine guns
= Half @-@ Life : Opposing Force =
Half @-@ Life : Opposing Force is an expansion pack for Valve Software 's science fiction first @-@ person shooter video game Half @-@ Life . The game was developed by Gearbox Software and Valve Corporation and published by Sierra Entertainment on November 19 , 1999 . Opposing Force is the first expansion for Half @-@ Life and was first announced in April 1999 . Randy Pitchford , the lead designer on the game , later noted that he believed Gearbox was selected to develop Opposing Force because Valve wanted to concentrate on their future projects . Over the course of development , Gearbox brought in a variety of outside talent from other areas of the video games industry to help bolster various aspects of design .
Opposing Force returns to the same setting as Half @-@ Life , but instead portrays the events from the perspective of a U.S. Marine , one of the enemy characters in the original game . The player character , Adrian Shephard , is sent in to neutralize the Black Mesa Research Facility when a scientific mishap causes it to be invaded by aliens , but quickly finds that the Marines are outnumbered and slowly being beaten back by a second alien race and black operations units .
Opposing Force was received well by critics , many describing it as the new benchmark title for expansion packs , in a similar fashion to how Half @-@ Life revolutionized the first @-@ person shooter genre . Other reviewers , however , thought that the game still had many of the negative aspects of other expansion packs , although it was still regarded as an exceptional add @-@ on .
= = Gameplay = =
As an expansion pack for Half @-@ Life , Opposing Force is a first @-@ person shooter . The overall gameplay of Opposing Force does not significantly differ from that of Half @-@ Life : players are required to navigate through the game 's levels , fight hostile non @-@ player characters and solve a variety of puzzles to advance . The game continues Half @-@ Life 's methods of an unbroken narrative . The player sees everything through the first person perspective of the protagonist and remains in control of the player character for almost all of the game . Story events are conveyed through the use of scripted sequences rather than cut scenes . Progress through the game 's world is continuous ; although the game is divided up into chapters , the only significant pauses are when the game needs to load the next part of an environment . Opposing Force also features an extended multiplayer , incorporating the various new environments and weapons into the original deathmatch mode used in Half @-@ Life . After release , a new capture the flag mode with additional levels , items and powerups , was created by Gearbox for the game .
For the most part the player battles through the single @-@ player game alone , but is occasionally assisted by friendly non @-@ player characters . Security guards and scientists will occasionally help the player in reaching new areas and convey relevant plot information . However , Opposing Force also features fellow U.S. Marines who will assist the player in combat to a far greater degree than security guards . Three types of Marines are featured in the game : the soldier will simply provide fire support for the player with a submachine gun , shotgun or machine gun , the combat medic is capable of healing the player and other non @-@ player characters , while the engineer can cut through doors and remove obstacles , allowing the player and their squad to proceed unhindered . A selection of enemies from Half @-@ Life populate the game , including alien creatures such as headcrabs and Vortigaunts .
A variety of new alien non @-@ player characters , labelled " Race X " , appear in the game as well , often engaging in combat with the aliens from Xen . The player also encounters human opponents in the form of a detachment of black operations units who have been sent to destroy the base in the wake of the failure of the U.S. Marines to eliminate the alien threat . A limited selection of Half @-@ Life 's weaponry is allocated to the player to defend themselves with , although several new weapons such as a sniper rifle , combat knife and a variety of alien weaponry are also present in the game .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Opposing Force is set in the same location and timeframe as that of Half @-@ Life , taking place at a remote New Mexico laboratory called the Black Mesa Research Facility . In Half @-@ Life , the player takes on the role of Gordon Freeman , a scientist involved in an accident that opens an inter @-@ dimensional portal to the borderworld of Xen , allowing the alien creatures of Xen to attack the facility . The player guides Freeman in an attempt to escape the facility and close the portal , ultimately traveling to Xen to do so . Opposing Force , however , shows the events of Half @-@ Life from the perspective of a different protagonist . The player assumes the role of Adrian Shephard , a U.S. Marine Corporal assigned to the Hazardous Environment Combat Unit , a specialized unit sent in to Black Mesa by the government to quell the alien threat and silence all witnesses . However , after Shephard becomes isolated from his fellow Marines , he must ally with the Black Mesa personnel and attempt to escape the base .
= = = Plot = = =
Opposing Force opens with Shephard riding on a V @-@ 22 Osprey with his squad . His squad discuss their deployment , somewhat irritated that they have not been told what they are being deployed for . However , as they are nearing their Landing Zone at Black Mesa , airborne alien creatures attack the Osprey formation , causing Shephard 's Osprey to crash land . Shephard regains consciousness in a Black Mesa medical bay , tended to by the science team , learning that the Marines are being steadily beaten by the alien forces from Xen and orders have come through to pull out . Consequently , Shephard departs to reach an extraction point and escape the facility . However , Shephard is prevented from reaching the extraction point by the enigmatic G @-@ Man , forcing the evacuation craft to leave without him .
Other Marines who have also been left behind team up with Shephard and attempt to reach another extraction point near Black Mesa 's Lambda Complex , but en route they come under attack from black operations units seeking to thoroughly contain the situation and eliminate all survivors . Shephard makes it to the Lambda Complex alive , and briefly sees Gordon Freeman as the latter teleports to Xen in the final stages of Half @-@ Life . To escape the teleportation chamber , Shephard is forced to enter a separate portal , briefly taking him to Xen before depositing him in an entirely different area of the facility . The facility is now heavily damaged , and it soon becomes clear that a new alien race , Race X , has exploited the situation to mount a localized invasion , attacking both human and Xen forces in Black Mesa indiscriminately . Fighting between the black operations units and Race X quickly intensifies .
Shephard soon encounters more stranded Marine units in the wreckage of the base , and tries to break through the black operations units to reach an escape point past the facility 's storage unit , but meets heavy resistance from both Race X and the black operations units . A surviving Black Mesa security guard reveals to Shephard that the black operators intend to detonate a tactical nuclear weapon in the base , thereby totally sealing it off and killing everything in it . After successfully neutralizing the guarding black operations unit , Shephard disarms the device and proceeds to the nearby storage areas , intent on escape . However , the G @-@ Man rearms the device as Shephard departs . The storage unit has become a thick battleground between Race X and the black operation units , and although Shephard manages to evade them , he is informed by another security guard that something very large is coming through an alien portal blocking the exit path .
At the portal , Shephard discovers a gene worm , a massive creature facilitating the Race X invasion . Shephard is able to kill the creature , but just afterwards he is teleported onto an Osprey by the G @-@ Man . As the G @-@ Man congratulates Shephard on his accomplishments , the nuclear device detonates in the background , destroying Black Mesa . The game closes with the G @-@ Man detaining Shephard someplace where he can tell no one of what he has seen and cannot be harmed , pending further evaluation .
= = Development = =
Half @-@ Life : Opposing Force was first announced by developer Gearbox Software on April 15 , 1999 . In their press release , founder Randy Pitchford stated that " our number one goal is to preserve the integrity of Half @-@ Life and provide new experiences that expand upon the sensation of the original " , and also announced that the expansion pack would allow the player to play as one of the soldiers featured in the original game . The name Opposing Force has a double meaning , referring both to the fact that the player is now one of the enemies in the original game , as well as to Newton 's third law of motion . In a later interview , Pitchford stated that he believed that Valve Software offered Gearbox the chance to make a Half @-@ Life expansion was from a wish " to focus on their future titles " . In addition , Pitchford commented that Valve and Gearbox had agreed not to " severely modify " the game engine used by Half @-@ Life and Opposing Force as it " risks breaking all of the wonderful work " that the game 's custom content community was creating . Substantial information on Opposing Force 's development direction , as well as new locations , characters and story were revealed at the 1999 Electronic Entertainment Expo convention . The official website for Opposing Force , hosted by publisher Sierra Studios , was put online in July 1999 .
Over the course of the game 's development , Gearbox acquired various outside talent to assist in designing some aspects of the game . In June 1999 , Gearbox announced that the successful level designer Richard Gray would be assisting in developing the multiplayer aspects of the game . Several other designers subsequently joined the project in September 1999 , with collective experience from the development of Daikatana , Quake II , Doom and Shadow Warrior . In the subsequent two months , media releases displaying a variety of screenshots were unveiled . The game was released on November 19 , 1999 . Gearbox later released a multiplayer update in May 2000 , adding a new capture the flag mode to the game , along with various new items to accompany the new mode . Opposing Force was later released on Valve Software 's Steam content delivery system . Opposing Force was also published as part of Sierra 's Half @-@ Life : Generation compilation in 2002 , and as part of Valve Software and Electronic Arts ' Half Life 1 : Anthology on September 26 , 2005 .
= = Critical reception = =
Opposing Force received a very favorable reception from critics , holding a score of 85 @.@ 45 % on the review aggregator site GameRankings . Although figures for the game 's sales on Steam have not been released , Opposing Force has sold over 1 @.@ 1 million copies at retail .
Computer and Video Games reviewer Kim Randell noted that " Gearbox has obviously gone to great pains to provide a similar experience to the original " . Praise was also given to the game 's multiplayer ; Randell stated that the new additions for multiplayer made it the area of Opposing Force that " really shines " . Randell closed the review by concluding that Opposing Force is " an awesome achievement " . Erik Wolpaw , writing for GameSpot , noted that as most expansion packs were mediocre , " it 's appropriate that Gearbox Software 's Opposing Force , the official expansion for the genre @-@ redefining Half @-@ Life , in turn sets a new standard of quality for future action @-@ game mission packs " . Wolpaw praised the design of the single @-@ player campaign , commenting that " you can sense the designers ' enthusiasm as one memorable scene unfolds after another , and it compels you to keep playing " . Although criticizing some elements of the game 's artificial intelligence and describing some of the new models as " merely window dressing " , the review concluded that Opposing Force was an " impassioned application of creative design " .
Other reviews echoed many of the positive aspects of the game . GamePro stated that " Gearbox has done one hell of a job in creating not just an add @-@ on for Half @-@ Life , but a continuation of a masterpiece " , praising both level design and story elements , but noted that it was a little too short . However , some critics dissented on the idea that Opposing Force was as influential as other reviewers made out .
PC Zone stated that " the taste left in the mouth is a bitter one " , noting that " Opposing Force is a few excellent ideas strung together by pedestrian Half @-@ Life padding " , but concluded that " it was still a good weekend 's worth of entertainment " . Eurogamer stated that Opposing Force still had similar problems to other expansion packs , commenting that " χ amount of new content has been created and it is going to be cut into the old content in a linear way to make it look like an all new game " , but noted that " fortunately though the new stuff in Opposing Force ... is pretty damn good " . Although praising the level design as the game 's strongest point , the reviewer felt that " towards the end of the game ... they were running out of development time " . Reviewing for IGN , Vincent Lopez stated that the game " does a fantastic job of making you remember exactly why you enjoyed the original so much " , but criticized this as the biggest drawback , commenting that " you may find yourself wishing for a more original experience " , but concluded that " for good , and bad : it 's good to be back " . The game won several publication awards , as well as the Computer Game of the Year Interactive Achievement Award of 2000 from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences .
= Nest of Angels =
" Nest of Angels " is the second episode of the second series of the British espionage television series Spooks , and the eighth episode overall . It was originally broadcast on BBC Three on 2 June 2003 , and repeated on frontline channel BBC One on 9 June . The episode was written by Howard Brenton , and directed by Bharat Nalluri . The episode centres on MI5 's actions in stopping Muhammed Rachid ( Qarie Marshall ) , a radicalised mullah in a mosque and community centre in Birmingham , who they believe is recruiting young suicide bombers . After their previous asset is discovered and brutally expelled , the team turn to Muhammed Ibhn Khaldun ( Alexander Siddig ) , an Algerian agent who left his country to work with the British .
Brenton came up with the idea to show an episode dealing with a Muslim hero set out to stop a group of Islamic terrorists . Brenton and the producers researched elements of Islam in order to provide a balanced view towards the religion , as well as the nature of the plot and to show Muslims in the episode who oppose the extremists among their religion . Although much of the episode was set in Birmingham , it was filmed entirely in London . The episode sees the introduction of regular character Ruth Evershed ( Nicola Walker ) , and the return of Christine Dale ( Megan Dodds ) , who first appeared in the first episode and returned so that the character 's role can be expanded .
The episode was seen by 7 @.@ 87 million following its broadcast on BBC One , however , despite the measures used to provide the balanced view , it was met with considerable controversy from Muslims , among them the Muslim Council of Britain , for fear that the episode would incite Islamophobia . Nearly a thousand complaints were made , although cast and crew members argued that the Muslims who opposed the episode did not understand the context .
= = Plot = =
MI5 plant an asset Johnny Patel ( San Shella ) at the Parkmount mosque and community centre in Birmingham to follow Muhammed Rachid , an Afghan @-@ born mullah who is acting more hostile to the West . Johnny however , is discovered to be a spy , and is thrown to the surveillance van outside as a result . Tom Quinn ( Matthew Macfadyen ) questions him in hospital , learning that the mullah is recruiting suicide bombers , however the stress of the questioning results in a cerebral hemorrhage . Superior Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) pressures Tom to find another agent . He turns to Tessa Phillips ( Jenny Agutter ) , now a manager at a security firm since she was fired in the first series finale for running phantom agents for monetary gain . However , she refuses to help .
Later , new officer Ruth Evershed , transferred from Government Communications Headquarters ( GCHQ ) , informs the team that Metropolitan Police have arrested Muhammed Ibhn Khaldun , an Algerian secret service agent . After his release Khaldun reveals that since the death of his family , he desired to leave Algeria to work for British intelligence , so he fooled his agency into believing he was killed while stopping a jihadist group in France , before smuggling himself into England via a Channel Tunnel freight train . The team allow him to work undercover in Parkmount , posing as a labourer at the local university , where he quickly gains Rachid 's trust . Beforehand however , Khaldun removes all the surveillance equipment on him . Furthermore , news of Khaldun 's arrival also gains the interest of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , who also wish to use him .
In the meantime , Danny Hunter ( David Oyelowo ) persuades Tom to go on a date with Vicky Westbrook ( Natasha Little ) , a nurse introduced in the previous episode , in order to get over Ellie Simm , Tom 's previous girlfriend who broke up with him . Although Tom asks her out for dinner , the two end up having sex . Zoe Reynolds ( Keeley Hawes ) continues seeing Carlo Franceschini ( Enzo Cilenti ) , also introduced in the previous episode , at a bar .
When Khaldun fails to meet with Tom , the team worry that he had deceived them . However , that night , Khaldun sneaks into Tom 's bedroom at the university campus , and warns him that Rachid is keeping explosives , and a suicide attack will take place the next day , but will not disclose where . Tom turns to Parkmount 's imam Fazul Azzam ( Roshan Seth ) , who opposes Rachid 's radicalised views . After learning Fazzul 's daughter Aminah ( Praveen Sond ) is involved , he forces her into revealing the location of the planned attack . Rachid is placed under arrest when explosives are found in his prayer room . Khaldun meanwhile , kills Rachid 's men in an empty building , and attempts to disarm the bomber , young Abu Hassan ( Taahir Husein ) , but he runs away into a playground . As Tom 's team and local police surround the playground , Khaldun attempts to talk Abu out of the attack . However , when he fails , Khaldun throws himself as Abu detonates the bomb , in order to avoid further casualties . Later , CIA liaison Christine Dale voices disappointment towards Khaldun 's death , but appears grateful that Tom is unharmed .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The story idea came from writer Howard Brenton , who wanted to delve into the world of suicide bombings , a significant issue in national security . It became the first episode in Spooks that explicitly portrays Islamic extremism , which Oyelowo described as a " hot potato " because of this sensitive issue . The actor was also worried that the plot may " put ideas into people 's heads " after the audience would watch the episode . Brenton heavily researched the episode to provide a balanced view . He included characters , such as innocent Muslims who opposed the Islamic extremists , as well as a " Muslim hero " who would thwart the terrorists . The writer still wrote " Nest of Angels " as a classic spy story , where an operative goes undercover to subvert a villainous operation . Director Bharat Nalluri felt that making the hero a Muslim exemplified the balanced view . Series creator David Wolstencroft meanwhile , emphasised that the episode not only showed Islamic extremism , but a more peaceful side of the religion as well , and that the producers should not shy away from those issues .
To further provide the fair and balanced view of the topic , script editor Karen Wilson furthered her research by consulting with a Muslim advisor throughout the scripting and filming stages , as well as consulting the Muslims who played extras in the episode . Although Wilson does not usually talk to cast members beforehand , it was the first time she became aware of the research and advice behind a storyline , and felt that the advice she was given was useful in staging the scenes . It was also based on real life instances , something that Brenton considered a hallmark of the series , as many episodes are based on such events . News stories detailing similar instances to the plot came out sometime after the episode 's broadcast , and the producers believed it justified the episode . The ending was written to be melancholic , in which there were no winners .
In writing the pre @-@ title sequence of the episode , Brenton wanted to include a " frightening thriller set up " where spies would listen in as an agent is undercover , and be absolutely helpless to aid the agent when he is in trouble , yet be nearby as this happens . He also wanted the audience to admire the villains , especially from the conversation between Tom and Rachid . Furthermore , the episode exemplifies Tom 's brutality in his professional life ; in one scene Tom questions Johnny who is recovering in hospital , but came to want the information more than care for his wellbeing .
The episode also further explores the Grid characters ' private lives , however some of the ideas had to be dropped due to the amount of plot towards the main storyline . " Nest of Angels " continues the relationship between Tom and Vicky Westbrook which began in the previous episode . Vicky was included more in the episode , and it further delved into her personality , namely she differs vastly from Ellie Simm , Tom 's previous girlfriend , who was depicted as more of a normal human being ; Vicky was portrayed as more " flakey " and " insane " who would often wrongfoot Tom . The producers also decided to introduce a potential relationship between Danny and Sam Buxton ( Shauna Macdonald ) . However , the idea was dropped later in the series as it " never seemed to click . "
= = = Casting = = =
The episode included a guest appearance from Alexander Siddig , who played the " Muslim hero " Muhammed Ibhn Khaldun . Siddig was already well known as playing regular character Julian Bashir in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . The producers viewed Siddig as a " noble " actor when he was playing the character . Siddig described the role as a " godsend " to him , because it enabled him to " portray various aspects of an Arab man who was readily credible . He came out of a new identity I was looking for , trying to take a snapshot of this guy before he disappears . He was my father . He was your father . He was the father of all the generations that had a liberal upbringing and didn 't make a lot of money . " Roshan Seth played imam Fazul Azzam ; he was cast because Brenton wanted him to appear in the episode . Meanwhile , Taahir Husain played the bomber Abu Hassan . The producers felt that the child actor was " a find " for them ; it was his first television appearance , but they believed his performance " carried it off . "
The episode also marks the return of American actress Megan Dodds , who first appeared in a handful of scenes in the first episode of the first series . The producers enjoyed the actress ' company , and wanted her to return where the character would appear more often and developed throughout the second series . Jenny Agutter returns as Tessa Philips ; it allows the audience to see what happens to her since her sacking in the first series finale . The episode introduces new regular character Ruth Evershed , played by Nicola Walker . The producers needed another " interesting , strong " member of the team following Tessa 's departure . The character also came from GCHQ in the series ; the producers were aware that the organisation employs 70 @,@ 000 people , and the producers did not want to ignore this aspect of British intelligence gathering . Describing Walker 's casting , producer Jane Featherstone recalled " Nicola is extraordinary in it . I think she 's completely brilliant . And she 's developed that and I think once Nicola became that role that writers had just loved writing for that part , and she 's really made it her own . " The character was created by Brenton . Her introduction depicted her as clumsy , mirroring the writer .
= = = Filming and soundtrack = = =
The episode was directed Bharat Nalluri ; he continued to portray a balanced approach towards Muslims during filming . Although much of the episode was set in Birmingham , it was all filmed in London . The mosque interior was shot at the basement of a building in Portland Place , while another street of terraced houses was used to double a typical residential street in the city . One of its most best looking houses doubled the home of Fazul and Aminah . Other scenes were shot in Kensington Gardens , with one of them being filmed in front of the park 's Peter Pan statue . The scenes leading up to Abu 's suicide attack was filmed at a playground . The scenes were originally set to be shot at a shopping centre , but it was deemed " unfilmable . " Producers later considered using a bus , but they thought that too was impractical . The final scenes of the episode were shot at the shore of the River Thames near the National Film Theatre , which houses a beach during low tide . The shootout scene between Khaldun and Rachid 's men was among the last to be shot . In addition , the producers made use of actual news footage following a suicide attack in Israel , in order to show the audience the consequences of such attacks .
Filming the pre @-@ title sequence went through some alterations . One of the scenes saw Johnny being foot whipped , however the shot where the stick struck the soles of the feet was cut out due to its brutality . Also , when discussing how Johnny would be expelled from the mosque afterwards , Nalluri suggested using the idea where he is thrown to the top of the surveillance van , which would give the audience the impression that the antagonists were on to them . Later on in the episode , Nalluri wanted to include some exposition shots , which shows Khaldun 's actions while he narrates them to MI5 . In one scene , Tom observes Khaldun inside a prison cell by opening a slide view at the prison door . However one had to be made because no such doors exist in the United Kingdom . Following the broadcast of the episode , the producers were surprised to hear that the BBC were unhappy with a scene showing Harry holding a Costa Coffee cup , as the corporation believed it was done out of product placement . They were also surprised to learn that they did not take notice in a scene with Malcolm Wynn @-@ Jones delightfully eating a piece of chocolate from a Black Magic chocolate box , which they thought was a more obvious example . Portraying actor Hugh Simon had to spit out the chocolate after the take as he disliked the confectionery .
The episode 's soundtrack was composed by Jennie Muskett , who also composed for the series . When reviewing the scenes leading to the conclusion she felt sympathetic towards the suicide bomber , and wanted to portray the background music through the bomber 's point of view . Muskett also hired vocalist Paul Gladstone @-@ Reed to become the voice behind his emotions . In addition , regular pieces of the soundtrack were reused throughout much of the episode . Muskett saw the episode as among the most rewarding she worked on .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Nest of Angels " was first broadcast on digital channel BBC Three from 10 : 30 p.m. on 2 June 2003 , following the first episode of the second series on BBC One . The BBC One repeat of the episode was broadcast on 9 June , between 9 and 10 p.m. According to overnight figures , ratings were down by 200 @,@ 000 from the previous episode , with an average of 7 @.@ 6 million viewers and a third of the audience share for BBC One , peaking at 7 @.@ 8 million . Spooks won its timeslot against the other terrestrial channels . The final numbers posted on the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board website went up slightly to 7 @.@ 87 million viewers , making the episode the fifth most viewed BBC One broadcast , and the thirteenth most viewed broadcast in total the week it aired .
= = = Controversy = = =
The episode gained a considerable amount of controversy , largely by Muslims who believed the episode showed Islam in a negative light , and that it could incite Islamophobia . Following the broadcast of the episode on BBC Three , the BBC received around 800 complaints , of which 500 of them were telephone calls , and 300 were emails , and a further 150 complaints were made after the BBC One repeat , totalling nearly one thousand complaints . The complaints made on its original broadcast appealed to the BBC not to repeat it on BBC One . The corporation chose not to drop the episode from the schedules . However , since fewer complaints were made after the repeat , members of the broadcasters believed that viewers realised the content was not as bad as expected . Inayat Bunglawala , the media secretary for the Muslim Council of Britain , stated " We can 't deny that the BBC have a right to screen a drama about this – it is topical , " but " It is the treatment of the subject that will lead to attacks . "
Following the episode , a Muslim student in Birmingham was assaulted by two attackers , who said " you have been spooked . " Furthermore , the Birmingham Central Mosque was vandalised , with the slogan " suicide bombers inside – kill the bombers " in graffiti . The BBC however denied that the episode had influence on the incidents , and West Midlands Police ruled that there was no evidence linking the attacks to the programme . The BBC further defended the episode , by stating the Muslim involvement towards making it , and that it does not suggest that mosques breed terrorists . In July 2003 , the Broadcasting Standards Commission dismissed some of the complaints as the episode was presented as a drama and not a factual account .
In the Friday before the BBC One repeat , Bunglawala wrote to Lorraine Heggessey , the BBC One controller , stating " the programme , which was of a very sensational nature , unfortunately only serves to reinforce many negative stereotypes of British Muslims . Instead of being a well @-@ informed piece of film @-@ making , this episode of Spooks pandered to grossly offensive and Islamophobic caricatures of imams , Muslim students and mosques , " and warned that the " increased amount of Islamophobia that is sure to result from the broadcasting of this programme at peak @-@ time is wholly unacceptable and a gross violation of your responsibilities as a public service broadcaster . " Heggessey however , argued that the episode presented a balance view and that it fell " legitimately within the story lines of Spooks . " Also , Ahtsham Ali of the Islamic Society of Britain claimed that the episode " adds fuel to the fire of already negative perceptions of Muslims and fans the flames of British National Party rhetoric . "
The controversy invoked responses from some cast and crew members from the series . Gareth Neame , the executive producer for the BBC was glad that the episode provoked debate , and the producers would adequately defend the episode from their research into making the story . That said Neame was also surprised by some of the responses , rationalising that those responders did not understand the context , and that it was not intended to offend anybody . Stephen Garrett , the director of Kudos Film and Television , the producer of Spooks agreed , further stating that the episode " deals with very real stuff that 's happening in the world . It touches nerves on a regular basis , and deals with uncomfortable truths . " Brenton meanwhile stated that " people are free to make what they want of drama , " and believed the audience did not like the villains as they portrayed something disturbing in their culture , religion , world or profession . Oyelowo had said that the episode did not say that all Muslims are terrorists , only that some fanatics can give " millions of good people a bad name . " The actor also believed that the Muslims who were " up in arms " about the story did not see the episode , but merely heard the basis of the plot and did not consider the Muslims in the episode who tried to stop the antagonists .
= SMS Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf =
SMS Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was a unique ironclad warship built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the 1880s . The last ironclad completed for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was laid down in January 1884 , launched in July 1887 , and completed in September 1889 . She was armed with a main battery of three 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns and had compound steel plating of the same thickness on her armored belt . The ship had an uneventful career , in large part due to her rapid obsolescence . She made trips to foreign countries to represent Austria @-@ Hungary , but was reduced to a coastal defense ship by 1906 . She continued in this role through World War I , based at Cattaro Bay , where her crew took part in the Cattaro Mutiny in early 1918 . After the war , Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was transferred to the Royal Yugoslav Navy and renamed Kumbor , but she remained in the Yugoslav inventory for only three years , being sold for scrap in 1922 .
= = Design = =
In the decades that followed the Austrian victory at the Battle of Lissa in 1866 , naval expenditure in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire were drastically reduced , in large part due to the veto power the Hungarian half of the empire held . Surrounded by potentially hostile countries powers on land , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire was more concerned with these threats , and so naval development was not prioritized . Admiral Friedrich von Pöck argued for several years to improve the strength of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , finally winning authorization to build the center battery ship Tegetthoff in 1875 . He spent another six years trying in vain to secure a sister ship to Tegetthoff . Finally , in 1881 , Pöck succeeded in securing funding for a new ironclad , authorized as " Ersatz Salamander " , a replacement for the earlier ironclad frigate . The new ship , to be named Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf , cost 5 @.@ 44 million gulden . The design for the new ship was prepared by Josef Kuchinka , the Director of Naval Construction for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ; a second ship , Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie , was authorized at the same time . Nearly another decade would pass before the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy secured funding for new capital ships , the three Monarch @-@ class coastal defense ships begun in 1893 .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was 90 @.@ 26 meters ( 296 ft 2 in ) long between perpendiculars and 97 @.@ 6 m ( 320 ft 3 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 19 @.@ 27 m ( 63 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 39 m ( 24 ft 3 in ) , and she displaced 6 @,@ 829 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 721 long tons ) . Her hull was constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames , over which the outer steel hull plating was riveted ; it was also extensively sub @-@ divided into watertight compartments and had a double bottom . She was fitted with electrical pumps that had a capacity of 2 @,@ 000 t ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) of water per hour . Her crew varied between 447 and 450 officers and enlisted men throughout her career .
Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino manufactured Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf 's propulsion system.The ship was powered by a pair of two @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines , driving two screw propellers . Steam for the engines was provided by ten coal @-@ fired fire @-@ tube boilers that were trunked into two funnels . Her propulsion system was rated to provide 6 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) for a top speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) . With forced draft , the power could be increased to 7 @,@ 500 ihp ( 5 @,@ 600 kW ) , though the increase in speed was modest , to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The ship was fitted with four electrical generators to power internal lighting and searchlights .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was armed with a main battery of three 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) 35 @-@ caliber guns mounted singly in open barbettes . Two were placed forward in sponsons over the battery deck to maximize end @-@ on fire , with the third placed aft . The guns were manufactured by Krupp , while the carriages that carried them were built by Armstrong Mitchell & Co .. Each of the forward guns had an arc of 180 degrees , while the stern gun could traverse 270 degrees , all hydraulically operated . The guns fired a 450 @-@ kilogram ( 990 lb ) shell using a 140 kg ( 310 lb ) charge of brown powder , which produced a muzzle velocity of 530 metres per second ( 1 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . While the open barbettes provided a wide field of fire for the slow @-@ firing guns , they were rapidly rendered obsolete by the successful application of quick @-@ firing ( QF ) technology to large @-@ caliber artillery pieces .
The main battery was supported by a secondary battery of six 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) 35 @-@ caliber guns , also built by Krupp . These guns fired a 26 kg ( 57 lb ) shell with a 15 kg ( 33 lb ) propellant charge . She carried seven 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats ; five were 44 @-@ caliber guns and the other two were shorter 33 @-@ caliber pieces , all built by Hotchkiss . Her gun armament was rounded out by a pair of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 44 @-@ caliber QF guns and a pair of 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) 15 @-@ caliber landing guns for use by landing parties . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried four 40 cm ( 16 in ) torpedo tubes ; one was mounted in the bow , another in the stern , and one on each broadside .
Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was protected with compound armor manufactured by the Dillinger Hütte works in Germany . The ship 's armored belt was 305 mm thick amidships , where it protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces , and reduced to 62 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) elsewhere . Transverse bulkheads capped the ends of the thickest portion of the belt , with the forward bulkhead 242 mm ( 9 @.@ 5 in ) and the aft bulkhead 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick . An armored deck 95 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) thick protected the ship 's vitals from shells that passed over the side armor . The barbettes for the main battery were 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
SMS Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was laid down on 25 January 1884 at the Navy Dockyard in Pola . The ship was the first ironclad to be laid down in Austria @-@ Hungary in nearly a decade , since the center battery ship Tegetthoff . She was launched on 6 July 1887 and then began fitting out , which was completed in September 1889 . Embarrassingly for the Habsburgs , the ship 's namesake had committed suicide earlier that year . In 1890 , the German emperor , Kaiser Wilhelm II , invited the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet to take part in the annual fleet training exercises in August . Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf , the ironclad Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie , and the protected cruiser Kaiser Franz Joseph I were sent to Germany under the command of Rear Admiral Johann von Hinke . While en route , the squadron made visits in Gibraltar and Britain ; during the latter stop , the ships took part in the Cowes Regatta , where they were reviewed by Queen Victoria . The ships also stopped in Copenhagen , Denmark and Karlskrona , Sweden . During the voyage back to Austria @-@ Hungary , the squadron visited Cherbourg , France and Palermo , Italy . Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf experienced repeated difficulties with her engines on the trip , but it was nevertheless considered to be a great success in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy .
Celebrations to honor the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's first trans @-@ Atlantic voyage were held in several countries ; Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf , Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie , and Kaiser Franz Joseph I represented Austria @-@ Hungary during the ceremonies in Genoa , Italy , Columbus 's birthplace . While there , she was inspected by King Umberto I of Italy and his son Victor Emmanuel III . Already by 1898 , the ship was regarded by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as a second @-@ rate vessel , after less than 10 years in service . The rapid pace of naval development in the late 19th century had quickly rendered her obsolescent . Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was reclassified as a coastal defense ship in 1906 . In 1908 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy attempted to sell the ship , Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie , and Tegetthoff to Uruguay in an attempt to raise funds for new projects , but the deal fell through .
After Austria @-@ Hungary declared war on Serbia in July 1914 , beginning World War I , the ship was stationed in Cattaro Bay under Commander Richard Florio , the leader of Mining Command II . The force also included an old destroyer , four torpedo boats , a minelayer , and two minesweepers , among other minor vessels . She remained there for the duration of the conflict . By early 1918 , the long periods of inactivity had begun to wear on the crews of several warships at Cattaro , including Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf . On 1 February , the Cattaro Mutiny broke out , starting aboard the armored cruiser Sankt Georg and quickly spreading to other ships . Officers were confined to their quarters while a committee of sailors met to formulate a list of demands , which ranged from longer periods of leave and better rations to an end to the war , based on the United States President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points . The following day , shore batteries loyal to the government fired on Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf as she steamed to the Bay of Teodo , the outermost part of Cattaro Bay . The batteries scored a single hit that killed two men , which prompted many of the mutinous ships to abandon the effort . On the morning of 3 February , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships of the III Division arrived in Cattaro , which convinced the last holdouts to surrender . Trials on the ringleaders commenced quickly and four men were executed .
With the end of the war in November 1918 and the dissolution of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf was transferred to the fledgling Royal Yugoslav Navy , who renamed her Kumbor . She remained in the Yugoslav inventory only briefly , being broken up for scrap in 1922 .
= Sicilian Baroque =
Sicilian Baroque is the distinctive form of Baroque architecture which evolved on the island of Sicily , off the southern coast of Italy , in the 17th and 18th centuries . The style is recognizable not only by its typical Baroque curves and flourishes , but also by its grinning masks and putti and a particular flamboyance that has given Sicily a unique architectural identity .
The Sicilian Baroque style came to fruition during a major surge of rebuilding following the massive earthquake in 1693 . Previously , the Baroque style had been used on the island in a naïve and parochial manner , having evolved from hybrid native architecture rather than being derived from the great Baroque architects of Rome . After the earthquake , local architects , many of them trained in Rome , were given plentiful opportunities to recreate the more sophisticated Baroque architecture that had become popular in mainland Italy ; the work of these local architects — and the new genre of architectural engravings that they pioneered — inspired more local architects to follow their lead . Around 1730 , Sicilian architects had developed a confidence in their use of the Baroque style . Their particular interpretation led to further evolution to a personalised and highly localised art form on the island . From the 1780s onwards , the style was gradually replaced by the newly fashionable neoclassicism .
The highly decorative Sicilian Baroque period lasted barely fifty years , and perfectly reflected the social order of the island at a time when , nominally ruled by Spain , it was in fact governed by a wealthy and often extravagant aristocracy into whose hands ownership of the primarily agricultural economy was highly concentrated . Its Baroque architecture gives the island an architectural character that has lasted into the 21st century .
= = Characteristics = =
Baroque architecture is a European phenomenon originating in 17th @-@ century Italy ; it is flamboyant and theatrical , and richly ornamented by sculpture and an effect known as chiaroscuro , the strategic use of light and shade on a building created by mass and shadow .
The Baroque style in Sicily was largely confined to buildings erected by the church , and palazzi built as private residences for the Sicilian aristocracy . The earliest examples of this style in Sicily lacked individuality and were typically heavy @-@ handed pastiches of buildings seen by Sicilian visitors to Rome , Florence , and Naples . However , even at this early stage , provincial architects had begun to incorporate certain vernacular features of Sicily 's older architecture . By the middle of the 18th century , when Sicily 's Baroque architecture was noticeably different from that of the mainland , it typically included at least two or three of the following features , coupled with a unique freedom of design that is more difficult to characterise in words .
Grotesque masks and putti , often supporting balconies or decorating various bands of the entablature of a building ; these grinning or glaring faces are a relic of Sicilian architecture from before the mid @-@ 17th century ( Illustrations 2 and 9 ) .
Balconies , often complemented by intricate wrought iron balustrades after 1633 ( Illustrations 2 & 9 ) , and by plainer balustrades before that date ( Illustration 6 ) .
External staircases . Most villas and palazzi were designed for formal entrance by a carriage through an archway in the street façade , leading to a courtyard within . An intricate double staircase would lead from the courtyard to the piano nobile . This would be the palazzo 's principal entrance to the first @-@ floor reception rooms ; the symmetrical flights of steps would turn inwards and outwards as many as four times . Owing to the topography of their elevated sites it was often necessary to approach churches by many steps ; these steps were often transformed into long straight marble staircases , in themselves decorative architectural features ( illustration 19 ) , in the manner of the Spanish Steps in Rome .
Canted , concave , or convex façades ( Illustrations 1 and 6 ) . Occasionally in a villa or palazzo , an external staircase would be fitted into the recess created by the curve .
The Sicilian belfry . Belfrys were not placed beside the church in a campanile tower as is common in Italy , but on the façade itself , often surmounting the central pediment , with one or more bells clearly displayed beneath its own arch , such as at Catania 's Collegiata ( Illustration 1 ) . In a large church with many bells this usually resulted in an intricately sculpted and decorated arcade at the highest point of the principal façade ( Illustration 3 ) . These belfries are among the most enduring and characteristic features of Sicilian Baroque architecture .
Inlaid coloured marble set into both floor and walls especially in church interiors . This particular form of Intarsia developed in Sicily from the 17th century ( see the floor of illustration 14 ) .
Columns that are often deployed singularly , supporting plain arches and thus displaying the influence of the earlier and much plainer Norman period ( Illustration 3 ) . Columns are rarely encountered , as elsewhere in Europe , in clustered groups acting as piers , especially in examples of early Sicilian Baroque .
Decorated rustication . Sebastiano Serlio had decorated the blocks of ashlar in his rustication ; by the end of the 16th century , Sicilian architects were ornamenting the blocks with carvings of leaves , fish @-@ scales , and even sweets and shells ; shells were later to become among the most prevalent ornamental symbols of Baroque design . Sometimes the rustication would be used for pillars rather than walls , a reversal of expectations and almost an architectural joke ( illustration 2 ) .
The local volcanic lava stone that was used in the construction of many Sicilian Baroque buildings , because this was the most readily available . Many sculptors and stone @-@ cutters of the period lived at the foot of Mount Etna , making a diversity of objects , including balustrades , pillars , fountains and seats for buildings . Shades of black or grey were used to create contrasting decorative effects , accentuating the Baroque love of light and shade
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5 to 2008 .
In 2005 , the province began including the school in their reports on student dropout rates . At the time , its rates were the highest in the province , with a total of six dropouts for every 100 students enrolled . In contrast , the district average was 0 @.@ 9 dropouts per 100 enrolments , and the provincial average was 2 @.@ 4 dropouts . The following year , the school 's rate dropped to 5 @.@ 4 , remaining three percentage points above the provincial average . In 2007 , it fell 2 @.@ 2 points , down to 3 @.@ 2 dropouts per 100 students , and finally settled at 2 % , 0 @.@ 2 percentage points below the provincial average of 2 @.@ 2 % .
In terms of academic performance , the province releases report cards based on yearly exams to track the progress toward a goal set for 2013 . The exams are held for English classes in the tenth grade , for French classes in the eleventh grade , and for mathematics in the eleventh grade . The report card rates schools based on how many students pass each exam , instead of rating on the average mark on the exam . L 'Odyssée , according to the report , is below both the district and the provincial success rate :
= = Athletics = =
L 'Odyssée offers spots in nearly every NBIAA @-@ organized sport . Players participating under the school 's name are given the nickname " Olympien " ( English : Olympian ) .
= = = Hockey = = =
The hockey teams , male and female , are required to practice every first period of the first semester in a credited course . Students participate in up to three tournaments before the provincials and over 30 games in total . The 2009 – 10 female team finished second in the provincial finals versus the Riverview Blackhawks .
= = = Soccer = = =
The school has four soccer teams : two juniors and two seniors . The male junior team placed first in the 2009 provincial championships .
= = = Track and field = = =
The track and field team at L 'Odyssée has been the recipient of several provincial titles since 2006 . Team members have included Geneviève Lalonde ( 7 @-@ time champion with six provincial records in the 800 m , 1 @,@ 500 m , and 3 @,@ 000 m from 2006 to 2009 and represented Canada at the 2010 World Junior Championships in Athletics ) , Jessica Chamberland ( 6 @-@ time champion with one provincial record in the shot put from 2006 to 2009 ) , and Alexandre Coholan ( 2 @-@ time champion in the 100 m and 200 m , as well as a silver medal in the triple jump ) .
Asterisk ( * ) denotes NBIAA record holding score as of 2012 .
= = = Other sports = = =
L 'Odyssée is home to a cross @-@ country team , a softball and baseball team , two Basketball teams , a golf team , a football team , a swimming team , three curling teams , a badminton team , and a rugby union team . In 2010 , the school 's wrestling team featured a provincial winner in the girls ' 60 kg class . The senior female volleyball team took the silver medal in the 2010 provincial tournament .
= = Activities = =
= = = Jazz / Harmony = = =
The Jazz and Harmony teams , led by instructor Charles Arseneau , act as a side project for the school 's existing music course and has participated in every yearly Heritage Festival since 2005 . The team won a competition in New York in 2009 and six Maestro awards , including the " Outstanding Band Award " , and " Best Solo " . The following year , the team placed second and garnered one Maestro award in Washington .
= = = Improvisation = = =
L 'Odyssée participated in the regional Improvisation competitions in the 2009 – 10 season . The team also participated in the " Gougoune Dorée 2010 " competition , a provincial tournament , and took first place . Sebastien Richard earned the " Most Starred Player " award , while captain Julie Frigault won MVP .
= = = Debate club = = =
The school was among the first to participate in the debut of the provincial debate championship in Caraquet . The team of three received the gold prize on March 22 , 2010 against École Mathieu @-@ Martin in the finals .
= 2013 Continental Cup of Curling =
The 2013 World Financial Group Continental Cup of Curling was held from January 10 to 13 at the South Okanagan Events Centre in Penticton , British Columbia . The Continental Cup , based on the Ryder Cup of golf , pitted teams from North America against teams from the rest of the World . The tournament featured team events , mixed doubles events , singles competitions , and skins competitions , and the brunt of available points was awarded in the skins competitions . TSN broadcast the event , as it had in previous years .
Team North America was represented by Canada Cup champions Jennifer Jones and Kevin Martin , Tournament of Hearts champion Heather Nedohin , Brier champion Glenn Howard , and the United States men 's and women 's champions Heath McCormick and Allison Pottinger , respectively . Team World was represented by reigning world champion Mirjam Ott , world silver medalist Margaretha Sigfridsson , four @-@ time world junior champion Eve Muirhead , two @-@ time world bronze medalist Niklas Edin , two @-@ time world silver medalist Tom Brewster , and two @-@ time European champion Thomas Ulsrud .
Team World entered the event as the defending champions , but were unseated by Team North America . Team World took an early lead in the first day of the event , but Team North America roared back in the next few days , dominating in the team , mixed doubles , and singles competitions to hold a large lead . Team North America clinched the cup in the second round of skins play after holding back a late Team World comeback , giving Team North America a 5 – 4 edge in the overall cup record . Team North America 's win ensured that no defending champion to date would successfully defend its title from the previous Cup .
= = Competition format = =
Six teams from North America and six teams representing the rest of the World play a series of games against each other in order to win points . The first side to win a majority of the points available wins the cup . Teams compete in four formats : team games , mixed doubles games , singles competitions , and skins games . Team games are regular curling games , with two teams of four playing against each other . Mixed doubles games involve two teams , each consisting of one male and one female , playing against each other . Mixed doubles teams use only six stones per end , one of which is positioned prior to the start of the end . This is in contrast to the eight stones per end used by teams of four in regular curling games . The singles competition involves two teams playing against each other . There are six types of shots contested in the singles competitions . Each curler from each team is assigned to throw at least one type of shot . Points are given based on how well the shot is made . After all of the shots have been thrown , the team with the most points wins the competition . Skins games involve two teams playing against each other , where the objective is to win skins by scoring two or more points with the hammer or stealing points without the hammer . The points for the skins games , which go toward the total points for the cup , are distributed throughout the game , and the teams earn these points by winning skins .
A new points system was implemented in the 2013 Continental Cup of Curling . The total of points available was 60 points , compared to the total of 400 points used in previous years . The mixed doubles , singles , and team games were worth one point each , and ties were worth one half point each to both teams . The skins games were worth a total of five points . All games were eight ends long , and there were no extra ends . Also , six mixed doubles games and six singles competition games were played , as before . However , there were eighteen team games instead of the previous twelve , and there were six skins games instead of the previous eight .
= = Teams = =
The teams were selected from the top teams in each region . Six teams from each region will compete against each other in the competition . Four teams from Canada earn the right to represent Team North America by virtue of winning certain events , namely the Canada Cup of Curling and the Canadian National Championships ( the Brier and the Tournament of Hearts ) . Two teams from the United States are chosen by the United States Curling Association to represent North America , and the teams representing Team World are selected by the World Curling Federation .
The teams in the table below have been announced as representatives of their respective regions .
= = Event summary = =
= = = Day 1 = = =
Team World and Team North America began the event with women 's team play . Mirjam Ott and Allison Pottinger played a high @-@ scoring game which resulted in a win for Ott , and Eve Muirhead scored an early lead over Heather Nedohin and held it to win another point for Team World . Jennifer Jones made a precise draw to tie her game with Margaretha Sigfridsson and secured a half @-@ point for Team North America , averting a sweep by Team World .
Team World held a two @-@ point lead coming into the first mixed doubles round , where they split the three points available with Team North America . The North American pair of John Morris and Kaitlyn Lawes dominated Team World 's Niklas Edin and Christina Bertrup . Heather Nedohin made a game @-@ saving shot with Dean Gemmell to tie their game with Michael Goodfellow and Eve Muirhead , and Christoffer Svae and Carmen Schäfer stole a win over Marc Kennedy and Allison Pottinger after Pottinger was light on a draw .
Team North America closed the two @-@ point gap by one point in men 's team play , where they won two of the three games . Both Niklas Edin of Team World and Kevin Martin of Team North America won close games against Heath McCormick and Tom Brewster , respectively , while Glenn Howard made a double @-@ takeout in the last end to hold his lead and win the game over Thomas Ulsrud . At the end of the day , Team World led Team North America 5 – 4 .
= = = Day 2 = = =
In the morning draw , women 's team play saw Team North America turning the tables on Team World by winning two games and splitting the points for the third . Heather Nedohin held a slight lead over Margaretha Sigfridsson , who tried to win the game in the final end but fell short and tied the game . Jennifer Jones and Mirjam Ott played a back @-@ and @-@ forth game which saw Ott miss a double @-@ takeout attempt for the win , allowing Jones to steal the point . Allison Pottinger stole three in the fifth end against Eve Muirhead and held the lead through the rest of the game , capping off the game with a four @-@ point end .
The singles competition , similar to a skills competition in ice hockey , involved team members from each of the twelve teams attempting six types of shots . Team North America fared well in the singles competition , winning four of the six matchups and earning four points . On the women 's side , the teams skipped by Allison Pottinger and Mirjam Ott scored the highest total of points at 18 points , while on the men 's side , Glenn Howard 's team scored the highest total of points at 22 points .
The evening draw , which consisted of men 's team play , saw Team North America extending their lead to five points . Heath McCormick dominated against Thomas Ulsrud , who lost second Christoffer Svae in the middle of the game due to illness . Kevin Martin established an early lead in the first half of the game versus Niklas Edin and held his lead to win . Glenn Howard had a chance to make the draw a North America sweep , starting off with a small lead against Tom Brewster , but a mistake in the eighth end from Brent Laing led to a chance for Brewster to come back and tie the game , which he did . At the end of the day , Team North America led Team World 13 – 8 .
= = = Day 3 = = =
The morning draw consisted of mixed doubles play , where Team North America dominated Team World and earned the first sweep of three points in the event . Heath McCormick and Jessica Mair dominated Sebastian Kraupp and Maria Prytz , stealing three ends en route to a six @-@ point victory . Glenn Howard and Natalie Nicholson held an early lead over Greg Drummond and Anna Sloan after a four @-@ point second end , but Drummond and Sloan came back to make it a close game . In the end , Howard and Nicholson scored two to win the game . Brent Laing and Jennifer Jones played a back @-@ and @-@ forth game with Torger Nergård and Carmen Küng , but retained control through most of the game and came out with the victory after Küng 's last shot left Team North America having shot stone , effectively giving Laing and Jones the win .
In the afternoon draw , women 's team play saw a split of the three available points . Mirjam Ott pushed out to an early lead against Heather Nedohin , and held her lead against a struggling Nedohin to win . Jennifer Jones played a back @-@ and @-@ forth game with Eve Muirhead , and won on a dramatic finish , tapping a buried stone to score a deuce in the final end . Allison Pottinger held an early lead over Margaretha Sigfridsson , but Sigfridsson rallied with the help of three stolen points and tied the game .
The evening draw saw Team North America extending their lead by one point . Heath McCormick and Tom Brewster played a relatively quick game , with McCormick winning on a draw in the final end . Kevin Martin scored a huge four @-@ point end against Thomas Ulsrud and commanded the rest of the match to secure Team North America 's second win . Glenn Howard came short in winning his match versus Niklas Edin , however , when a failed in @-@ off shot in the sixth end led to a steal by Edin . Edin secured Team World 's only full point in the draw with a double takeout . At the end of the day , Team North America led Team World 19 ½ – 10 ½ .
= = = Day 4 = = =
The afternoon draw consisted of skins play . Allison Pottinger and Margaretha Sigfridsson played in the women 's skins game . Pottinger held an early lead after four straight skins , but Sigfridsson capitalized on missed shots from Pottinger to win the last four skins and the game . Heath McCormick and Niklas Edin played in the men 's skins game , where a series of carryovers saw Edin winning the last skin , worth three and a half points , and the game . A mixed team of John Morris , Beth Iskiw , Ben Hebert , and Jessica Mair played Tom Brewster , Anna Sloan , Scott Andrews , and Claire Hamilton in the mixed skins game . Morris , who skipped against Brewster , held control over the game and limited Brewster in scoring . Brewster won the last point on a draw to the button , giving Team World an 8 – 7 edge in the first round of skins play .
The evening draw also consisted of skins play . Jennifer Jones and Mirjam Ott played in the women 's skins game , in which Jones dominated , scoring four skins and winning four points for Team North America . Glenn Howard and Thomas Ulsrud played in the men 's skins game . Ulsrud played a fairly open game , forcing carryovers for five ends until a misfire from Ulsrud led to Howard making the cup @-@ winning shot , scoring three points with a tap for two points . Ulsrud won the remaining points in the game on a draw to the button . A mixed team of Kevin Martin , Heather Nedohin , Marc Kennedy , and Laine Peters played Eve Muirhead , Greg Drummond , Vicki Adams , and Michael Goodfellow in the mixed skins game . Martin skipped against Muirhead and controlled most of the game , securing four points on four skins before Muirhead took the last skin . Team North America took a 10 ½ – 4 ½ point edge in the second round of skins play , giving them a CAD $ 13 @,@ 000 bonus for winning the skins rounds .
The final score of the event was 37 – 23 , and the winning team , Team North America , received a purse of CAD $ 52 @,@ 000 , CAD $ 2 @,@ 000 per player , in addition to the skins bonus , while the losing team received a purse of CAD $ 26 @,@ 000 , CAD $ 1 @,@ 000 per player .
= = Events = =
All times listed are Pacific Standard Time . The draws for Thursday , Friday , and Saturday were released on Wednesday night , and the draws for Sunday were released on Saturday afternoon .
= = = Thursday , January 10 = = =
Women 's team 8 : 30 am
Mixed doubles 1 : 00 pm
Men 's team 6 : 30 pm
= = = Friday , January 11 = = =
Women 's team 8 : 30 am
Singles 1 : 00 pm
Men 's team 6 : 30 pm
= = = Saturday , January 12 = = =
Mixed doubles 9 : 00 am
Women 's team 1 : 30 pm
Men 's team 6 : 30 pm
= = = Sunday , January 13 = = =
Skins 1 : 00 pm
Skins 5 : 00 pm
= = Statistics = =
The statistics for team play , including team skins play , are listed below . The percentages are calculated for each player by rating their shots in each game . Each shot the player attempts is scored out of four based on how well the shot is made .
= = = Player percentages = = =
= = = = Men = = = =
= = = = Women = = = =
= = = Team percentages = = =
= = = = Men = = = =
= = = = Women = = = =
= = = Perfect games = = =
= = = = Women = = = =
= Otto Graham =
Otto Everett Graham , Jr . ( December 6 , 1921 – December 17 , 2003 ) was an American football quarterback who played for the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) . Graham is regarded by critics as one of the most dominant players of his era , having taken the Browns to league championship games every year between 1946 and 1955 , winning seven of them . With Graham at quarterback , the Browns posted a record of 114 wins , 20 losses and four ties , including a 9 – 3 win – loss record in the playoffs . While most of Graham 's statistical records have been surpassed in the modern era , he still holds the NFL record for career average yards gained per pass attempt , with 8 @.@ 98 . He also holds the record for the highest career winning percentage for an NFL starting quarterback , at 0 @.@ 814 . Long @-@ time New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner , a friend of Graham 's , once called him " as great of a quarterback as there ever was . " He is also known for being one of only two people ( the other being Gene Conley — Milwaukee Braves in the 1957 World Series and three Boston Celtics championships from 1959 – 61 ) to win championships in two of the four major American sports — 1946 NBL ( became NBA ) and AAFC Championship , plus 3 more AAFC and 3 NFL championships .
Graham grew up in Waukegan , Illinois , the son of music teachers . He entered Northwestern University in 1940 on a basketball scholarship , but football soon became his main sport . After a brief stint in the military at the end of World War II , Graham played during the 1946 season for the National Basketball League 's Rochester Royals , who won the league championship that year . Paul Brown , Cleveland 's coach , signed Graham to play for the Browns , where he thrived . After he retired from playing football in 1955 , Graham coached college teams in the College All @-@ Star Game and became head football coach at the Coast Guard Academy in Connecticut . After seven years at the academy , he spent three unsuccessful seasons as head coach of the Washington Redskins . Following his resignation , he returned to the Coast Guard Academy , where he served as athletic director until his retirement in 1984 . He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 .
= = Early life and college career = =
Born in Waukegan , Illinois , Graham 's first interest growing up was music . Encouraged by his parents , both of whom were music teachers , he took up several instruments : the piano , violin , cornet and French horn . Graham also excelled in athletics , and attended Northwestern University on a basketball scholarship in 1940 . There he played on the varsity basketball team as a freshman and continued to study music . Graham did not take up football until his sophomore year , when Northwestern coach Pappy Waldorf saw him throwing in an intramural game and invited him to practice with the team . Northwestern 's coaches were impressed with his running and passing , and Waldorf convinced him to sign up . Although football became Graham 's primary sport , he also played baseball and continued on the basketball team . As a senior , he was named a first @-@ team basketball All @-@ American , part of a squad selected by news outlets comprising the best players at each position .
Graham 's first game for the Northwestern Wildcats football team was on October 4 , 1941 , when he caught a Kansas State punt and returned it 90 yards for a touchdown . He ran and passed for two more touchdowns in the 51 – 3 victory . After scoring another pair of touchdowns in a win against Wisconsin , Graham passed to his wide receivers for two touchdowns in a victory over the Ohio State , coached by Paul Brown , the team 's only loss of the 1941 season . Northwestern ended the year with an 11th @-@ place showing in the AP Poll of the best college teams in the country .
As America 's involvement in World War II intensified after the December 7 , 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor , Graham signed up for service alongside many fellow student @-@ athletes , entering the U.S. Navy Air Corps . He was able to stay at Northwestern as he waited to be called for active duty . The Wildcats struggled in 1942 as their players joined the war effort , winning only one game . Graham still had 89 completions , setting a single @-@ season passing record in the Big Ten Conference , a division of major college teams from the Midwestern United States .
The following year , Graham and some of his teammates enlisted in the military but continued to play for Northwestern . Enlistees from other schools also enrolled at Northwestern , where the U.S. Navy had a training station . The 1943 season was a strong one for Northwestern . The team beat the Ohio State , the defending national champions , and a good military team at Great Lakes Naval Station . The Wildcats lost to Notre Dame and Michigan , however , and finished the season with an 8 – 2 record and a ninth @-@ place ranking in the AP Poll . Graham set another Big Ten passing record , was named the conference 's Most Valuable Player , received All @-@ American honors and finished third in Heisman Trophy voting . By the end of his college career , he held a Big Ten Conference record for passing yards with 2 @,@ 132 .
Graham 's career at Northwestern officially ended in February 1944 , when he moved to Colgate University in Hamilton , New York , in the Navy 's V @-@ 5 cadet program , a pilot training course . He played basketball for Colgate before moving to North Carolina Pre @-@ Flight later in 1944 , where he played on the Cloudbusters football team under coaches Glenn Killinger and Bear Bryant .
Impressed by Graham 's performances in Northwestern 's wins over the Ohio State in 1941 and 1943 , Paul Brown came and offered him a contract worth $ 7 @,@ 500 per year ( $ 98 @,@ 581 in 2016 dollars ) in 1945 to play for a professional team he was coaching in Cleveland in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) . Graham would not receive his salary until he started playing , however , and Brown added a monthly stipend of $ 250 ( $ 3 @,@ 286 in 2016 ) until the end of the war . It was a large amount of money at the time . " All I asked was , where do I sign ? " Graham said later . " Some of the other navy men said I was rooting for the war to last forever . " Graham was also drafted by the National Football League 's Detroit Lions , but he did not sign a contract or play a game with the team as the war wore on .
Large numbers of athletes came home as the conflict wound down in Europe following Germany 's surrender in mid @-@ 1945 . The AAFC 's first season was not set to start until the fall of 1946 , and Graham occupied the intervening months by joining the Rochester Royals of the National Basketball League ( NBL ) , a forerunner of the National Basketball Association . In March 1946 , the Royals swept a best @-@ of @-@ five series against the Sheboygan Redskins to win the NBL title .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cleveland Browns in the AAFC ( 1946 – 1949 ) = = =
By the time Graham was discharged from the Navy late in the summer of 1946 , training camp for Brown 's new team , the Cleveland Browns , had already begun . Concerned that Graham was not ready to start , Brown put in Cliff Lewis at quarterback in the first game of the season . Graham , however , soon replaced Lewis in Brown 's T formation offense . Handing the ball to fullback Marion Motley and throwing to ends Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie , Graham led the team to a 12 – 2 regular @-@ season record and a spot in the championship game against the AAFC 's New York Yankees . The Browns won that game , touching off a period of dominance . The team won each of the AAFC 's four championships between 1946 and 1949 , and had professional football 's second perfect season in 1948 by finishing undefeated and untied .
Graham 's play was crucial to Cleveland 's success . He averaged 10 @.@ 5 yards per pass and had a quarterback rating of 112 @.@ 1 in 1946 , a professional football record until Joe Montana surpassed it in 1989 . Graham was named the AAFC 's Most Valuable Player in 1947 and shared the Most Valuable Player award with Frankie Albert of the San Francisco 49ers in 1948 . He led the league in passing yards between 1947 and 1949 . The AAFC dissolved after the 1949 season , and three of its teams , including the Browns , merged into the more established National Football League . Graham was the AAFC 's all @-@ time leading passer , throwing for 10 @,@ 085 yards and 86 touchdowns .
Graham became the Browns ' uncontested leader , but he was also " just one of the guys , " tackle Mike McCormack said in 1999 . " He was not aloof , which you see a lot of times today . " He was good at spinning and moving in the pocket , skills he learned playing basketball . In his autobiography , Paul Brown praised Graham 's ability to anticipate his receivers ' route @-@ running by watching their shoulders . " I remember his tremendous peripheral vision and his great athletic skill , as well as his ability to throw a football far and accurately with just a flick of his arm , " Brown said . His short passes were hard and accurate , teammates later said , and his long balls were soft . " I used to catch a lot of them one @-@ handed , " Lavelli said . " He had great touch in his hands . " He was nicknamed " Automatic Otto " for his consistency and toughness .
= = = Cleveland Browns in the NFL ( 1950 – 1955 ) = = =
With Graham at the helm , the Browns continued to succeed when they joined the NFL in 1950 . Graham led the Browns to a 10 – 2 record , which set up a playoff against the New York Giants for a spot in the championship game . The Browns ' only two losses of the season had come against the Giants , but in a frozen Cleveland Stadium on December 17 , Cleveland beat New York . With the game tied 3 – 3 in the fourth quarter , Graham gained 45 yards by running with the ball on a long drive to set up a 28 @-@ yard Lou Groza field goal that put the Browns ahead 6 – 3 . A safety after the ensuing kickoff made the final score 8 – 3 .
The win put Cleveland in the NFL championship game against the Los Angeles Rams . Graham 's rushing and passing were again key to the Browns ' 30 – 28 victory . He drove the offense downfield as time expired to set up a last @-@ minute Groza field goal that sealed the win . Graham had 99 yards rushing in the game , adding 298 yards of passing and four touchdowns .
Cleveland posted an 11 – 1 record in 1951 , losing their only game to the San Francisco 49ers in the season opener . That gave the Browns another spot in the championship game , again against the Rams . This time , however , the Rams won 27 – 17 . Graham fumbled the ball in the third quarter , setting up a touchdown that put the Rams ahead 14 – 10 . Three of his throws were intercepted , but he put up 280 yards of passing and a touchdown . After the season , Graham was named the league 's Most Valuable Player .
With Graham at quarterback , Cleveland finished the 1952 season with a 9 – 3 record and faced the Detroit Lions in the NFL championship game . Despite gaining 384 total yards to Detroit 's 258 , Graham and the Browns lost their second straight championship , 17 – 7 . Cleveland had several long drives that ended with missed field goals , and a fourth @-@ quarter touchdown was negated because Graham 's throw to Pete Brewster was first tipped by receiver Ray Renfro ; under rules in place at the time , balls deflected by offensive teammates were automatic incompletions . After the season , as Graham was practicing for the Pro Bowl in Los Angeles on January 2 , 1953 , his six @-@ week @-@ old son Stephen died from a severe cold .
The 1953 season began with a 27 – 0 win over the Green Bay Packers in which Graham passed for 292 yards and ran for two touchdowns . It was the first of 11 straight victories for the Browns , whose only loss came in the final game of the season to the Philadelphia Eagles . Near the end of the season in a game against the 49ers , Graham took a forearm to the face from Art Michalik that opened a gash on his chin requiring 15 stitches . Graham 's helmet was fitted with a clear plastic face mask , and he came back into the game ; the injury helped inspire the development of the modern face mask . Despite an 11 – 1 record , Cleveland lost in the championship game for the third year in a row , falling to the Detroit Lions 17 – 16 . Two of Graham 's passes were intercepted . He said after the game that he wanted to " jump off a building " for letting his teammates down . " I was the main factor in losing , " he said . " If I had played my usual game , we would have won . " Still , Graham finished the season as the NFL 's leading passer and again won the Most Valuable Player award .
Before the start of the Browns ' 1954 training camp , Graham was questioned as part of the Sam Sheppard murder case . Sheppard , an osteopath , was accused of bludgeoning his pregnant wife to death , and Graham and his wife , Beverly , were friends with the couple . Graham told police that while he and Beverly liked the Sheppards , they did not know much about their relationship .
The 1954 season was a transitional one for the Browns . Many of the players who joined the 1946 team had retired or were nearing the end of their careers . Graham , meanwhile , told Brown that he would retire after the season . After losing the first three games , Cleveland won eight in a row and earned another shot at the championship , again against the Lions . This time , the Browns won 56 – 10 as Graham ran for three touchdowns and passed for three more . He announced his retirement after the game .
After Graham 's potential replacements struggled during the 1955 training camp and preseason , Brown convinced Graham to come back and play one more year . He was offered a salary of $ 25 @,@ 000 ( $ 220 @,@ 839 today ) , making him the highest @-@ paid player in the NFL . The Browns lost the opener against the Washington Redskins , but went on to a 9 – 2 – 1 regular @-@ season record and another chance at a championship . Graham threw two touchdowns and ran for two more as the Browns beat the Rams 38 – 14 . When Brown took Graham out of the game in the fourth quarter , the crowd in the Los Angeles Coliseum gave him a standing ovation . It was the final performance of a 10 @-@ year career in which Graham 's team reached the championship each year and won seven . " Nothing would induce me to come back , " he said later . He was the NFL 's passing leader and Most Valuable Player in 1955 . He also won the Hickok Belt , awarded to the best professional athlete of the year . Without Graham , the Browns floundered the following year and posted a 5 – 7 record , their first @-@ ever losing season .
The Browns ' record with Graham as starting quarterback was 114 – 20 – 4 , including a 9 – 3 record in the playoffs . He still holds the NFL career record for yards per pass attempt , averaging nine . He also holds the record for the highest career winning percentage for an NFL starting quarterback , with 0 @.@ 814 . Graham was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1965 . Having won seven championships in 10 seasons and reached the championship game in every year he played , Graham is regarded by sportswriters as one of the greatest winners of all time and one of the best professional quarterbacks ever to play the game . He never missed a game in his career .
Graham wore number 60 for much of his career , but he was forced to change it to 14 in 1952 after the NFL passed a rule requiring offensive linemen to wear jersey numbers 50 – 79 so referees could more easily identify ineligible receivers . The Browns retired his number 14 , while 60 remains in circulation . While at Northwestern , Graham wore number 48 .
= = Coaching career = =
When Graham retired from football , he planned to focus on managing the insurance and appliance businesses he owned . In 1957 , however , Graham signed on as an assistant coach for the college squad in the annual College All @-@ Star Game , a now @-@ defunct exhibition contest between the NFL champion and a selection of the best collegiate players from around the country . The next year , he was named head coach of the team . With Graham coaching the all @-@ stars in 1958 , the team beat the Detroit Lions 35 – 19 .
= = = Coast Guard Academy = = =
Following his convincing win in the all @-@ star game , Graham 's friend George Steinbrenner helped get him a job as the head football coach for the Coast Guard Academy in New London , Connecticut . Graham , by then 37 years old , was also named athletic director and given a salary " in five figures " . School officials said the hiring did not mean Coast Guard would " go big time " ; the Division III school played a relatively short schedule at the time against smaller schools in New England . The Coast Guard team had a 3 – 5 record in Graham 's first year as coach in 1959 , but improved steadily over the ensuing three years . The team went undefeated in 1963 , earning the academy its first @-@ ever post @-@ season bowl appearance . Coast Guard lost to Western Kentucky 27 – 0 in the Tangerine Bowl . Graham continued to coach in the College All @-@ Star Game while at Coast Guard , and his college team beat Vince Lombardi 's Green Bay Packers in a 20 – 17 upset in 1963 . Graham was offered coaching jobs in the NFL numerous times during his tenure at Coast Guard , but he said in 1964 that he was content to stay at the small school on a $ 9 @,@ 000 salary . He said he deplored the " win at all costs philosophy " that was necessary to be successful in the professional ranks .
= = = Washington Redskins = = =
Despite his reservations about the professional game , Graham , who moonlighted as a television and radio commentator for the American Football League 's New York Jets in 1964 and 1965 , left Coast Guard after seven years in 1966 to become head coach of the NFL 's Washington Redskins . Graham 's tenure as the Redskins ' coach between 1966 and 1968 was unsuccessful ; the team 's record during that span was 17 – 22 – 3 . In his last season as the coach of the Redskins , calls for his firing had intensified as the team 's performance worsened from a 7 – 7 record to a 5 – 9 record in his third year . The Washington Daily News called for his firing in a front @-@ page editorial in November 1968 . Lombardi took over as the Redskins ' coach in 1969 .
= = = Return to Coast Guard Academy = = =
After being dismissed as the Redskins ' coach , Graham returned to the Coast Guard Academy as athletic director and said he planned to stay there until he retired . He coached the college team in the College All @-@ Star Game in 1970 for his tenth and final time . The college stars lost for the seventh time in a row that year , falling 24 – 3 to the Kansas City Chiefs . He was replaced in 1971 by Blanton Collier , who had retired after succeeding Brown as Cleveland 's head coach .
In 1974 , Graham was named Coast Guard 's football coach once again , although he resigned two years later to focus on his duties as athletic director . In nine years of coaching , Graham 's Coast Guard teams had a combined record of 44 – 32 – 1 . After eight more years as the school 's athletic director , Graham retired in 1984 .
= = Later life and death = =
An avid golfer and tennis player , Graham partnered with New York Yankees great Joe DiMaggio in numerous golf tournaments later in life . He retired to a house on a golf course in Florida . Graham overcame colon cancer in 1977 , but was later plagued by heart ailments and other health problems . He was diagnosed as being in the early stages of Alzheimer 's disease in 2001 , and died of a heart aneurysm in Sarasota , Florida , on December 17 , 2003 . He had two sons and a daughter with his wife Beverly . In 2013 , Northwestern 's fundraising department created The Otto Graham Society to honor his achievements at the school and support its athletics programs . In 2014 a new gymnasium at Waterford Country School was dedicated to Otto Graham 's memory .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Coaching record = =
= = = College = = =
= = = NFL = = =
= Petroleum industry in Iran =
Iran is an energy superpower and the Petroleum industry in Iran plays an important part in it . In 2004 Iran produced 5 @.@ 1 percent of the world ’ s total crude oil ( 3 @.@ 9 million barrels ( 620 @,@ 000 m3 ) per day ) , which generated revenues of US $ 25 billion to US $ 30 billion and was the country ’ s primary source of foreign currency . At 2006 levels of production , oil proceeds represented about 18 @.@ 7 percent of gross domestic product ( GDP ) . However , the importance of the hydrocarbon sector to Iran ’ s economy has been far greater . The oil and gas industry has been the engine of economic growth , directly affecting public development projects , the government ’ s annual budget , and most foreign exchange sources .
In FY 2009 , the sector accounted for 60 percent of total government revenues and 80 percent of the total annual value of both exports and foreign currency earnings . Oil and gas revenues are affected by the value of crude oil on the international market . It has been estimated that at the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC ) quota level ( December 2004 ) , a one @-@ dollar change in the price of crude oil on the international market would alter Iran ’ s oil revenues by US $ 1 billion .
In 2012 , Iran , which exports around 1 @.@ 5 million barrels of crude oil a day , was the second @-@ largest exporter among the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries . In the same year , officials in Iran estimated that Iran 's annual oil and gas revenues could reach $ 250 billion by 2015 . However , the industry was disrupted by an international embargo from July 2012 through January 2016 . Iran plans to invest a total of $ 500 billion in the oil sector before 2025 .
= = History = =
= = = The era of international control , 1901 – 1979 = = =
The history of Iran ’ s oil industry began in 1901 , when British speculator William D ’ Arcy received a concession from Iran to explore and develop southern Iran ’ s oil resources . The discovery of oil in 1908 led to the formation in 1909 of the London @-@ based Anglo @-@ Persian Oil Company ( APOC ) . By purchasing a majority of the company ’ s shares in 1914 , the British government gained direct control of the Iranian oil industry , which it would not relinquish for 37 years . After 1935 the APOC was called the Anglo @-@ Iranian Oil Company ( AIOC ) . A 60 @-@ year agreement signed in 1933 established a flat payment to Iran of four British pounds for every ton of crude oil exported and denied Iran any right to control oil exports .
In 1950 ongoing popular demand prompted a vote in the Majlis to nationalize the petroleum industry . A year later , the government of Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadeq formed the National Iranian Oil Company ( NIOC ) . A 1953 coup d ’ état led by British and U.S. intelligence agencies ousted the Mossadeq government and paved the way for a new oil agreement . In 1954 a new agreement divided profits equally between the NIOC and a multinational consortium that had replaced the AIOC . In 1973 Iran signed a new 20 @-@ year concession with the consortium .
Beginning in the late 1950s , many of Iran ’ s international oil agreements did not produce the expected outcomes ; even those oil companies that managed to extract oil in their designated areas contributed very little to the country ’ s total oil production . By the time of the Islamic Revolution of 1978 – 79 , the five largest international companies that had agreements with the NIOC accounted for only 10 @.@ 4 percent of total oil production . During this period , Iran ’ s oil industry remained disconnected from other industries , particularly manufacturing . This separation promoted inefficiencies in the country ’ s overall industrial economy .
In 1973 , at a time when Iran was the second @-@ largest oil exporter in the world and the Arab @-@ Israeli War of October 6 – 25 was pressurizing the price of oil , the Shah of Iran told the New York Times , " Of course the world price of oil is going to rise .... Certainly ! And how ... ; You [ Western nations ] increased the price of wheat you sell us by 300 % , and the same for sugar and cement ... ; You buy our crude oil and sell it back to us , refined as petrochemicals , at a hundred times the price you 've paid to us ... ; It 's only fair that , from now on , you should pay more for oil . Let 's say ten times more . "
= = = The era of nationalized oil , 1979 – present = = =
Following the Revolution , the NIOC took control of Iran ’ s petroleum industry and canceled Iran ’ s international oil agreements . In 1980 the exploration , production , sale , and export of oil were delegated to the Ministry of Petroleum . Initially Iran ’ s post @-@ revolutionary oil policy was based on foreign currency requirements and the long @-@ term preservation of the natural resource . Following the Iran – Iraq War , however , this policy was replaced by a more aggressive approach : maximizing exports and accelerating economic growth . From 1979 until 1998 , Iran did not sign any oil agreements with foreign oil companies . Early in the first administration of President Mohammad Khatami ( in office 1997 – 2005 ) , the government paid special attention to developing the country ’ s oil and gas industry . Oil was defined as inter @-@ generational capital and an indispensable foundation of economic development . Thus , between 1997 and 2004 Iran invested more than US $ 40 billion in expanding the capacity of existing oil fields and discovering and exploring new fields and deposits . These projects were financed either in the form of joint investments with foreign companies or domestic contractors or through direct investment by the NIOC . In accordance with the law , foreign investment in oil discovery was possible only in the form of buyback agreements under which the NIOC was required to reimburse expenses and retain complete ownership of an oil field . Marketing of crude oil to potential buyers was managed by the NIOC and by a government enterprise called Nicoo . Nicoo marketed Iranian oil to Africa , and the NIOC marketed to Asia and Europe . According to IHS CERA estimate , oil revenue of Iran will increase by a third to USD 100 billion in 2011 even though the country is under an extended period of U.S. sanctions .
= = Oil production and reserves = =
Total oil production reached a peak level of 6 @.@ 6 Mbbl / d ( 1 @,@ 050 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) in 1976 . By 1978 , Iran had become the second @-@ largest OPEC producer and exporter of crude oil and the fourth @-@ largest producer in the world . After a lengthy decline in the 1980s , production of crude oil began to increase steadily in 1987 . In 2008 Iran produced 3 @.@ 9 @-@ million @-@ barrels ( 620 @,@ 000 m3 ) per day ( bpd ) and exported 2 @.@ 4 Mbbl / d ( 380 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) . Accounting for 5 percent of world production , it returned to its previous position as OPEC ’ s second @-@ largest producer . According to estimates , in 2005 Iran had the capacity to produce 4 @.@ 5 Mbbl / d ( 720 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) ; it was believed that production capacity could increase to 5 Mbbl / d ( 790 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) to 7 Mbbl / d ( 1 @,@ 100
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Knapp ; Hopley was defended by the serjeant @-@ at @-@ law William Ballantine , who subsequently described Hopley as " distorted " . Throughout his trial , Hopley described himself as reluctant to use corporal punishment . In describing the events preceding Cancellor 's death , Hopley stated that he started crying while beating Cancellor , after which Cancellor presented his lesson and " Hopley took his head on his breast and prayed with him " . Hopley presented testimonials from past students who described him as " kindly " and who noted an infrequent use of violence . Hopley claimed to be a paedagogical follower of John Locke , who had decried the use of corporal punishment except in cases of extreme obstinacy on the part of the student . He argued that , through the application of this theory , the beating that killed Cancellor had been a necessary one .
Robert Willis testified at the trial that there was no possibility that Cancellor 's death had been a result of natural causes . He presented a detailed description of the boy 's injuries , suggesting that they had been sustained over several hours . He also revealed that Cancellor 's skull cavity contained six to eight ounces of fluid , attributing to this fluid the boy 's seeming inability to learn as described by Hopley , but rejected any suggestions that it may have contributed to Cancellor 's death . Cancellor 's brother , Fowler , and Locock all testified against Hopley ; Locock 's testimony was particularly hostile , suggesting that Hopley 's incompetent response to interviews was " tantamount to an admission of guilt " . Other witnesses included the Hopleys ' laundress , Roberts , three members of the coastguard who had seen lights on in the house late at night , a local constable , and the town registrar .
Ballantine 's conduct during the trial was flawed , and he believed Hopley to be insane . Although he promoted the testimonials of former students and argued that a schoolmaster was unlikely to " so lightly jeopardize his ambitions " , he congratulated Locock on the accuracy of his testimony in open court . Ballantine did not call key witnesses like Edward Philpott , another student of Hopley 's who had been at the house that night . Philpott slept in the bedroom beside Cancellor 's and had reported hearing no unusual noises or screams from Cancellor 's room on the night of his death . Neither did Ballantine call Professor John Eric Erichsen of University College Hospital , who had conducted a second autopsy on Cancellor on 11 May and had suggested that " the misleading appearance of the body was attributable to an undiagnosed blood condition akin to haemophilia " . In his memoir Some experiences of a barrister 's life , published in 1883 , Ballantine offered a highly sensationalised account of Cancellor 's death : " the wretched half @-@ witted victim of a lunatic 's system of education was deliberately mangled to death " .
Hopley was convicted of manslaughter , not murder , because of his position as a schoolteacher " endowed with parental authority " . Sir Alexander Cockburn , the Chief Justice of the Court of King 's Bench , presented a summary of the decision :
By the law of England , a parent or a schoolmaster ( who for this purpose represents the parent and has the parental authority delegated to him ) , may for the purpose of correcting what is evil in the child , inflict moderate and reasonable corporal punishment , always , however , with the condition , that it is moderate and reasonable . If it be administered for the gratification of passion or of rage , or if it be immoderate or excessive in its nature or degree , or if it be protracted beyond the child 's powers of endurance , or with an instrument unfitted for the purpose and calculated to produce danger to life and limb : in all such cases the punishment is excessive , the violence unlawful , and if evil consequences to life or limb ensue , then the person inflicting it is answerable to the law , and if death ensues it will be manslaughter .
Cockburn further suggested that Hopley should have realised Cancellor 's cognitive deficiencies and taken these into account in his treatment of the boy .
Hopley was sentenced to four years of penal servitude at Millbank Prison . After being indicted , he wrote : " while anguish shook the frame , the conscience suffered not one pang . I searched and searched among the deepest secrets of my soul , and could not blame myself ... I could look up tranquilly into the face of heaven who knew me to be Not Guilty . " He believed that his actions were justifiable because he had undertaken them in his duty as schoolteacher . He portrayed himself as a victim of public opinion , claiming that " a mournful accident was swelled up into a bloody midnight murder , and how it has been brought about that my unfortunate name has been branded , not simply through the United Kingdom , but through the civilised world , as one of the most execrable monsters or of madmen . " He published a pamphlet arguing that Locock had perjured himself and had conspired with Fowler to influence the outcome of the trial .
= = Reaction and aftermath = =
The trial was sensationalised by contemporary media . The press derided Hopley as " monstrous " , and criticised schoolteachers in general and private schoolteachers in particular . Newspapers published graphic accounts of Cancellor 's injuries and autopsy and further exaggerated the early rumours surrounding his death . Cancellor 's was the first death by corporal punishment to have received broad public interest . To prevent overcrowding , the court issued tickets for admission to the public gallery during the trial ; the courtroom was full an hour before the trial began . After Hopley 's conviction , he issued at least two pamphlets on model education from gaol , which were poorly received by the public . Hopley 's immediate fame was short @-@ lived ; a mere month after his conviction , the press was focused on another case of corporal punishment , that of Caroline Lefevre , whose arms were allegedly burnt by her teacher .
Following Hopley 's release from prison , he became immediately embroiled in a sensationalised divorce trial . His wife , Fanny , had petitioned for divorce on the grounds that he was " unloving " and had mistreated her . She claimed that Hopley had married her as an " educational experiment " , presenting Hopley 's educational theories as evidence of his " lunacy " . She had been 18 years old to Hopley 's 36 at the time of their marriage in 1855 . According to her statements during the trial , Hopley frequently criticised her writing and insisted that the couple 's three children should be raised as " second Christs " . She accused him of physically abusing her from the time of her first pregnancy , beating his first child only days after its birth ( the child was later found to be " brain @-@ damaged " ) , and suggesting that during his prison sentence she should be confined to a workhouse . Hopley responded by claiming that he set rules only to ensure the maintenance of his household and the well @-@ being of his family , and produced a set of romantic letters he had received from Fanny during his incarceration as evidence of her unforced affection for him .
The jury found Hopley guilty of cruelty , but suggested that Fanny had condoned his treatment of her . The judge therefore ruled that her case was insufficient to grant a divorce . The verdict sparked outrage among the public , who believed that " a great injustice had been done " , and that Fanny should not be forced to remain married to an abusive convicted killer . Fanny left England shortly afterwards , allegedly to avoid having to continue living with Hopley .
Hopley largely withdrew from the public eye after the trial , becoming a private tutor in London and publishing pamphlets on spiritualism in the late 1860s . He died at University College Hospital on 24 June 1876 . A retrospective editorial published in The Times in 1960 concluded that Hopley was not " the villain which some persons pictured him to be " ; it noted that at the time of his arrest Hopley had been planning the construction of a " model school " in Brighton and that he had examined architect 's drawings of the school after beating Cancellor .
In 1865 , Cancellor 's death was used in a medical journal article discussing adult hydrocephalus . Despite Willis ' statement that Cancellor had no pre @-@ existing medical condition that would have caused or contributed to his death , author Samuel Wilks suggested not only that Cancellor had hydrocephalus , but that he was consequently more susceptible to physical injury as a result . He pointed to the autopsy finding of fluid in Cancellor 's brain to support his assertions and argued that this effusion would have caused physical weakness .
R v Hopley was used as an archetypal case for legal commentaries about corporal punishment until physical discipline was officially banned in British schools well over a century later . According to education professor Marie Parker @-@ Jenkins , R v Hopley is " the most quoted case of the 19th century involving the issue of corporal punishment " . The case is credited with prompting outcry against corporal punishment among the general public , although contemporary education journals rejected the possibility of abolishing corporal punishment . Hopley 's defence , known as " reasonable chastisement " , became a frequently used response to charges of corporal punishment and was incorporated into the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 . Cockburn 's requirement for " moderate and reasonable " punishment was established as a legal limit to corporal punishment and is still employed in modern legal scholarship .
= Breakout ( Miley Cyrus album ) =
Breakout is the second studio album by American recording artist Miley Cyrus , released on July 22 , 2008 by Hollywood Records . It is her first record that is not affiliated with the television series Hannah Montana , in which Cyrus portrays the title character Hannah Montana . She co @-@ wrote eight of its thirteen tracks , several of which with the assistance of Antonina Armato and Tim James . The majority of the record was composed as she traveled during her headlining Best of Both Worlds Tour ( 2007 – 08 ) . Overall , Breakout is dominant on pop rock but explores a variety of other musical genres . Lyrical themes addressed in the album relate to breakups and coming of age .
Breakout was met with generally favorable reception from critics , though some believed the tracks were not a significant departure from the Hannah Montana franchise . The album encountered commercial success and introduced Cyrus in new countries . The album peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 for one week selling 370 @,@ 000 copies . It is Cyrus ' third album to do so , and was eventually certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Breakout has sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies in the United States . Elsewhere , Breakout topped the Canadian Albums Chart for two consecutive weeks and the Australian Albums Chart for one week . The album also charted within the top ten in Italy , Japan , and New Zealand .
Three singles were released from Breakout . " 7 Things " was released on June 17 , 2008 as the lead single from the album ; it was commercially successful , reaching the top ten on charts in various countries . It was followed by the Rock Mafia remix of " See You Again " , released on August 25 , 2008 in countries which the original version was not , expanding the success of the song by appearing on charts in several countries . The third single , " Fly on the Wall " was released on February 27 , 2009 as the final single , being unable to duplicate the success of the previous singles .
= = Background = =
Cyrus is a singer @-@ songwriter and actress who starred as Miley Stewart , a girl with a secret double life as the popstar Hannah Montana , on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana . Through the television series , Cyrus developed fame as a teen idol and released music while being credited to Hannah Montana . Cyrus ' debut studio album , titled Meet Miley Cyrus , was released as the second disc of the Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus ( 2007 ) double @-@ disc album . Breakout is Cyrus ' second studio album and her first not be affiliated with the Hannah Montana franchise , which was intended to be reflected by the title of the album . She believed it was her " breakout record " , where she was going to " show everyone what Miley Cyrus is all about . " Cyrus further explained the album was also appropriately titled because it portrayed her " stepping away from Hannah but just a little bit different . " She also decided to title the album after the song " Breakout " because it was " one of [ her ] favorite songs " .
Cyrus believed that compared to previous albums , Breakout was " grown @-@ up " and " just a little more creative . " Cyrus aimed to incorporate a sound influenced by rock music , saying " the writing is definitely different ... the lyrics mean more than my last couple of records " . According to Cyrus , the album documented , in depth , the events that occurred in her life in a year span . Most of the songs were written as Cyrus traveled on the Best of Both Worlds Tour from October 2007 to January 2008 . Recording commenced immediately after the tour came to an end , and seized in March 2008 , for Cyrus was to film Hannah Montana : The Movie ( 2009 ) in Tennessee soon after . She expressed that , through each song , a listener could discover something about her and about themselves . Of connecting with her fans through Breakout , she claimed she wanted " girls to feel to be able to feel empowered and just feel like they can kind of rock out " , going on to say that , " listening to this music , I hope they can feel like a reason to dance and just smile and to have fun . This CD is totally age appropriate , specially for me " .
= = Development = =
" Breakout " was written by Ted Bruner , in collaboration with Trey Vittetoe and Gina Schock of the Go @-@ Go 's . It was first recorded by American pop singer Katy Perry , for her second album One of the Boys ( 2008 ) , though it was never included for the album and was passed on to Cyrus , on whose version Perry sings backing vocals . Like most songs on Breakout , Cyrus wrote " 7 Things " while traveling on the Best of Both Worlds Tour , reflecting on her numerous emotions about an ex @-@ boyfriend . She claimed her use of the word " hate " demonstrated how furious she was , at the time . Originally , " 7 Things " was more " soft and nice " but Cyrus says she " went nuts " during the recording process and gave the song a harder sound . She decided to record a cover version of Cyndi Lauper 's " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " from the album She 's So Unusual ( 1983 ) , after speaking with Lauper at the 50th Grammy Awards . The two singers were conversing about music , when Lauper stated , " Well , don 't be scared of anything . People waste their lives being scared . Lasso the moon . But don 't do it because someone tells you it 's the right idea . " Cyrus believed Lauper 's saying encompassed the direction she wanted to take Breakout , ergo she covered " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " . However , she desired for the cover to be completely different from other covers of " Girls Just Want to Have Fun " she heard . She described the process as " almost [ having ] to relearn the song . " About the finished product , Cyrus said , " When you listen to the song , it 's , like , you 're not even sure what it is . It 's something completely new . " " Full Circle " was co @-@ written by Cyrus , Scott Cutler , and Anne Preven about Cyrus ' relationship with Nick Jonas of the Jonas Brothers . " It 's about two people . They 're always gonna come back together no matter what anyone says , the bad people that try to keep you apart " , Cyrus said of the song 's concept .
" Fly on the Wall " was written by Cyrus with the aid of Armato , James , and Devrim Karaoglu . " Fly on the Wall " was intended for the media , regarding " how they think they know everything about [ her ] , when they don 't . They want to be a fly on my wall and watch [ her ] 24 / 7 . " Cyrus explained it was about attempting to avoid paparazzis but they appeared , " not going away like little annoying flies . " Cyrus was inspired to write " Bottom of the Ocean " by her deceased fish , Lyric and Melody , who died when Cyrus was eleven years of age . She said the topic drifted drastically once she began writing . " It 's saying if there 's someone you 've loved but for some reason you can 't love them anymore , you have to take your feelings , scoop them out , and put them at the bottom of the ocean . " Cyrus , Armato , James , Aaron Dudley co @-@ wrote " Wake Up America " , a track about environmentalism . The song was directed towards " the people in the back seat " , children of today 's generation ; she said that , in the future , they would be the ones " driving [ the ] Earth to what it 's gonna be . " " It 's the only one you got , so you gotta take care of it . And if you don 't , there 's gonna be , maybe not for you , right then , and your generation but your kids and their kids ... Every generation has a cycle that 'll carry on for the rest of eternity " , she concluded . Cyrus recorded a cover of Cheyenne Kimball 's " Four Walls " from the album The Day Has Come ( 2006 ) for Breakout , titled " These Four Walls " . The twelfth and final track is a remixed version of the hit " See You Again " , referred to as the Rock Mafia Remix and the 2008 Remix ; " See You Again " was originally released on the Meet Miley Cyrus disc of Hannah Montana 2 : Meet Miley Cyrus .
= = Composition = =
Overall , Breakout is dominant on pop rock but explores a variety of other musical genres . The opening track , " Breakout " , is a dance @-@ pop number that begins with a fast beat , composed of chiming electric guitar and drums and later progresses to " the snares skip and the keyboards shimmer " ; " ecstatic beats " pummel throughout . The song 's lyrics are " a girls @-@ only call to fun " that anecdote on feelings about coming of age and the desire to be school @-@ free . The uptempo refrains of " 7 Things " are pop punk influenced . The song is " a three @-@ tempo patchwork quilt " , transitioning " from sensitive breakup song in the strummy verses to punky @-@ pop kiss @-@ off in the double @-@ time choruses . " " 7 Things " ' lyrics list seven traits Cyrus hates about an ex @-@ boyfriend . " The Driveway " is a power ballad whose lyrics regard a breakup , insisting " nothing hurts like losing when you know it 's really gone . " The cover of Cyndi Lauper 's " Girls Just Wanna Have Fun " replaces the subtle reggae undercurrent in the original version with a more rock music driven sound that includes pop punk beats and string stabs . The lyrics of " Girls Just Wanna Have Fun " primarily discuss the " desire to let loose with one 's friends " , touching upon details of the life of an overworked child star . The song " Full Circle " is composed of a several pop rock hooks ; in one of the hooks , Cyrus finishes various words with " Oh , oh , oh ! " . The lyrics describe not quitting a relationship .
" Fly on the Wall " is prominently an electropop song that is also composed of a number of hooks , which yell the song 's title , while the instrumentation relies on electric guitars . Unlike other songs on Breakout , " Fly on the Wall " has Cyrus ' voice processed to sound different . The song 's lyrics taunt " the listener for being on the outside of her inner sanctum " . The target of the message has been interpreted differently by contemporary critics – an ex @-@ boyfriend and the media have most commonly been referred to . " Bottom of the Ocean " is a contemporary ballad that contains a sound reflecting influences from minimalist music . The backdrop for the " feel @-@ bad " love song features ocean wave sounds . The track " Wake Up America " has a " cheeky riff @-@ rock backdrop " as its , while its lyrical content concerns environmentalism , where Cyrus mainly pleads for audiences to give the Earth " just a little attention " . In the first verse , she " admits that she doesn 't know exactly what 's up with this global warming but believes there 's something we should all do about it " . " These Four Walls " is a power ballad accented with country pop elements and twangy vocals and lyrics which speak of an interior narrative . " Simple Song " has " bile " sound and is lyrically about moments in coming of age where a person " can 't tell which way is up , which way is down " and they feel the need to alienate themselves . In " Goodbye " , Cyrus ' vocal performance is more " roosty " with a more " natural @-@ sounding accompaniment " while , in the lyrics , she finds her remembering the " simple things ... until [ she cries ] . " " See You Again " ( Rock Mafia Remix ) is dance @-@ pop number , fusing sultry vocals with techno beats . The track has Cyrus detailing previous scenes and plans to redeem herself .
= = Singles = =
" 7 Things " was released on June 17 , 2008 as the lead single from Breakout , through digital distribution . Following the song 's release , allegations sparked that it was about Nick Jonas of the Jonas Brothers , which Cyrus neither confirmed nor denied . It received mixed reviews from contemporary critics , several of which compared Cyrus to Avril Lavigne . " 7 Things " enjoyed worldwide commercial success , becoming a top ten hit on charts in Australia , Japan , Norway , and the United States . The single was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Brett Ratner and features Cyrus performing the song with a back @-@ up band as many teenage girls lipsync along .
" See You Again " ( Rock Mafia Remix ) was released August 11 , 2008 as the second single from Breakout ; it was only released in countries where the original version was not . The remix was received well by critics for properly combining vocals and music . The remix expanded the success of " See You Again " , appearing on charts in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders ) , Germany , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . " See You Again " ( Rock Mafia Remix ) was given a promotional music video , taken from a performance at the 2008 Disney Channel Games .
" Fly on the Wall " was released on February 16 , 2009 as the third and final single from the album . " Fly on the Wall " received critical praise ; several critics claiming it defied teen pop expectations and was Breakout 's best track . However , the song failed to match success of " 7 Things " , reaching its highest peak at number sixteen on the UK Singles Chart . Its music video was directed by Philip Andelman . Inspired by Michael Jackson 's Thriller , the video depicts Cyrus attempting to escape the paparazzi , as they follow her in a parking garage .
= = Promotion = =
The promotion plan was centered on massive performances and interviews to television , radio , and magazines . It was formulated to not be aggressive to give Cyrus a period of rest , after doing many consecutive projects . Cyrus explained ,
" I 'm a kid . That 's why , for the most part , we only did the big publicity and otherwise decided to let the album whatever it was going to do . It was so weird not to do everything in my power to promote my first album under my own name . I am very proud of it and love what we came up with . But I also had to accept the reality of my situation . So much is happening all at once , so many opportunities . I want to make the most of them , but I also need to stay sane . There will be a day , my parents constantly remind me , when I won 't have so much going on . And when that day comes , I don 't want to feel like an empty shell of a person . "
Cyrus first performed songs from Breakout , the title track , " Fly on the Wall " , and " See You Again " ( Rock Mafia Remix ) , at the opening ceremony of the 2008 Disney Channel Games on May 4 , 2008 . Her first live performance of " 7 Things " took place on May 17 , 2008 at the 2008 Zootopia , an annual summer concert put on by radio station Z100 . Later that summer , she promoted Breakout at outdoor concerts hosted by Good Morning America and The Today Show , while hosting the 2008 Teen Choice Awards , and at FNMTV . Cyrus began promotion for Breakout in Europe in fall 2008 , performing the track on the United Kingdom channel GMTV , the French television show Le Grand Journal , and the British singing competition The X Factor among other venues . Cyrus performed several songs from album on April 24 , 2009 in a London Apple Store . These performances were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as a live extended play ( EP ) titled iTunes Live from London .
Well over a year after the Breakout 's release , Cyrus embarked on her second concert tour , the Wonder World Tour , to promote the album and The Time of Our Lives extended play ( EP ) . The tour was Cyrus ' first to not have her costumed as Hannah Montana and was announced in June 2009 , with dates revealed for American venues . Dates for venues in the United Kingdom were later announced . In to order to avoid the extensive scalping that occurred during the Best of Both Worlds Tour , all tickets were sold exclusively through paperless ticket delivery , which would require audiences to bring identification to gain entry into the concert . The tour expanded from September to December 2009 , with a total of fifty @-@ six concerts in North America and Europe . The tour received positive to mixed reviews from critics . Some praised it and deemed it a spectacle , while others believed it lacked profundity and portrayal of Cyrus ' personality . The Wonder World Tour managed to gross over $ 67 @.@ 1 million , $ 15 million which were earned by the singer . The entire European leg sold out within ten minutes , and , at one stop , Cyrus broke the record for the largest attendance at The O2 Arena in London , England with an audience of 16 @,@ 196 . A concert film was released on the limited , deluxe edition of her third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Breakout received generally positive reviews , earning a collective score of 66 out of 100 on Metacritic . Heather Phares of Allmusic commented that Breakout 's title expresses its " purpose nicely " though the music was not drastically different from Hannah Montana 's , adding , " only a handful of songs truly break out from the Montana mold " . Though not being impressed by " nothing [ being ] left to chance " , she concluded , " Even if these songs are derivative of much more established pop divas [ Avril Lavigne and Britney Spears ] , they provide clues to the kind of company Cyrus aims to keep . And while Breakout isn 't as much of a breakthrough as it could be , it still moves Miley closer to an identity and career outside of Hannah . " Kerri Mason of Billboard wrote , " While it 's still age @-@ appropriate for minors , Breakout is for the big kids too " and complimented Cyrus for being a " natural @-@ born popstar . " Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe felt Cyrus mostly succeeded while " trying to please most of the people most of the time " on Breakout . She summarized , " With Breakout , Cyrus has clearly made a choice to break from the shiny , happy ' Hannah Montana ' character , but she hasn 't scuffed her sound up so much that her fans won 't recognize that she 's just being Miley . " Chris William of Entertainment Weekly graded the album a B and noted that the first half of the album was " fun " but the second half became " overly ballad @-@ heavy , " assuming that was the more mature side of Cyrus she had promised . Miakel Wood of the Los Angeles Times stated , " In that respect , Breakout is unlikely fodder for the razzle @-@ dazzle road shows and 3 @-@ D concert films to come . As a portrait of the artist as a young malcontent , though , it 's rarely less than fascinating . "
Ben Ratliff of The New York Times said Cyrus ' attempt to leave Hannah Montana was weak , only being driven by " more gray thoughts " . Ratliff continued , " She eases up on songs with total @-@ affirmation chants about being the captain of her ship ... The lyrics are half @-@ terrible — almost too realistic as teenage thoughts — but the best of them transmit the desired message ... It ’ s a lackluster album , floated by two or three strong singles . " Josh Timmermann of PopMatters believed Breakout was " a just @-@ okay teenpop record with audible suggestions of said singer @-@ songwriter aspirations . To be sure , it ’ s a stronger collection of songs than Moms and Dads with upturned noses ... would probably expect . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine rated the album two and half stars out of five , being disappointed and deeming the songs not to be a " worthy follow @-@ up " to " See You Again " . Cinquemani finished , " For teen @-@ pop , your kid could do worse . You know , like Avril [ Lavigne ] " . Mordechai Shinefield of The Village Voice wrote , " If her lyrical prowess hasn 't caught up to her voice yet , that should only hold promise of things to come . She 's a rare talent ; now she only has to survive until adulthood . " Ash Dosanjh of Yahoo ! Music gave Breakout seven stars out of ten and referred to Cyrus , in Breakout , as the ideal of the American Dream : " a combination of hard work , good Christian living and un @-@ smutty pop " .
= = Commercial performance = =
On the week ending August 8 , 2008 , Breakout debuted at number @-@ one on the Billboard 200 , thus earning Cyrus a third number @-@ one album on the chart – including albums fully credited to Hannah Montana ; the album sold 371 @,@ 000 copies in its debut week , becoming the fourth @-@ highest sales week of 2008 for a female artist . The following week , Breakout descended to number two , selling 163 @,@ 000 copies . The album spent a total of forty @-@ eight weeks on the Billboard 200 . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments exceeding one million copies . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album has sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies since its release . Due to sales of 27 @,@ 000 copies , Breakout entered at number @-@ one on the Canadian Albums Chart on the week ending August 8 , 2008 , maintaining the top spot for two consecutive weeks .
On the week ending September 14 , 2008 , the album entered the Australian Albums Chart at number two . In the succeeding week , it moved to number @-@ one , where it only stayed for a week . Breakout was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments exceeding 35 @,@ 000 copies . Breakout debuted at number four on the New Zealand Albums Chart on the week ending September 8 , 2008 . On the week ending October 13 , 2008 , the album reached its peak at number two on the New Zealand Albums Chart , a position it maintained for two consecutive weeks . Breakout was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for the shipment of more than 15 @,@ 000 copies . In Japan , it peaked at number ten .
On the week ending September 13 , 2008 , the album entered and peaked at number ten on the UK Albums Chart , becoming Cyrus ' first top ten album in the country . It was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for the shipment of 300 @,@ 000 copies . In Ireland , Breakout peaked at number eleven and was certified platinum by the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) for shipments exceeding 15 @,@ 000 copies . In mainland Europe , Breakout peaked at number twenty @-@ eight on the European Top 100 Albums Chart , number twelve on the Austrian Albums Chart , number six on the Italian Albums Chart , and number sixteen on the German Albums Chart . On the week ending September 21 , 2008 , the album debuted at number twenty @-@ six on the Spanish Albums Chart and , after twenty @-@ six weeks of ascending and descending the chart , it reached its peak at number seven . The album was certified gold by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for the shipment of more than 30 @,@ 000 copies . Breakout experienced similar commercial outcomes throughout the rest of Europe ; it charted within the top twenty on charts in Finland , Norway , and Poland .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Breakout .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= M @-@ 120 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 120 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan in the southwest Lower Peninsula . The highway runs northeast from Muskegon to Hesperia . In between , the road passes through suburban Muskegon , forests and farmland . Some 5 @,@ 900 – 26 @,@ 000 vehicles use the highway each day on average as it runs long a series of roads that follow county lines in the area .
The current highway to bear the M @-@ 120 designation is the third in the state . The first was a spur route in the Lansing area in the 1930s . The second was a route that connected to like @-@ numbered state highways in both Ohio and Indiana . The current M @-@ 120 was originally part of M @-@ 20 until that highway was rerouted between New Era and US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) .
= = Route description = =
The current route starts at Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) where Muskegon Lake and the Muskegon River meet in Muskegon . As it crosses the river , it is known as the Veterans Memorial Causeway , with a section of Veterans Memorial Park between the northbound and southbound sections of the road . This road continues north as Whitehall Road , which connects Muskegon to Whitehall . At Whitehall Road , M @-@ 120 turns east on Holton Road and continues in a northeastern direction through the suburb of North Muskegon . The south side of the roadway abuts residential areas and Reeths @-@ Puffer High School ; the north side is largely undeveloped . M @-@ 120 meets the US 31 freeway in Muskegon Township . Holton Road continues northeasterly past Oak Hill Cemetery and turns northerly at Bard Road . The highway curves to the northeast again through Twin Lake to avoid several lakes in the area . The landscape along the road between Twin Lake and Holton , like much of the overall route of the highway , is woodland . Northeast of Holton , those forests transition to farm land as M @-@ 120 turns to the north . The highway meets B @-@ 31 as it turns north to run along the Muskegon – Newaygo county line .
As M @-@ 120 continues north along the county line , it runs in Holton Township in Muskegon County to the west and Sheridan Township in Newaygo County to the east along Maple Island Road . West of Fremont , the highway meets an intersection with M @-@ 82 and B @-@ 86 . B @-@ 86 runs along the Muskegon – Oceana county line , and M @-@ 82 runs along a township line in Newaygo County . North of this intersection , M @-@ 120 follows the Oceana – Newaygo county line that divides Greenwood Township from Dayton Township . Maple Island Road enters the south side of Hesperia on Division Street . M @-@ 120 terminates at an intersection with M @-@ 20 in the middle of the village , 27 @.@ 901 miles ( 44 @.@ 902 km ) from its starting point .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 120 like all other components of the Michigan state trunkline highway system . As part of these responsibilities , the department tracks traffic volumes along the highway . MDOT uses a metric called average annual daily traffic , which is a calculation of the traffic along a roadway segment for any average day of the year . In 2009 , the highest traffic levels were near the southern terminus at 26 @,@ 736 vehicles each day . The lowest levels MDOT calculated were in Holton at 5 @,@ 936 vehicles daily . The section between the south end and US 31 , M @-@ 120 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . The remainder of the highway has not been listed .
= = History = =
= = = Previous routings = = =
The M @-@ 120 designation was originally used on two different roadways in the state . In 1930 , a road from US 16 for about a mile at the northwest corner of Lansing was numbered M @-@ 120 . In early 1939 , the M @-@ 174 designation replaced the M @-@ 120 moniker on the road . Later that year , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) used the number for a road along the Michigan @-@ Ohio state line . This highway connected to State Route 120 on its east end at the state line and ran west to US 127 at Meridian Road along the Hillsdale – Lenawee county line . By the end of 1940 , M @-@ 120 was extended through Hillsdale County to connect to State Road 120 along the short north – south Michigan – Indiana border . By the middle of 1961 , the M @-@ 120 designation was retired by the MSHD again . The Ohio and Indiana SR 120 highways are still in place today with only the county road in Michigan connecting them .
= = = Current routing = = =
The MSHD 's successor , the Michigan Department of State Highways , realigned the route of M @-@ 20 through Western Michigan in 1969 . In the aftermath of the reroute , the M @-@ 20 designation was moved from Muskegon to New Era . The former routing of M @-@ 20 south of Hesperia to Muskegon was renumbered M @-@ 120 , including a segment that ran concurrently with M @-@ 82 . That concurrency was removed in 1978 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Barra Head =
Barra Head , also known as Berneray ( Scottish Gaelic : Beàrnaraigh ) , is the southernmost of the Outer Hebrides in Scotland . Within the Outer Hebrides , it forms part of the Barra Isles archipelago . Originally , Barra Head only referred to the southernmost headland of Berneray but is now a common name for the entire island . The highest point of the island is Sotan , a Marilyn .
There are numerous prehistoric structures on the island and permanent occupation by 20 – 50 individuals occurred throughout the historic period , peaking in the 19th century . The economy of the residents was based on agriculture , fishing and fowling . The cliffs provide nesting sites for seabirds in such profusion that Berneray has been designated as a Special Protection Area .
The Barra Head Lighthouse , built by Robert Stevenson , has operated since 1833 . From 1931 to 1980 Barra Head was inhabited only by the lighthouse keepers and their wives but the lighthouse is now automated and the island completely uninhabited . The rough seas that surround the island have been used to test prototype lifeboats .
= = Etymology = =
The derivation of the modern name is straightforward , the Old Norse name meaning " Bjorn 's island " becoming Beàrnaraigh in Gaelic and then " Berneray " as an angilicisation . However , as is often the case with Hebridean island names , there are a number of additional complications . There are two fuller Gaelic names - Beàrnaraigh Cheann Bharraigh and Beàrnaraigh an Easbaig meaning " Berneray of Barra Head " and " Berneray of the Bishop " respectively . The former refers to Barra Head the southernmost promontory of the island and the latter name is a reference to the " Bishop 's Isles " an alternative name for the " Barra Isles " , of which archipelago Berneray is a member . " Barra Head " alone is an English language alternative to Berneray for the island name .
= = Geography and geology = =
Berneray lies to the west of the Sea of the Hebrides and south of Mingulay across the Sound of Berneray , which has a strong tidal stream . The wedge @-@ shaped island is 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) long and 1 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 8 mi ) wide . The topography lacks variety , there being no valley or bays and the few streams are very small . Most of the island consists of gneiss , although the lighthouse was constructed of rock from a small granite quarry .
The seabed to the west is a continuation of the gneiss platform with a depth of between 120 to 140 metres ( 390 to 460 ft ) . The sea floor is largely devoid of sand and there is some evidence of scouring by icebergs . This rocky platform extends south of Barra Head by at least 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) . Due to glacial action the sea channel to the east is significantly deeper than the open ocean to the west , reaching up to 365 metres ( 1 @,@ 198 ft ) .
The rocky north coast has a small landing place at Leac na Fealia to the west and a small jetty at Achduin further east . From there a track leads westward and upward across the slope of the island to the lighthouse . To the west of Achduin the land is relatively flat and low @-@ lying , the area known as " The Aird " ending at Nisam Point which overlooks the little islands of Rubha Niosaim and Sgeir Mhor .
The south coast is dominated by high cliffs , which rise to 190 metres ( 620 ft ) at Skate Point ( Rubha Sgait ) in the south west . Barra Head itself is the southern prominence located mid @-@ way along the south coast . The highest point of the island is Sotan , a Marilyn whose summit lies above high cliffs between Barra Head and Skate Point . This eminence is easily reached from the track that leads from Achduin to the lighthouse that passes just to the north of the summit , which is only 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) from the cliff edge . The skerry of Bird Rock guards the coast far below . The lighthouse is located near the prominence of Sròn an Duin , just east of Skate Point and above the narrow chasm of Sloc na Bèiste ( ravine of the monster ) .
Visiting in 1868 H. J. Elwes wrote :
It was the grandest sight I ever experienced , to look out of the lighthouse on a very stormy day , and see oneself hanging , as it were , over the ocean , surrounded on three sides by a fearful chasm in which the air was so thickly crowded with birds as to produce the appearance of a heavy snowstorm , whilst the cries of these myriads , mingled with the roar of the ocean and the howling of the tremendous gusts of wind coming up from below as if forced through a blast pipe , made it almost impossible to hear a person speak .
= = History = =
Berneray has been inhabited since prehistoric times and Historic Scotland have identified eighty @-@ three archaeological sites on the island , the majority being of a pre @-@ medieval date . There are four chambered tombs , five cists and five other sites assumed to be burial cairns , suggesting a significant settlement in the Neolithic and Bronze Age . The fort of Dùn Briste ( the broken fort ) lies to the north west and a second site nearby dating to the Iron Age was largely destroyed during the construction of the lighthouse . Visiting in the late 17th century the writer Martin Martin described the latter as " having a vacuity round the walls , divided in little apartments " . A century later Edward MacQueen wrote that he believed it had served " as a pharos or watch tower " .
There is also the presumed site of a chapel near MacLean 's Point ( just east of the landing place ) where an incised cross , tentatively dated to between the sixth and ninth centuries was found . Archaeological evidence of the Norse presence in the Hebrides is scant , but boat shaped stone settings found not far from the chapel may be graves from this period of occupation .
Referring to his own time , Martin suggested that life on " Bernera " was not unduly difficult . " It excels other islands of the same extent for cultivation and fishing . The natives never go a fishing while Macneil or his steward is in the island , lest seeing their plenty of fish , perhaps they might take occasion to raise their rents . " In the 18th century the population was over fifty , with settlement concentrated around the north east coast . The 1841 census recorded a population of 30 , rising to 56 in 1881 and then declining again to 36 in nine houses by 1891 . During the 19th century the permanently resident population ( see below ) remained stable at about 20 in two or three families . The number fell to 17 by 1901 , with the last native islanders leaving about 1910 . From this point the three families of the lighthouse keepers were the only residents and the island became uninhabited with the 1980 automation of the light .
= = = Overview of population trends = = =
Notes :
Population ( a ) includes permanent residents only and was not recorded in 1901 .
Population ( b ) also includes lighthouse keepers and , given that many of the censuses were taken in April , temporarily resident fishermen .
= = Traditional economy and culture = =
During the 19th century agriculture was based on crops of barley , potatoes , oats , turnips and cabbages and livestock including sheep and cattle . Ponies were kept , although their use may have been to transport materials to the lighthouse , and goats were also recorded in 1863 . Berneray lacks peat , which had to be brought over from Mingulay at considerable effort . The harvest of the seas remained important , with the island a base for exploiting the rich stocks of white fish by fishermen from several local islands . Seabirds were also an important part of the economy , supplying both food and feathers for sale . Such was the abundance that in 1868 a single fowler caught 600 birds in six to eight hours .
Visiting in 1818 , William MacGillivray , professor of Natural History at Aberdeen University wrote :
On reaching Berneray we landed and soon after betook ourselves to a hut which we found cleared for our reception . We dined on roasted mutton , wild fowls ' eggs , bread , butter and whisky . The goodman of the house came home with a basketful of eggs from the rocks , and some birds he had caught .
The travel writer Isabella Bird arrived in 1863 aboard the Shamrock receiving an " outrageous welcome " from the islanders , despite the fact that amongst the Gaelic @-@ speaking locals only a few had " some very lame sentences in English " . She wrote approvingly that her hosts were " well @-@ dressed , cleanly and healthy looking " and of the " delicious cream , in large clean , wooden bowls . " Duncan Sinclair , the only Protestant on the island purchased a Bible and there was much bartering and bargaining with the islanders paying for their purchases in dried fish . Bird concluded that the island was :
Far out into the Atlantic , exposed to its fullest fury , and generally inaccessible , yet has nursed a population before , rather than behind , those of the other Hebrides . Without any advantages or other religious ordinances than are supplied by the annual visit of a priest from Barra , these very interesting people thirst for education , and would make considerable sacrifices to obtain it .
In 1851 several of the island 's children were described as " scholars at home " and later some youngsters attended the school on Mingulay . The Barra School Board created a " sub @-@ school " on Berneray but it can never have had even as many as ten children in attendance and it closed in 1887 after a few years of operation .
= = Lighthouse = =
Barra Head Lighthouse identifies the southern entrance to The Minch , roughly halfway between the Eilean Glas and Rinns of Islay lighthouses . The 58 foot ( 18 m ) stone tower stands on the west side of the island , at the top of a very steep cliff , making the light 693 feet ( 211 m ) above sea level , with a range of 18 miles ( 29 km ) . There is no shallow water west of Berneray to break the blow of the Atlantic storms and small fish are sometimes thrown onto the grass on the cliff top . In 1836 Sir Archibald Geikie recorded the movement of a 42 long tons ( 43 t ) block of gneiss across 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of ground during a violent storm .
Designed by Robert Stevenson and built by James Smith of Inverness the light was first exhibited on 15 October 1833 . The oil @-@ burning light was converted to incandescent in 1906 and the lighthouse was converted to automatic operation on 23 October 1980 , when the last keepers were withdrawn .
Due to the dangerous landing conditions , Barra Head lighthouse was re @-@ classified by the RNLI as a " Rock Station " early in the 20th century . Two small boats had been swamped and lost in the enormous swell by the slipway at the landing place . The regulations associated with this change prevented both alongside landings by tenders and the lighthouse men keeping dinghies onshore . The departure of the last of the crofting families meant an end to regular links by sea and the regular mist and fog rendered signalling unreliable . A system of wireless communications with Castlebay on Barra was therefore proposed and installed by 1925 .
The pier was built in the late 1930s with the approach of war , when a sophisticated radar system was installed to guard the Western Approaches . This involved the landing of hundreds of steel girders and drums containing steel cables used to create three large radar masts , and a robust " Scots Derrick " was erected to crane them ashore . A small walled cemetery was constructed halfway between the lighthouse and the summit of Sotan for the keepers . This contains the grave of a visiting inspector and those of a number of the keepers ' children . A Blenheim bomber crashed into the cliffs nearby during World War II , but the wreck was not discovered until many years later by a rock climber .
= = Lifeboats = =
In the early 1970s a research project sponsored by BP into a prototype safety boat for Barra Head also assisted the RNLI in developing the Atlantic 21 class lifeboat . The boat used was a Halmatic Atlantic 21 MKIII modified for long @-@ range operations and with full offshore capability . The project involved multi @-@ organisation co @-@ operation and included Halmatic themselves , HM Coastguard and the Royal Marines Amphibious Trials and Testing Unit .
In 2008 the Barra RNLI Life Boat , Edna Windsor was featured on a series of Royal Mail stamps . The first class stamp shows the 17 metres ( 56 ft ) Severn class lifeboat in action in the Sound of Berneray 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south west of Barra in a 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) swell and a 30 kilometres per hour ( 16 kn ) wind .
= = Natural history = =
The National Trust for Scotland purchased the island in 2000 from a local crofters ' syndicate called the Barra Head Isles Sheepstock Company who had owned the island since 1955 . The NTS were able to acquire it through a bequest by Miss J. M. Fawcitt “ to provide an area of natural beauty in memory of her parents and the courage of her late brother , Bernard . ” In 2009 the NTS removed all the sheep from the island , citing the difficulties of maintaining the flock in such a remote location .
Berneray and Mingulay form an important breeding site for around a hundred thousand pairs of seabirds , and are especially important for the razorbill , the two islands having at least 2 @.@ 0 % of the UK 's breeding population in 1985 . Other species present include a variety of gulls , guillemots , puffins , kittiwakes , shags and ( since 1899 ) fulmars . The island is largely covered by maritime grassland , with some machair and heath . Primrose , violets , yellow flag iris and celandine grow abundantly and grey seals are regularly seen by the landing cove . The island is designated as an SSSI and ( with Mingulay ) is a Special Protection Area .
= = Notable residents = =
The island 's best known former resident is Peter Sinclair , aka Pàdraig Mòr or the " Barra Giant " . He was measured at 2 @.@ 03 m ( 6 ft 8 in ) tall aged seventeen in 1866 . He joined a travelling show , but disliked the publicity and returned to the islands to run a dairy in Castlebay in the summer and spend the winters at his home on Berneray .
= Problem of religious language =
The problem of religious language considers whether it is possible to talk about God meaningfully if the traditional conceptions of God as being incorporeal , infinite , and timeless , are accepted . Because these traditional conceptions of God make it difficult to describe God , religious
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language has the potential to be meaningless . Theories of religious language either attempt to demonstrate that such language is meaningless , or attempt to show how religious language can still be meaningful . Statements like " God loves me " are discussed largely in Religious Language .
Traditionally , religious language has been explained as via negativa , analogy , symbolism , or myth , each of which describes a way of talking about God in human terms . The via negativa is a way of referring to God according to what God is not ; analogy uses human qualities as standards against which to compare divine qualities ; symbolism is used non @-@ literally to describe otherwise ineffable experiences ; and a mythological interpretation of religion attempts to reveal fundamental truths behind religious stories . Alternative explanations of religious language cast it as having political , performative , or imperative functions .
Empiricist David Hume 's requirement that claims about reality must be verified by evidence influenced the logical positivist movement , particularly the philosopher A. J. Ayer . The movement proposed that , for a statement to hold meaning , it must be possible to verify its truthfulness empirically – with evidence from the senses . Consequently , the logical positivists argued that religious language must be meaningless because the propositions it makes are impossible to verify . Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein has been regarded as a logical positivist by some academics because he distinguished between things that can and cannot be spoken about ; others have argued that he could not have been a logical positivist because he emphasised the importance of mysticism . British philosopher Antony Flew proposed a similar challenge based on the principle that , in so far as assertions of religious belief cannot be empirically falsified , religious statements are rendered meaningless .
The analogy of games – most commonly associated with Ludwig Wittgenstein – has been proposed as a way of establishing meaning in religious language . The theory asserts that language must be understood in terms of a game : just as each game has its own rules determining what can and cannot be done , so each context of language has its own rules determining what is and is not meaningful . Religion is classified as a possible and legitimate language game which is meaningful within its own context . Various parables have also been proposed to solve the problem of meaning in religious language . R. M. Hare used his parable of a lunatic to introduce the concept of " bliks " – unfalsifiable beliefs according to which a worldview is established – which are not necessarily meaningless . Basil Mitchell used a parable to show that faith can be logical , even if it seems unverifiable . John Hick used his parable of the Celestial City to propose his theory of eschatological verification , the view that if there is an afterlife , then religious statements will be verifiable after death .
= = Problem of religious language = =
Religious language is a philosophical problem arising from the difficulties in accurately describing God . Because God is generally conceived as incorporeal , infinite , and timeless , ordinary language cannot always apply to that entity . This makes speaking about or attributing properties to God difficult : a religious believer might simultaneously wish to describe God as good , yet also hold that God 's goodness is unique and cannot be articulated by human language of goodness . This raises the problem of how ( and whether ) God can be meaningfully spoken about at all , which causes problems for religious belief since the ability to describe and talk about God is important in religious life . The French philosopher Simone Weil expressed this problem in her work Waiting for God , in which she outlined her dilemma : she was simultaneously certain of God 's love and conscious that she could not adequately describe him .
The medieval doctrine of divine simplicity also poses problems for religious language . This suggests that God has no accidental properties – these are properties that a being can have which do not contribute to its essence . If God has no accidental properties , he cannot be as he is traditionally conceived , because properties such as goodness are accidental . If divine simplicity is accepted , then to describe God as good would entail that goodness and God have the same definition . Such limits can also be problematic to religious believers ; for example , the Bible regularly ascribes different emotions to God , ascriptions which would be implausible according to the doctrine of divine simplicity .
The theologian Sallie McFague believes that the more recent problem of religious language is based on individual experience , owing to the increased secularisation of society . She notes that human experience is of this world rather than regular encounters with the divine , which makes the experience of God uncommon and potentially unnecessary . Because of this , she argues , religious language is both idolatrous because it fails to express sufficient awe of God , and irrelevant because without adequate words it becomes meaningless .
= = Classical understanding of religious language = =
= = = Via negativa = = =
Jewish philosopher Maimonides believed that God can only be ascribed negative attributes , a view based on two fundamental Jewish beliefs : that the existence of God must be accepted , and that it is forbidden to describe God . Maimonides believed that God is simple and so cannot be ascribed any essential attributes . He therefore argued that statements about God must be taken negatively , for example , " God lives " should be taken as " God does not lack vitality " . Maimonides did not believe that God holds all of his attributes perfectly and without impairment ; rather , he proposed that God lies outside of any human measures . To say that God is powerful , for example , would mean that God 's power is beyond worldly power , and incomparable to any other power . In doing so , Maimonides attempted to illustrate God 's indescribable nature and draw attention to the linguistic limits of describing God .
= = = Analogy = = =
Thomas Aquinas argued that statements about God are analogous to human experience . An analogous term is partly univocal ( has only one meaning ) and partly equivocal ( has more than one potential meaning ) because an analogy is in some ways the same and in some ways different from the subject . He proposed that those godly qualities which resemble human qualities are described analogously , with reference to human terms ; for example , when God is described as good , it does not mean that God is good in human terms , but that human goodness is used as a reference to describe God 's goodness .
Philosopher Taede Smedes argued that religious language is symbolic . Denying any conflict between science and religion , he proposes that ' to believe ' means to accept a conviction ( that God exists , in the context of Christianity ) , which is different from ' knowing ' , which only occurs once something is proven . Thus , according to Smedes , we believe things that we do not know for sure . Smedes argues that , rather than being part of the world , God is so far beyond the world that there can be no common standard to which both God and the world can be compared . He argues that people can still believe in God , even though he cannot be compared to anything in the world , because belief in God is just an alternative way of viewing that world ( he likens this to two people viewing a painting differently ) . Smedes claims that there should be no reason to look for a meaning behind our metaphors and symbols of God because the metaphors are all we have of God . He suggests that we can only talk of God pro nobis ( for us ) and not in se ( as such ) or sine nobis ( without us ) . The point , he argues , is not that our concept of God should correspond with reality , but that we can only conceive of God through metaphors .
In the twentieth century , Ian Ramsey developed the theory of analogy , a development later cited in numerous works by Alister McGrath . He argued that various models of God are provided in religious writings that interact with each other : a range of analogies for salvation and the nature of God . Ramsey proposed that the models used modify and qualify each other , defining the limits of other analogies . As a result , no one analogy on its own is sufficient , but the combination of every analogy presented in Scripture gives a full and consistent depiction of God . The use of other analogies may then be used to determine if any one model of God is abused or improperly applied .
= = = Symbolism = = =
Philosopher Paul Tillich argued that religious faith is best expressed through symbolism because a symbol points to a meaning beyond itself and best expresses transcendent religious beliefs . He believed that any statement about God is symbolic and participates in the meaning of a concept . Tillich used the example of a national flag to illustrate his point : a flag points to something beyond itself , the country it represents , but also participates in the meaning of the country . He believed that symbols could unite a religious believer with a deeper dimension of himself as well as with a greater reality . Tillich believed that symbols must emerge from an individual collective unconsciousness , and can only function when they are accepted by the unconscious . He believed that symbols cannot be invented , but live and die at the appropriate times .
Louis Dupré differentiates between signs and symbols , proposing that a sign points to something while a symbol represents it . A symbol holds its own meaning : rather than merely pointing someone towards another object , it takes the place of and represents that object . He believes that a symbol has some ambiguity which does not exist with a sign . Dupré believes that a symbol may deserve respect because it contains what is signified within itself . A symbol reveals a reality beyond what is already perceived and transforms the ways the current reality is perceived . Dupré differentiates between religious and aesthetic symbols , suggesting that a religious symbol points towards something which " remains forever beyond our reach " . He proposed that a religious symbol does not reveal the nature of what it signifies , but conceals it .
Langdon Brown Gilkey explained religious language and experience in terms of symbolism , identifying three characteristic features of religious symbolism which distinguish it from other language use . Firstly , religious symbolism has a double focus , referring both to something empirical and to something transcendent ; Gilkey argued that the empirical manifestation points towards the transcendent being . Secondly , he believed that religious symbolism concerns fundamental questions of life , involving issues important to an individual or community . Finally , he argued that religious symbols provide standards by which life should be lived .
In the Sikh religious text the Guru Granth Sahib , religious language is used symbolically and metaphorically . In the text , Sikh Gurus repeat that the experiences they have while meditating are ineffable , incognizable , incomprehensible , and transensuous – this means that there is no object of their experience that can be conceptualised . To overcome this , the Sikh Gurus used symbolic and metaphorical language , assuming that there is a resemblance between the mystical experience of the divine ( the sabad ) and those experiencing it . For example , light is used to refer to the spiritual reality .
= = = Myth = = =
William Paden argued that religious language uses myth to present truths through stories . He argued that to those who practice a religion , myths are not mere fiction , but provide religious truths . Paden believed that a myth must explain something in the world with reference to a sacred being or force , and dismissed any myths which did not as " folktales " . Using the example of creation myths , he differentiated myths from scientific hypotheses , the latter of which can be scientifically verified and do not reveal a greater truth ; a myth cannot be analysed in the same way as a scientific theory .
Lutheran theologian Rudolf Bultmann proposed that the Bible contains existential content which is expressed through mythology ; Bultmann sought to find the existential truths behind the veil of mythology , a task known as ' demythologising ' . Bultmann distinguished between informative language and language with personal import , the latter of which commands obedience . He believed that God interacts with humans as the divine Word , perceiving a linguistic character inherent in God , which seeks to provide humans with self @-@ understanding . Bultmann believed that the cultural embeddedness of the Bible could be overcome by demythologising the Bible , a process which he believed would allow readers to better encounter the word of God .
Christian philosopher John Hick believed that the language of the Bible should be demythologised to be compatible with naturalism . He offered a demythologised Christology , arguing that Jesus was not God incarnate , but a man with incredible experience of divine reality . To Hick , calling Jesus the Son of God was a metaphor used by Jesus ' followers to describe their commitment to what Jesus represented . Hick believed that demythologising the incarnation would make sense of the variety of world religions and give them equal validity as ways to encounter God .
= = Alternative explanations of religious language = =
= = = Political = = =
Islamic philosopher Carl Ernst has argued that religious language is often political , especially in the public sphere , and that its purpose is to persuade people and establish authority , as well as convey information . He explains that the modern criticisms of the West made by some sections of Islam are an ideological reaction to colonialism , which intentionally uses the same language as colonialists . Ernst argues that when it is used rhetorically , religious language cannot be taken at face value because of its political implications .
= = = Performative = = =
Peter Donovan argues that most religious language is not about making truth @-@ claims ; instead , it is used to achieve certain goals . He notes that language can be used in alternative ways beyond making statements of fact , such as expressing feelings or asking questions . Donovan calls many of these uses performative , as they serve to perform a certain function within religious life . For example , the words " I promise " perform the action of promising themselves – Donovan argues that most religious language fulfils this function . Ludwig Wittgenstein also proposed that language could be performative and presented a list of the different uses of language . Wittgenstein argued that " the meaning of the language is in the use " , taking the use of language to be performative . The philosopher J. L. Austin argued that religious language is not just cognitive but can perform social acts , including vows , blessings , and the naming of children . He distinguished performative statements as those that do not simply describe a state of affairs , but bring them about . Historian of religion Benjamin Ray uses the performance of rituals within religions as evidence for a performative interpretation of language . He argues that the language of rituals can perform social tasks : when a priest announces that a spiritual event has occurred , those present believe it because of the spiritual authority of the priest . He believed that the meaning of a ritual is defined by the language used by the speaker , who is defined culturally as a superhuman agent .
= = = Imperative = = =
British philosopher R. B. Braithwaite attempted to approach religious language empirically and adopted Wittgenstein 's idea of " meaning as use " . He likened religious statements to moral statements because they are both non @-@ descriptive yet still have a use and a meaning ; they do not describe the world , but the believer 's attitudes towards it . Braithwaite believed that the main difference between a religious and a moral statement was that religious statements are part of a linguistic system of stories , metaphors , and parables .
Professor Nathan Katz writes of the analogy of a burning building , used by the Buddha in the Lotus Sutra , which casts religious language as imperative . In the analogy , a father sees his children at the top of a burning building . He persuades them to leave , but only by promising them toys if they leave . Katz argues that the message of the parable is not that the Buddha has been telling lies ; rather , he believes that the Buddha was illustrating the imperative use of language . Katz believes that religious language is an imperative and an invitation , rather than a truth @-@ claim .
= = Challenges to religious language = =
= = = David Hume = = =
In the conclusion of his Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding , Scottish philosopher David Hume argued that statements that make claims about reality must be verified by experience , and dismissed those that cannot be verified as meaningless . Hume regarded most religious language as unverifiable by experiment and so dismissed it .
Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number ? No . Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact of existence ? No . Commit it then to the flames : for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion .
Hume criticised the view that we cannot speak about God , and proposed that this view is no different from the skeptical view that God cannot be spoken about . He was unconvinced by Aquinas ' theory of analogy and argued that God 's attributes must be completely different from human attributes , making comparisons between the two impossible . Hume 's scepticism influenced the logical positivist movement of the twentieth century .
= = = Logical positivism = = =
The logical positivism movement originated in the Vienna Circle and was continued by British philosopher A. J. Ayer . The Vienna Circle adopted the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements : analytic statements are those whose meaning is contained within the words themselves , such as definitions , tautologies or mathematical statements , while synthetic statements make claims about reality . To determine whether a synthetic statement is meaningful , the Vienna Circle developed a verifiability theory of meaning , which proposed that for a synthetic statement to have cognitive meaning , its truthfulness must be empirically verifiable . Because claims about God cannot be empirically verified , the logical positivists argued that religious propositions are meaningless .
In 1936 , Ayer wrote Language , Truth and Logic , in which he claimed that religious language is meaningless . He put forward a strong empirical position , arguing that all knowledge must either come from observations of the world or be necessarily true , like mathematical statements . In doing so , he rejected metaphysics , which considers the reality of a world beyond the natural world and science . Because it is based on metaphysics and is therefore unverifiable , Ayer denounced religious language , as well as statements about ethics or aesthetics , as meaningless . Ayer challenged the meaningfulness of all statements about God – theistic , atheistic and agnostic – arguing that they are all equally meaningless because they all discuss the existence of a metaphysical , unverifiable being .
Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein finished his Tractatus Logico @-@ Philosophicus with the proposition that " Whereof one cannot speak , thereof one must be silent . " Beverly and Brian Clack have suggested that because of this statement , Wittgenstein was taken for a positivist by many of his disciples because he made a distinction between what can and cannot be spoken about . They argue that this interpretation is inaccurate because Wittgenstein held the mystical , which cannot be described , as important . Rather than dismissing the mystical as meaningless , as the logical positivists did , Wittgenstein believed that while the facts of the world remain the same , the perspective from which they are viewed will vary .
= = = Falsification = = =
The falsification principle has been developed as an alternative theory by which it may be possible to distinguish between those religious statements that may potentially have meaning , and those that are meaningless . It proposes that most religious language is unfalsifiable because there is no way that it could be empirically proven false . In a landmark paper published in 1945 , analytic philosopher Antony Flew argued that a meaningful statement must simultaneously assert and deny a state of affairs ; for example , the statement " God loves us " both asserts that God loves us and denies that God does not love us . Flew maintained that if a religious believer could not say what circumstances would have to exist for their statements about God to be false , then they are unfalsifiable and meaningless .
Using John Wisdom 's parable of the invisible gardener , Flew attempted to demonstrate that religious language is unfalsifiable . The parable tells the story of two people who discover a garden on a deserted island ; one believes it is tended to by a gardener , the other believes that it formed naturally , without the existence of a gardener . The two watch out for the gardener but never find him ; the non @-@ believer consequently maintains that there is no gardener , whereas the believer rationalises the non @-@ appearance by suggesting that the gardener is invisible and cannot be detected . Flew contended that if the believer 's interpretation is accepted , nothing is left of the original gardener . He argued that religious believers tend to adopt counterpart rationalisations in response to any apparent challenge to their beliefs from empirical evidence ; and these beliefs consequently suffer a " death by a thousand qualifications " as they are qualified and modified so much that they end up asserting nothing meaningful . Flew applied his principles to religious claims such as God 's love for humans , arguing that if they are meaningful assertions they would deny a certain state of affairs . He argued that when faced with evidence against the existence of a loving God , such as the terminal illness of a child , theists will qualify their claims to allow for such evidence ; for example they may suggest that God 's love is different from human love . Such qualifications , Flew argued , make the original proposition meaningless ; he questioned what God 's love actually promises and what it guarantees against , and proposed that God 's qualified love promises nothing and becomes worthless .
Flew continued in many subsequent publications to maintain the falsifiability criterion for meaning ; but in later life retracted the specific assertion in his 1945 paper that all religious language is unfalsifiable , and so meaningless . Drawing specifically on the emerging science of molecular genetics ( which had not existed at the time of his original paper ) , Flew eventually became convinced that the complexity this revealed in the mechanisms of biological reproduction might not be consistent with the time known to have been available for evolution on Earth to have happened ; and that this potentially suggested a valid empirical test by which the assertion " that there is no creator God " might be falsified ; " the latest work I have seen shows that the present physical universe gives too little time for these theories of abiogenesis to get the job done . "
It is a presupposition for applying the falsification principle to religious language that some assertions of religious belief or non @-@ belief could potentially have been established purely from empirical evidence , even had none actually been so . When the sceptic challenges the believer to apply a falsification test to their assertions of belief , there is an underlying implication that were that test to be passed , the sceptic would be persuaded to assent to those particular assertions of the believer – even if the believer would not have abandoned his beliefs had the test been failed . In which case , the beliefs of the persuaded sceptic would be meaningful . Flew , in his last years , considered himself to be just such a persuaded sceptic , and hence accepted the term Deist as a valid descriptor for his religious standpoint . Flew nevertheless continued to maintain the non @-@ falsifiability of religious assertions purportedly derived from divine revelation as presented by dogmatic believers , all of which he rejected as meaningless .
= = Analogies of games = =
The analogy of a game was first proposed by Hans @-@ Georg Gadamer in an attempt to demonstrate the epistemic unity of language . He suggested that language is like a game which everyone participates in and is played by a greater being . Gadamer believed that language makes up the fundamental structure of reality and that human language participates in a greater language ; Christianity teaches this to be the divine word which created the world and was incarnate in Jesus Christ .
Ludwig Wittgenstein proposed a calculus theory of language , which maintained that all language should be analysable in a uniform way . Later in his life he rejected this theory , and instead proposed an alternative language @-@ game analogy . He likened the differences in languages to the differences in games , arguing that just as there are many different games , each with different rules , so there are many different kinds of language . Wittgenstein argued that different forms of language have different rules which determine what makes a proposition meaningful ; outside of its language @-@ game , a proposition is meaningless . He believed that the meaning of a proposition depends on its context and the rules of that context . Wittgenstein presented a language game as a situation in which certain kinds of language are used . He provided some examples of language games : " Asking , thanking , greeting , cursing , praying " .
It is as if someone were to say : ' A game consists of moving objects about on a surface according to certain rules ... ' – and we replied : You seem to be thinking of board games , but there are others .
Wittgenstein believed that religion is significant because it offers a particular way of life , rather than confirming the existence of God . He therefore believed that religious language is confessional – a confession of what someone feels and believes – rather than consisting of claims to truth . Wittgenstein believed that religious language is different from language used to describe physical objects because it occupies a different language game .
Dewi Zephaniah Phillips defended Wittgenstein 's theory by arguing that although religious language games are autonomous , they should not be treated as isolated because they make statements about secular events such as birth and death . Phillips argued that because of this connection , religions can still be criticised based on human experiences of these secular events . He maintained that religion cannot be denounced as wrong because it is not empirical .
Peter Donovan criticises the language @-@ games approach for failing to recognise that religions operate in a world containing other ideas and that many religious people make claims to truth . He notes that many religious believers not only believe their religion to be meaningful and true in its own context , but claim that it is true against all other possible beliefs ; if the language games analogy is accepted , such a comparison between beliefs is impossible . Donovan proposes that debates between different religions , and the apologetics of some , demonstrates that they interact with each other and the wider world and so cannot be treated as isolated language games .
= = Parables = =
= = = R. M. Hare = = =
In response to Flew 's falsification principle , British philosopher R. M. Hare told a parable in an attempt to demonstrate that religious language is meaningful . Hare described a lunatic who believes that all university professors want to kill him ; no amount of evidence of kindly professors will dissuade him from this view . Hare called this kind of unfalsifiable conviction a " blik " , and argued that it formed an unfalsifiable , yet still meaningful , worldview . He proposed that all people – religious and non @-@ religious – hold bliks , and that they cannot be unseated by empirical evidence . Nevertheless , he maintained that a blik is meaningful because it forms the basis of a person 's understanding of the world . Hare believed that some bliks are correct and others are not , though he did not propose a method of distinguishing between the two .
= = = Basil Mitchell = = =
Basil Mitchell responded to Flew 's falsification principle with his own parable . He described an underground resistance soldier who meets a stranger who claims to be leading the resistance movement . The stranger tells the soldier to keep faith in him , even if he is seen to be fighting for the other side . The soldier 's faith is regularly tested as he observes the stranger fighting for both sides , but his faith remains strong . Mitchell 's parable teaches that although evidence can challenge a religious belief , a believer still has reason to hold their views . He argued that although a believer will not allow anything to count decisively against his beliefs , the theist still accepts the existence of evidence which could count against religious belief .
= = = John Hick = = =
Responding to the verification principle , John Hick used his parable of the Celestial City to describe his theory of eschatological verificationism . His parable is of two travellers , a theist and an atheist , together on a road . The theist believes that there is a Celestial City at the end of the road ; the atheist believes that there is no such city . Hick 's parable is an allegory of the Christian belief in an afterlife , which he argued can be verified upon death . Hick believed that eschatological verification is " unsymmetrical " because while it could be verified if it is true , it cannot be falsified if not . This is in contrast to ordinary " symmetrical " statements , which can be verified or falsified .
In his biography of Hick , David Cheetham notes a criticism of Hick 's theory : waiting for eschatological verification could make religious belief provisional , preventing total commitment to faith . Cheetham argues that such criticism is misapplied because Hick 's theory was not directed to religious believers but to philosophers , who argued that religion is unverifiable and therefore meaningless . James Morris notes that Hick 's eschatological verification theory has been criticised for being inconsistent with his belief in religious pluralism . Morris argues that such criticism can be overcome by modifying Hick 's parable to include multiple travellers , all with different beliefs , on the road . He argues that even if some beliefs about life after death are unverifiable , Hick 's belief in bodily resurrection can still be verified .
= Lyon @-@ class battleship =
The Lyon class was a proposed type of battleship which was planned for the French Navy in 1913 , with construction scheduled to begin in 1915 . The class was to have comprised four ships : Lyon , Lille , Duquesne , and Tourville . The first two were named for cities in France , while the rest honored French admirals Abraham Duquesne and Anne Hilarion de Tourville . The design was an improvement on the previous Normandie class , and mounted a fourth quadruple gun turret , for a total of sixteen 340 mm ( 13 in ) guns . Construction was cancelled due to the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 before any of the ships could be laid down .
= = Design = =
Starting in 1910 , the French Navy began a dreadnought battleship construction program , starting with the four ships of the Courbet class that year . The three @-@ ship Bretagne class was authorized the next year , and five Normandie @-@ class battleships followed in 1912 . Design work began in 1912 ; the design staff submitted several proposals for the new battleships . Displacements ranged from 27 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 27 @,@ 000 long tons ; 30 @,@ 000 short tons ) to 29 @,@ 000 t ( 29 @,@ 000 long tons ; 32 @,@ 000 short tons ) ; the various designs featured a main battery of fourteen or sixteen 340 mm ( 13 in ) guns , eight or ten 380 mm ( 15 in ) guns , or twenty 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , in a mix of quadruple or twin gun turrets .
In 1913 , the Navy authorized a fourth class of battleships , Lyon , which was scheduled for 1915 . The design staff determined the 38 cm gun would take too long to design , so the proposals that incorporated these weapons were cancelled . The design staff settled on one of the two 34 cm proposals . The first proposal , which mounted fourteen guns , was a 27 @,@ 500 t ( 27 @,@ 100 long tons ; 30 @,@ 300 short tons ) ship 185 meters ( 607 ft ) long . On 24 November 1913 , the design staff instead chose the slightly larger second design , armed with sixteen guns in four quadruple turrets . The first two ships , Lyon and Lille , were scheduled to be ordered on 1 January 1915 , and Duquesne and Tourville would have followed on 1 April 1915 . World War I broke out in August 1914 , however , and shifting military requirements , particularly for the army , forced the cancellation of the class .
= = = Ships = = =
= = = Characteristics = = =
The ships would have been 190 m ( 620 ft ) long between perpendiculars and 194 @.@ 5 m ( 638 ft ) long overall . They would have had a beam of 29 m ( 95 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 65 to 9 @.@ 2 m ( 28 @.@ 4 to 30 @.@ 2 ft ) . Their full load displacement was estimated at 29 @,@ 000 t ( 29 @,@ 000 long tons ; 32 @,@ 000 short tons ) . The propulsion system had not been settled by the time the class was cancelled ; the design staff proposed either the mixed steam turbine and triple expansion engine system used in the first four ships of the preceding Normandie class or the all @-@ turbine system used in the last ship of the previous class , Béarn . They also considered new geared turbines that had proved satisfactory in the new destroyer Enseigne Gabolde . The final design called for a propulsion system rated at 43 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 32 @,@ 000 kW ) with a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . An unknown number of boilers were trunked into two funnels amidships .
Sixteen 340mm / 45 Modèle 1912 guns mounted in four quadruple turrets comprised the main battery . The turrets , which were equipped with electric @-@ hydraulic training and elevation gear , were all mounted on the centerline , though the arrangement is not clear . According to Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , one turret was placed forward , one amidships , and two in a superfiring pair aft . The contemporary Journal of United States Artillery , however , suggests the turrets would have been mounted in two superfiring pairs , forward and aft . The turrets weighed 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) , and were electrically trained and hydraulically elevated . The guns were divided into pairs and mounted in twin cradles ; a 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick bulkhead divided the turrets . Each pair of guns had its own ammunition hoist and magazine . They could be fired simultaneously or independently . The guns had a range of 16 @,@ 000 m ( 52 @,@ 000 ft ) and had a rate of fire of two rounds per minute . The shells were 540 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 190 lb ) armor @-@ piercing rounds and were fired with a muzzle velocity of 800 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) .
The secondary battery was to consist of twenty @-@ four guns , either the 138 @.@ 6 mm / 55 Modèle 1910 or a new automatic model , each singly @-@ mounted in casemates in the hull . The M1910 guns fired a 36 @.@ 5 kg ( 80 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . The ships would also have been equipped with an unknown number of 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) or 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and six torpedo tubes of unknown size , submerged in the hull . The ships would have been protected with a variation of the armor layout of the previous Normandie class . The primary alterations were slightly thinner casemate armor and upper deck plating to compensate for improved armor below the waterline .
= First Presbyterian Church of Marcellus =
The Greek Revival First Presbyterian Church of Marcellus is located at the intersection of North Street ( New York State Route 174 ) and East Main Street ( also NY 174 ) in the village of Marcellus , New York , and is the oldest of four churches in the village . Marcellus village was founded in 1794 . Local residents with differing religious denominations met in a tavern , until October 1801 when Reverend Caleb Alexander , a missionary active in the central New York area , helped organize the 18 @-@ member Church of Christ . A wooden meeting house was constructed two years later .
By 1819 , the community had built three churches in the environs of Marcellus : the original First Church in Marcellus , its offshoot the Second Church in Skaneateles , New York , and the Third Church on State Road ( now U.S. Route 20 ) . In 1851 , the present church in Greek Revival style was erected and dedicated . The church would undergo substantial alterations over the next century . In 1948 , it was remodelled and dedicated in April 1952 . Commentators have found the structure one of the finest examples of Greek Revival church architecture in Onondaga County ; however , they have expressed some regret in the loss of several original features . The church celebrated its bicentenary in 2001 .
= = Original church ( 1803 – 1851 ) = =
The village of Marcellus was founded 1794 with Presbyterians , Congregationalists , Baptists and villagers of other denominations meeting in a tavern for worship services . Tavern proprietor Deacon Rice was permitted to read sermons , not write them , and Reverend Seth Williston , a missionary active in the area as early as 1800 may have provided spiritual guidance . On October 13 , 1801 , the village 's first worship society , the 18 @-@ member Church of Christ , was organized through the efforts of Rev Caleb Alexander , another missionary active in central New York . In May the following year , the society was incorporated as the Eastern Religious Society of Marcellus . The church was later described as " Presbyterian in its ecclesiastical relations , and at the same time Congregational in its internal policy and arrangement . "
On August 12 , 1802 , the society voted to build a church , and a trustee donated an acre of land at the intersection of Main Street and North Street in the present @-@ day village of Marcellus . In 1803 , construction of the fifty @-@ five by forty @-@ eight feet wooden meeting house was completed with a floor , a board pulpit , and slab seats but without a steeple , a bell , stoves , and ceilings . Congregants warmed themselves with foot stoves , squirrel fur , and the " power of the spirit " .
Itinerant missionaries served the meeting house for its first few years . The church gained its first pastor in 1807 , when Rev Levi Parsons was ordained and installed . That same year , the congregation adopted fifteen articles of faith and a covenant , which remained membership prerequisites for one hundred years . In the same year the church affiliated with the Presbyterian Synod of Albany , three years later becoming a charter member of the Presbytery of Cayuga , which , in 1811 , became part of the newly formed Synod of Geneva . Mr Parsons served until 1833 when he accepted posts in Tully , New York and Otisco , New York . He returned to Marcellus in 1835 , where he remained until 1841 when Rev John Tompkins was appointed .
In 1814 , a steeple was built , an extension to the church added , and the interior painted at a cost of $ 4 @,@ 500 ( $ 50 @.@ 8 thousand today ) . The same year , The Female Charitable Society of Marcellus donated $ 133 @.@ 34 to the Genessee Missionary Society . By 1819 , the church had grown considerably . The Second Church was erected in what is now Skaneateles , New York , and the Third Presbyterian Church of Marcellus was built on State Road ( now U.S. Route 20 ) , which , after twenty prosperous years , experienced declining membership following deaths and migrations . In 1830 , a shed for horses and vehicles was constructed at the First Church . On April 23 , 1833 , the name of the society was changed to the Marcellus First Religious Society , and in 1846 , a house and lot for a parsonage were secured . In 1849 , church land was graded and new horse sheds built .
= = Present church ( 1851 – present ) = =
By 1850 , the First Church was in need of repair and sold for $ 500 ( $ 4 @.@ 5 thousand today ) which , in the agreement , was applied to the construction of a new church on the same site at a cost of $ 3 @,@ 800 . The new church , designed in the then popular Greek Revival style , was dedicated October 13 , 1851 , the fiftieth anniversary of the congregation . Two years after the 1851 construction and dedication of the new church , a bell was fitted to the steeple . The church 's first pastor , Reverend Levi Parsons had been succeeded by Rev John Tompkins . In 1866 , Mr Tompkins died on the eve of his 25th anniversary with the church . Reverends W. S. Franklin and Dwight Scovel were appointed as interim ministers , and , during their tenures , a new pulpit and new furniture were acquired . A change in boundaries , by act of the General Assembly in 1869 , brought the Marcellus Church within the Syracuse Presbytery which was merged with the Cayuga Presbytery . In 1877 , the Women 's Missionary Society was formed . In 1880 , Rev George Smith was appointed , but , in 1882 , accepted a position at Canandaigua Academy . Before Smith left , he celebrated the church 's 80th anniversary on October 13 , 1881 by writing the church 's history .
On Smith 's departure Rev Alex McA . Thornburn was appointed and served five years . Under his leadership , the church perfected its organization as a Presbyterian Church and several ruling elders were elected . However , the corporate name , Eastern Religious Society , remained in effect until November 19 , 1951 , when it was officially changed to the First Presbyterian Church of Marcellus . On November 16 . 1887 , Rev Thornburn was succeeded by Rev A. H. Cameron , who served ten years with the church . In 1893 and 1894 , the church was remodeled once again with new kitchens , a church parlor , and new stained glass windows . The original stoves were replaced with a new heating system . The church began conducting Sunday school classes for those unable to attend services , at Marcellus Falls ( north of town ) and nearby hamlet Shepard Settlement .
Rev Cameron was succeeded in 1897 , by Rev A. K. McNaughton , who served ten years and celebrated the church 's centenary on October 13 , 1901 . McNaughton left in 1907 , and was replaced by Rev F. J. Sauber who served until 1914 when Rev C. C. Frost was appointed . In 1921 , Rev David S. MacGinn was appointed , who served until 1928 . During MacGinn 's years of service , new horse and carriage sheds were constructed for the church , replacing earlier ones built in 1849 . In 1961 , the sheds ( which had been rented @-@ out as car garages ) were torn down to make way for an extension of the church . A severe windstorm destroyed the spire in 1924 ; it was replaced shortly thereafter at a cost of $ 3 @,@ 500 ( $ 31 thousand today ) .
Rev Robert Lloyd Roberts served the Marcellus church during the Great Depression and war years from 1931 to 1944 . His successor Dr. Albert Dutton Stearns , called in 1944 , continued as pastor until 1948 . From 1948 to 1956 , Rev Ralph Miller served the congregation . Under his aegis the body of the building was raised , the sanctuary redone and refurbished , and a basement constructed with the additions of a kitchen , a dining room , a lounge and several classrooms at a cost of $ 65 @,@ 000 ( $ 579 thousand today ) . The church was dedicated after completion of construction in April 1952 . On November 19 , 1951 , the church officially became the First Presbyterian Church of Marcellus . On December 9 , 1956 , Rev Miller was succeeded by Syracuse University graduate Rev Keith Shinaman ; Miss Helen Austin was ordained as the first woman elder one year later . Women make up one @-@ half of the present session of eighteen elders .
Reverend Shinaman remained with the church for over fifty years , but was succeeded by Reverend Bill Grossman , who presently serves the congregation w . In 2001 , the church celebrated its 200th anniversary . Reverend Shinaman died October 10 , 2010 at the age of 88 .
= = Architectural critique = =
Of the church structure itself , it was noted in Architecture Worth Saving in Onondaga County ( 1964 ) that " This is certainly one of the most architecturally distinguished churches in Onondaga County , and a particularly fine example of Greek Revival architecture [ ... ] The interior was unfortunately ' improved ' with new arrangement of pews , and organ , new windows , carpets and chandeliers in 1896 [ ... ] In recent years the steeple was blown down , falling into the nave . Although rebuilt to approximately the original proportions , the transitional detail between the square belfry and the conical spire was unfortunately eliminated . Also regrettable [ ... ] is the recent replacement of the original wood @-@ paneled entrance doors [ ... ] The future of our finest Greek Revival church is uncertain [ ... ] Destruction would be a loss to the entire community . "
= = List of pastors by their ordainment = =
= Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album =
Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album , sometimes referred to as Connie 's Christmas Album or just Christmas Album , is the second album by the English child singer Connie Talbot , released on 24 November 2008 . The album is made up of Christmas @-@ themed songs , and was recorded in the middle of 2008 . Shortly after the release , Pinnacle Entertainment , the United Kingdom distributor , went into administration . Despite this , the album had some success in Asia and the United States , and Talbot 's third album , Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , included many of the same tracks . Talbot appeared publicly to promote the album , including an appearance on ITV Central in December , and embarked on a tour , making stops around the world . Critics responded warmly to the album , describing Talbot 's voice as " sweet " .
= = Recording and release = =
Talbot 's voice was recorded near her home . Other parts of the album were recorded elsewhere in the UK , as well as in the US , Bulgaria and Hong Kong . Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album contains " a mix of classics and modern Christmas tunes " , and was produced by Simon Hill and Rob May , who produced her first album , Over the Rainbow . Big band arrangements on the album included music from Laurence Cottle Big Band , while the orchestral sections of the more traditional songs were performed by the Bulgarian Symphony Orchestra . The duet on " When a Child Is Born " was performed by Talbot and Ginger Kwan . Describing the recording of the album , Talbot said " I really liked it . I liked all the songs they picked and everything . It was really good and enjoyable . " Five tracks ( " Let it Snow ! " , " Rocking Around the Christmas Tree " , " Jingle Bell Rock " , " Santa Clause Is Coming to Town " and " Frosty the Snowman " ) were recorded in the style of a big band , while the remainder were recorded in a " more traditional " style .
Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album was released on 24 November 2008 . The album was difficult to obtain in Britain after the distributor , Pinnacle Entertainment , went into administration . Talbot 's mother , Sharon , was quoted as saying , " We don 't really know what 's going to happen at the moment ... We think they 'll probably wait and promote the album later this year . It 's a shame , but they can still get the album in Asia and the US . " In 2009 , Talbot 's third album , Connie Talbot 's Holiday Magic , was released in the United States , with many of the same songs as Connie Talbot 's Christmas Album , but with rerecorded vocals .
= = Publicity = =
Before the release of the album , Talbot recorded a " secret concert " at her primary school . The documentary , Christmas with Connie , was shown on ITV Central on 18 December . Talbot appeared at the HMV Walsall branch the day after the release to sign copies of the album and to meet fans . After the release , Talbot embarked on a promotional tour that made stops around the world , including a performance at Ewha Womans University in Korea , where Over the Rainbow had sold over 30 @,@ 000 copies . Talbot also performed on the A Heart for Children television charity gala in Berlin , Germany , where her performance was described by Viktoria Schiller , writing for The Epoch Times , as " one of the highlights of the evening " . Talbot returned home in mid @-@ December , to have " a quiet family Christmas "
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$ 24 @.@ 0 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review @-@ aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 87 % of critics have given the film a positive review , based on 171 reviews with an average score of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 . The site 's consensus reads : " Equally entertaining for both kids and parents old enough to catch the references , Wreck @-@ It Ralph is a clever , colorful adventure built on familiar themes and joyful nostalgia . " At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 72 out of 100 , based on 36 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . The film earned an " A " from audiences polled by CinemaScore .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 3 out of 4 stars and wrote , " More than in most animated films , the art design and color palette of Wreck @-@ It Ralph permit unlimited sets , costumes and rules , giving the movie tireless originality and different behavior in every different cyber world . " A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote , " The movie invites a measure of cynicism – which it proceeds to obliterate with a 93 @-@ minute blast of color , noise , ingenuity and fun . " Peter Debruge of Variety stated , " With plenty to appeal to boys and girls , old and young , Walt Disney Animation Studios has a high @-@ scoring hit on its hands in this brilliantly conceived , gorgeously executed toon , earning bonus points for backing nostalgia with genuine emotion . " Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times said , " The movie 's subversive sensibility and old @-@ school / new @-@ school feel are a total kick , " while Justin Lowe of The Hollywood Reporter wrote , " With a mix of retro eye @-@ candy for grown @-@ ups and a thrilling , approachable storyline for the tykes , the film casts a wide and beguiling net . " Conversely , Christopher Orr of The Atlantic found it " overplotted and underdeveloped . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Soundtrack = =
The film 's score was composed by Henry Jackman . The soundtrack also features original songs by Owl City , AKB48 , Skrillex , and Buckner & Garcia . Early in the development process , Robert Lopez and Kristen Anderson @-@ Lopez wrote an original song for the film ; it was later cut out .
All music composed by Henry Jackman ( except 1 – 6 ) .
= = Video games = =
In addition to the Flash version of the Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr. game , Disney released a tie @-@ in side @-@ scrolling platform game called Wreck @-@ It Ralph for the Wii , Nintendo 3DS , and Nintendo DS , to mostly negative reviews . The arcade style side @-@ scrolling game was produced in collaboration between Disney Interactive and Activision and serves as a " story extension " to the film . Taking place following the events of the film , players may play as Wreck @-@ It Ralph or Fix @-@ It Felix , causing or repairing damage , respectively , following another Cy @-@ Bug incident . Game levels are based on the locations in the film like the Fix @-@ It Felix , Jr . , Hero 's Duty , and Sugar Rush games as well as Game Central Station . It was released in conjunction with the film 's release , in November 2012 .
In October 2012 , Disney released fully playable browser @-@ based versions of the Hero 's Duty and Sugar Rush games on the new official film site . A mobile game titled Wreck @-@ it Ralph was released in November 2012 for iOS and Android systems , with a Windows Phone 8 version following almost a year later . Initially , the game consisted of three mini @-@ games , Fix @-@ it Felix Jr . , Hero 's Duty and Sweet Climber , which were later joined by Turbo Time and Hero 's Duty : Flight Command . The game was retired on August 29 , 2014 .
Ralph also appears in Sega 's Sonic & All @-@ Stars Racing Transformed as a playable guest character . Ralph and Vanellope appear as playable characters in Disney Infinity as well ( voiced by Brian T. Delaney and Silverman , respectively ) ; the Disney Store released their individual figures on January 7 , 2014 . A combo " toy box pack " of the two figures with Sugar Rush customization discs was released April 1 , 2014 from the Disney Store .
= = Sequel = =
In an interview on October 25 , 2012 , director Rich Moore said that he and Disney have ideas about a sequel that would bring the characters up to date and explore online gaming and console gaming . Moore stated that many of the crew and voice cast are open to the sequel , believing that they have " barely scratched the surface " of the video game world they envisioned . He also stated that he plans to include Mario and Tron in the sequel . In a 2014 interview , the film 's composer Henry Jackman said that a story for the sequel is being written . In July 2015 , John C. Reilly said he had signed on to reprise his role of Ralph in a projected sequel .
On March 24 , 2016 , Rich Moore stated that a sequel is still being planned . Moore also hopes to specifically include an appearance from Mario , citing a " good relationship with Nintendo " . On June 30 , 2016 , Walt Disney Animation Studios announced that a sequel would be released on March 9 , 2018 , with Reilly , Moore and writer Phil Johnston attached , and that it would focus on " Ralph leaving the arcade and wrecking the Internet " . Official concept art was also released .
= Hurricane Sandra ( 2015 ) =
Hurricane Sandra in 2015 was the latest @-@ forming major hurricane in the Northeastern Pacific basin on record . Originating from a tropical wave , Sandra was first classified as a tropical depression on November 23 well south of Mexico . Environmental conditions , including high sea surface temperatures and low wind shear , were highly conducive to intensification and the storm quickly organized . A small central dense overcast developed atop the storm and Sandra reached hurricane status early on November 25 after the consolidation of an eye . The hurricane achieved its peak as a Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 58 inHg ) early on November 26 . This made Sandra the strongest November hurricane on record in the Northeastern Pacific . Thereafter , increasing shear degraded the hurricane 's structure and weakening ensued . Rapid weakening took place on November 27 and Sandra 's circulation became devoid of convection as it diminished to a tropical storm that evening . The cyclone degenerated into a remnant low soon thereafter and ultimately dissipated just off the coast of Sinaloa , Mexico , on November 29 .
As the precursor to Sandra traversed Central America , it produced unseasonably heavy rainfall that triggered flooding and landslides . Four people died in various incidents related to the system : three in El Salvador and one in Honduras . Initially expecting a landfalling storm , officials in Northwestern Mexico prepared equipment for power outages , closed schools , and evacuated 180 residents . Sandra 's effects largely consisted of light to moderate rainfall ; some traffic accidents and landslides resulted from this , though the overall impacts were limited .
= = Meteorological history = =
On November 6 , 2015 , a tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa over the Atlantic Ocean . Only sporadic convection — shower and thunderstorm activity — accompanied the system as it traveled west for the next ten days . As it reached the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 17 , westerly winds associated with the Intertropical Convergence Zone spurred the development of an area of low pressure and extensive convection . Forecasters at the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) noted potential for the system to develop into a tropical cyclone ; however , persistent wind shear inhibited this system from consolidating before it reached Central America . The system emerged over the Pacific Ocean near Nicaragua on November 21 ; once back over water , convection blossomed near the low 's center . Convection remained largely disorganized over the following two days as the system progressed westward in response to a subtropical ridge to the north .
A Tehuantepec gap wind event in conjunction with horizontal wind shear spurred development of a vortex within the disturbance and a well @-@ defined low formed by 12 : 00 UTC on November 23 . Six hours later the low acquired sufficient convective organization , including elongated banding features ot the north , to be classified Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Two @-@ E. At this time , the depression was situated 435 mi ( 705 km ) south @-@ southwest of Acapulco , Mexico . Aided by high sea surface temperatures of 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) , ample ocean heat content and low wind shear , the small system quickly intensified into a tropical storm — at which time the NHC assigned it the name Sandra — and developed a central dense overcast . A prominent banding feature with cloud tops below − 112 ° F ( − 80 ° C ) and frequent lightning formed north of the circulation on November 24 . By 18 : 00 UTC , a 23 to 29 mi ( 37 to 47 km ) wide eye became apparent , signaling the onset of rapid intensification .
Throughout November 25 , Sandra dramatically strengthened as deep convection blossomed around a tightening and clearing eye . The system achieved hurricane status by 06 : 00 UTC and major hurricane status — Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale — by 00 : 00 UTC on November 26 . Prominent outflow became established atop the cyclone and further aided the intensification . Throughout the strengthening phase , a mid- to upper @-@ level trough near the west coast of North America created a weakness in the subtropical ridge , prompting Sandra to turn north around the western edge of the high . Sandra reached its peak intensity as a high @-@ end Category 4 hurricane around 06 : 00 UTC on November 26 with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 58 inHg ) . By this time , the hurricane 's eye shrunk to less than 6 mi ( 10 km ) in diameter . Within hours , however , increasing wind shear began to impact the circulation and caused convection to become asymmetric . Concurrently , the system started a turn northeast toward mainland Mexico as it rounded the ridge .
Steadily increasing wind shear gradually unraveled Sandra during the latter part of November 26 and into November 27 . The storm 's outflow , though prominent to the north , became restricted on the southern side . Sandra briefly regained organization around 00 : 00 UTC on November 27 , with its eye becoming redefined ; however , persistent shear prevailed and the system weakened below major hurricane status by 06 : 00 UTC . The hurricane rapidly deteriorated throughout November 27 as convection became displaced to the northeast of the circulation . The low @-@ level circulation soon decoupled from the mid- to upper @-@ level circulations and Sandra degraded to a tropical storm by 00 : 00 UTC on November 28 . The convectively devoid low @-@ level circulation abruptly turned northwest in response to a shallow ridge . Failing to redevelop convection atop its center , Sandra degenerated into a remnant low by 06 : 00 UTC . Sustained winds dropped below gale @-@ force by 18 : 00 UTC . Intense thunderstorm activity did blossom to the northeast of the center late on November 28 , prompting the storm to resume a northeasterly course . The cyclone eventually succumbed to strong shear and opened up into a trough roughly 60 mi ( 95 km ) southwest of Culiacán , Mexico , late on November 29 .
= = = Records = = =
Reaching tropical storm status on November 24 , Sandra was the fourth @-@ latest forming tropical storm in the Northeastern Pacific basin since reliable records began . Upon becoming a hurricane at 06 : 00 UTC on November 25 , Sandra was the second @-@ latest such storm on record in the Northeastern Pacific ; only Hurricane Winnie of 1983 — the only December hurricane on record in the basin — formed later . This also marked the record @-@ tying 16th hurricane to form in the Pacific north of the equator and east of the International Dateline ; this record is shared with 1990 , 1992 , and 2014 . When it further became a major hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on November 26 , Sandra was the latest @-@ forming such storm in the Northeastern Pacific basin on record . It surpassed the previous record set by Hurricane Kenneth in 2011 by nearly four days . Sandra was also the ninth major hurricane in the Northeastern Pacific proper and the eleventh east of the dateline , both setting a record for the most in a single season . Sandra 's peak intensity with winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and pressure of 934 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 58 inHg ) ranked it as the strongest November hurricane on record in the Northeastern Pacific , surpassing Hurricane Kenneth 's 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and 940 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) . On a global scale , Sandra was the 30th major hurricane and " record @-@ shattering " 25th Category 4 or 5 storm of 2015 ; the previous records were 23 and 18 , respectively , occurring in both 1997 and 2004 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
The precursor to Sandra produced unseasonably heavy rains across parts of Central America , leading to flooding . In Nicaragua , flooding affected 55 homes and destroyed 1 , primarily in Managua . A total of 56 families required evacuation . Local officials blamed the flooding on trash @-@ clogged drains . Five people were injured in the Nueva Segovia Department when an ambulance crashed on a foggy , rain @-@ slicked road . A landslide in Cucuyagua , Honduras , destroyed a home killing a 25 @-@ day @-@ old baby and injuring four others . In Nueva Esparta , El Salvador , two people drowned after being swept away by the swollen El Amatal River . Flooding in Ozatlán killed one person and inundated homes in Jiquilisco , prompting the evacuation of 14 families .
Moisture from Sandra streamed northward into the Southern Plains and Lower Mississippi River Valley and contributed to widespread rainfall and flooding . Heavy rains affected portions of Texas , Oklahoma , Arkansas , Mississippi , and Tennessee . The Dallas – Fort Worth metroplex received 3 @.@ 45 in ( 88 mm ) of rain on November 27 , their wettest November day on record ; this total contributed to breaking the city 's wettest @-@ year on record .
= = = Mexico = = =
On November 26 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch for Baja California Sur between Todos los Santos and Los Barriles ; this was discontinued less than 24 hours later . The State Council of Civil Protection of Baja California Sur opened four shelters in both Cabo San Lucas and San José del Cabo ; school officials cancelled classes for November 27 . In La Paz , the Federal Electricity Commission deployed 96 trucks to handle potential power outages . On November 27 , a tropical storm warning was raised for mainland Mexico between Altata and San Blas as well as the Islas Marías ; the warning was discontinued the following day as Sandra rapidly dissipated . Alerts were raised across portions of Sinaloa and Nayarit in advance of the hurricane . The port of Mazatlán suspended operations on November 28 and public shelters were opened in the city . Water pumps , generators , and relief crews were mobilized at the port . About 180 people from the small community of Boca Camichin , Nayarit , evacuated inland . The storm also prompted delay of the annual Maratón Pacífico .
On November 27 , Sandra produced wind gusts up to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) on Socorro Island as the storm moved 115 mi ( 185 km ) southeast of the island . Effects from Sandra were minor and limited due to its dissipation offshore ; rainfall was limited to 1 to 3 in ( 25 to 76 mm ) in most areas and largely considered beneficial . In contrast to predictions of 3 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ( 75 to 150 mm ) of rain across Baja California Sur , only 0 @.@ 71 in ( 18 mm ) fell in San José del Cabo while other areas of the Los Cabos Municipality received a trace to no accumulation . Wet roads in Cabo San Lucas resulted in two accidents that left three people injured . In Chihuahua , minor landslides damaged roads .
= Lesser Antillean macaw =
The Lesser Antillean macaw or Guadeloupe macaw ( Ara guadeloupensis ) is a hypothetical extinct species of macaw that is thought to have been endemic to the Lesser Antillean island region of Guadeloupe . In spite of the absence of conserved specimens , many details about the Lesser Antillean macaw are known from several contemporary accounts , and the bird is the subject of some illustrations . Austin Hobart Clark described the species on the basis of these accounts in 1905 . Due to the lack of physical remains , and the possibility that sightings were of macaws from the South American mainland , doubts have been raised about the existence of this species . A phalanx bone from the island of Marie @-@ Galante confirmed the existence of a similar @-@ sized macaw inhabiting the region prior to the arrival of humans , and was correlated with the Lesser Antillean macaw in 2015 . Later that year , historical sources distinguishing between the red macaws of Guadeloupe and the scarlet macaw ( A. macao ) of the mainland were identified , further supporting its validity .
According to contemporary descriptions , the body of the Lesser Antillean macaw was red and the wings were red , blue and yellow . The tail feathers were between 38 and 51 cm ( 15 and 20 in ) long . Apart from the smaller size and the all @-@ red coloration of the tail feathers , it resembled the scarlet macaw and may therefore have been a close relative of that species . The bird ate fruit – including the poisonous manchineel , was monogamous , nested in trees and laid two eggs once or twice a year . Early writers described it as being abundant in Guadeloupe , but it was becoming rare by 1760 , and only survived in uninhabited areas . Disease and hunting by humans are thought to have eradicated it shortly afterwards . The Lesser Antillean macaw is one of 13 extinct macaw species that have been proposed to have lived in the Caribbean islands . Many of these species are now considered dubious because only three are known from physical remains , and there are no extant endemic macaws on the islands today .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Lesser Antillean macaw is well @-@ documented compared to most other extinct Caribbean macaws , since it was mentioned and described by several contemporary writers . Parrots thought to be the Lesser Antillean macaw were first mentioned by the Spanish historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in 1553 , referring to a 1496 account by the Spanish bibliographer Ferdinand Columbus , who mentioned chicken @-@ sized parrots — which the Island Caribs called " Guacamayas " — in Guadeloupe . In 1774 , the French naturalist Comte de Buffon stated that the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus had found macaws in Guadeloupe . The French botanist Jean @-@ Baptiste Du Tertre gave the first detailed descriptions in 1654 and 1676 , and illustrated the bird and other animals found in Guadeloupe . The French clergyman Jean @-@ Baptiste Labat also described the bird in 1742 . Writers such as George Edwards and John Latham also mentioned the presence of red and blue macaws on the islands off America .
The American zoologist Austin Hobart Clark gave the Lesser Antillean macaw its scientific name , Ara guadeloupensis , in 1905 , based on the contemporary accounts , and he also cited a 1765 color plate as possibly depicting this species . He wrote that it was different in several ways from the superficially similar scarlet macaw ( A. macao ) , as well as the green @-@ winged macaw ( A. chloropterus ) and the Cuban macaw ( A. tricolor ) . Clark suggested the species might have existed on the islands of Dominica and Martinique , based on accounts of red macaws there , as well as on Guadeloupe . In his 1907 book Extinct Birds , the British zoologist Walter Rothschild instead claimed each island had its own species , and that the Lesser Antillean macaw was confined to Guadeloupe . In 1967 , the American ornithologist James Greenway wrote that the macaws reported from Guadeloupe could have been imported to the region from elsewhere by the native population , but this is difficult to prove . Greenway also suggested that the scarlet macaw and the Cuban macaw formed a superspecies with the Lesser Antillean macaw and other hypothetical extinct species suggested for Jamaica and Hispaniola . According to the English paleontologist Julian Hume , the similarity between the Lesser Antillean macaw and the scarlet macaw indicates that they were close relatives , and that the Guadeloupe species may have descended from the mainland macaw .
A small parrot ulna found on the Folle Anse archaeological site on Marie @-@ Galante , an island in the Guadeloupe region , was assigned to the Lesser Antillean macaw by the ornithologists Matthew Williams and David Steadman in 2001 . In 2008 , the ornithologists Storrs Olson and Edgar Maíz López cast doubt upon this identification , and proposed that the bone instead belonged to the extant imperial amazon ( Amazona imperialis ) . The size and robustness of the bone was similar to ulnae of the imperial amazon , and though it was worn , the authors identified what appeared to be a notch , which is also present on ulnae of the genus Amazona , but not in the genus Ara . Subfossil remains from the island of Montserrat have also been suggested to belong to the Lesser Antillean macaw . The species was recognized by Birdlife International and the IUCN Red List until 2013 , but was not considered valid thereafter .
In 2015 , a terminal phalanx bone ( ungual claw bone ) attributable to the genus Ara from south @-@ western Marie @-@ Galante was described by ecologists Monica Gala and Arnaud Lenoble . It was discovered in the Blanchard Cave during excavations in 2013 @-@ 2014 , in a fossil @-@ bearing deposit dating to the late Pleistocene epoch . The deposit was radiocarbon dated to about 10 @,@ 690 years ago ; the earliest evidence of human settlement in the area has been dated to 5 @,@ 300 years ago . This confirmed that the Guadeloupe region once had an endemic macaw which could not have been brought there by humans . All other macaw bones from the Lesser Antillean islands have been recovered from archaeological sites , and could therefore have been the remains of birds brought there by Amerindians . The size of the phalanx bone matched what was described for the Lesser Antillean macaw by contemporary writers , and the authors therefore correlated the two . They conceded that this connection could only be tentative , as there were no remains of the Lesser Antillean macaw to compare with .
Later in 2015 , Lenoble reviewed overlooked historical Spanish and French sources , finding references to mainly red macaws consistent with the Lesser Antillean macaw . The writings of the French missionary Raymond Breton ( on Guadeloupe from 1635 to 1654 ) were especially illuminating , as they showed that both he and the native Island Caribs clearly distinguished between the red macaws of Guadeloupe and the scarlet macaws from the mainland , which supports the idea that the Lesser Antillean macaw represents an independent species . As the Lesser Antillean Carib language had different words reserved for men and women , Breton gave the name of the bird as Kínoulou ( ♂ ) and Caarou ( ♀ ) . Lenoble furthermore concluded that the supposed violet macaw ( named Anodorhynchus purpurascens based on accounts of blue parrots from Guadeloupe ) was based on misidentified references to the also @-@ extinct Guadeloupe amazon ( Amazona violacea ) , and therefore never existed .
As many as 13 now @-@ extinct species of macaw have variously been suggested to have lived on the Caribbean islands , but many of these were based on old descriptions or drawings and only represent hypothetical species . In addition to the Lesser Antillean macaw , only two endemic Caribbean macaw species are known from physical remains ; the Cuban macaw is known from 19 museum skins and subfossils , and the Saint Croix macaw ( A. autochthones ) is known only from subfossils . Macaws are known to have been transported between the Caribbean islands and from mainland South America to the Caribbean both in historic times by Europeans and native peoples , and in prehistoric times by Paleoamericans . Parrots were important in the culture of native Caribbeans , and were among the gifts offered to Christopher Columbus when he reached the Bahamas in 1492 . Historical records of macaws on these islands , therefore , may not have represented distinct , endemic species ; it is also possible that these macaws were escaped or feral birds that had been transported to the islands from elsewhere . All the endemic Caribbean macaws were likely driven to extinction by humans in historic and prehistoric times . The identity and distribution of indigenous macaws in the Caribbean is only likely to be further resolved through paleontological discoveries and examination of contemporary reports and artwork .
= = Description = =
The Lesser Antillean macaw was described as having similar coloration to the scarlet macaw , but with shorter tail feathers between 38 and 51 cm ( 15 and 20 in ) long . In contrast , the tail feathers of the scarlet macaw are 61 cm ( 2 ft ) long and have blue tips , and the outer feathers are almost entirely blue . In spite of the tail feathers being shorter , it is not certain whether the Lesser Antillean macaw was smaller than the scarlet macaw overall , as the relative proportions of body parts vary between macaw species . The tail feathers were longer than those of the Cuban macaw , which were 30 cm ( 12 in ) long . The morphology of the fossil phalanx bone from Marie @-@ Galante was most similar to the second or third ungual of the scarlet macaw , though the bone is slightly smaller at 15 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 60 in ) compared to 15 – 17 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 67 in ) .
Du Tertre described the Lesser Antillean macaw as follows in 1654 :
The Macaw is the largest of all the parrot tribe ; for although the parrots of Guadeloupe are larger than all other parrots , both of the islands and of the main land , the Macaws are a third larger than they ... The head , neck , underparts , and back are flame color . The wings are a mixture of yellow , azure , and scarlet . The tail is wholly red , and a foot and a half long .
Though Clark converted Du Tertre 's tail measurement to 18 in ( 45 @.@ 7 cm ) , Lenoble pointed out that a 17th @-@ century French foot unit was slightly larger than the English equivalent , and the measurement should rather be converted to 19 @.@ 3 in ( 49 cm ) , indicating a smaller size difference between the Lesser Antillean macaw and the scarlet macaw .
In 1742 , Labat described the macaw in much the same way as Du Tertre , while adding several details :
It is the size of a full grown fowl . The feathers of the head , neck , back and underparts are flame color ; the wings are of a mixture of blue , yellow and red ; the tail , which is from fifteen to twenty inches in length is wholly red . The head and the beak are very large , and it walks gravely ; it talks very well , if it is taught when young ; its voice is strong and distinct ; it is amiable and kind , and allows itself to be caressed ...
Both authors wrote that the macaws were the largest parrots of Guadeloupe , and stressed that the parrots of each Caribbean island were distinct , and could be differentiated both based on their morphology and their vocalizations . According to Hume , this means that the birds described could not simply have been escaped South American macaws . Furthermore , the docile and amiable nature described by Du Tertre and Labat does not match the behavior of South American macaws .
Breton 's mid @-@ 1600s accounts of the macaw confirmed it as distinct from mainland scarlet macaws :
Macaws are larger than parrots , with a very beautiful red plumage mixed with purple in the tail and wings ... Macaws found on islands are called Kínoulou , f . Caarou . Coyáli is found on the continent , and is redder and more elegant than the island variety .
Apart from Du Tertre 's crude 1667 drawing and Labat 's 1722 derivative , a few contemporary paintings depict red macaws that may be the Lesser Antillean macaw . A color plate accompanying a 1765 volume of Buffon 's encyclopaedia Histoire Naturelle ( no . 12 in Planches Enluminées , entitled L 'Ara Rouge ) shows a red macaw with entirely red tail feathers and more red on the tertial and scapular feathers of the wing than are present on the scarlet macaw . Copies of the plate differ in the nuances used , but are identical in pattern . The painting suggests that a specimen may have been present in Europe at the time . The Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus cited the plate in his 1766 description of the scarlet macaw , but his description does not match the bird shown . A 1626 painting by the Dutch artist Roelant Savery , which also includes a dodo , shows a red macaw that agrees with the descriptions of the Lesser Antillean macaw . A second macaw in the painting may be the hypothetical extinct Martinique macaw ( A. martinicus ) , but though many parrots were imported into Europe at the time from all over the world , it is impossible to determine the accuracy of such paintings today .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Du Tertre gave a detailed account of the behavior of the Lesser Antillean macaw in 1654 :
This bird lives on berries , and on the fruit of certain trees , but principally on the apples of the manchioneel ( ! ) , which is a powerful and caustic poison to other animals . It is the prettiest sight in the world to see ten or a dozen Macaws in a green tree . Their voice is loud and piercing , and they always cry when flying . If one imitates their cry , they stop short . They have a grave and dignified demeanor , and so far from being alarmed by many shots fired under a tree where they are perched , they gaze at their companions who fall dead to the ground without being disturbed at all , so that one may fire five or six times into the same tree without their appearing to be frightened .
In a 1667 work , Du Tertre gave a similar account , and added that the macaw only ate the poisonous manchineel ( Hippomane mancinella ) fruits in times of necessity . He also described the monogamous reproductive behavior of the bird :
The male and the female are inseparable companions and it is rare that one is seen singly . When they wish to breed ( which they do once or twice a year ) they make a hole with their beaks in the stump of a large tree , and construct a nest with feathers from their own bodies . They lay two eggs , the size of those of a partridge ( Perdix cinerea ) . The others of the parrot kind make their nests in the same way , but lay green eggs ... The Macaws are much larger than the large parrots of Guadeloupe or Grenada , and live longer than a man ; but they are almost all subject to a falling sickness .
The twice @-@ yearly breeding mentioned by Du Tertre may have actually been staggered breeding , which is practiced by some tropical birds .
Though Clark suggested that the Lesser Antillean macaw also occurred on Dominica and Martinique , there is no evidence for this . Instead , it probably existed on other islands close to Guadeloupe . The fossil phalanx bone from Marie @-@ Galante was deposited in a time when that island and the rest of the Guadeloupe archipelago were closer together than they are today due to lower sea @-@ levels . The areas were separated by three channels , the largest of which was 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 miles ) wide . This would not have been a hindrance to flying animals , and the macaws of the Guadeloupe islands would probably have been a single population during the Pleistocene .
= = Extinction = =
In 1534 , German historian Johann Huttich wrote that the forests of Guadeloupe were full of red macaws , which were apparently as abundant as grasshoppers , and the native people of the region cooked its flesh together with that of humans and of other birds . In 1654 , Du Tertre stated that the flesh was tough to eat , and that some considered it unpalatable and even poisonous . He wrote that he and the other inhabitants often consumed it , and that he experienced no ill @-@ effects from it . He also stated that the native people wore the feathers decoratively on their heads and as moustaches through the septum of the nose . He described how it was hunted by the native population :
The natives make use of a stratagem to take them alive ; they watch for a chance to find them on the ground , eating the fruit which has fallen from the trees , when they approach quietly under cover of the trees , then all at once run forward , clapping their hands and filling the air with cries capable not only of astounding the birds , but of terrifying the boldest . Then the poor birds , surprised and distracted , as if struck with thunderbolt , lose the use of their wings , and , making a virtue of necessity , throw themselves on their backs and assume the defensive with the weapons nature has given them – their beaks and claws – with which they defend themselves so bravely that not one of the natives dares to put his hand on them . One of the natives brings a big stick which he lays across the belly of the bird , who seizes it with beak and claws ; but while he is occupied in biting it , the native ties him so adroitly to the stick that he can do with him anything he wishes ...
Since Du Tertre wrote that the macaws were prone to sickness , an outbreak of a disease , along with hunting , may have contributed to its demise . In 1760 , the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson quoted a letter by French writer M. de la Borde , which stated that macaws had become very rare in the Antillean islands because they were hunted for food . By then they could only be found in areas not frequented by humans , and were probably extinct soon afterwards . Parrots are often among the first species to be exterminated from a given locality , especially islands .
= A.A.R.M. =
" A.A.R.M. " is the collective name for the twenty @-@ second and twenty @-@ third episodes of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office , as well as the 198th and 199th episode overall . It was also the series ' penultimate entry , airing a week before the series finale . It originally aired on NBC on May 9 , 2013 . This episode guest stars Nora Kirkpatrick , Aaron Rodgers , Clay Aiken , Mark McGrath , Santigold , Jessica St. Clair , and Rachel Crow .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) convinces Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) that he needs to choose someone to act as an Assistant to the Assistant to the Regional Manager ( A.A.R.M. ) ; the two subsequently hold tryouts for the position . Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) is forced to bring her son , Phillip , to work , and Dwight thinks that he may be his son . Pam Halpert 's ( Jenna Fischer ) final fears about her husband 's love are settled . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) attempts to get on " The Next Great A Cappella Sensation " , but is not able to audition . Finally , all the members of the office gather at Poor Richard 's Pub and watch the airing of the official in @-@ series documentary .
" A.A.R.M. " features a dramatic scene in which Jim presents a DVD of the highlights of his relationship with Pam , topped with him finally presenting her with a card he wrote in the second season episode " Christmas Party " . The idea to have Jim finally give Pam his card had been considered in the writers ' room for some time , but only during " A.A.R.M. " did the writers feel it was the right time . In addition , the episode contained several scenes that were purposely staged to be reminiscent of past episodes of the series , with scenes mimicking unique shots in both the third season installment " Gay Witch Hunt " and the sixth season episode " The Delivery " .
The episode was also viewed by 4 @.@ 56 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 / 6 percent rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its timeslot , making it the highest @-@ rated episode of the season since the earlier entry " The Boat " . " A.A.R.M. " received largely positive reviews from critics . The interaction between Jim , Pam , and Dwight received particular praise ; many were particularly pleased with the call @-@ back to " Christmas Party " . Andy 's subplot , however , was highly panned .
= = Plot = =
Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) convinces regional manager Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) that he needs to choose someone to act as an Assistant to the Assistant to the Regional Manager ( A.A.R.M. ) . Jim designs several Dwight @-@ oriented challenges as tryouts for the position , and it is inevitably found that Dwight is the most qualified . Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) is forced to bring her child , Phillip , to work , after her daycare turns her child away . Dwight , upon overhearing that Phillip has been eating the type of paper which he himself regards as the most flavorful , begins to think that Angela 's son is actually his . To test this theory , Dwight offers the child either a check for one million dollars or a beet ; Phillip picks the beet . Dwight tells Angela that he will marry her if the child is his , but she denies that this is not the case . Dwight then confers with Jim , asking whether he should propose to Angel or his girlfriend Esther , who he thinks is the more logical choice . Jim tells Dwight that he needs to put aside logic and follow his instincts . Dwight makes up his mind and proposes to Angela , who says yes . Angela finally reveals to Dwight that Phillip is indeed his son , explaining that she lied about his parentage in order to test Dwight 's feelings for her .
Meanwhile , Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) returns to Scranton , after quietly quitting a week ago to work full @-@ time at Athlead , the sports marketing company that Jim founded . When the others spot him , they are upset that he left without saying goodbye and demand to spend some time with him in one way or another before he leaves for good . The office ultimately decides on one final dance together .
When Darryl runs into Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , he tells her about the company 's success and how Jim is missing out by staying in Scranton . Pam begins to worry that she is making Jim do something that he does not want to do . She confronts her husband and admits that she thinks she might not be good enough for him . He asks the in @-@ series documentary crew 's help ; the crew makes a DVD of the highlights that they have collected of Jim and Pam 's relationship . The final scene that they use is from the second season Christmas episode " Christmas Party " in which Jim gives Pam a teapot as a gift , but takes back his accompanying note to her . After Pam watches the DVD , Jim presents her with the actual , unopened note . She reads it to herself , and , realizing that Jim does truly love her , the two happily embrace .
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , who had been fired in the previous episode , auditions for The Next Great A Cappella Sensation . However , before he is able to try out , the judges close the auditions , sending home the remaining applicants , who have been standing in line for hours . Refusing to accept this , he bolts past security and argues with the judges to let him audition . When they refuse , he throws a crying tantrum . Later , he journeys to Poor Richard 's Pub , where he meets his former office workers . All together , the office watches the official airing of the documentary on PBS 's Scranton affiliate station , WVIA @-@ TV .
= = Production = =
" A.A.R.M. " was written by executive producer Brent Forrester , marking his eleventh writing credit for the series , his first since the earlier season episode , " Work Bus " . It was directed by regular Office editor David Rogers , marking his ninth directing credit , and first since the earlier season episode " Junior Salesman " . The episode was originally supposed to air as a half @-@ hour episode , but NBC later announced it would be expanded to fill an hour time slot . Unlike the previous episodes that were expanded , like " Moving On " and " Livin ' the Dream " , " A.A.R.M. " counts as two produced episodes .
This episode guest stars Aaron Rodgers , Clay Aiken , Mark McGrath , Santigold , and Jessica St. Clair . In order to get them , the show reached out to " a small group of celebrities that [ the producers ] thought would be good " . Both Aiken and Santigold accepted . Baumgartner then asked Rodgers , who was a friend , and he accepted . McGrath later became available , and he was chosen as well . Angela 's son , Phillip , was played by twins Vince and Evan Edwards . The child that filmed the scene in which Phillip picked the beet was only supposed to point to the beet . In the end , the child said " beet ! " , which Rogers called " amazing " . The voice of the documentarian that responds to Jim is that of episode director David Rogers . Rogers also voiced the same character in the season opener " New Guys " . Originally , showrunner and series creator Greg Daniels had re @-@ recorded the line in " New Guys " , but ended up liking Roger 's voice better . He asked him to reprise the role in " A.A.R.M. " to preserve continuity .
Jules Kmetzko designed the portraits of Dwight and Mose , as well as Dwight 's propaganda picture . He had previously created Pam 's watercolor of Dunder Mifflin that hung on the walls . All of the dances moves were choreographed by Mary Ann Kellogg , who had choreographed many of the series ' dance @-@ heavy episodes . The obstacle course in the warehouse was crafted by Rogers and Forrester , with input from the show 's art department . Wilson also helped , since he eventually was the one who ran through it ; it was his idea to have the course terminate on a raised palette of boxes . Originally , the course was supposed to be in the park lot , but Rogers moved it , feeling that the warehouse was " more organic " and that the heat would have been detrimental to the finished product . The idea to have Jim finally give Pam his card had been considered in the writers ' room for some time , but only during " A.A.R.M. " did the writers feel it was the right time . The card and envelope was the same one used for " Christmas Party " almost seven years prior . In fact , the card contained a genuine message that Krasinksi wrote for Fischer . Rogers admitted that the Pam and Jim video was inspired by a number of fan videos that exist on the internet . The reason that " Open Your Eyes " by Snow Patrol plays over the video is that Claire Scanlon , the series editor , felt that it was similar in style to " Sing " by Travis , which played in the second season episode " The Client " .
The episode contained several scenes that were reminiscent of past episodes of the series . The shot in which Jim and Dwight survey the office was filmed to be similar to a scene that featured Dwight and Michael in the third season installment " Gay Witch Hunt " . In addition , Dwight pulling Angela over was filmed in a way that recalled the sixth season episode " The Delivery " . Although The scene wherein Jim gives advice to Dwight was shot in a similar manner to Jim 's farewell to Michael in the seventh season episode " Goodbye , Michael " , it was not intentionally supposed to look like it , according to Rogers . In addition , the obstacle course was not a direct reference to the second season episode " Office Olympics " , although Rogers understood that there were similarities .
= = Cultural references = =
Jim references both Michael J. Fox and the 1985 film Back to the Future during his " nonsense " conference room meeting . Dwight realizes that Phillip is his son after the child looks at a small @-@ scale replica of the Battlestar Galactica , fictional ship from the science fiction series of the same name , in the same way that Dwight does . Dwight 's test to see if Phillip is his son has been compared to a similar scene in the 1997 film Kundun , in which Tibetan monks practice a similar ritual . To win over Kevin , Angela and Oscar pretend that baby Phillip presented him with an iTunes gift card . Darryl and the rest of the office dance to the song " Boogie Wonderland " by Earth , Wind , and Fire . The show Andy auditions for The Next Great A Cappella Sensation , is a parody of popular singing shows like American Idol , The Voice , and The Sing @-@ Off . The fictional show is hosted by Mark McGrath , the lead singer from the rock band Sugar Ray . The judges for the show include Aaron Rodgers , Clay Aiken , and Santigold . Rodgers is an American football quarterback for the Green Bay Packers , Aiken is a singer who gained prominence following the second season of American Idol in 2003 , and Santigold is an American singer , songwriter , and producer . Andy sings both the Cornell University alma mater ( " Far Above Cayuga 's Waters " ) , as well as " You 're Never Fully Dressed Without a Smile " from the musical Annie . The woman auditioning that he interrupts is Rachel Crow , who achieved fame after competing in season one of The X @-@ Factor .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" A.A.R.M. " originally aired on May 9 , 2013 on NBC . In its original American broadcast , " A.A.R.M. " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 56 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 3 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a significant increase , of almost one million viewers , in the ratings from the previous episode , " Livin ' the Dream " . It was also the most @-@ watched episode of The Office since the earlier ninth season episode " The Boat " , which had aired on November 8 , 2012 and was watched by 4 @.@ 83 million viewers . The episode ranked third in its half @-@ hour timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC drama Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 1 / 9 rating and an entry of the CBS series Person of Interest which scored a 2 @.@ 4 / 7 rating . The Office was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a positive review , and wrote that " as a quasi @-@ finale , ' A.A.R.M. ' was surprisingly [ … ] terrific in most areas . " He particularly enjoyed the interaction between Jim and Dwight , calling it " so much fun " ; he argued that the show would have probably fared better following Steve Carell 's departure had the power dynamic and relationship between Jim and Dwight that was explored in " A.A.R.M. " been established earlier in the eighth season . He concluded that " The best parts of ' A.A.R.M. ' felt like a fitting close to the non @-@ documentary @-@ viewing portion of the series . " M. Giant of Television Without Pity was pleased with the episode , and awarded it an " A " grade , the first for the series since " Goodbye , Michael " almost two seasons ago . Jenna Mullins of E ! Online wrote that the episode " was full of emotional moments that seemed like love letters to the fans who have watched the show since the pilot . " Mullins also praised the scenes between Jim and Pam , noting that " we collapsed in tears because the couple we 've been rooting for [ … ] can still find ways to make us cry . "
Nick Campbell of TV.com felt that the episode was " a decent if uneven penultimate episode that gave us one last look at this quirky group of people in their office environment " . He was largely happy with the return of the fun @-@ loving version of Jim , noting that " Pam mentioned that she loves ' Goofy Jim ' and I , [ sic ] have to admit , I love Goofy Jim myself " . Campbell felt that the episode dabbled in fan service , but that it was expected and needed for the show to have a successful ending . Roth Cornet of IGN awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , denoting a " great " episode . She wrote that " The interplay between Jim , Dwight , and Pam has been the core of the series since Michael Scott 's departure , and it was good to see the trio front and center once again as The Office comes to a close . " Furthermore , Cornet was happy with Dwight 's proposal and the dance party that signaled Darryl 's leaving , calling the latter " a slice of bliss " .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " B + " . He said that " what benefits ' AARM ' most [ … ] is a back @-@ to @-@ basics Jim @-@ and @-@ Dwight storyline " that illustrated the growth that the characters have experienced in the last nine years . He wrote that there were many tender moments in the episode , such as Dwight and Jim 's confrontation , Pam and Jim 's reaffirmation of love , and Dwight 's proposal to Angela . He concluded that " It ’ s that blend of new beginnings and closing circles that makes ' AARM ' an effective second @-@ to @-@ last chapter of The Office " . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , and wrote that the episode " didn 't disappoint " . He called " the scene in which Pam was watching the docu @-@ created montage just as Jim was giving Dwight love advice " the " most emotionally rewarding moment on The Office since Michael Scott 's goodbye . "
Many critics were extremely pleased with the call back to the teapot and Jim 's note from " Christmas Party " . Adams felt that the scene , before the reveal of the note , was properly executed , and that the note made it even better . Sepinwall called it " a fabulous payoff for longtime fans " . Cornet called the sequence " effective " . Rick Porter of Zap2it wrote that it was a " nice move " on the part of the writers for " not letting us know what Jim wrote on the card from ' Christmas Party ' [ because ] it has to be pretty epic . "
Conversely , most critics gave Andy 's plot a negative review . Sepinwall called the entire plot " godawfulness " . Campbell referred to it as " a mediocre story that stood in stark contrast to the emotional timbre of the rest of the episode " . Cornet called the scenes " just as disconnected from the core of the show as that character has for some time now . " Porter wrote that " the show never quite got a handle on what to do with the character this season " , and his subplot in " A.A.R.M. " was the culmination of this issue .
= Battle of San Patricio =
The Battle of San Patricio was fought on February 27 , 1836 between Mexican troops and rebellious immigrants to the Mexican province of Texas , known as Texians . The battle marked the start of the Goliad Campaign , the Mexican offensive to retake the Texas Gulf Coast . It took place in and around San Patricio .
By the end of 1835 , all Mexican troops had been driven from Texas . Frank W. Johnson , the commander of the volunteer army in Texas , and James Grant gathered volunteers for a planned invasion of the Mexican port town of Matamoros . After spending several weeks gathering horses for the Matamoros Expedition , in late February Johnson and about 40 men led the herd to San Patricio . Johnson assigned some of his troops to a ranch 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) outside town to guard the horses , while the rest of his men garrisoned in three different locations in town .
Unbeknownst to the Texians , on February 18 , Mexican General José de Urrea led a large contingent of troops from Matamoros into Texas . Their goal was to neutralize the Texian soldiers gathered along the coast . Urrea 's men easily followed the trail left by Johnson 's herd of horses . Mexican soldiers surprised the sleeping Texians in San Patricio in the early hours of February 27 . After a fifteen @-@ minute battle , all but six Texians had been killed or imprisoned . One Mexican soldier was killed and four injured .
= = Background = =
Under President Antonio López de Santa Anna , the Mexican government began to shift away from a federalist model to a more centralized government . His increasingly dictatorial policies , including the revocation of the Constitution of 1824 in early 1835 , incited federalists throughout the nation to revolt . The Mexican army quickly put down revolts in the Mexican interior , including a brutal suppression of militias in Oaxaca and Zacatecas . Unrest continued in the Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas . The area that bordered the United States , known as Texas , was populated primarily by English @-@ speaking settlers , known as Texians . In October , the Texians took up arms in what became known as the Texas Revolution . The following month , Texians declared themselves part of a state independent from Coahuila and created a provisional state government based on the principles of the Constitution of 1824 . By the end of the year , all Mexican troops had been expelled from Texas .
Leading federalists in Mexico advocated a plan to attack centralist troops in Matamoros . Members of the General Council , the interim Texas governing body , were enamored with the idea of a Matamoros Expedition . They hoped it would inspire other federalist states to revolt and keep the bored Texian troops from deserting the army . Most importantly , it would move the war zone outside Texas . The Council officially approved the plan on December 25 , and on December 30 Frank W. Johnson , the commander of the volunteer army , and his aide James Grant took the bulk of the army and almost all of the supplies to Goliad to prepare for the expedition .
Determined to quash the rebellion , Santa Anna began assembling a large force to restore order ; by the end of 1835 his army numbered 6 @,@ 019 soldiers . In late December , at his behest , the Mexican Congress passed the Tornel Decree , declaring that any foreigners fighting against Mexican troops " will be deemed pirates and dealt with as such , being citizens of no nation presently at war with the Republic and fighting under no recognized flag " . In the early nineteenth century , captured pirates were executed immediately . The resolution thus gave the Mexican Army permission to take no prisoners in the war against the Texians . Santa Anna personally led the bulk of his troops inland to San Antonio de Béxar and ordered General José de Urrea to lead 550 troops along the Atascocita Road toward Goliad . Urrea 's efforts to quell the rebellion along the Texas Gulf Coast have become known as the Goliad Campaign .
= = Prelude = =
The Texas provisional government had named Sam Houston the commander of a new regular army in Texas , but without authority over the volunteers who reported to Johnson . The provisional governor , Henry Smith , opposed the Matamoros Expedition and ordered Houston to find a way to disband it . In a rousing speech to the volunteers , Houston dissuaded the bulk of the men from continuing their mission . Many left the army . Others joined the troops stationed under Houston 's second @-@ in @-@ command , James Fannin , at Presidio La Bahia in Goliad . By the end of January 1836 , only 70 men remained with Johnson and Grant . Most of these volunteers were Americans or Europeans who had arrived in Texas after the Texas Revolution had commenced .
Urrea reached Matamoros on January 31 . A committed federalist himself , he soon convinced other federalists in the area that the Texians ' ultimate goal was secession and their attempt to spark a federalist revolt in Matamoros was just a method of diverting attention from themselves . Urrea 's force crossed into Texas on February 18 .
Meanwhile , Mexican double agents continued to assure Johnson and Grant that they would be able to take Matamoros easily . Despite hearing rumors that the Mexican army was approaching , Grant and Johnson chose to take their men south of the Nueces River , into territory belonging to the state of Tamaulipas , to search for horses to buy , steal , or otherwise gather . About February 21 , Johnson and part of the group began herding about 100 horses back into Texas . The rest of the men remained with Grant , ostensibly to look for more horses . In actuality , he was attempting to rendezvous with his allies near Matamoros to determine whether federalists were still willing to rise up against the Mexican army .
Johnson 's men arrived on February 24 in San Patricio , an Irish settlement about 100 miles ( 160 km ) north of Matamoros . Many of the San Patricio residents were centralists , loyal to the Mexican government . Johnson sent twelve men to guard the horses at the ranch of Julian de la Garza , approximately 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) outside the town , while the rest garrisoned in San Patricio . The weather was frigid , and the men 's clothes were threadbare . Confident that Grant would alert him if Mexican troops were in the area , Johnson chose not to appoint sentries , instead allowing all of the men to take shelter .
The Mexican troops easily followed the trail left by Johnson 's herd . On February 25 , Urrea led 100 dragoons and 100 infantry to corner the Texians . By 10 p.m. , scouts reported that Texian troops were established in San Patricio . The Mexican soldiers continued marching through the cold night ; six of the troops died of exposure .
= = Battle = =
Urrea instructed three officers to go to San Patricio dressed as civilians and warn the centralists that the Mexican army was approaching . In an effort to reduce casualties and property damage , centralists were asked to declare their loyalties by leaving lanterns burning in their windows . Locals also gave the officers precise information on which buildings housed Texian soldiers . Urrea sent 30 men under Captain Rafael Pretalia to de la Garza 's ranch to surprise the Texians camped there . At 3 : 30 a.m. on February 26 , the remaining Mexican soldiers entered San Patricio .
One group of Texians surrendered immediately when they awoke to find themselves surrounded by Mexican troops . When another party of Texians was asked to surrender , they instead opened fire , killing a Mexican officer and wounding two other soldiers . Determined to prevent more casualties , Mexican dragoons prepared to set the house on fire to force the Texians out . At this point , several Texians called that they were surrendering . As they left the house , they were shot or lanced .
By chance , Johnson and three of his men , Lieutenant Daniel Toler and Sergeants Love and Miller , were still awake and discussing tactics . Mexican troops had been told that the house where Johnson was quartered was one of their targets , yet a lamp burned in the window , signalling that this was the home of a loyalist . Out of an abundance of caution , a group of troops knocked on the door . Before the Texians could open the door , they heard the gunfire from the town square . Toler looked out a window and saw uniformed troops on the porch . Without opening the door , he told the soldiers , in Spanish , that there were no troops there , but he would open the door momentarily . The fighting moved into the street , and soldiers who had been guarding the back door of the house rushed around to the front . Johnson , Toler , Love , and Miller dashed out the back door and escaped .
At the de la Garza ranch , the Texians had been taking turns standing sentry . In the cold , all of the sentries had fallen asleep . Pretalia 's soldiers opened fire on the sleeping men , injuring two Texians . In the subsequent fight , four Texians died , eight men ( three Americans and five Tejanos , Mexican @-@ born citizens ) were taken prisoner , and several escaped .
The fighting ended within fifteen minutes .
= = Aftermath = =
Six Texians escaped , including Johnson , Toler , Miller , Love , and John F. Beck . They made their way on foot to Refugio , where they sent a messenger to Fannin at Goliad , 75 miles ( 121 km ) north , to let him know that Urrea 's army was close . The survivors reached Goliad on February 29 . After filling out an official report on the battle , Johnson , Toler , and Love left the army and went to San Felipe . The remaining survivors joined Fannin 's troops and were later killed in the Goliad Massacre .
Eleven Texians were killed outright , five suffered mortal wounds , and 21 others were taken prisoner . Six local men were also arrested for aiding the rebellion . Some historians report that most were executed immediately in the town square . According to reports by Johnson and another Texian , Urrea questioned several of the prisoners , and there were reports that the men were tortured . Within 72 hours all of the prisoners were dead . One Mexican soldier was killed and four were wounded .
Urrea 's official records state that the battle was fought at Fort Lipantitlán , on the other side of the Nueces River . Texian accounts are consistent that the fighting occurred in town and at the de la Garza ranch . While Urrea waited for reinforcements before beginning his march towards Goliad , his advance party searched for Grant and the remaining Texians . After learning of Grant 's whereabouts from local spies , on March 2 Mexican dragoons ambushed the Texians at Agua Dulce Creek .
= M @-@ 102 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 102 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs along the northern boundary of Detroit following 8 Mile Road . The highway follows the Michigan Baseline , a part of the land survey of the state , and the roadway is also called Base Line Road in places . As a county road or city street , 8 Mile Road extends both east and west of the M @-@ 102 designation , which leaves 8 Mile on the eastern end to follow Vernier Road . The western terminus of M @-@ 102 is at the junction of 8 Mile Road and M @-@ 5 ( Grand River Avenue ) and the opposite end is at Vernier Road and Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . The 8 Mile Road name extends west to Pontiac Trail near South Lyon with a discontinuous segment located west of US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) . The eastern end of 8 Mile Road is in Grosse Pointe Woods near I @-@ 94 .
The highway was first designated in the late 1920s , connecting US Highway 10 ( US 10 , Woodward Avenue , now M @-@ 1 ) with US 25 ( Gratiot Avenue , now M @-@ 3 ) . Extensions to the highway designation moved the termini in the 1930s and 1940s east to M @-@ 29 ( Jefferson Avenue ) and US 16 ( Grand River Avenue , now M @-@ 5 ) . A change in the 1960s added a section of north – south roadway to the eastern end of M @-@ 102 ; that change was reversed within about a year . A western extension along Grand River Avenue in 1977 was reversed in 1994 , and M @-@ 102 has remained the same since .
8 Mile Road has carried major cultural significance ; since the mid @-@ 20th century , as the city demographics have changed , it has served as a physical and cultural dividing line between the wealthier , predominantly white northern suburbs of Detroit and the poorer , predominantly black city . The racial patterns have changed , as more middle @-@ class African Americans have also moved north of 8 Mile , but the socioeconomic divide between the city and suburbs remains .
= = Route description = =
Starting at an intersection with Hamburg Road along the Livingston – Washtenaw county line , 8 Mile Road runs eastward to an interchange with US 23 near Whitmore Lake . There is a gap before 8 Mile Road resumes at Pontiac Trail along the Oakland – Washtenaw county line . Near the suburb of Northville , the road curves northward into Oakland County , and Base Line Road follows the county line for about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . The road meets I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 at that freeway 's exit 167 along the border between Livonia and Farmington Hills . As its name implies , 8 Mile Road runs east – west eight miles ( 13 km ) north of the origin of the Mile Road System at Michigan and Woodward avenues .
M @-@ 102 starts at the intersection between M @-@ 5 ( Grand River Avenue ) and 8 Mile Road and runs eastward along 8 Mile Road . The highway widens out into a boulevard setup with each direction divided by a central median . Motorists that want to make a left turn along 8 Mile Road have to perform a Michigan left to do so . Starting at the Inkster Road intersection , M @-@ 102 forms the boundary between Redford to the south and Southfield to the north . East of Five Points Road , the 8 Mile follows the northern city limits of Detroit . On either side of 8 Mile Road , the area is filled with residential neighborhoods of the two cities with commercial businesses immediately adjacent to the highway . About two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of its starting point , M @-@ 102 intersects US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) at a cloverleaf interchange near Frisbee @-@ Pembroke Park and Plum Hollow Country Club . Along the length of the eight @-@ lane highway , there are large power line towers in the median .
Continuing east , M @-@ 102 intersects M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) and M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) south of the Southfield campus of Oakland Community College and the Northland Center Mall . As the highway approaches M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) , there are a pair of service drives that split from the main roadway in each direction to provide access through the interchange with M @-@ 1 . The main lanes of M @-@ 102 pass under M @-@ 1 and its ramp connections before the service drives merge back in on the other side . This interchange is located adjacent to the Michigan State Fairgrounds , former site of the now @-@ defunct Michigan State Fair , and Woodlawn Cemetery . East of the fairgrounds , the highway crosses a line of the Canadian National Railway that also carries Amtrak passenger traffic ; the line is south of a rail terminal in Ferndale . Further east , M @-@ 102 meets I @-@ 75 before intersecting Dequindre Road . Dequindre is the boundary between Oakland and Macomb counties .
Now following the Wayne – Macomb county line , M @-@ 102 separates Warren from Detroit . The highway also runs parallel to , and about a half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of Outer Drive , the original beltway highway proposed in 1918 to encircle Detroit . The road passes the Mound Road Engine facility , a former Chrysler plant next to the Mound Road intersection . East of the plant , the highway crosses a branch line of the Conrail Shared Assets Operations on the east side of the plant complex before intersecting M @-@ 53 ( Van Dyke Road ) . Further east , 8 Mile Road passes north of the Bel Air Center Shopping Center before crossing another Canadian National Railway line next to the intersection with M @-@ 97 ( Groesbeck Highway ) .
On the far east side of Detroit , M @-@ 102 separates the city from the suburb of Eastpointe once near the intersection with M @-@ 3 ( Gratiot Avenue ) . Near Kelly Road and the Eastland Center , the highway turns southeasterly along Vernier Road to enter Harper Woods in Wayne County ; 8 Mile Road continues due eastward along the county line in this suburb as a four @-@ lane undivided urban arterial street . The eastern terminus of M @-@ 102 is at the interchange between Vernier Road and I @-@ 94 about 1 @,@ 700 feet ( 520 m ) south of 8 Mile Road near the boundary with Grosse Pointe Woods .
= = History = =
M @-@ 102 was first designated along 8 Mile Road from US 10 ( Woodward Avenue , now M @-@ 1 ) to US 25 ( Gratiot Avenue , now M @-@ 3 ) in late 1928 or early 1929 . In 1939 , the eastern terminus was moved as M @-@ 102 was extended along 8 Mile and Vernier Roads to end in Grosse Pointe Shores at M @-@ 29
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final single .
= = Composition = =
" Keep It Together " is a pop and funk song with an upbeat rhythm and groove . It was produced by Madonna and Bray , and features Paulinho da Costa on percussion , brass playing by David Boruff and Steven Madaio , Bill Bottrell as the audio engineer and guitars by Chester Kamen . Despite not on the album 's credits , Prince also played guitar on the song according to Madonna .
According to Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine , the song is influenced by the Sly and the Family Stone track " Family Affair " ( 1971 ) . It starts as the sound of slap bass plays along with sequenced synth bass , as Madonna sings the opening lines , " Keep , keep it together , keep people together forever and ever " . As the first verse starts , a guitar comes into play with Madonna 's voice being backed by percussion and banjo . After the second chorus comes near the end , Madonna utters the line " Brothers and sisters , They hold the key , To your heart and your soul , Don 't forget that your family is gold " , the percussion sound is thinned out and a mixture of the sound from a live drummer and conga comes into the picture . The song ends with the main groove sound gradually fading out .
According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , although " Keep It Together " sonically pays tribute to Sly and the Family Stone , the lyrics talk about the realization of how important Madonna 's family has been as a form of stability in her life , especially in the line " Brothers and sisters , They 've always been there for me , We have a connection , Home is where the heart should be " . The lyrics follow the course of Madonna 's rise from figuratively being a " hungry sibling " ( " I 'm gonna leave this place , So I can forget every single hungry face " ) to being a superstar ( " I hit the big time but I still get the blues , Everyone 's a stranger , City life can get to you " ) .
= = Critical reception = =
" Keep It Together " received mixed reviews from critics . Mark C. Taylor , author of Nots : Religion and Postmodernism , felt that " Keep It Together " was a " striking instance of her repeated invocation of family values " . He believed that Madonna 's fascination for family was reflected in the song . Carol Benz , one of the authors of The Madonna Connection , believed that the song was successful in asserting the necessity of family ties . J. Randy Taraborrelli , author of Madonna : An Intimate Biography described the track as " an uptempo romp about the trials and tribulations , and the joys of having a family . " Martha Bayles , author of Hole In Our Soul , felt that " Keep It Together " failed to become an anthem for emotional commitment , because of the funk nature of the song . Madonna , Unauthorized 's writer Christopher Anderson proclaimed the track as a worthy number @-@ one single , and complimented the song 's theme of allegiance to one 's family , despite the turmoil and dissensions that occur . Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , described it as an " upbeat meditation on sibling power " and believed that the purpose behind the song was to present a homey image of brothers and sisters happy and together , and Madonna 's need to restore bonds and relationships that had become fraught or distant in her life then . Hadley Freeman from The Guardian described " Keep It Together " as " amazing , purely for being Madonna 's take on Sister Sledge 's ' We Are Family ' , a concept no one foresaw , and the fact that she later disowned various members of her family gives it , shall we say , an interesting tinge of irony . "
USA Today 's Edna Gunderson wrote that " Keep It Together " evoked an " R & B groove " that was successful in adding more variation to Like a Prayer . Conversely , Ian Blair of the Chicago Tribune thought that the different funk tempo of the song distracted from the emotional quotient of the album . Blair added that the song " hits a groove that is one of the funkiest things Madonna has ever done . " Scott Benarde from The Palm Beach Post listed the song as one of the album 's " downpour " moments . Writing for The Jerusalem Post , Andy Goldberg from the newspaper listed the song as one of the highlights of the album , and complimented the family oriented lyrics . Bruce Britt from Boca Raton News believed that " Keep It Together " was one of the songs from the album , that exemplified the personal approach to songwriting by Madonna .
Spin 's Joe Levy named the song the only " great " dance record on Like a Prayer , and also observed that " Keep It Together " was a " girly @-@ disco " song that drew influences from Sister Sledge 's " We Are Family " and Madonna 's own " Into the Groove " . Stephen Holden from The New York Times believed that the song brought the pop @-@ funk style and hippie happiness of Sly and the Family Stone . Journalist J. D. Considine , while reviewing Like a Prayer for Rolling Stone , felt that " Keep It Together " portrayed " an impressive invocation of the importance of family " . Considine was concerned that since the confessional nature of the songs on Like a Prayer evoked strong emotions from the listener , " Keep It Together " would probably seem almost trivial by comparison to them . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic believed that the song constituted of deep funk music . Louis Virtel of The Backlot gave the song a positive review , calling it a " rollicking family reunion " that is the " sunny side of “ Oh Father ’ s ” grim familial reckoning . " Kenneth Partridge from Billboard described the song as a mid @-@ tempo synth @-@ funk tune with a " tense " groove , on which Madonna offers an olive branch to her estranged father and siblings .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Keep It Together " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 56 , on the issue dated February 3 , 1990 . The next week , " Keep It Together " jumped to number 41 , becoming one of the greatest gaining songs . It eventually peaked at number eight on the Hot 100 , on the issue dated March 31 , 1990 . During the next few weeks , the song fell quickly from its peak as Madonna 's next single , " Vogue " , began to get massive radio airplay . Its final appearance on the Hot 100 was at number 83 on the issue dated April 28 , 1990 . " Keep It Together " topped the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart , and peaked at number 66 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Three months since its release , it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Canada , the song debuted at number 85 on the RPM Singles Chart on February 10 , 1990 , and after eight weeks , it peaked at number eight . " Keep It Together " was present on the chart for 15 weeks and placed at number 86 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1990 .
In Australia , " Keep It Together " charted on the ARIA Singles Chart along with " Vogue " . It debuted on the chart at number 19 and reached the top the next week , remaining there for five consecutive weeks . The song was present for a total of 35 weeks on the chart and reached number three on the Australian Year @-@ end chart for 1990 . It was certified double @-@ platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of 140 @,@ 000 copies of the single . After its release in Japan , " Keep It Together " appeared for two weeks on the Oricon Singles Chart , and reached number five . The single was not released in the United Kingdom , where " Dear Jessie " was the final single from Like a Prayer instead .
= = Live performance = =
Madonna has performed the song only on her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour , where it was the closing song of the set list . The staging of the performances was inspired by the 1971 science fiction film , A Clockwork Orange . The shows featured an introductory verse from " Family Affair " by Sly and the Family Stone . Madonna wore an all @-@ black ensemble involving a cage vest , the longline bra , skintight shorts , knee @-@ pads and a bowler hat . Her getup was a nod to actress Liza Minnelli in the film Cabaret . The performance started with her dancers appearing on the stage , with chairs on their back . Madonna appeared in their middle and started doing push @-@ ups on the stage . She started singing " Family Affair " , then mid @-@ way through the song , changed to " Keep It Together " . During the intermediate music , Madonna and her dancers performed an intricate choreography with the chairs . At the end , all the musicians , dancers and collaborators came to say good @-@ bye to Madonna . The singer was left alone on stage to finish with a powerful repeat of her line " Keep people together forever and ever " .
In an interview with Stephen Holden from The New York Times , Madonna explained the significance of the performance : " Finally , right when you think I 'll end [ the concert ] on a happy note , I come out with my family to do a Bob Fosse @-@ meets- ' Clockwork Orange ' rendition of ' Keep It Together ' . It 's the show 's ultimate statement about the family , because we 're absolutely brutalizing with each other , while there 's also no mistaking that we love each other deeply . " Author Lynne Layton complimented the performance , saying that " as in her double attitude to materialism , femininity , and everything else , what marks the performance is not that Madonna is in control , but that she is open about the pros and cons of family life and obviously echoes the experience of many . " Her thoughts were shared by John LeLand from Newsday , who complimented the aerobics performed onstage by Madonna and her dancers . Conversely , author Allen Metz commented that although the performance was tightly choreographed , the overall feel was marred due to the song 's own " shortcomings " . Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune felt that the addition of lines from " Family Affair " underlined the " home @-@ is @-@ where @-@ the @-@ heart @-@ is " theme of " Keep It Together " . Louis Virtel from The Backlot praised the performance of the song , stating that it served as the " perfect concluding performance . " Two different performances were recorded and released on video : the Blond Ambition – Japan Tour 90 , filmed in Yokohama , Japan , on April 27 , 1990 , and the Blond Ambition World Tour Live , filmed in Nice , France , on August 5 , 1990 . It was also shown on the HBO special titled Madonna Live ! – Blond Ambition World Tour , and was added in her 1991 documentary , Truth or Dare .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – songwriter , producer , vocals
Stephen Bray – songwriter , producer
Paulinho da Costa – percussion
David Boruff – brass , strings
Steven Madaio – brass
Bill Bottrell – audio engineer , mixing
Chester Kamen – guitars
Credits and personnel adapted from Like a Prayer album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Give Me Your Eyes =
" Give Me Your Eyes " is a song by contemporary Christian musician Brandon Heath from his second album , What If We . It was released in July 2008 as the album 's lead single and quickly gained success . It sold nearly 6 @,@ 000 downloads in the first week , and became 2008 's highest @-@ debuting Christian track at the time . It soon placed at No. 1 on Christian radio charts , and held the position for multiple consecutive weeks . At the end of 2008 , it was the second most @-@ played song of the year on Christian contemporary hit radio .
The song is about wanting to see the world as God would , and having a desire to view people with more compassion . " Give Me Your Eyes " was written by Heath and songwriter Jason Ingram , and was generally well received by critics . The song received two GMA Dove Awards in April 2009 , including the Song of the Year title . It was also Grammy Award @-@ nominated in the Best Gospel Song category for 2009 .
= = Background = =
The song 's meaning originated with a discussion between Brandon Heath and friend and songwriter Jason Ingram . " We had a conversation over Chinese food that we wished we could have God ’ s perspective on things " , Heath said . " If we did have His perspective , we 'd wish we could have it for long periods of time , rather than just for a few seconds . That was the beginning . " He soon began to pen a song about the idea , co @-@ writing " Give Me Your Eyes " with Ingram . Prior to recording What If We , Heath had written 40 possible tracks for the album , and although the song was not his top favorite , he noted that " Give Me Your Eyes " was " one of the first that really stuck out . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
The song 's genre is represented by pop , and includes acoustic and mild hip hop influences . It is a mid @-@ tempo song based upon a strummed acoustic guitar , background piano , and occasional strings . The song 's continuous clap @-@ sounding beat was described as a " hip @-@ hop shuffle " , drawing comparisons to Christian musician Mat Kearney .
Lyrically , the song is about a desire to view people as God would , and was " inspired by people @-@ watching at an airport " . Heath has said , " [ it 's ] a song about my own convictions for wanting to see the world with compassionate eyes . "
= = Release = =
" Give Me Your Eyes " was digitally released as the lead single from What If We on July 23 , 2008 . Upon its release , the single was commercially successful and soon began to place on Christian radio charts . It made nearly 6 @,@ 000 downloads in the first week , which was the highest @-@ debuting Christian track of 2008 at the time . By the second week , another 6 @,@ 700 copies were sold . It placed at No. 1 on Billboard 's Hot Christian Songs chart beginning in September , and spent an end total of 14 consecutive weeks at the top by December . It also held the No. 1 position on the Radio & Records ( R & R ) Christian CHR chart for 13 consecutive weeks from the last week of August through the start of December . For the week of November 1 , 2008 , " Give Me Your Eyes " debuted on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at No. 22 , which is equivalent to placing at No. 122 on the Hot 100 .
By mid @-@ September , it had sold 70 @,@ 000 digital downloads . The song placed at No. 1 on the iTunes top Christian songs chart and held the position from July through February for seven consecutive months , receiving 100 @,@ 000 downloads on iTunes by late October . It ended 2008 as the second most @-@ played song on R & R 's Christian CHR format ; the song also placed at No. 9 for the year 's top @-@ played Christian AC songs .
= = Compilation = =
This song was also by the appearances by the compilation album WOW Hits 2009 and Now That 's What I Call Faith .
= = Reception = =
The song was generally received well by critics . The New York Times highlighted Heath 's Grammy Award @-@ nominated What If We album as one of the best Grammy nominees in Christian music that year , saying ; " Mr. Heath 's sense of wonder is firmly intact — ' Give Me Your Eyes , ' which is nominated for best gospel song , is a breezy statement of humble devotion . " The song was featured on USA Today 's top ten " pick of the week " playlist in the beginning of March 2009 ; the magazine 's editor and music critic Brian Mansfield said , " Grammy and Dove Award nominations are attracting a second look for Heath 's song about seeing life 's big picture . " Jesus Freak Hideout 's Matthew Watson said of Heath 's future music efforts : " it could be really outstanding if he sticks to more upbeat songs like ' Give Me Your Eyes ' . "
The song was Grammy Award @-@ nominated in the Best Gospel Song category for the 51st Grammy Awards of 2009 . It received two awards at the 40th GMA Dove Awards in April 2009 : Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Song of the Year . On January 30 , 2010 , the song won an Emmy for the Nashville Rescue Mission : Hunger to Hope public service announcement campaign from the Midsouth Chapter of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences .
= = Music video = =
A music video for " Give Me Your Eyes " was filmed over the night of July 23 – 24 , 2008 at the Birmingham @-@ Shuttlesworth International Airport in Birmingham , Alabama after most flights had landed for the night . It was directed by the Erwin Brothers and premiered on the Gospel Music Channel on August 23 , 2008 . The video is mainly set in an airport as Brandon Heath walks among people , with interspersed shots of Heath sitting on steps and singing . The scenes of Heath sitting on stairs and in a chair were filmed in the older 1962 Birmingham Air Terminal which is adjacent to the current terminal and no longer used for passenger traffic . In the bridge of the song , a portion of the video is played backwards as he sings the lines " I want a second glance / So give me a second chance / To see the way You see the people all alone " . In the last chorus , a few of the previous scenes are replayed as Heath now helps with people 's individual situations . In one of the early shots , a woman steps in front of an approaching car ; it is replayed as Heath intervenes and stops her from being hit by the car . The video 's airport scene included about 100 extras .
= = Charts = =
= Hammerton 's Ferry =
Hammerton 's Ferry is a pedestrian and cycle ferry service across the River Thames in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames , London , England . The ferry links the northern bank near Marble Hill House in Twickenham with the southern bank near Ham House in Ham . It is one of only four remaining ferry routes in London not to be replaced by a bridge or tunnel .
= = Historical background = =
Although ferries ( and later bridges ) had crossed the river to the east at Richmond since 1459 and to the west at Eel Pie Island since at least 1652 the lands to the south of the river at this point had historically been privately held by the Tollemache family ( owners of Ham House ) and off limits to the public . Consequently , despite the distance from the nearest crossings there was little demand for cross @-@ river services at this location . Additionally , the Tollemache family had licensing rights for the Twickenham Ferry at Eel Pie Island ( sometimes known as Dysart 's ferry after the family ) , and consequently had little interest in promoting a competing service . The Twickenham Ferry is a setting for some action in Little Dorritt by Charles Dickens .
= = Walter Hammerton = =
In 1901 Marble Hill House on the north bank of the Thames and the surrounding park were purchased for public use and in 1902 the footpath on the southern bank near Ham House became a public right of way by Act of Parliament resulting in increased passenger traffic in the area . In 1908 local resident Walter Hammerton began hiring out boats to leisure users from a boathouse opposite Marble Hill House , and in 1909 began to operate a regular ferry service across the river at this point using a 12 @-@ passenger clinker @-@ built skiff , charging 1d per journey .
= = = Legal challenge = = =
In 1913 William Champion , and Lord Dysart , operators of the nearby Twickenham Ferry , took legal action against Hammerton to remove his right to operate the ferry . Although Hammerton won the initial case , the judgement was reversed on appeal . Following considerable public interest in the case , a public subscription raised the funds for Hammerton to take the case to the House of Lords , who ruled in his favour on 23 July 1915 .
The legal case resulted in considerable publicity for Hammerton , culminating in the release of the song " The Ferry to Fairyland " celebrating the case . ( " Fairyland " , in this case , referring to Marble Hill House , recently purchased by the London County Council for public enjoyment . )
In 1947 Hammerton retired after 38 years of operating the ferry , leaving the ferry and boathouse to Sandy Scott .
= = Current operation = =
The ferry is currently owned by Francis Spencer and operated by Stan Rust . The current ferry , Peace of Mind , was designed and built by Thanetcraft Limited in South Wales in 1997 . Hammerton 's original skiff is now on display at the Museum in Docklands .
The ferry currently operates between a floating boathouse on the north bank of the Thames and a rudimentary jetty on the south bank . The boathouse is also in use as a private mooring for leisure craft . The ferry operates on all weekends , and weekdays between February and October . As well as the ferry service , rowboats , canoes and motorboats can also be hired from the boathouse .
In July 2007 the ferry briefly made headlines when owner Francis Spencer saved from drowning a woman found floating in the Thames . After the rescue , the woman left the scene and was never identified .
A local tradition holds that a tunnel connects Ham House and Marble Hill House , paralleling the route of the ferry . However , there is no evidence that this is the case .
The ferry marks the starting point of the Great River Race and is on the course of the Twickenham Regatta . As the ferry has right @-@ of @-@ way over rowed craft , the races have to be carefully timed to ensure that the ferry does not interfere with their running .
= = Image gallery = =
= Nominal impedance =
Nominal impedance in electrical engineering and audio engineering refers to the approximate designed impedance of an electrical circuit or device . The term is applied in a number of different fields , most often being encountered in respect of :
The nominal value of the characteristic impedance of a cable or other form of transmission line .
The nominal value of the input , output or image impedance of a port of a network , especially a network intended for use with a transmission line , such as filters , equalisers and amplifiers .
The nominal value of the input impedance of a radio frequency antenna
The actual impedance may vary quite considerably from the nominal figure with changes in frequency . In the case of cables and other transmission lines , there is also variation along the length of the cable , if it is not properly terminated .
It is usual practice to speak of nominal impedance as if it were a constant resistance , that is , it is invariant with frequency and has a zero reactive component , despite this often being far from the case . Depending on the field of application , nominal impedance is implicitly referring to a specific point on the frequency response of the circuit under consideration . This may be at low @-@ frequency , mid @-@ band or some other point and specific applications are discussed in the sections below .
In most applications , there are a number of values of nominal impedance that are recognised as being standard . The nominal impedance of a component or circuit is often assigned one of these standard values , regardless of whether the measured impedance exactly corresponds to it . The item is assigned the nearest standard value .
= = 600 Ω = =
Nominal impedance first started to be specified in the early days of telecommunications . At first amplifiers were not available and when they did become available they were expensive . It was consequently necessary to achieve maximum power transfer from the cable at the receiving end in order to maximise the lengths of cables that could be installed . It also became apparent that reflections on the transmission line would severely limit the bandwidth that could be used or the distance that it was practicable to transmit . Matching equipment impedance to the characteristic impedance of the cable reduces reflections ( and they are eliminated altogether if the match is perfect ) and power transfer is maximised . To this end , all cables and equipment started to be specified to a standard nominal impedance . The earliest , and still the most widespread , standard is 600 Ω , originally used for telephony . It has to be said that the choice of this figure had more to do with the way telephones were interfaced into the local exchange than any characteristic of the local telephone cable . Telephones ( old style analogue telephones ) connect to the exchange through twisted pair cabling . Each leg of the pair is connected to a relay coil which detect the signalling on the line ( dialling , handset off @-@ hook etc . ) . The other end of one coil is connected to a supply voltage and the second coil is connected to ground . A telephone exchange relay coil is around 300 Ω so the two of them together are terminating the line in 600 Ω .
The wiring to the subscriber in telephone networks is generally done in twisted pair cable . Its impedance at audio frequencies , and especially at the more restricted telephone band frequencies , is far from constant . It is possible to manufacture this kind of cable to have a 600 Ω characteristic impedance but it will only be this value at one specific frequency . This might be quoted as a nominal 600 Ω impedance at 800 Hz or 1 kHz . Below this frequency the characteristic impedance rapidly rises and becomes more and more dominated by the ohmic resistance of the cable as the frequency falls . At the bottom of the audio band the impedance can be several tens of kilohms . On the other hand , at high frequency in the MHz region , the characteristic impedance flattens out to something almost constant . The reason for this response is explained at primary line constants .
Local area networks ( LANs ) commonly use a similar kind of twisted pair cable , but screened and manufactured to tighter tolerances than is necessary for telephony . Even though it has a very similar impedance to telephone cable , the nominal impedance is rated at 100 Ω . This is because the LAN data is in a higher frequency band where the characteristic impedance is substantially flat and mostly resistive .
Standardisation of line nominal impedance led to two @-@ port networks such as filters being designed to a matching nominal impedance . The nominal impedance of low @-@ pass symmetrical T- or Pi @-@ filter sections ( or more generally , image filter sections ) is defined as the limit of the filter image impedance as the frequency approaches zero and is given by ,
<formula>
where L and C are as defined in constant k filter . As can be seen from the expression , this impedance is purely resistive . This filter transformed to a band @-@ pass filter will have an impedance equal to the nominal impedance at resonance rather than low frequency . This nominal impedance of filters will generally be the same as the nominal impedance of the circuit or cable that the filter is working into .
While 600 Ω is an almost universal standard in telephony for local presentation at customer 's premises from the exchange , for long distance transmission on trunk lines between exchanges other standard nominal impedances are used and are usually lower , such as 150 Ω .
= = 50 Ω and 75 Ω = =
In the field of radio frequency ( RF ) and microwave engineering , by far and away the most common transmission line standard is 50 Ω coaxial cable ( coax ) , which is an unbalanced line . 50 Ω first arose as a nominal impedance during world war two work on radar and is a compromise between two requirements . This standard was the work of the wartime US joint Army @-@ Navy RF Cable Coordinating Committee . The first requirement is for minimum loss . The loss of coaxial cable is given by ,
<formula> nepers / metre
where R is the loop resistance per metre and Z0 is the characteristic impedance . Making the diameter of the inner conductor larger will decrease R and decreasing R decreases the loss . On the other hand , Z0 depends on the ratio of the diameters of outer and inner conductors ( Dr ) and will decrease with increasing inner conductor diameter thus increasing the loss . There is a specific value of Dr for which the loss is a minimum and this turns out to be 3 @.@ 6 . For an air dielectric coax this corresponds to a characteristic impedance of 77 Ω . The coax produced during the war was rigid air @-@ insulated pipe , and this remained the case for some time afterwards . The second requirement is for maximum power handling and was an important requirement for radar . This is not the same condition as minimum loss because power handling is usually limited by the breakdown voltage of the dielectric . However , there is a similar compromise in terms of the ratio of conductor diameters . Making the inner conductor too large results in a thin insulator which breaks down at a lower voltage . On the other hand , making the inner conductor too small results in higher electric field strength near the inner conductor ( because the field lines are closer together on the smaller circumference ) and again reduces the breakdown voltage . The ideal ratio , Dr , for maximum power handling turns out to be 1 @.@ 65 and corresponds to a characteristic impedance of 30 Ω in air . The 50 Ω impedance is the geometric mean of these two figures ;
<formula>
and then rounding to a convenient whole number .
Wartime production of coax , and for a period afterwards , tended to use standard plumbing pipe sizes for the outer conductor and standard AWG sizes for the inner conductor . This resulted in coax that was nearly , but not quite , 50 Ω . Matching is a much more critical requirement at RF than it is at voice frequencies , so when cable started to become available that was truly 50 Ω a need arose for matching circuits to interface between the new cables and legacy equipment , such as the rather strange 51 @.@ 5 Ω to 50 Ω matching network .
While 30 Ω cable is highly desirable for its power handling capabilities , it has never been in commercial production because the large size of inner conductor makes it difficult to manufacture . This is not the case with 77 Ω cable . Cable with 75 Ω nominal impedance has been in use from an early period in telecommunications for its low loss characteristic . According to Stephen Lampen of Belden Wire & Cable 75 Ω was chosen as the nominal impedance rather than 77 Ω because it corresponded to a standard AWG wire size for the inner conductor . For coax video cables and interfaces 75 Ω is now the near universal standard nominal impedance .
= = Radio antennae = =
The widespread idea that 50 Ω and 75 Ω cable nominal impedances arose in connection with the input impedance of various antennae is a myth . It is true , however , that several common antennae are easily matched to cables with these nominal impedances . A quarter wavelength monopole in free space has an impedance of 36 @.@ 5 Ω , and a half wavelength dipole in free space has an impedance of 72 Ω . A half @-@ wavelength folded dipole , commonly seen on television antennae , on the other hand , has a 288 Ω impedance – four times that of a straight @-@ line dipole . The ½ λ dipole and the ½ λ folded dipole are commonly taken as having nominal impedances of 75 Ω and 300 Ω , respectively .
An installed antenna ’ s feed @-@ point impedance varies above and below the quoted value , depending on its installation height above the ground and the electrical properties of the surrounding earth .
= = Cable quality = =
One measure of cable manufacturing and installation quality is how closely the characteristic impedance adheres to the nominal impedance along its length . Impedance changes can be caused by variations in geometry along the cable length . In turn , these can be caused by a faulty manufacturing process or by faulty installation ( such as not observing limits on bend radii ) . Unfortunately , there is no easy , non @-@ destructive method of directly measuring impedance along a cable 's length . It can , however , be indicated indirectly by measuring reflections , that is , return loss . Return loss by itself does not reveal much , since the cable design will have some intrinsic return loss anyway due to not having a purely resistive characteristic impedance . The technique used is to carefully adjust the cable termination to obtain as close a match as possible and then to measure the variation of return loss with frequency . The minimum return loss so measured is called the structural return loss ( SRL ) . SRL is a measure of a cables ' adherence to its nominal impedance but it is not a direct correspondence , errors further from the generator have less effect on SRL than those close to it . The measurement must also be carried out at all in @-@ band frequencies to be significant . The reason for this is that equally spaced errors introduced by the manufacturing process will cancel and be invisible , or at least much reduced , at certain frequencies due to quarter wave impedance transformer action .
= = Audio systems = =
For the most part , audio systems both professional and domestic , have their components interconnected with low impedance outputs connected to high impedance inputs . These impedances are poorly defined and nominal impedances are not usually assigned for this kind of connection . The exact impedances make little difference to performance as long as the latter is many times larger than the former . This is a common interconnection scheme , not just for audio , but for electronic units in general which form part of a larger equipment or are only connected over a short distance . Where audio needs to be transmitted over large distances , which is often the case in broadcast engineering , considerations of matching and reflections dictate that a telecommunications standard is used , which would normally mean using 600 Ω nominal impedance ( although other standards are sometimes encountered , such as sending at 75 Ω and receiving at 600 Ω which has bandwidth advantages ) . The nominal impedance of the transmission line and of the amplifiers and equalisers in the transmission chain will all be the same value .
Nominal impedance is used , however , to characterise the transducers of an audio system , such as its microphones and loudspeakers . It is important that these are connected to a circuit capable of dealing with impedances in the appropriate range and assigning a nominal impedance is a convenient way of quickly determining likely incompatibilities . Loudspeakers and microphones are dealt with in separate sections below .
= = = Loudspeakers = = =
Loudspeaker impedances are kept relatively low compared with other audio components so that the required audio power can be transmitted without using inconveniently ( and dangerously ) high voltages . The most common nominal impedance for loudspeakers is 8 Ω . Also used are 4 Ω and 16 Ω . The once common 16 Ω is now mostly reserved for high frequency compression drivers since the high frequency end of the audio spectrum does not usually require so much power to reproduce .
The impedance of a loudspeaker is not constant across all frequencies . In a typical loudspeaker the impedance will rise with increasing frequency from its DC value , as shown in the diagram , until it reaches a point of its mechanical resonance . Following resonance , the impedance falls to a minimum and then begins to rise again . Speakers are usually designed to operate at frequencies above their resonance , and for this reason it is the usual practice to define nominal impedance at this minimum and then round to the nearest standard value . The ratio of the peak resonant frequency to the nominal impedance can be as much as 4 : 1 . It is , however , still perfectly possible for the low frequency impedance to actually be lower than the nominal impedance . A given audio amplifier may not be capable of driving this low frequency impedance even though it is capable of driving the nominal impedance , a problem that can be solved either with the use of crossover filters or underrating the amplifier supplied .
In the days of valves ( vacuum tubes ) , most loudspeakers had a nominal impedance of 16 Ω . Valve outputs require an output transformer to match the very high output impedance and voltage of the output valves to this lower impedance . These transformers were commonly tapped to allow matching of the output to a multiple loudspeaker setup . For example , two 16 Ω loudspeakers in parallel will give an impedance of 8 Ω . Since the advent of solid @-@ state amplifiers whose outputs require no transformer , the once @-@ common multiple @-@ impedance outputs have become rare , and lower impedance loudspeakers more common . The most common nominal impedance for a single loudspeaker is now 8 Ω . Most solid @-@ state amplifiers are designed to work with loudspeaker combinations of anything from 4 Ω to 8 Ω .
= = = Microphones = = =
There are a large number of different types of microphone and there are correspondingly large differences in impedance between them . They range from the very low impedance of ribbon microphones ( can be less than one ohm ) to the very large impedance of piezoelectric microphones which are measured in megohms . The Electronic Industries Alliance ( EIA ) has defined a number of standard microphone nominal impedances to aid categorisation of microphones .
The International Electrotechnical Commission defines a similar set of nominal impedances , but also has a coarser classification of low ( less than 600 Ω ) , medium ( 600 Ω to 10 kΩ ) and high ( more than 10 kΩ ) impedances .
= = Oscilloscopes = =
Oscilloscope inputs are usually high impedance so that they only minimally affect the circuit being measured when connected . However , the input impedance is made a specific nominal value , rather than arbitrarily high , because of the common use of X10 probes . A common value for oscilloscope nominal impedance is 1 MΩ resistance and 20 pF capacitance . With a known input impedance to the oscilloscope , the probe designer can ensure that the probe input impedance is exactly ten times this figure ( actually oscilloscope plus probe cable impedance ) . Since the impedance included the input capacitance and the probe is an impedance divider circuit , the result is that the waveform being measured is not distorted by the RC circuit formed by the probe resistance and the capacitance of the input ( or the cable capacitance which is generally higher ) .
= Geastrum pectinatum =
Geastrum pectinatum is an inedible species of mushroom belonging to the earthstar family of fungi . Although young specimens are spherical , fruit body development involves the outer layer of tissue splitting open like a star into 7 to 10 pointed rays that eventually bend back to point downward , revealing a small – 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) broad – spore sac . The spore sac is supported by a small radially wrinkled stalk . There is a distinct conical opening ( peristome ) at the top of the spore sac that is up to 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) long . It is commonly known as the beaked earthstar or the beret earthstar , in reference to the shape of the spore sac and its prominent , protruding peristome . The mass of spores and surrounding cells within the sac , the gleba , is dark @-@ brown , and becomes powdery in mature specimens . Spores are spherical , measuring 4 to 6 micrometers in diameter , with warts on their surfaces . Although uncommon , Geastrum pectinatum has a cosmopolitan distribution , and has been collected in various locations in Europe , North and South America , Asia and Africa , where it grows on the ground in open woods . Like several other earthstars , crystals of calcium oxalate are found on G. pectinatum , and are thought to be involved in fruit body maturation .
= = Taxonomy , classification , and naming = =
Christian Hendrik Persoon published the first description of Geastrum pectinatum in 1801 . In 1860 , Miles Joseph Berkeley and Moses Ashley Curtis described the species Geastrum biplicatum ( originally named Geaster biplicatus ) , based on specimens sent to them by Charles Wright that he obtained from the Bonin Islands during the North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition . Japanese mycologist Sanshi Imai considered this identical with G. pectinatum in a 1936 publication . In 1959 , mycologist J.T. Palmer reported comparing the original specimen collected by Persoon with fresh samples of what were then thought to be the distinct species G. plicatum and G. tenuipes ( named by English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley in 1838 and 1848 , respectively ) and concluded the three specimens were synonymous ; the original Persoon specimen was then designated as the neotype .
In Ponce de Leon 's classification of Geastrum , he placed the species in the subgenus Geastrum , section Geastrum , as the type of the subsection Sulcostomata , group Pectinatum . Other species in this group — characterized by a determinate peristome surrounded by a groove — are G. xerophilum , and G. furfuraceum . In Stanek 's ( 1958 ) infrageneric concept , G. pectinatum is placed in section Perimyceliata ( encompassing species whereby the mycelial layer covers the entire endoperidium ) , in subsection Glabrostomata , which includes species with plicate peristomes .
The specific epithet is derived from the Latin pectinatum , " like a comb " . Its common names include the " beaked earthstar " or the " beret earthstar " . Samuel Frederick Gray called it the " comblike shell @-@ puff " in his 1821 " A Natural Arrangement of British Plants " .
= = Description = =
Immature specimens – 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) diameter – are roughly spherical and begin their development submerged in the ground , but gradually push above ground during maturation . In this state the outer surface is covered with mycelia , which forms a soft , fluffy coat that holds soil and debris to the outer surface . The young fruit bodies often have a rounded knob or protuberance . Like other members of genus Geastrum , G. pectinatum has a fruit body wall that is multilayered . At maturity , the outer layer ( the exoperidium ) splits open from the top in a stellate ( star @-@ shaped ) manner into 7 – 9 rays that support the spore sac contained within the inner wall ( the endoperidium ) . The expanded specimens are up to 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) broad and 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) tall . The rays of the exoperidium bend back ( reflex ) , simultaneously elevating the spore sac above the ground in what is known as the fornicate condition ; this position exposes the spore sac to more air currents , aiding spore dispersal . The surface of the rays often crack to reveal lighter @-@ colored areas , especially along the edges . Together with a well @-@ developed layer of mycelium , the rays are typically bound to fragments of earth or forest duff .
The tough and membranous endoperidium comprising the spore sac , purple @-@ brown in color and 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 6 in ) tall by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) wide , is supported by a small stalk — a pedicel — that is 3 – 4 mm long by 7 – 10 mm wide and which has a grooved ( sulcate ) apophysis , or swelling . This ring @-@ shaped swelling is made of remnants from a tissue called the pseudoparenchymatous layer . When fresh , the pseudoparenchymatous layer is whitish in color , thick and fleshy ; it dries to become brown to dark brown while shrinking and often splitting and peeling . The endoperidium may be pruinose — covered with fine , white , powder — although the presence of this characteristic has been noted as being somewhat variable . The spore sac is opened by a single apical pore atop a conical " beak " , or peristome . The peristome is pectinate — made of tissue that resembles the teeth of a comb ; the specific epithet is named after this characteristic . The peristome is 2 to 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 to 0 @.@ 20 in ) long , and comprises 20 – 32 distinct ridges . The mass of spores and surrounding cells within the sac , the gleba , is dark @-@ brown , and becomes powdery in mature specimens . Internally , the endoperidium contains a structure called the columella that is narrowly conical in shape , whitish or pale brown , and extends more than halfway into the gleba . G. pectinatum has no distinguishable odor or taste ; like other earthstar mushrooms , it is inedible , and of " no alimentary interest " .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores of G. pectinatum are brown and opaque . They have a roughly spherical shape and are ornamented with transparent ( hyaline ) , truncate warts ; the diameter is 4 – 4 @.@ 5 µm , or 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 if the lengths of the warts is included . Spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 2- or 4 @-@ spored , while cystidia ( specialized sterile cells that occur at the hymenial surface in some mushrooms ) are absent . The capillitia — a mass of thread @-@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores — are light brown and 3 – 7 µm in diameter . They are tapered , thick @-@ walled with a narrow interior , and either smooth or slightly encrusted .
= = = Similar species = = =
Geastrum pectinatum has been mistaken for the morphologically similar but smaller species G. schmidelii . The latter species lacks vertical striations on the basal portions of the endoperidium , and does not have a pseudoparenchymatous collar around the stem . Another similar species , G. berkeleyi , has a shorter stem and is missing the ridges at the base of the spore sac . Further , the color of its spore sac is usually brown , in contrast to the gray @-@ blue of G. pectinatum . G. xerophilum also has a dusting of white powder on the surface of the spore sac , but unlike G. pectinatum , consistently lacks a ring at the base of the pedicel ; furthermore , in contrast to G. pectinatum , the spores of G. xerophilum are yellow and contain oil drops that are readily observable with a microscope . G. striatum has smaller fruit bodies than G. pectinatum , and a distinct collar @-@ like apophysis .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
This species has been reported to grow solitary or in groups on sandy soil or rich composted soil in both mixed and coniferous forests , often beneath cedars . In Hawaii , it is usually found growing in duff under coastal Casuarina and groves of Cupressus . The species has been noted to occur in late summer and autumn ( in Britain and Europe ) , but the fruit bodies may dry and persist for some time .
Geastrum pectinatum has a cosmopolitan distribution . It has been reported from Australia , and New Zealand , Africa ( the Congo , South Africa ) Central America ( Costa Rica ) , Asia ( Northeastern China and Japan ) , and South America ( Brazil ) . In Europe , it has been reported from Belgium , Ireland , Germany , the Netherlands , Norway , and Sweden . In the Middle East , it has been recorded in Israel , and Turkey . In North America , it is known from the United States ( including Hawaii ) , Canada , and Mexico . It is in the Red Data Book ( documenting rare and endangered species ) of Latvia , and is considered a threatened species in Poland . North American sources gives its frequency of appearance as " rare " , but Stellan Sunhede , in his 1989 monograph on the Geastraceae , considers it one of the most common earthstar mushrooms of northern Europe .
= = Calcium oxalate crystals = =
Calcium oxalate is a common crystalline compound found in many fungi , including the earthstars . The presence of calcium oxalate crystals — apparent as a whitish powder on the surface of the spore sac — has been verified for G. pectinatum using scanning electron microscopy . The calcium oxalate crystals occur in the tetragonal form , known as weddellite . A study on the related species Geastrum saccatum has shown that these crystals are responsible for the characteristic opening ( dehiscence ) of the outer peridial layers . The formation of calcium oxalate crystals stretches the layers of the outer walls , pushing apart the inner and outer layers of the peridium .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Sunhede S. ( 1989 ) . Geastraceae ( Basidiomycotina ) : Morphology , Ecology , and Systematics with Special Emphasis on the North European Species . Synopsis Fungorum , 1 . Oslo , Norway : Fungiflora . ISBN 82 @-@ 90724 @-@ 05 @-@ 5 .
= Here with Me ( MercyMe song ) =
" Here with Me " is a song by Christian rock band , MercyMe . Written and composed by the band , as well as Peter Kipely , Dan Muckala and Brad Russell , " Here with Me " is a ballad with a musical vibe influenced by worship , pop and rock music ; the overall sound has been compared to that of alternative rock band , Coldplay . " Here with Me " lyrically discusses the omnipotence of God .
Released as the lead single from MercyMe 's 2004 album , Undone , " Here with Me " attained positive critical reception and peaked at No. 1 on multiple Christian radio chart formats ; it also peaked inside the top 40 on several mainstream radio formats . It ranked at No. 16 on the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Background and production = =
" Here with Me " was written and composed by MercyMe , Dan Muckala , Brad Russell , and Peter Kipley . It was recorded at several locations : Blueberry Hill , Sound Stage , Abbey Road Studios , The Indigo Room , Maximedia , Luminous Sound , and The Schwoodio . Recording was handled by F. Reid Shippen , Mike O 'Connor , and Steve Bishir ; the strings on the song were arranged by Rob Mathes and recorded by Simon Rhodes at Abbey Road Studios . " Here with Me " was mixed by Shippen and produced by Kipley , while the mastering for the song was handled by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound .
= = Composition = =
" Here with Me " is a ballad with a length of four minutes and nine seconds . It is set in common time in the key of B major , with a moderate tempo of eighty @-@ four beats per minute and a vocal range spanning from B3 @-@ F ♯ 5 . Musically , " Here with Me " has been compared to the musical vibe of Coldplay and Robbie Williams . The song is piano @-@ driven , with influences from pop , rock , and worship . It features a musical crescendo that has been described as similar to " I Can Only Imagine " . The lyrical content of the song has been described as having a devotional bent , and conveys a theme of God 's omnipotence and holiness . " Here with Me " also attempts to comprehend the mystery of God 's love .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Here with Me " received generally positive reviews from critics . Johnny Joftus of Allmusic commented that " the lush " Here With Me " might be a Robbie Williams pop gem were it not for its devotional bent " . David McCreary of CCM Magazine opined on his review of Undone that " One surefire hit is “ Here With Me , ” the album ’ s first single ... A captivating piano @-@ driven ballad , the song vividly conveys the wonder of God ’ s omnipresence and holiness and features a rousing crescendo rivaling that of “ Imagine " . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today International commented that the song was " worshipful " , also opining that it " struggle [ s ] with comprehending the mystery and enormity of God 's love " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Here with Me " debuted at No. 40 on the Hot Christian Songs chart for the week of April 3 , 2004 . The song advanced to No. 10 in its sixth chart week , and to No. 5 in its eight chart week , holding that spot for three consecutive weeks . In its sixteenth chart week , " Here with Me " advanced to its peak of No. 1 , holding that spot for eleven consecutive weeks . It dropped to No. 2 in its twenty @-@ seventh chart week , holding that spot for two weeks before returning to No. 1 for two more weeks . " Here with Me " dropped to No. 3 in its thirty @-@ first chart week , and spent a further eight weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , " Here with Me " spent thirty @-@ nine weeks on the Hot Christian Songs chart , thirteen of them at No. 1 . On the Adult Contemporary chart , " Here with Me " debuted at No. 24 for the chart week of May 15 , 2004 . " Here with Me " advanced to No. 19 in its sixth chart week , holding that spot for three consecutive weeks . In its nineteenth chart week , it advanced to its peak of No. 12 , and spent a further seven weeks on the chart before dropping out . In all , " Here with Me " spent twenty @-@ six weeks on the Adult Contemporary chart .
On the Adult Top 40 chart , " Here with Me " debuted at No. 38 for the chart week of August 28 , 2004 . It spent an additional week on the chart before dropping out , after having spent two weeks on the chart . " Here with Me " also peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Christian AC chart ( spending ten weeks at No. 1 ) , the Radio & Records Christian AC chart ( spending seven weeks at No. 1 ) , and the Radio & Records Inspo chart ( spending five weeks at No. 1 ) , as well as peaking at No. 2 on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart . " Here with Me " ranked at No. 4 on the 2004 year @-@ end Hot Christian Singles and Tracks Titles and Hot Christian Adult Contemporary Titles charts , as well as at No. 19 on the year @-@ end Adult Contemporary Singles and Tracks chart . Additionally , it ranked at No. 16 on both the 2000s decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs and Hot Christian AC charts .
= = Charts = =
= Direct grant grammar school =
A direct grant grammar school was a type of selective secondary school in England and Wales that existed between 1945 and 1976 . One quarter of the places in these schools were directly funded by central government , while the remainder attracted fees , some paid by the Local Education Authority and some by private pupils . On average , the schools received just over half of their income from the state .
The status was introduced by the Education Act 1944 as a modification of an existing direct grant scheme to privately endowed schools . There were 179 direct grant grammar schools , which , together with over 1 @,@ 200 grammar schools maintained by local authorities , formed the most academic tier of the Tripartite System . They varied greatly in size and composition , but , on average , achieved higher academic results than either maintained grammar schools or independent schools .
State secondary education was reorganised on comprehensive lines in the late 1960s and early 1970s . The direct grant was phased out from 1975 and the schools were required to choose between becoming maintained comprehensive schools or fully independent schools . Forty @-@ five schools , almost all Roman Catholic , joined the state system , while a few closed . The rest ( including all the secular schools ) became independent and mostly remain as highly selective independent schools .
= = Origins = =
In the 19th century , few boys and very few girls in England and Wales received secondary education , which was available only at private schools . During this time , secondary provision expanded and adjusted to growing demand . At the start of that century , some boarding schools like Eton College and Winchester College thrived educating the sons of the aristocracy , but most endowed grammar schools were in decline , their classical curricula seen as irrelevant to the industrial age . These schools were reformed under the Endowed Schools Act 1869 , which also led to many endowments being diverted to the creation of girls ' schools . In the meantime a range of other schools had appeared . After the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 and mid @-@ century Irish immigration , Catholic teaching orders from Ireland and mainland Europe began to establish their own grammar schools . New proprietary schools were established , initially as joint @-@ stock companies , converting to charities if they were successful . One of the largest such companies was the Girls ' Public Day School Company ( later Trust ) , set up to provide an affordable academic education for girls , which had established 32 schools by 1894 .
In the latter part of the century , many of the less wealthy schools received annual grants from the Department of Science and Art and from their county councils . The grant system was restructured when the Board of Education was created in 1901 to fund early secondary schools , and the Education Act 1902 gave counties and county boroughs responsibility for schools , designating them as local education authorities ( LEAs ) . Secondary schools controlled by voluntary bodies could receive a grant from either the Board of Education or their local authority , or both . In return they were required to meet the Board 's regulations , and were subject to the same system of inspections as state @-@ funded schools . Under the Education ( Administrative Provisions ) Act 1907 , secondary schools in receipt of grant were required to admit a specified proportion of their intake , usually 25 % , free of charge from state elementary schools . Suitable pupils were selected using a scholarship examination .
Circular 1381 , a directive issued by the Board of Education in 1926 , required that schools choose a single source of grant : they could receive a " direct grant " from central government , or be " grant @-@ aided " by their local authority . By 1932 there were 240 secondary schools receiving a direct grant , compared with 1138 aided by local authorities . Although this division was intended purely as an administrative convenience , local authorities gradually gained more influence over the schools they aided , in part because of the schools ' weak financial position during the Great Depression .
The Depression and the falling birth rate in the pre @-@ war years had also weakened independent schools and schools receiving the direct grant . At the same time , the state @-@ funded sector had grown to the point where universal secondary education seemed achievable , and changes in society had made the idea more popular . Proposals were made for a reorganisation of the maintained sector , including a new accommodation with the voluntary schools . In response , the Headmasters ' Conference persuaded the President of the Board of Education , R.A. Butler , to establish a commission under Lord Fleming in July 1942 " to consider means whereby the association between the Public Schools ... and the general education system of the country could be developed and extended " .
= = Direct grant scheme = =
The Education Act 1944 aimed to introduce a universal system of secondary education for England and Wales . Under the Tripartite System , there were to be three types of schools , with pupils sitting an eleven plus exam to determine which type of school they would be sent to . The most academic tier would be the grammar school , and the Act revised the terms of the direct grant to operate alongside LEA @-@ maintained grammar schools , many of which were former LEA @-@ aided schools . The latter schools , unable to cope with the costs of the reorganisation required by the 1944 Act , had been offered the status of voluntary controlled or voluntary aided schools , under which the state would pay all their running costs and all or most of their capital costs . They were thus fully integrated into the state system .
The new direct grant scheme was a modification of proposals in the Fleming Report of 1944 . A direct grant grammar school would provide 25 % of its places free of charge to children who had spent at least 2 years in maintained primary schools , and would reserve at least a further 25 % of places to be paid for by the LEA if required . The remaining ( " residuary " ) places would attract fees , but no child would be admitted unless they had achieved the required standard in the eleven plus . The schools would be inspected by Her Majesty 's Inspectors of Schools , would have one third of their governing bodies appointed by the LEA , and would require the approval of the Secretary of State to raise fees or carry out building work .
The scheme was attractive to most of the direct grant schools . Of the 231 secondary schools receiving direct grant in 1945 , 196 applied to join the new scheme , with the rest becoming independent schools . In addition 31 grant @-@ aided schools applied to join the scheme . Of these , 164 schools ( including four formerly grant @-@ aided schools ) were accepted as direct grant grammar schools . The list was re @-@ opened between 1957 and 1961 , when 44 applications were received , of which 15 were accepted . There were therefore 179 direct grant grammar schools , alongside over 1200 maintained grammar schools .
Beside the Direct Grant Scheme , the Act also made provision for LEAs to fund places at independent schools in areas where there was a shortage of appropriate places in maintained schools . For example , there might be a lack of selective places , or of selective places in Roman Catholic schools . In the late 1960s , 56 independent schools had over 25 % of their places funded by LEAs in this way , with seven of them over 75 % LEA @-@ funded .
= = Characteristics of the schools = =
In 1966 , when direct grant schools were at their height , they educated 3 @.@ 1 % of secondary pupils across England and Wales , while independent schools accounted for 7 @.@ 1 % . For A @-@ level students , these proportions rose to 6 @.@ 2 % and 14 @.@ 7 % respectively . Before Culford School became coeducational in 1972 , all but 2 of the schools were single sex , with a slight majority of girls ' schools . There were 56 Roman Catholic schools , 14 Church of England and 6 Methodist . Many of the schools were in the north of England , with 46 in the historic county of Lancashire ( including Manchester ) and 18 in the West Riding of Yorkshire , while there were only 7 in inner London and 4 in Wales . In 1961 , an average of 59 % of pupils at direct grant grammar schools were state @-@ funded , but the proportion also varied greatly between schools .
Direct grant schools had similar teacher / pupil ratios to the maintained grammar schools , as their fees were regulated to match costs at the latter schools . The proportion of teachers with first and second class degrees was slightly lower than in their maintained counterparts . The principal difference from the maintained schools was greater freedom from LEA influence .
Although there was much variation , these schools as a group were middle @-@ class institutions , with many tending to move closer to the independent schools in social composition . On average , three @-@ quarters of pupils came from white @-@ collar homes , including 60 % with fathers in management or the professions , while only 7 % were children of semi @-@ skilled or unskilled workers . On average , the intake of the schools was also more academically selective than either maintained grammar schools or independent schools . Their results were correspondingly high , with 60 % of their pupils staying on to age 18 and 38 % going on to university , significantly greater proportions than either of the other groups of schools .
= = Types of schools = =
There was a great deal of variation between direct grant grammar schools . According to the Donnison Report ( discussed in the next section ) , the schools were of four types , though the boundaries between them were not always clear @-@ cut .
Donnison called the first group " regional schools " : large , highly academically selective day schools with large sixth forms , located near large cities , and mostly boys ' schools belonging to the Headmaster 's Conference . The archetype of the direct grant grammar school , was the largest , Manchester Grammar School , whose High Master from 1945 to 1962 , Eric James ( elevated to the peerage in 1959 ) , was an outspoken advocate of the " meritocracy " . In 1968 the school sent 77 % of its boys on to university , a rate surpassed only by the independent Winchester College . Close behind were such schools as Bradford Grammar School , Leeds Grammar School , Haberdashers ' Aske 's School and Latymer Upper School . A large girls ' school of similar academic attainment was North London Collegiate School , which had been founded in 1850 by Frances Buss . These schools achieved university admission rates that rivalled the older public schools , which in turn moved to raise their academic standards for admission , and to increase their focus of academic achievement . With their high profile , such schools formed the popular image of a direct grant grammar school , but they accounted for only about a quarter of them .
The second group consisted of 30 schools ( 23 for boys and 7 for girls ) with a significant proportion ( over 25 % ) of boarders . Boarders made up the majority of pupils at 15 schools ( all but one for boys ) , including five of the six Methodist schools . Boarding schools tended to be smaller and less academically selective than other direct grant schools , and to take a larger proportion of fee @-@ paying pupils . They also tended to be more socially selective , with nearly three quarters of their pupils having fathers in management or the professions .
The third group , Roman Catholic schools , made up nearly a third of the direct grant schools ( 19 for boys and 37 for girls ) . They were predominantly day schools , though 10 of them took a small proportion of boarders . Their fees were about 15 % lower than other direct grant grammars , and they tended to take a much higher proportion of LEA @-@ funded pupils . In 1968 , 40 of these schools took over 80 % of their pupils from their LEAs ; the average proportion was 86 % . They also tended to be more socially mixed , with 37 % of their pupils from managerial and professional homes and 16 % children of semi @-@ skilled or unskilled workers . These schools were thus similar to the LEA @-@ maintained Roman Catholic grammar schools , whom they outnumbered . Lacking endowments and having lower fee income , they were less financially secure than other direct grant grammars .
The fourth group were non @-@ denominational local grammar schools , often with an intake more able on average than in maintained grammar schools , but covering a broader range . These included the 23 schools of the Girls ' Public Day School Trust ( now the Girls ' Day School Trust ) .
= = Comprehensive reorganisation = =
During the post @-@ War period , many parts of the world moved from selective education to comprehensive schools catering for children of all abilities . Dissatisfaction with the Tripartite System grew during the 1950s , with concern over the harsh division of the school population at the age of 11 , and the loss to the economy of the " submerged three @-@ quarters " in secondary modern schools . Experiments with comprehensive schools spread from Anglesey to the Midlands and Yorkshire .
In 1964 , a Labour government was elected promising " to reorganise the State secondary schools on comprehensive lines " . In the following year , the Department of Education and Science distributed Circular 10 / 65 , requesting that Local Education Authorities prepare plans for such a reorganisation of their schools . The Circular also requested consultation between LEAs and direct grant schools on their participation in a comprehensive system . For this reason , direct grant schools were excluded from consideration by the Public Schools Commission set up in 1965 , even though 152 of them would otherwise have fallen within its remit .
There was little progress in the local negotiations proposed in the Circular . Two Catholic girls ' schools , St Anne 's Convent School , Southampton and St Anthony 's School , Sunderland , converted to a fully comprehensive intake , expanding to over 1000 pupils each . A few others proposed minor adjustments , but the vast majority were unchanged . In view of this lack of progress , the Public Schools Commission was asked on October 1967 to add direct grant schools to its investigation . The Commission , now chaired by David
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Donnison , issued its second report in 1970 , concluding that " Grammar schools of the traditional kind cannot be combined with a comprehensive system of education : we must choose what we want . Fee @-@ paying is not compatible with comprehensive education . " They recommended that the schools choose between becoming voluntary aided comprehensives and full independence , but the Conservatives came to power before any action had been taken .
Meanwhile , a trickle of schools had begun to leave the scheme , starting with Trinity School of John Whitgift , which became independent in 1968 , but still had half its places funded by the LEA . It was followed in 1970 by Oakham School , which became co @-@ educational in the following year , and Queen Victoria High School , which merged with The Cleveland School to form Teesside High School . A respite was provided in the early 1970s , when Margaret Thatcher , the Conservative Education Secretary , raised the level of grant , which had been lowered by the Labour government .
= = Abolition and legacy = =
Labour returned to power in 1974 and enacted the Direct Grant Grammar Schools ( Cessation of Grant ) Regulations 1975 , which required schools to choose whether to become LEA @-@ maintained comprehensive schools or independent schools without grant .
Of the 174 remaining direct grant grammar schools , 51 ( two Church of England and the rest Catholic ) applied to join the state sector , of which 46 were accepted . These schools had become dependent on state funding , and the move to comprehensive education was also supported by the Roman Catholic hierarchy , often over the objections of those connected with the schools . One school , St. Joseph 's College , Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , was approved to join the state system , but became independent instead following a campaign by parents . Elsewhere the plans proceeded over local objections , with schools closing or becoming comprehensive schools or sixth form colleges , often by merging with other schools . Dr Williams ' School , a small school for girls in Dolgellau , northwest Wales , also closed at this time .
The remaining schools , including all of the large secular ones , became independent when their grant was phased out as the remaining state @-@ funded pupils left . This coincided with the mid @-@ 1970s recession , a difficult time for independent schools but doubly so for the former direct grant schools , which had just lost 25 – 50 % of their intake . Many local boys ' schools became coeducational to replace the lost places . An echo of the direct grant , the Assisted Places scheme was introduced by the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher in 1981 , lasting until 1997 . Approximately two @-@ thirds of these places were held at former direct grant grammar schools . The independent sector soon recovered , and prospered without competition from state grammar schools .
From 1993 a small number of Roman Catholic former direct grant schools entered the state sector as grant @-@ maintained schools . A few secular schools have subsequently become academies . Those that remain independent are typically highly selective , and have strong academic reputations . In 2001 , they included 61 of the 100 highest performing independent day schools . No longer a bridge between state and private sectors , these schools have become part of a flourishing independent sector now sharply distinguished from the state system , a situation decried by the Sutton Trust as " educational apartheid " .
= Industrial music =
Industrial music is a genre of experimental / electronic music that draws on transgressive and provocative themes . The term was coined in the mid @-@ 1970s with the founding of Industrial Records by Genesis P @-@ Orridge of Throbbing Gristle and Monte Cazazza ; on Throbbing Gristle 's debut album The Second Annual Report , they coined the slogan " industrial music for industrial people " . In general , the style is harsh and challenging . AllMusic defines industrial as the " most abrasive and aggressive fusion of rock and electronic music " ; " initially a blend of avant @-@ garde electronics experiments ( tape music , musique concrète , white noise , synthesizers , sequencers , etc . ) and punk provocation " .
The first industrial artists experimented with noise and aesthetically controversial topics , musically and visually , such as fascism , serial killers and the occult . Their production was not limited to music , but included mail art , performance art , installation pieces and other art forms . Prominent industrial musicians include Throbbing Gristle , Monte Cazazza , SPK , Boyd Rice , Cabaret Voltaire , and Z 'EV . The precursors that influenced the development of the genre included acts such as electronic group Kraftwerk , experimental rock acts such as The Velvet Underground and Frank Zappa , psychedelic rock artists such as Jimi Hendrix , and composers such as John Cage . Musicians also cite writers such as William S. Burroughs , and philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche as influences .
While the term was self @-@ applied by a small coterie of groups and individuals associated with Industrial Records in the 1970s , it was broadened to include artists influenced by the original movement or using an " industrial " aesthetic . These artists expanded the genre by pushing it into noisier and more electronic directions . Over time , its influence spread into and blended with styles including ambient and rock , all of which now fall under the post @-@ industrial music label . Electro @-@ industrial music is a primary subgenre that developed in the 1980s . The two other most notable hybrid genres are industrial rock and industrial metal , which include bands such as Nine Inch Nails and Ministry , both of which released platinum @-@ selling albums in the 1990s . These three distinct genres are often referred to as simply industrial .
= = History = =
= = = Precursors = = =
Industrial music drew from a broad range of predecessors . Alexei Monroe argues that Kraftwerk were particularly significant in the development of industrial music , as the " first successful artists to incorporate representations of industrial sounds into nonacademic electronic music . " Industrial music was created originally by using mechanical and electric machinery , and later advanced synthesizers , samplers and electronic percussion as the technology developed . Monroe also argues for Suicide as an influential contemporary of the industrial musicians . Groups cited as inspirational by the founders of industrial music include The Velvet Underground , Joy Division , and Martin Denny . Genesis P @-@ Orridge of Throbbing Gristle had a cassette library including recordings by the Master Musicians of Jajouka , Kraftwerk , Charles Manson , and William S. Burroughs . P @-@ Orridge also credited 1960s rock such as The Doors , Pearls Before Swine , The Fugs , Captain Beefheart , and Frank Zappa in a 1979 interview .
Chris Carter also enjoyed and found inspiration in Pink Floyd and Tangerine Dream . Boyd Rice was influenced by the music of 60 's girl groups and tiki culture . Z 'EV cited Christopher Tree ( Spontaneous Sound ) , John Coltrane , Miles Davis , Tim Buckley , Jimi Hendrix , and Captain Beefheart , among others together with Tibetan , Balinese , Javanese , Indian , and African music as influential in his artistic life . Cabaret Voltaire cited Roxy Music as their initial forerunners , as well as Kraftwerk 's Trans @-@ Europe Express . Cabaret Voltaire also recorded pieces reminiscent of musique concrète and composers such as Morton Subotnick . Nurse with Wound cited a long list of obscure free improvisation and Krautrock as recommended listening . 23 Skidoo borrowed from Fela Kuti and Miles Davis 's On the Corner . Many industrial groups , including Einstürzende Neubauten , took inspiration from world music .
Many of the initial industrial musicians preferred to cite artists or thinkers , rather than musicians , as their inspiration . Simon Reynolds declares that " Being a Throbbing Gristle fan was like enrolling in a university course of cultural extremism . " John Cage was an initial inspiration for Throbbing Gristle . SPK appreciated Jean Dubuffet , Marcel Duchamp , Jean Baudrillard , Michel Foucault , Walter Benjamin , Marshall McLuhan , Friedrich Nietzsche , and Gilles Deleuze . Cabaret Voltaire took conceptual cues from Burroughs , J. G. Ballard , and Tristan Tzara . Whitehouse and Nurse with Wound dedicated some of their work to the Marquis de Sade ; the latter also took impetus from the Comte de Lautréamont .
Another influence on the industrial aesthetic was Lou Reed 's Metal Machine Music . Pitchfork Music cites this album as " inspiring , in part , much of the contemporary avant @-@ garde music scene — noise , in particular . " The album consists entirely of guitar feedback , anticipating industrial 's use of non @-@ musical sounds .
= = = Industrial records = = =
Industrial Music for Industrial People was originally coined by Monte Cazazza as the strapline for the record label Industrial Records , founded by British art @-@ provocateurs Throbbing Gristle . The first wave of this music appeared with Throbbing Gristle , from London ; Cabaret Voltaire , from Sheffield ; and Boyd Rice ( recording under the name NON ) , from the United States . Throbbing Gristle first performed in 1976 , and began as the musical offshoot of the Kingston upon Hull @-@ based COUM Transmissions . COUM was initially a psychedelic rock group , but began to describe their work as performance art in order to obtain grants from the Arts Council of Great Britain . COUM was composed of P @-@ Orridge and Cosey Fanni Tutti . Beginning in 1972 , COUM staged several performances inspired by Fluxus and Viennese Actionism . These included various acts of sexual and physical abjection . Peter Christopherson , an employee of commercial artists Hipgnosis , joined the group in 1974 , with Carter joining the following year .
The group renamed itself Throbbing Gristle in September 1975 , their name coming from a northern English slang word for an erection . The group 's first public performance , in October 1976 , was alongside an exhibit titled Prostitution , which included pornographic photos of Tutti as well as used tampons . Conservative politician Nicholas Fairbairn declared that " public money is being wasted here to destroy the morality of our society " and blasted the group as " wreckers of civilization . " The group ended in 1981 , with P @-@ Orridge declaring " the mission is terminated . "
= = = Expansion of the scene = = =
The bands Clock DVA , Nocturnal Emissions , Whitehouse , Nurse with Wound , and SPK soon followed . Whitehouse intended to play " the most brutal and extreme music of all time " , a style they eventually called power electronics . An early collaborator with Whitehouse , Steve Stapleton , formed Nurse with Wound , who experimented with noise sculpture and sound collage . Clock DVA described their goal as borrowing equally from surrealist automatism and " nervous energy sort of funk stuff , body music that flinches you and makes you move . " 23 Skidoo , like Clock DVA , merged industrial music with African @-@ American dance music , but also performed a response to world music . Performing at the first WOMAD Festival in 1982 , the group likened themselves to Indonesian gamelan . Swedish act Leather Nun , were signed to Industrial Records in 1978 , being the first non @-@ TG / Cazazza act to have an IR @-@ release . Their singles eventually received significant airplay in the United States on college radio .
Across the Atlantic , similar experiments were taking place . In San Francisco , performance artist Monte Cazazza began recording noise music . Boyd Rice released several albums of noise , with guitar drones and tape loops creating a cacophony of repetitive sounds . In Boston Sleep Chamber and other artists from Inner @-@ X @-@ Musick began experimenting with a mixture of powerful noise and early forms of EBM . In Italy , work by Maurizio Bianchi at the beginning of the 1980s also shared this aesthetic . In Germany , Einstürzende Neubauten mixed metal percussion , guitars , and unconventional instruments ( such as jackhammers and bones ) in stage performances that often damaged the venues in which they played . Blixa Bargeld , inspired by Antonin Artaud and an enthusiasm for amphetamines , also originated an art movement called Die Genialen Dilettanten . Bargeld is particularly well known for his hissing scream .
In January 1984 , Einstürzende Neubauten performed a Concerto for Voice and Machinery at the Institute of Contemporary Arts ( the same site as COUM 's Prostitution exhibition ) , drilling through the floor and eventually sparking a riot . This event received front page news coverage in England . Other groups who practiced a form of industrial " metal music " ( that is , produced by the sounds of metal crashing against metal ) include Test Dept , Laibach , and Die Krupps , as well as Z 'EV and SPK . Test Dept were largely inspired by Russian Futurism and toured to support the UK miners ' strike ( 1984 – 1985 ) . Skinny Puppy embraced a variety of industrial forefathers and created a lurching , impalatable whole from many pieces . Swans , from New York City , also practiced a metal music aesthetic , though reliant on standard rock instrumentation . Laibach , a Slovenian group who began while Yugoslavia remained a single state , were very controversial for their iconographic borrowings from Stalinist , Nazi , Titoist , Dada , and Russian Futurist imagery , conflating Yugoslav patriotism with its German authoritarian adversary . Slavoj Žižek has defended Laibach , arguing that they and their associated Neue Slowenische Kunst art group practice an overidentification with the hidden perverse enjoyment undergirding authority that produces a subversive and liberatory effect . In simpler language , Laibach practiced a type of agitprop that was widely utilized by industrial and punk artists on both sides of the atlantic .
Following the breakup of Throbbing Gristle , P @-@ Orridge and Christopherson founded Psychic TV and signed to a major label . Their first album was much more accessible and melodic than the usual industrial style , and included hired work by trained musicians . Later work returned to the sound collage and noise elements of earlier industrial . They also borrowed from funk and disco . P @-@ Orridge also founded Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth , a quasi @-@ religious organization that produced video art . Psychic TV 's commercial aspirations were managed by Stevo of Some Bizzare records , who released many of the later industrial musicians , including Eistürzende Neubauten , Test Dept , and Cabaret Voltaire .
Cabaret Voltaire had become friends with New Order , and began to practice a similar form of danceable electropop . Christopherson left Psychic TV in 1983 and formed Coil with John Balance . Coil made use of gongs and bullroarers in an attempt to conjur " Martian , " " homosexual energy " . David Tibet , a friend of Coil 's , formed Current 93 ; both groups were inspired by amphetamines and LSD . J. G. Thirlwell , a co @-@ producer with Coil , developed a version of black comedy in industrial music , borrowing from lounge as well as noise and film music . In the early 1980s , the Chicago @-@ based record label Wax Trax ! and Canada 's Nettwerk helped to expand the industrial music genre into the more accessible electro @-@ industrial and industrial rock genres .
= = Characteristics = =
The birth of industrial music was a response to " an age [ in which ] the access and control of information were becoming the primary tools of power . " At its birth , the genre of industrial music was different from any other music , and its use of technology and disturbing lyrics and themes to tear apart preconceptions about the necessary rules of musical form supports the suggestion that industrial music is modernist music . The artists themselves made these goals explicit , even drawing connections to social changes they wished to argue for through their music .
The Industrial Records website explains that the musicians wanted to re @-@ invent rock music , and that their uncensored records were about their relationship with the world . They go on to say that they wanted their music to be an awakening for listeners so that they would begin to think for themselves and question the world around them . Industrial Records intended the term industrial to evoke the idea of music created for a new generation , with previous music being more agricultural : P @-@ Orridge stated that " there 's an irony in the word ' industrial ' because there 's the music industry . And then there 's the joke we often used to make in interviews about churning out our records like motorcars — that sense of industrial . And ... up till then the music had been kind of based on the blues and slavery , and we thought it was time to update it to at least Victorian times — you know , the Industrial Revolution " .
Early industrial music often featured tape editing , stark percussion and loops distorted to the point where they had degraded to harsh noise , such as the work of early industrial group Cabaret Voltaire , which Journalist Simon Reynolds described as characterized by " hissing high hats and squelchy snares of rhythm @-@ generator . " Carter of Throbbing Gristle invented a device named the " Gristle @-@ izer " , played by Christopherson , which comprised a one @-@ octave keyboard and a number of cassette machines triggering various pre @-@ recorded sounds .
Traditional instruments were often played in nontraditional or highly modified ways . Reynolds described the Cabaret Voltaire members ' individual contributions as " [ Chris ] Watson 's smears of synth slime ; [ Stephen ] Mallinder 's dankly pulsing bass ; and [ Richard H. ] Kirk 's spikes of shattered @-@ glass guitar . " Watson custom @-@ built a fuzzbox for Kirk 's guitar , producing a unique timbre . Carter built speakers , effects units , and synthesizer modules , as well as modifying more conventional rock instrumentation , for Throbbing Gristle . Tutti played guitar with a slide in order to produce glissandi , or pounded the strings as if it were a percussion instrument . Throbbing Gristle also played at very high volume and produced ultra @-@ high and sub @-@ bass frequencies in an attempt to produce physical effects , naming this approach as " metabolic music . "
Vocals were sporadic , and were as likely to be bubblegum pop as they were to be abrasive polemics . Cabaret Voltaire 's Stephen Mallinder 's vocals were electronically treated .
The purpose of industrial music initially was to serve as a commentary on modern society by eschewing what artists saw as trite connections to the past . Throbbing Gristle opposed the elements of traditional rock music remaining in the punk rock scene , declaring industrial to be " anti @-@ music . " Early industrial performances often involved taboo @-@ breaking , provocative elements , such as mutilation , sado @-@ masochistic elements and totalitarian imagery or symbolism , as well as forms of audience abuse , such as Throbbing Gristle 's aiming high powered lights at the audience .
Industrial groups typically focus on transgressive subject matter . In his introduction for the Industrial Culture Handbook ( 1983 ) , Jon Savage considered some hallmarks of industrial music to be organizational autonomy , shock tactics , and the use of synthesizers and " anti @-@ music . " Furthermore , an interest in the investigation of " cults , wars , psychological techniques of persuasion , unusual murders ( especially by children and psychopaths ) , forensic pathology , venereology , concentration camp behavior , the history of uniforms and insignia " and Aleister Crowley 's magick was present in Throbbing Gristle 's work , as well as in other industrial pioneers . Burroughs 's recordings and writings were particularly influential on the scene , particularly his interest in the cut @-@ up technique and noise as a method of disrupting societal control . Many of the first industrial musicians were interested in , though not necessarily sympathetic with , fascism . Throbbing Gristle 's logo was based on the lightning symbol of the British Union of Fascists , while the Industrial Records logo was a photo of Auschwitz .
= = Post @-@ industrial = =
In the late 1980s , a number of additional styles developed from the already eclectic base of industrial music . These offshoots include fusions with noise music , ambient music , folk music , post @-@ punk and electronic dance music , as well as other mutations and developments . The scene has spread worldwide , and is particularly well represented in North America , Europe , and Japan . Post @-@ industrial subgenres include dark ambient , power electronics , Japanoise , neofolk , electro @-@ industrial , electronic body music , industrial hip hop , industrial rock , industrial metal , industrial pop , martial industrial , power noise , and witch house .
The best @-@ selling offshoots of industrial music have been industrial rock and metal ; Ministry and Nine Inch Nails both recorded platinum @-@ selling albums . Their success led to an increase in commercial success for some other industrial musicians ; for example , the Nine Inch Nails remix album Further Down the Spiral , which included contributions from Foetus and Coil , was certified gold in 1996 . The mid @-@ 1990s was a high point for industrial rock , when , in addition to bands that had been around since the 1980s , newer bands such as Gravity Kills , whose self @-@ titled debut sold almost half a million records , had some chart and radio success , and especially for industrial metal , with Marilyn Manson releasing multiple platinum selling albums .
= Interstate 96 =
Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) is an Interstate Highway that runs for approximately 192 miles ( 309 km ) entirely within the US state of Michigan . The western terminus is at an interchange with US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) and Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) on the western boundary of Norton Shores southeast of Muskegon , and the eastern terminus is at I @-@ 75 near the Ambassador Bridge in Detroit . From Grand Rapids through Lansing to Detroit , the freeway parallels Grand River Avenue , never straying more than a few miles from the decommissioned US 16 . The Wayne County section of I @-@ 96 is named the Jeffries Freeway from its eastern terminus to the junction with I @-@ 275 and M @-@ 14 . Though maps still refer to the freeway as the Jeffries , the portion within the city of Detroit was renamed by the state legislature as the Rosa Parks Memorial Highway in December 2005 in honor of the late civil rights pioneer . There are four auxiliary Interstates as well as two current and four former business routes associated with I @-@ 96 .
Grand River Avenue originated as an Native American trail before Michigan statehood . It later was used as a wagon road across the state . The roadway was included in the State Trunkline Highway System in 1919 as M @-@ 16 and later the United States Numbered Highway System as US 16 . Construction of a freeway along the length of the corridor was proposed in the 1940s , and included as part of the Interstate Highway System in the mid @-@ 1950s . This construction was started in 1956 and initially completed across the state to Detroit in 1962 . The proposed route for the Jeffries Freeway in Detroit was moved in the 1960s ; it was built in the 1970s . I @-@ 96 was completed on November 21 , 1977 , in the Detroit area , closing the last gap along the route . Since then , additional interchanges and lanes have been added in places to accommodate traffic needs .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 96 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) as a segment of the larger State Trunkline Highway System . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 201 @,@ 200 vehicles used the highway daily between 6 and 7 Mile roads in Livonia . Near Norton Shores , 20 @,@ 638 vehicles did so each day between Airline and Fruitport roads . These are the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . As an Interstate Highway , all of I @-@ 96 is included in the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . In addition , the highway in Detroit has been named by the Michigan Legislature the Rosa Parks Memorial Highway to honor the civil rights pioneer Rosa Parks . The segment from Livonia west to I @-@ 275 is the Jeffries Freeway , named for a former mayor of Detroit , Edward Jeffries .
= = = Muskegon to Grand Rapids = = =
I @-@ 96 begins at a three @-@ quarter cloverleaf interchange with US 31 northeast of the Muskegon County Airport in Norton Shores , near Muskegon . At the starting terminus , the highway has a grassy median and two lanes in each direction as it travels southeasterly through rural Muskegon County . The freeway is paralleled by Airline Highway in an area of with a mix of fields and residences as far as Fruitport . I @-@ 96 bypasses that village to the north and east before crossing into Ottawa County at Fruitport Road . After a distance of about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) in the county , the trunkline reaches Nunica . The highway crosses the Crockery Creek and turns eastward toward Coopersville . The freeway runs parallel to the Grand River , about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) to the north . Near Ironwood Drive , I @-@ 96 turns southeasterly again and goes through Marne .
Beyond Marne , I @-@ 96 passes the western end of M @-@ 11 and crosses into Kent County , curving around a rest area for the eastbound lanes . The freeway runs eastward through a light industrial area of the suburb of Walker as it enters the Grand Rapids metropolitan area . At the interchange with Alpine Avenue , M @-@ 37 merges onto the freeway and the two run concurrently past the studios for WZZM @-@ TV with its iconic weatherball , a 16 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) sphere 100 feet ( 30 m ) above the ground that uses colored lights to display a weather forecast . Adjacent to the studios are the ramps from eastbound I @-@ 96 to southbound US 131 and from northbound US 131 to westbound I @-@ 96 . These ramps mark the northern end of I @-@ 296 , an unsigned auxiliary Interstate Highway designation applied to them and the US 131 freeway south to downtown Grand Rapids . I @-@ 96 turns northeasterly past a commercial area to a three @-@ quarter cloverleaf interchange that provides all of the other connections with US 131 next to a crossing of the Grand River .
East of the river , I @-@ 96 and M @-@ 37 pass through the northern suburb of Comstock Park , intersecting Connector M @-@ 44 ( CONN M @-@ 44 , Plainfield Avenue ) near Lamberton Lake . Past that interchange , the freeway angles southeasterly and then southward , bypassing Grand Rapids to the northeast . East of downtown , I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 37 meets I @-@ 196 ( Gerald R. Ford Freeway ) at a partial interchange ; traffic headed eastbound on I @-@ 196 must enter I @-@ 96 eastbound and only westbound I @-@ 96 traffic may enter I @-@ 196 . Immediately east of the interchange is another for M @-@ 44 ( East Beltline Avenue ) where M @-@ 37 separates from the freeway to turn southward . Through this series of interchanges , I @-@ 96 curves to the east and then turns back southward after passing through them . There are two more interchanges for M @-@ 21 ( Fulton Street ) and Cascade Road before I @-@ 96 meets the eastern end of M @-@ 11 at 28th Street . The next interchange for 36th Street provides access to the Gerald R. Ford International Airport . The freeway continues to the east of the airport and then intersects the eastern end of M @-@ 6 ( Paul B. Henry Freeway , South Beltline Freeway ) at an interchange over the confluence of the Thornapple and Grand rivers .
= = = Grand Rapids to Brighton = = =
The freeway exits the edges of the Grand Rapids urban area past the interchange with M @-@ 6 , turning due east and paralleling the northern edge of Cascade Road . I @-@ 96 curves to the south of Pratt Lake near the county line , crossing into Ionia County . Grand River Avenue is the frontage road as the freeway heads east through farm fields . South of Ionia , I @-@ 96 intersects M @-@ 66 . Near Portland , the trunkline turns to the southeast to cross the Grand River again . On the east side of town , the freeway crosses Grand River Avenue , its former business spur into town . I @-@ 96 continues southeasterly , crossing into Clinton County , and passes the community of Eagle . Entering the western reaches of the Lansing metropolitan area , I @-@ 96 merges with I @-@ 69 and turns southward at an interchange in the southwestern corner of the county ; this interchange also provides access to Business Loop I @-@ 96 ( BL I @-@ 96 , Grand River Avenue ) .
These two Interstates run southward together for about 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) on the west side of the metropolitan area , picking up a third lane in each direction . The exit numbers and mileposts along the concurrency reflect those of I @-@ 96 , which is considered the dominant designation of the pair . South of that interchange , the freeway crosses into Eaton County and over the Grand River . The trunkline passes near residential subdivisions , and next to the interchange for BL I @-@ 69 / M @-@ 43 ( Saginaw Highway ) , there is a large retail development . Further south , I @-@ 496 ( Olds Freeway ) branches off to run into downtown Lansing before the split between I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 69 . I @-@ 69 turns southward while I @-@ 96 turns southeasterly , dropping back to four lanes in total . After the Lansing Road interchange , the freeway crosses the Grand River one last time and runs due east to bypass Lansing .
I @-@ 96 crosses into Ingham County and continues along the southern edges of the Lansing metro area . It passes through areas with residential subdivisions and commercial developments , coming to a pair of interchanges including one for the eastern end of BL I @-@ 96 ( Cedar Street ) . Near the crossing of the Red Cedar River , I @-@ 96 goes through the interchange for I @-@ 496 / US 127 . East of that interchange , the freeway begins to exit the metro area as the landscape transitions back to farm fields . I @-@ 96 continues eastward , bypassing Williamston and Webberville to the south . Near the latter , the freeway turns more southeasterly and crosses into Livingston County .
In Livingston County , I @-@ 96 passes to the south of Fowlerville and Howell . Near the Livingston County Spencer J. Hardy Airport on the western edge of Howell , I @-@ 96 meets M @-@ 59 , which carries the Howell business loop easterly to Grand River Avenue . The freeway expands to six lanes and runs parallel to Grand River Avenue on the southern side of town . The business loop reconnects near Lake Chemung on the east side of town , and I @-@ 96 turns further to the southeast . On the northeast side of Brighton , I @-@ 96 crosses over Grand River Avenue and the landscape transitions to include residential subdivisions . I @-@ 96 crosses US 23 and enters the far northwestern edge of Metro Detroit .
= = = Metro Detroit = = =
I @-@ 96 passes through an area with several lakes as it crosses into Oakland County . This area includes the Island Lake State Recreation Area to the south and the Kensington Metropark to the north of the freeway in an area where it crosses the Huron River . The Interstate runs through Wixom into Novi , where it passes to the south of the Twelve Oaks Mall . Southeast of the mall , I @-@ 96 enters a complex interchange on the border between Novi and Farmington Hills that connects it to M @-@ 5 ( Haggerty Connector ) , I @-@ 275 and I @-@ 696 ( Reuther Freeway ) . The trunkline drops a lane in each direction as it enters the interchange and turns southward . The freeway then merges into I @-@ 275 and increases to four lanes in each direction running south in Farmington Hills .
According to the Federal Highway Administration , I @-@ 275 ends at the junction with I @-@ 96 and M @-@ 14 along the boundary between Livonia and Plymouth Township and not at the interchange in Novi and Farmington Hills . MDOT considers I @-@ 275 to extend northward concurrently with I @-@ 96 to the Novi and Farmington Hills , and maps from other providers follow MDOT 's lead and label the freeway north of M @-@ 14 as I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 .
I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 275 runs southward for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) before crossing into Wayne County at the interchange with 8 Mile Road near the Meadowbrook Country Club . The freeway curves to the east around Schoolcraft College ; then , south of 5 Mile Road , I @-@ 96 meets the interchange with M @-@ 14 and I @-@ 275 where it turns to the east along the Jeffries Freeway . To the north and south sides of I @-@ 96 are a pair of service drives named Schoolcraft Road which follow the 4 Mile location on the Mile Road System for Detroit . To the north of the Jeffries are residential neighborhoods and to the south are commercial or industrial areas . At Inkster Road , the freeway crosses into Redford Township where it intersects US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) near Eliza Howell Park . East of the park , I @-@ 96 enters Detroit .
Past the Outer Drive interchange , I @-@ 96 splits into a local @-@ express lanes configuration . There are two carriageways in each direction , and the central ones have three lanes that bypass almost all of the exits while the outer ones have two lanes that have access to each exit . The Jeffries turns southeasterly and separates from Schoolcraft Road shifting one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) to the south . The interchange with M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) features slip ramps so that traffic can pass between the local and express lanes . Further east , I @-@ 96 turns northeasterly to cross Grand River Avenue at the southern end of M @-@ 5 . I @-@ 96 curves over to the interchange with M @-@ 8 ( Davison Avenue ) and the local @-@ express configuration ends as the freeway turns back to the south to cross over Grand River Avenue .
From the crossing south of Davison , I @-@ 96 runs parallel to Grand River Avenue southeasterly with eight lanes total . The two run together as far as the interchange with I @-@ 94 ( Edsel Ford Freeway ) near Bishop Park . I @-@ 96 turns more south @-@ southeasterly there through residential neighborhoods on Detroit 's southeastern side . I @-@ 96 terminates at an interchange that connects it to I @-@ 75 ( Fisher Freeway ) and to the Ambassador Bridge .
= = History = =
Interstate 96 was mostly constructed in sections that opened from 1957 to 1962 , but it was not completed in the Detroit area until 1977 . Even before the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act was signed in 1956 , the route was being planned as a replacement of the old US 16 , which was decommissioned in 1962 .
= = = Beginnings = = =
The Muskegon – Grand Rapids – Lansing – Detroit corridor was initially named the Grand River Road , an Indian trail that was designated as a military highway in 1825 . The roadway was included as a branch of " Division 2 " of the State Trunkline Highway System when that was created in May 1913 . When the system was signposted in 1919 , the highway was assigned the M @-@ 16 designation . Grand River Avenue was the first paved highway across the state when
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The A.V. Club was positive , grading it an A. He particularly praised the way the darkness was handled which made it a " tense , gripping mini @-@ movie " , and also praised the guest stars . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two wrote positively of the first part of the entry , noting that it " jogs along quite merrily as a simple contagion story " . They were , however , more critical of the second half , noting that the story " takes a left turn and becomes a thoughtful analysis on disinformation , on cover @-@ up , and the public right to truth . " Shearman and Pearson called both parts " two really interesting rough drafts " , but concluded that the two halves were ill @-@ suited for one another .
= Ryszard Siwiec =
Ryszard Siwiec ( Polish pronunciation : [ ˈrɨʂart ˈɕivjɛt ͡ s ] ; 7 March 1909 — 12 September 1968 ) was a Polish accountant and former Home Army resistance member who was the first person to commit suicide by self @-@ immolation in protest against the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia . Although his act was captured by a motion picture camera , Polish press omitted any mention of the incident , which was successfully suppressed by the authorities . Siwiec prepared his plan alone , and few people realized what he tried to achieve with his sacrifice . His story remained mostly forgotten until the fall of communism , when it was first recounted in a documentary film by Polish director Maciej Drygas . Since then , Siwiec has been posthumously awarded a number of Czech , Slovak , and Polish honors and decorations .
Siwiec 's death foreshadowed the much better known self @-@ immolation of Jan Palach in Prague four months later . Siwiec was the first person from Central and Eastern Europe to self @-@ immolate in protest of the invasion , and the only one in Polish history .
= = Biography = =
Siwiec was born in Dębica on 7 March 1909 , under the Austrian Partition of Poland , then part of Austria @-@ Hungary . He graduated from the Lviv University with a degree in philosophy . Siwiec worked as an accountant since the 1930s in Przemyśl , where he moved shortly after graduation . During World War II he escaped forced labour for the Germans by taking employment as a gardener and joined the Armia Krajowa ( Home Army ) , the Polish resistance movement . Ryszard Siwiec married in 1945 and had five children .
= = Self @-@ immolation = =
According to friends and family , he had extensive historical knowledge and was deeply disillusioned with the reality of communist Poland . He supported the protesting students during the March 1968 Polish political crisis in Poland , printing bibuła leaflets and asking his daughter to distribute them . According to health professionals , he was of sound mind , and fully rational , at the time of his suicide . Siwiec planned his self @-@ immolation months in advance , writing out a last will in April , and leaving written and tape @-@ recorded statements explaining his revulsion at both the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia and the People 's Republic of Poland 's participation in it .
Siwiec obtained passes to a national harvest festival taking place on 8 September 1968 at the 10th @-@ Anniversary Stadium in Warsaw . His goal was to have his act be witnessed by nearly 100 @,@ 000 spectators , including numerous journalists and the national leadership of the Polish United Workers ' Party . He set himself ablaze during one of the festival dances using a flammable solvent . This method of protest was likely inspired by recent series of similar protests by Buddhist monks in Vietnam , most notably that of Thích Quảng Đức . He had a banner with the words " For our freedom and yours " and " Honour , Fatherland " as well as some leaflets , which he is said to have thrown around right before the incident , though neither attracted much attention , and both items are primarily mentioned only in the documents of the investigating secret police . He refused immediate help and shouted " I protest " . He retained consciousness after the flames had been extinguished , giving brief statements , as well as later when he was transferred to a hospital ( Szpital Praski ) , where he was able to communicate with the medical personnel , and where he received a brief visit from his wife . In the hospital , he was put under police surveillance , dying four days later on 12 September .
= = Significance and remembrance = =
The incident was immediately suppressed by the authorities . A story invented on the spot was that it was an accident caused by drinking vodka and smoking , or spontaneously combusting , aiming to divert interest to gossip and portray Siwiec as an irresponsible drunk . He was also declared mentally ill .
Despite many attendees at the festival , there were relatively few witnesses , and the incident did not cause any delay in the main proceedings . Journalists and others knew that they would not be able to publish any photographs or movies , so those aware of the incident did not bother recording it other than by accident , nor did any try to investigate it afterward . Most of the few photographs of the incidents have been destroyed or forgotten and lost . Siwiec was censored out of official photographs of the Central Photographic Agency ( Centralna Agencja Fotograficzna ) , which had a monopoly on issuing photos for the press in the era of communist Poland . His act was captured in a 7 @-@ second film by a motion picture camera of the Polish Film Chronicle , but the official newsreels of the festival omitted any mention of the incident . This footage however survived , mislabeled either by accident or purpose , until it was rediscovered over twenty years later .
Polish secret police ( Służba Bezpieczeństwa ) made a routine investigation that ended quickly due to the " death of the culprit " , followed by routine low @-@ key surveillance of his friends and family , during which it intercepted Siwiec 's last letter to his wife ( delivered decades later ) . Overall , the authorities had little trouble suppressing the events , as none of the relatively few witnesses have shown any particular desire to make the event more widely known . There was some gossip about the incident , with most people considering it a suicide rather than an accident , but the reason for it was unclear , and no one connected Siwiec 's dramatic actions to contemporary political events . As publicist Stefan Kisielewski wrote in his diary two days after Siwiec 's death , " There are rumours about a self @-@ immolation [ during the festival ] but none knows the reason for it . "
= = = Funeral = = =
Siwiec ' funeral in Przemyśl was well attended , but did not turn into a political manifestation ; it was guarded by police , and secret agents spread rumors aimed at damaging Siwiec 's reputation . His family reported that while some acquaintances were supportive and aware of Siwiec 's true purpose , many turned away from them , either intimidated by the authorities or believing the stories that Siwiec had been drunk or mentally ill .
Siwiec 's timing has been described as unfortunate , as he chose to commit his act during a dance ( mazurka ) , at which time his cry was muffled due to the sounds of an orchestra playing . Some , like Tomas Kavaliauskas or Krzysztof Kąkolewski , have speculated that if he had chosen to act moments earlier , during a speech by Polish communist leader Władysław Gomułka , first secretary of the Polish United Workers Party , the commotion he caused would have likely interrupted it and his message might have been witnessed more widely . Publicist Antoni Zambrowski noted that many other self @-@ immolators like Czech Jan Palach had cooperated with anti @-@ communist opposition movements and left messages and other documents which helped publicize their activities ; Siwiec worked alone and so the Polish anti @-@ communist opposition with which he identified with was not aware of his action and the meaning behind it until much later .
Radio Free Europe learned about the incident a few days or months ( sources vary ) after the incident but did not consider the message reliable nor newsworthy , as the broadcaster was also unaware of its political context . This changed only after the famous self @-@ immolation of Palach in Prague four months later , on 19 January 1969 , and after RFE received more information , which clarified the political statement that Siwiec wanted to make . The RFE broadcast about Siwiec aired in February , March or April ( sources vary ) that year . If Palach became aware of Siwiec 's actions , it would thus have been due to word of mouth , rather than from RFE .
= = = Recognition = = =
Through the efforts of his family and friends , information about Siwiec became known to the anti @-@ communist Solidarność opposition in Poland by the 1980s . A brochure about him was published in 1981 . After the fall of communism , Siwiec became the subject of the 1991 documentary film Hear My Cry ( Usłyszcie mój krzyk ) , by Polish director Maciej Drygas . The film won several awards including the European Film Awards " Felix " prize for " Best Documentary " that year . Drygas , who is credited with reconstructing and popularizing Siwiec 's story , remarked that compared to other similar incidents of that time , such as the self @-@ immolations of Palach or Romas Kalanta , Siwiec death 's is unique in how little attention it attracted . Jan Nowak @-@ Jeziorański , the director of the Polish section of Radio Free Europe , expressed a similar sentiment : " This was an unheard of human tragedy ... The tragedy lay in that his sacrifice went completely unnoticed . " In the same vein , Kavaliauskas interprets Drygas ' movie as a critique of contemporary Polish society , saying that witnesses did not want to have this incident spoil their enjoyment of the festival on an otherwise " perfect day " .
Following Drygas ' movie , Ryszard Siwiec was posthumously awarded a number of Czech , Slovak and Polish state decorations . Memorial plaques dedicated to his memory exist in Warsaw , Dębica and Przemyśl . A bridge in Przemyśl , where he lived , was named after him in 1991 , as well as a street in Prague in front of the Czech Institute for the Study of Totalitarian Regimes , with a nearby memorial dedicated to him , unveiled in 2010 . A street in Warsaw was named for him in 2011 . Nonetheless , as noted by Kavaliauskas in 2010 , he still is less known than other self @-@ immolators of his time .
= = Honours = =
Siwiec was awarded the following honours posthumously :
Order of Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk , first class , awarded in 2001 by Václav Havel , President of the Czech Republic .
Order of Polonia Restituta , Commander 's Cross , awarded in 2003 by Aleksander Kwaśniewski , President of Poland .
Order of the White Double Cross , 3rd Class , awarded in 2006 by Ivan Gašparovič , President of Slovakia .
= Bradwall =
Bradwall is a small village and civil parish in the unitary authority of Cheshire East , about 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northwest of Sandbach in the ceremonial county of Cheshire , England , and about 20 mi ( 32 km ) south of Manchester . According to the 2011 census , the population of the entire parish was 182 . The area is predominantly agricultural , with no manufacturing or retail outlets .
The village is not mentioned in the 11th @-@ century Domesday survey , but from the 13th century gained notability as the manorial estate of Richard de Bradwall and his successors , including the families of Venables , Berington and Oldfield . From the early 19th century , it became the seat of the Latham family of Bradwall who resided at Bradwall Hall until its demolition in the early 20th century .
Bradwall hosts social events at the Village Hall , horse trial competitions ( eventing ) at Manor farm , and coarse fishing at Field Farm Fisheries . The Wesleyan Chapel Methodist Church has been the only place of worship since 1882 and closed in September 2013 . The manufacturer of Foden Trucks and their award @-@ winning Fodens Motor Works Band , were based in Bradwall until a boundary change in 1936 placed them in the adjacent parish of Sandbach .
= = History = =
= = = Place name = = =
Bradwall is not mentioned in the Domesday Book , completed in 1086 for William I of England , at which time the area was thought to be uncultivated moorland between Brereton and Warmingham , that formed part of the southern boundary of the Barony of Kinderton , the historic name of Middlewich .
The township derives its name from the Old English word brāde , meaning broad , and wælla meaning spring . Variant spellings include ( dates in brackets ) : Brade- , -wal , -wale , -walle , Bradwall ( 1226 ) , Brad ( e ) well ( e ) ( 1281 ) , Brod ( e ) wall ( 1324 ) , Beatwall ( 1326 ) , Broadwall ( 1415 ) , Bardwell ( 1438 ) , and , Bradwell ( 1724 ) . The name was also associated with the local hamlet of Hollinsgreen , where it was referred to as Bradwall et Hollins ( c . 1662 ) , and Bradwall cum Hollins ( 1819 ) . Today , the township also lends its name to the hamlet of Bradwall Green .
= = = Archaeological finds = = =
There is evidence of Bronze Age and Roman activity in the area . A Late Bronze Age axe head dating to around 1000 @-@ 801 BC was found near Fields Farm Fisheries in Bradwall . Around a thousand Roman coins dating from not earlier than 270 AD were discovered in 1820 , on the eastern side of Bradwall , a short distance from the Brindley Moor 's Farm and about four miles direct from the Roman station at Kinderton , at a point where a small brook is crossed by the footpath from Brereton to Sandbach . Discovered by a mole @-@ catcher , the coins included examples of denarii of Gallienus , Claudius II , Tetricus , Victorinus , and Diocletian . The remains of part of a Roman road , are also thought to have been discovered near the western side of Bradwall , by Boothlane , towards the west of Sandbach , and near King Street . Since the 1936 parish boundary changes , the road 's location is now in Elworth on Roman Way in Sandbach Parish .
= = = Manor of Bradwall = = =
Main article Manor of Bradwall
The first records that mention Bradwall are from about the 13th century , when the Venables family of Kinderton divided the Manorial estate ( i.e. the land ) of Bradwall into two parts or " moieties " . Several families have been associated with either the Manor , or the more recent country seat at Bradwall Hall , including :
= = = Seat of Bradwall = = =
The country seat of Bradwall ( i.e. its buildings and its estate ) is thought to have been originally on the west side of the parish , within a rectangular moat with a large pool , with the name Hallfields , near Hollins Wood . Hall Field next to Hollins Wood is also found on 19th @-@ century tithe maps . At some later time , the seat moved eastwards to Bradwall Hall .
= = = = Bradwall Hall = = = =
Located nearer the middle of the parish , Bradwall Hall was the seat of the Latham Family . Recorded as early as 1803 , the Hall is described as " a large white house with no architectural features of interest , is said by Dr. George Ormerod to have been ' a large building of brick , finished with gables , at the end of an avenue of firs and evergreens , ' which had been enlarged and modernised from time to time " . Following the 19th @-@ century decline of the English country house , Bradwall Hall was demolished on 16 October 1960 , blown up by the 214 Field Squadron of the Royal Engineers , although one of its cottages and the coach @-@ house remain , and they are now Grade II listed buildings , dated by English Heritage to the 17th century .
= = = = Bradwall Reformatory School for Boys = = = =
Bradwall Reformatory School was built by George William Latham ( 1827 – 1886 ) on his own property at Bradwall Hall , in 1855 , and aimed to reform delinquent boys through the use of an industrial labour apprenticeship . A report to the House of Commons in 1861 reported that :
" There were 58 boys in the school when I inspected it . [ ... ] I was glad to find that more of the ordinary farming processes were being resorted to ; the plough and other common agricultural machines employed , so that the training of the lads as farm servants would be gradually made more complete than the use of spade labour allows of . The books are well kept . The punishments had been much fewer , chiefly fines or loss of privilege . [ ... ] : The cost per head for the year was 18l . 9s . 11d . "
Notable detainees included two eight @-@ year @-@ old boys , Peter Barratt and James Bradley , who on 11 April 1861 abducted and killed two @-@ year @-@ old George Burgess . They were charged with manslaughter , and sentenced by the judge Sir Charles Crompton to be sent to the Reformatory at Bradwall , which " was to rank as the most enlightened and successful institution of its kind in the country " . Another detainee was one Joshua Tolley who was sent to Bradwall in 1871 at the age of eight . He was in and out of reform school until the age of 16 , but as a persistent offender , served sentences in Knutsford and Dartmoor prisons .
George William Latham 's cousin , Charles Latham ( 1816 – 1907 ) was surgeon to the Bradwall Reformatory from its foundation until his retirement in 1903 . The school was renamed Bradwall Training School in 1908 , and closed in 1920 . The buildings are now Grade II listed , converted into cottages .
= = = Economic history = = =
Historically , Bradwall has been farming and pasture land with the majority of people working in agriculture . The 1881 Census notes that nearly 20 % of the residents were in agriculture followed by nearly 12 % in domestic service ; 43 % had an unknown , or non @-@ specific occupation ( see table below ) . The 1902 Kelly 's Directory of Cheshire , noted that in Bradwall , " the crops are oats , roots , wheat and rye . The land is chiefly pasture " , and that commercially , there are a total of 15 farmers , one blacksmith and the superintendent of the Reformatory School .
= = Geography = =
Bradwall is a village and parish council in south east Cheshire in the northwest of England . As the crow flies , the Irish Sea is about 37 mi ( 60 km ) north west , Manchester city centre is about 22 mi ( 35 km ) north , the county capital Chester is 22 mi ( 35 km ) west , the Peak District is 13 mi ( 21 km ) east , Stoke on Trent is 13 mi ( 21 km ) southeast , and London is 150 mi ( 240 km ) southeast ( 172 mi ( 277 km ) by car ) .
Locally , Bradwall is a mile north of Sandbach parish council , 7 @.@ 5 mi ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) northeast of Crewe , 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) southeast of Middlewich , 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of Holmes Chapel , and 8 mi ( 13 km ) west of Congleton . The Parish covers 1 @,@ 938 acres ( 784 ha ) Somewhat irregular in shape , it extends about 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east @-@ west , and 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) north @-@ south . The land is slightly undulating , at an elevation of about 130 ft ( 40 m ) in the northwest , rising to about 195 ft ( 59 m ) in the southeast . Wooded areas included Barlow Wood , Bradwall Wood , Denman Wood and Hollins Wood .
A handful of brooks flow throughout the parish , the most notable being the so @-@ called Small Brook which flows into Sanderson 's Brook in the adjacent Sproston Parish . The River Croco is about a 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of Bradwall , and the River Wheelock about 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) away from the southwest boundary of Bradwall . Both rivers join the River Dane in Middlewich , which itself flows about 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) north , ( see 1577 map ) . The Environment Agency indicates that the Small Brook may be subject to occasional , but not extensive flooding .
Bradwall parish also includes the hamlets of Bradwall Green in the east , and Hollinsgreen in the west , which used to be called Hollins , and Bradwall @-@ cum @-@ Hollins , that was noted for a 16th @-@ century water @-@ powered corn mill . There also used to be a hamlet called Hope in the parish . ( Not to be confused with Bradwell in the Derbyshire parish of Hope . )
= = = Climate = = =
Following the rest of United Kingdom and its parent county , Cheshire , Bradwall has an oceanic climate influenced by the Atlantic Ocean , and also by its altitude due to its proximity to the Pennines .
See also : Average temperature chart , Precipitation chart , and Wind speed chart
= = Geology = =
Bradwall sits mainly on fine @-@ grained mudstone , over a bedrock of Wilkesley Halite member with Halite @-@ stone . The halite is responsible for rock salt deposits in the surrounding area ( see " Salt in Cheshire " ) , and there is evidence of there having been " wich fields " along the western side of Wards Lane that may indicate small scale brine extraction . The thickness of the bedrock is estimated at around 400 m , and was formed around 221 to 227 million years ago in the Late Triassic Carnian period , in a hot dry environment . It is surrounded by Devensian glacial till from the last glacial period from between approximately 110 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . A small pocket of undifferentiated river terrace deposits of sand and gravel , dating from the Quaternary about 2 @.@ 5 million years old , is located southeast of the intersection of Pillar Box Lane with Bradwall Road . ( See illustration at The British Geological Survey ) . The topsoil reveals many trace elements , and an acidity that has been decreasing since 1978 . Several boreholes in the area reveal glacial sand and clays with a couple of layers of ground water .
= = = Seismology = = =
One of the six major regional seismic profiles lines , the 189 mi ( 304 km ) Lancaster to Birmingham profiles passes directly through Bradwall , as part of the Sandbach @-@ Knutsford Sub @-@ Basin of the Cheshire Basin . About five other minor seismic profiles also pass through Bradwall , all managed by the UK Onshore Geophysical Library , that are uses by resources exploration companies ( such as oil , gas and coal ) . Bradwall does not lie in an earthquake zone , although on 11 November 1997 , a rare magnitude 1 @.@ 5 earthquake was recorded about 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) due north in Byley .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 census , the population of Bradwall Civil Parish totals 182 people ( 93 men and 89 women ) in 67 households . All households described their ethnicity as white , and of the population of 182 , 141 ( 77 % ) people stated their religion as Christian , 28 ( 15 % ) as no religion , the remaining 13 ( 7 % ) not stating a preference . The life expectancy at birth in 2007 – 2009 is 79 years for men , and 82 for women .
= = = Population = = =
The population of Bradwall peaked in the 1920s at over 1300 . The sharp decline in population in the 1930s is due to the 1936 change in the parish boundaries , when the populated area of Elworth was moved from Bradwall Parish and into Sandbach Parish . Since the 1950s , there has been a slight decline in population , and it is now well under 200 :
1801 , 1831 . 1811 . 1841 – 1851 . 1861 – 1871 . 1881 – 1961 2001 2011
= = Economy = =
There are only around a dozen businesses operating in Bradwall today , half of which are farms split evenly between dairy and agricultural farming . Other businesses include property development , accountancy and gardening . Some of the farms also operate secondary businesses , notably riding schools , stables and an annual eventing event .
Compared to the 1881 Census ( see Economic History ) , the working population recorded in the 2001 Census seems to show that the economy of Bradwall , along with the population , in decline .
The 2001 census notes that of the total population of 166 , that 127 ( 77 % ) are of working age between 16 and 74 . Of these , 90 ( 54 % ) are employed , divided between 36 people in " Extractive and Manufacturing Industries " and 54 people in " Service Industries " . The Census also reveals the following occupational breakdown :
= = Culture and Community = =
= = = Bradwall Village Hall = = =
Bradwall Village Hall was opened on 26 October 1972 by Lady Diana Helen Barlow , ( wife of Sir John ) , on land of the former Bradwall Hall . The hall is used for social and public events , such as Cheshire Rural Touring Arts , the South Cheshire Cheshire Beekeepers ' Association , Sandbach Folk Dance Club , and the Probus Club of Sandbach . The Village Hall is also used as the local Polling Station .
= = = Sport = = =
Although it has a Sandbach postcode , coarse fishing is available in the southeast of Bradwall Civil Parish at Field Farm Fisheries with five pools stocked with barbel , bream , carp , chub , crucian , rudd , roach and tench . The equestrian governing body , British Eventing , holds horse trials in eventing at Manor Farm each year . Plum Tree Farm Riding Centre is the local riding school . Chellebeech Livery Yard is at Springbank Farm .
= = = Parks and nature reserves = = =
Bradwall Parish has no parks and nature reserves of its own . The nearest public park is Sandbach Park , about 1 @.@ 75 mi ( 3 km ) away , with bowling greens , play areas , skate park , tennis court and multi @-@ use games area . Congleton Park is about 8 mi ( 13 km ) miles away and include a town wood and riverside walks . The Quinta Arboretum , created by Sir Bernard Lovell , is 9 mi ( 14 km ) away in Swettenham , and features multiple species of trees , shrubs and avenues .
Grade II registered parks and gardens include Queen 's Park in Crewe about 9 mi ( 14 km ) away , featuring a boating lake , stream garden , trees and floral borders . Rode Hall in Odd Rode parish about 8 mi ( 13 km ) away , is a landscape park designed by Humphry Repton in 1790 and created by John Webb in the early @-@ 19th century , and featuring a formal and kitchen garden .
Other countryside sites close to Bradwall include the Wheelock Rail Trail for walkers and cyclists , about 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) away in Sandbach , and Brereton Heath Local Nature Reserve about 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away , which includes a 15 @-@ acre lake and " a wealth of bird life , including great and lesser spotted woodpeckers , nuthatch , treecreepers , kingfisher , heron , great crested grebe and goldfinch " . About 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away is the Bagmere reserve , a Site of Special Scientific Interest , due to its internationally important series of meres and mosses , and " the last remaining site in Cheshire for the small pearl @-@ bordered fritillary butterfly " The nearest bird reserve is 26 mi ( 42 km ) way at Coombes Valley .
= = Landmarks = =
Bradwall is home to three buildings that were Grade II listed from 5 December 1986 , though none are open to the public :
The 17th @-@ century cottage and coach @-@ house of the former Bradwall Hall includes a two @-@ story building with three windows , made with brown brickwork and tile roof . Inside are chamfered oak beams , chimney corner ( inglenook ) and oak supporting beams ( bressumer ) . The coach house is also oak framed with brown brick and roof tiles .
Built around 1700 , Plumbtree Farmhouse off Ward 's Lane in Bradwall Green is a two @-@ storey building with three windows , built with brown brick .
The Reformatory School and Cottages ( 1855 datestone ) on Walnut Lane , is a two @-@ storey building with three windows , now converted in cottages , that surrounds a rectangular courtyard . The school originally cost £ 255 to build .
= = Transport = =
= = = Roads = = =
The main road through Bradwall is Bradwall Road , which runs from Middlewich in the northwest , to Sandbach in the South . A 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) stretch of the M6 motorway passes through the east of the parish , which is a couple of miles from the M6 Exit 17 . Before the motorway was built in the 1960s , and still available to local traffic , Bradwall is served by the A54 Middlewich to Holmes Chapel road to the north , the A50 Holmes Chapel to Arclid in the east , the A534 Arclid to Sandbach to the south , and the A533 Sandbach to Middlewich in the west .
= = = Walking = = =
There are several public footpaths forming rights of way in Bradwall . For example , a 1 @.@ 25 mi ( 2 km ) footpath runs from Congleton Road in Sandbach , northwards through the fields and across the Small Brook to Bradwall Manor , and another 1 @.@ 25 mi ( 2 km ) footpath runs from the end of Vicarage Lane in Elworth , northeastwards across the Small Brook , Wood Lane to Bradwall Lane near the junction of Pillar Box Lane .
= = = Nearby transport = = =
Manchester International Airport is about 25 mi ( 40 km ) from Bradwall . The nearest airfield is about 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away at Arclid Airfield , currently used by Cheshire Microlights . A few miles north of Bradwall , RAF Cranage was built during the Second World War , and was operational between 1940 and 1958 .
There are no bus services into Bradwall . There nearest services are a couple of miles away in Sandbach , where the No.32 goes to Crewe , 37 ( E ) to Middlewich , 38 to Macclesfield and Crewe , 49 to Holmes Chapel , 78 to Nantwich , 319 to Holmes Chapel , D1 to Crewe , H1 to Whitehill , X81 to Middlewich , X22 to Liverpool , and X38 to Congleton .
The Trent and Mersey Canal passes about 100 m ( 330 ft ) from the western border of Bradwall . National Cycle Way Route 71 Parkgate to Teggs Nose , Macclesfield , passes about 100 m ( 330 ft ) from the northeast boundary of Bradwall .
Built in 1841 , the Crewe to Manchester railway Line passes through Bradwall from southwest to northeast . The parish has no stations of its own , the nearest being Sandbach station in Elworth , about 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away by road , which runs between Crewe and Manchester . Closing to passengers in 1960 , a single freight line between Sandbach via Middlewich railway station and Northwich also just enters Bradwall in the northwest , near the electricity substation in Moston . The closest railway junction is Crewe railway station , serving Chester , Derby , London , Manchester and beyond .
= = Government = =
Bradwall civil parish was originally part of Sandbach Ancient Parish , and was created a separate parish from it in 1867 . It also was part of Nantwich Hundred , Congleton Poor Law Union , Rural Sanitary District , and ( after 1866 ) it formed part of Congleton Rural District until 1974 , when it became part of the Borough of Congleton .
In terms of parliamentary representation , the Bradwall area ( including the time when it was not a separate civil parish ) was in the Cheshire Southern Division from 1832 to 1867 ; in the Cheshire Mid Division , from 1867 to 1885 ; in the Eddisbury Division , from 1885 to 1918 ; in the Northwich Division , from 1918 to 1948 ; from 1948 it was in Knutsford County Constituency , but it is currently in Congleton Parliament Constituency , represented by Mrs Fiona Bruce MP . The local polling station is Bradwall Village Hall .
One of 112 Local Councils in Cheshire East , Bradwall Parish Council is currently chaired by Greg Gnyp .
= = Education = =
There are no schools in Bradwall parish , so it falls into the Offley and Sandbach School Admission Catchment areas , which determines the nearest appropriate school . The primary school for the area is Offley Primary School ( about 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) away ) . A 2011 OFSTED report noted that this is a larger @-@ than @-@ average @-@ sized school , whose overall effectiveness was graded as " good " , an improvement by one grade over the previous inspection in 2008 . The secondary schools are Sandbach High School and Sixth Form College for girls , and Sandbach School for the boys . Both are independent schools that have converted to academy status . 2008 OFSTED reports gave each school a top Grade 1 " Outstanding " rating . The local Voluntary Aided ( Catholic ) school is St Mary 's Catholic Primary School in Middlewich , which a 2011 Ofsted reports noted as " Satisfactory " , and the local Voluntary Aided ( C of E ) school is Brereton Church of England Primary School , which a 2011 Ofsted report stated as " Good " . The nearest college is South Cheshire College , and the nearest university is Manchester Metropolitan University 's Institute of Education , both in Crewe .
= = Religious sites = =
Built in 1882 , Bradwall 's only place of worship is the Wesleyan Chapel Methodist Church on Ward 's Lane . The church is one of four in the Sandbach Mission Area ( the others are in Sandbach , Sandbach Heath and Wheelock ) , and services are held fortnightly on Sunday . The minister is the Rev 'd Kim Stilwell . Historic Minutes , financial and administrative records between 1882 and 1928 are held at the Cheshire Record Office . In 1982 , the Chapel celebrated its centenary .
St Mary 's Church in Sandbach has a chancel that belonged to Bradwall Hall , and includes the arms of Oldfield . Once called the Bradwall Chancel or Bradwall Chapel , it is not called the Chapter House , " Church records state that Philip Oldfield of Bradwall had a confirmation of his right to this Chapel from the Bishop of Chester on 8 October 1589 .
= = Notable people = =
Edwin Foden , ( 1841 – 1911 ) , was a vehicle manufacturer who founded Foden Trucks and Fodens Motor Works Band . He died at his home , Elworth House , then in Bradwall parish . Other members of the family business included his sons , William Foden ( 1868 – 1964 ) and Edwin Richard Foden ( 1870 – 1950 ) , who were born at Bradwall Green , and Foden senior 's business partner , George Hancock ( c . 1823 ) , who was a neighbour on Foundry Street , Bradwall in 1871 .
The Rev. John Richard Armitstead ( 1829 – 1919 ) was born at Springfields , Bradwall , and succeeded his father as vicar of St Mary 's Church , Sandbach in October 1865 .
= = Services = =
Public utilities to Bradwall Parish County are served by Scottish Power Manweb regional electricity company , the North West gas network ( a gas pipeline passes through Bradwall along the route of the M6 motorway , ) and water is provided by Severn Trent Water .
There is no cable TV available in the area , but like the rest of country , Sky TV is available by satellite . FreeView digital TV is transmitted from the Winter Hill transmitter 33 @.@ 5 mi ( 53 @.@ 9 km ) away , and is part of the Granada television region .
The local telephone exchange is Sandbach ( code WMSBH ) , with several companies providing a variety of Internet broadband services , including Broadband ADSL since 2000 , and Broadband ADSL Max since 2006 ( estimated speed 3.5Mb ) . Mobile phone services with 2G and 3G are available from the major networks . A 15m UTMS mobile phone mast operated by 3 is on Brindley Lane , and a 23 @.@ 5 m ( 77 ft ) GSM mast operated by Network Rail on Wood Lane .
Bradwall is policed by Middlewich and Holmes Chapel Neighbourhood Policing Team , part of Cheshire Constabulary police force . Crime rates are low , with just two crimes reported throughout 2011 .
= Tropical Storm Vongfong ( 2002 ) =
Tropical Storm Vongfong , known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Milenyo , affected both the Philippines and China after a deadly flood season . The 14th named storm of the 2002 Pacific typhoon season , Vongfong developed as a tropical depression on August 10 . Initially it was disorganized due to hostile conditions , and it failed to intensify significantly before crossing the Philippine island of Luzon . There , flooding forced 3 @,@ 500 people to evacuate their homes . In the Philippines , the storm killed 35 people and caused $ 3 @.@ 3 million in damage .
After affecting the Philippines , the tropical depression dissipated in the South China Sea , although it reformed on August 15 . It moved northwestward , strengthening into Tropical Storm Vongfong . It brushed eastern Hainan before making landfall on August 19 in southern China near Wuchuan , Guangdong . Soon after it dissipated , the storm dropped heavy rainfall across the region , causing one traffic accident in Hong Kong and killing twelve people due to landslides . The storm destroyed 6 @,@ 000 houses , mostly in Guangdong , and damage in the country totaled at least $ 86 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 8 , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , formed to the west @-@ northwest of Palau , with a weak circulation connected to the monsoon trough . The system had good outflow , although it was initially within an area of increasing moderate wind shear , which limited organization . Convection increased , and although the circulation was exposed , the shear later decreased enough for the system to organize into a tropical depression on August 10 ; the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) labeled it as Tropical Depression 18W , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) labeled it as an unnumbered depression , and the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) gave it the name Tropical Depression Milenyo .
Upon developing , the depression was located in an area of weak steering currents , still connected to the monsoon rough , and it moved slowly to the west @-@ northwest . The thunderstorms continued to be sheared to the west of the circulation , which limited strengthening . On August 12 , the JTWC briefly upgraded the system to a tropical storm after a temporary increase in thunderstorms , although the system soon weakened . A ridge to the north caused a general westward track toward the Philippines . With a fully exposed circulation , the depression made landfall at 0800 UTC on August 13 near Infanta on the Philippine island of Luzon . It soon dissipated due to continued shear and land interaction . The remnants continued westward into the South China Sea , and PAGASA and JMA both discontinued advisories early on August 14 . However , on August 15 , a tropical depression re @-@ developed halfway between Vietnam and the Philippines , with a circulation exposed from the convection due to moderate wind shear . That day , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 20W .
After redevelopment , wind shear continued to be a problem , with convection located southwest of the center . Early on August 17 , a pulse in the monsoon increased thunderstorms and allowed the system to become better organized . The convection became more concentrated and the circulation less exposed . As a result , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Vongfong early on August 18 , still in the central South China Sea . Around that time , the storm began moving more quickly to the northwest due to a developing ridge to its northeast . Although the JMA estimated peak 10 – minute sustained winds of only 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) , the JTWC assessed Vongfong as continuing to intensify to peak 1 – minute winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , early on August 19 . By that time , the storm was near Hainan , and at 1240 UTC that day , Vongfong made landfall in southern China near Wuchuan , Guangdong . It quickly weakened over land , dissipating early on August 20 to the west of Guilin .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Heavy rains from the storm affected the Philippines , causing flooding that forced 3 @,@ 500 people to evacuate their houses . This occurred after a month of heavy rainfall from several tropical cyclones in July . Officials closed schools and advised small boats to remain at port . A vessel capsized offshore Antique Province , and its crew of 15 was rescued . At least six people died due to electrocution , after downed power lines touched floodwaters . The storm spawned a tornado and caused landslides in Negros Oriental . The storm killed 35 people in the country and injured 22 others . Damage was estimated at $ 3 @.@ 3 million ( ₱ 172 million 2002 PHP ) . Milenyo was the final storm to be named by PAGASA during 2002 .
On August 17 , the Hong Kong Observatory ( HKO ) issued standby signal number 1 due to the storm 's reformation in the South China Sea . Vongfong made landfall west of the territory , although its outer rainbands spread across the region . Slick roads contributed to a traffic accident in Sai Kung in which one person was killed . Rainfall in Hong Kong reached 133 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) in the town of Kwai Chung . The rainbands also produced gusty winds ; sustained winds peaked at 75 km / h ( 47 mph ) , with gusts to 110 km / h ( 68 mph ) at the mountain peak of Tai Mo Shan . While moving ashore , Vongfong produced a storm surge of 0 @.@ 48 m ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) in Shek Pik . The storm downed a few trees across the territory , and a fallen branch injured one man . Another person was injured by a damaged awning .
In Hainan , the threat from Vongfong prompted officials to close the primary airport and to restrict sea traffic with Guangdong . As a result , 113 flights were delayed , stranding more than 3 @,@ 000 people . On the island , rainfall reached as high as 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) in Haikou over a three @-@ day period . In the city , the storm downed 2 @,@ 145 trees , and damage was estimated at $ 456 @,@ 000 ( ¥ 3 @.@ 8 million CNY . In the midst of a deadly flooding season across China , including Tropical Storm Kammuri that affected the region only 12 days earlier , Vongfong brought additionally heavy rainfall to southwestern China ; totals in Guangdong peaked at 222 @.@ 6 mm ( 8 @.@ 76 in ) in Zhanjiang , and in Guangxi , rainfall reached 124 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) in a nine @-@ hour period in Bobai County . The storm washed a boat ashore about 60 km ( 37 mi ) southwest of Hong Kong , although the passengers were rescued . Rains spread as far north as Hunan , where previous flooding prompted a state of emergency . In neighboring Jiangxi , floods caused the Yangtze River to crest above warning levels in Jiujiang . River levels also rose in Liuzhou in Guangxi . Wind gusts as strong as 144 km / h ( 90 mph ) were reported in Zhanjiang , and a station in Guangxi reported gusts to 115 km / h ( 71 mph ) . The storm caused flooding and landslides that damaged thousands of houses . Some areas lost electricity during the storm , and the storm disrupted traffic in the region . Vongfong flooded 46 @,@ 000 ha ( 110 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields , and storm flooding also damaged hundreds of reservoirs . Vongfong destroyed 5 @,@ 600 houses in Guangdong , many of them in Zhanjiang , and provincial damage there was estimated at $ 46 million ( ¥ 382 million CNY ) . In Guangxi , the storm killed twelve people , eight due to landslides . At least 400 houses were destroyed in Guangxi , and damage in the province was estimated at over $ 36 @.@ 2 million ( ¥ 300 million CNY ) .
= Jet Force Gemini =
Jet Force Gemini is a third @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by Rare for the Nintendo 64 video game console . It was first released in North America on October 11 , 1999 and in Europe on November 2 , 1999 . The story of the game follows three members of the Jet Force Gemini team as they try to stop the advances of the dark insect tyrant Mizar and his army . The game features a single @-@ player campaign where the player must explore a galaxy and save a large number of Tribals , a group of survivors who have been enslaved and imprisoned by Mizar . The game also includes a multiplayer deathmatch for two to four players and a no split @-@ screen co @-@ operative mode . The gameplay shares elements with platform , action @-@ adventure , and run and gun games .
Jet Force Gemini was developed by Rare 's Blast Corps team
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, who originally considered the possibility to use the Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak . The game received generally positive reviews from critics , with an aggregate review score of 80 out of 100 at the review aggregate website Metacritic . Praise was given to its graphics , sound and original gameplay , while criticism was levelled at the game 's difficult controls and insistence on having to save every Tribal to fully complete the game .
= = Plot = =
Jet Force Gemini revolves around the Jet Force Gemini team attempting to defeat the evil leader Mizar and his horde of Drones . Jet Force Gemini is composed of three main characters : Juno , a taciturn human male whose parents were killed by space pirates that invaded his home station ; Vela , Juno 's feisty twin sister ; and Lupus , Jet Force Gemini 's wardog mascot . The game begins with the three characters in orbit around the planet Goldwood after barely escaping the destruction of the entire Jet Force fleet at the hands of Mizar . Their ship has been damaged , leaving them defenseless and unable to warp out of the system . It is not long before the team witnesses Mizar 's attack on Goldwood . Soon afterwards , their cruiser is attacked by a large craft of Mizar 's . Boarded by drones and out of time , the three decide to abandon the ship and go off on their own separate paths to stop the invasion .
As the game progresses , the heroes eventually find themselves reunited at Mizar 's Palace and face to face with Mizar himself . However , Mizar , enraged and vowing revenge on the human race , escapes to a nearby asteroid where he sets course to impact with Earth . King Jeff , the beloved leader of the Tribals , quickly arranges a plan to help the heroes : by providing an ancient starship that can quickly catch up to Mizar 's asteroid . Nevertheless , the team needs to locate several vital parts scattered throughout the galaxy , as well as rescue all the Tribals enslaved by Mizar . Also , King Jeff upgrades the heroes with new armor and jet packs that allow them to fly . From this point on , the team stays united and , together , works to search every world for anything they can find .
Once all the Tribals are rescued and the parts found , the team , along with King Jeff , reassembles the old Tribal craft and quickly depart to save Earth . After a rough landing , Juno fights through Mizar 's guards and eventually confronts the tyrant . To the surprise of all though , Mizar is revealed to be a robot controlled by King Jeff 's jealous brother , Barry . Realising that destroying Barry 's robot ruined their best chance of destroying the asteroid , the team is out of options . In an honorable notion , Floyd , the quiet little robot that defected from Mizar and followed the team , offers to sacrifice himself to destroy the asteroid . Hesitantly , the team agrees and attaches a timed warhead to Floyd before sending him into the core . With no time to spare , the team returns to the Tribal craft and departs only seconds before Floyd reaches the core . In a brilliant flash of light , the asteroid is destroyed mere miles away from entering the atmosphere of Earth . Afterwards on Earth , Jet Force Gemini is given the highest honors for their many accomplishments .
= = Gameplay = =
Jet Force Gemini is a third @-@ person shooter with elements of platform , action @-@ adventure , and run and gun games . Players control the playable character from a third @-@ person perspective in a free three dimensional environment . The game features extensive levels to explore , items to collect , power @-@ ups that enhance characters health and weaponry , towering bosses to defeat , and devastation on a massive scale . Unlike other Rare shooters such as GoldenEye 007 or Perfect Dark , the weapons in Jet Force Gemini feature no magazines and cannot be reloaded after a certain number of shots . Players fight on foot and have the ability to jump . Much of the game is spent in battle , but some parts feature jump mechanics , as the player can hang from most ledges , swim and fly using jet packs when needed . In combat , the player is free to set on a manual aiming system with the targeting camera fixed behind the character ’ s head . When using this technique , a reticle appears on screen and the playable character becomes translucent so that players can aim and shoot with finesse . By contrast , when walking around , the game plays much like a typical 3D platformer .
Exploration is one of the most important aspect of the gameplay . The campaign features a galaxy that is composed of 15 nonlinear worlds , with areas connected by different types of doors . Most of the doors open automatically , but some need a special action to be unlocked . For example , some doors require the player to kill all the enemies in the area to be unlocked , while others may require a specific key . The players can take control of any and all three characters as they progress though the game , using their individual and unshared strengths where required ; Juno can walk through magma safely , Vela can swim underwater indefinitely , and Lupus can hover for a short period of time . These abilities allow the characters to uncover new areas which the other characters cannot reach . Therefore , choosing the right character for the right stage is critical in order to complete the game . Initially , the game does not allow the player to tackle the different worlds with a desired character , and forces the player to use the three characters individually until they reach a meeting point . Once they get to the meeting point , all of the worlds can be tackled with any character in any order . The overall objective of the game is to explore all the areas in order to save all the Tribals and collect several spaceship pieces that allow the player to get to the final stage .
The game also features a multiplayer mode , where two to four players can battle it out in both traditional deathmatch and survival matches . Like GoldenEye 007 , options such as weapon schemes , time limit , number of kills or number of lives can be altered to match player preference . Additionally , some multiplayer aspects , such as levels and characters , can be unlocked by finding the corresponding secret in the game 's campaign . Players can also unlock some racing mini @-@ games , where players race from an overhead perspective , as well as a firing range mode , which is similar to a rail shooter like Virtua Cop . In this mode , players are limited to moving a crosshair around the screen while the game automatically follows a specific route . Jet Force Gemini also features a no split @-@ screen co @-@ operative mode , where the second player takes control of Floyd , a floating robot that automatically follows the main playable character , and can assist him by shooting .
= = Development = =
Development of Jet Force Gemini began in 1997 by Rare 's Blast Corps team , with lead programmer Paul Mountain , who had previously worked on Diddy Kong Racing . The developers took inspiration from many popular games and movies of the time . The free @-@ roaming nature of Nintendo 's Super Mario 64 influenced the scale and the openness of some of the backgrounds and settings , and the collecting and upgrading of weapons were inspired by Super Metroid . Additionally , Mountain revealed that " the behaviour of the bad guys was a mixture of arcade space shooter formations and Quake @-@ style ' attack and cover ' mechanics " . According to him , " I suppose ... we were inspired by all the good stuff we 'd played and enjoyed playing " . The game also borrowed from other non @-@ related video games sources . Lead artist Lee Musgrave admitted : " There are elements of Star Wars in there , Aliens , Dune , Battle of the Planets , even Stargate – it was a real mix of everything and anything ' space ' related . "
At one time , the game 's protagonists Juno and Vela were designed as younger and more cartoon @-@ like with large heads , but were later changed to their more mature versions at Nintendo 's request . The game 's controls were one of the main concerns during development . The idea was to retain a character @-@ based game , where players could see the character they were playing , while keeping the tightness and accuracy of first @-@ person shooters . Rare initially attempted to automate the change of view and targeting mode based on the context of the action , but this idea was eventually replaced with a manual system . According to Mountain , " The solution we ended with is a beautiful thing ... It feels very old @-@ school to me ; difficult , unforgiving , but ultimately precise " . As several members of the team enjoyed racing games and had also worked on Diddy Kong Racing , the team decided to include the futuristic Ant racing featured in the campaign and the top @-@ down arcade racing games in the multiplayer .
Developers initially considered the possibility to use the 4MB Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak , but the idea was eventually dropped . According to Mountain , " we wanted to deliver the same experience to all players and were confident that we could do this using the standard 4MB of RAM on the console . " This led to some confusion as the box cover for the original release stated that it did support such a feature . Nintendo provided a quick @-@ fix to the mislabeled covers by providing stickers declaring its rumble pak compatibility and fixed later printings of the boxes . The game was originally planned for release on August 31 , 1999 , but was pushed back to September 27 in order to give the programmers time to polish up the game . It was then pushed back even further to October 11 due to manufacturing delays . Jet Force Gemini was localized as Star Twins ( スターツインズ ) in Japan due to Nintendo 's opinion that the Japanese pronunciation of the original name , " Jetto Fōsu Jeminai " was too difficult to pronounce . 4Kids Entertainment obtained the rights to merchandising both Jet Force Gemini and Perfect Dark toys , movies , and other recreational products , but the company did not produce any merchandise for the franchise .
= = Reception = =
Jet Force Gemini received generally positive reviews from video game critics . At the review aggregate website Metacritic , the game holds an average review score of 80 out of 100 . GameSpot reviewer Nelson Taruc awarded the game a rating of 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 , commenting : " Nintendo 64 fans should pick up this title without delay and hope that Rareware 's team of top @-@ notch talent will continue to churn out even more games like this one for years to come " . Matt Casamassina of IGN praised Rare for exploring new mechanics and concluded his review by saying that " this is still one of Nintendo 64 's most original games and it has much more good going for it than it does bad " .
The audio and sound effects were lauded . IGN pointed out that the music is " some of the very best ever put into a Nintendo 64 game " and described the sound effects as " dead @-@ on and crystal clear " . Steve Graff , writing for Gaming Target , observed that the audio is suspenseful and atmospheric , while Johnny Liu of Game Revolution opined that the game " goes for a more operatic feel than the generic video game techno " . The graphics were praised for their diversity , colour and lighting effects , but some publications remarked that the frame rate can drop significantly when the action increases . The enemy AI , challenge and variety of weapons were also highlighted positively . According to IGN , " It 's old @-@ school gameplay brought into 3D and it 's all extremely satisfying " .
While critics generally praised the game 's level design and length , several reacted negatively to the insistence on having to save every Tribal to fully complete the game . According to GameCritics , " Going through each level three times becomes majorly tedious [ ... ] and finding them also lead a lot of pointless legwork " . Ravi Hiranand of Gaming Age also criticized the fact of restarting an entire level when a single Tribal is accidentally killed . IGN declared this task to be " far too tedious to truly be enjoyed " . Despite the criticism , Game Revolution admitted that this " is countered by the pure fun of running around tearing through giant bugs with lasers " .
The multiplayer mode received a mixed reaction . IGN called it " slow and clunky " , while Gaming Age observed that the third @-@ person view " takes up far too much of the " already tiny split screen [ and ] the complex control system does not help make it a game to pick @-@ up @-@ and @-@ play " . Nevertheless , the minigames and co @-@ operative mode received more praise . Publications also claimed that the controls were complex and confusing . IGN remarked that the targeting system is not very intuitive . In contrast , Gaming Age stated that " once you get the hang of it after about an hour 's play , it does get quite easy to use " . Similarly , GameSpot felt that they remain responsive at all times , but admitted that the alternation between the two distinct control styles " might prove distasteful to some " .
= = Legacy = =
A Game Boy Color version of Jet Force Gemini was in development in 2000 , but was ultimately cancelled . The owner of the prototype cartridge has attested that the game appears to be nearly complete , though it was never officially announced by either Rare or Nintendo . In an October 2012 interview , former Rare designer and producer Martin Wakeley commented : " Jet Force Gemini on the Gameboy was the only occasion I can remember Rare outsourcing anything . It was being done by Bits Studios and was nearly done last time I saw it , I ’ m not sure what happened to it . "
In 2000 , Jet Force Gemini was ranked by IGN at number 20 in their list of The Top 25 N64 Games of All Time . In 2009 , Official Nintendo Magazine ranked it the 93rd best game available on Nintendo platforms . The staff called it Rare 's " big hope " due to the highly anticipated but delayed Nintendo 64 game Perfect Dark . Subsequent games developed by Rare have featured cameo appearances of Jet Force Gemini , including Kameo : Elements of Power , Viva Piñata : Trouble in Paradise , and Banjo @-@ Tooie . Players may also dress their character up as Juno , Vela , and Lupus in Minecraft : Xbox 360 Edition through the use of a downloadable content pack . The game is included as part of the Rare Replay video game compilation for Xbox One , with support for dual @-@ analog controls being added post @-@ release .
= When the Bough Breaks ( Star Trek : The Next Generation ) =
" When the Bough Breaks " is the 17th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . The episode first aired in broadcast syndication on February 15 , 1988 . It is the first episode written for the series by Hannah Louise Shearer and the only episode of the series with Kim Manners as director .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise @-@ D. In the episode , the residents of a not @-@ so @-@ mythical planet kidnap children from the Enterprise to re @-@ populate their dying world . While Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) attempts to negotiate for their release , Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) organises a passive resistance among the children .
The episode features Jerry Hardin in his first Star Trek role , and Brenda Strong . Mackenzie Westmore , the daughter of make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore , along with Jeremy and Amy Wheaton , the younger brother and sister of Wil Wheaton , appear as uncredited children . 10 @.@ 2 million viewers watched the episode , which was higher than the number of viewers watching the following episode . " When the Bough Breaks " received a mixed reception from critics who praised the performances of Stewart and Wheaton , but criticised the environmental message .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise enters the Epsilon Mynos system , searching for the legendary world of Aldea . The planet de @-@ cloaks , and reveals itself to the ship . The Aldeans beam down Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) , Counselor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) , and Chief Medical Officer Beverly Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) to the planet . The Aldeans explain that they have been unable to bear children for many years and revealed themselves to the Enterprise in hopes they could trade their advanced technology for some of the Enterprise 's children so that they can re @-@ populate their world . Riker refuses and the crew is returned to the Enterprise . Simultaneously , seven children , including young Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) , are taken down to the planet protected by a planetary energy shield that the crew of the Enterprise are unable to penetrate . While the Aldean elders attempt to integrate the children into their society , Wesley is shown the " Custodian " , an ancient computer system that the Aldeans rely on but do not understand .
As Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) attempts to negotiate with the Aldeans , they briefly allow Dr. Crusher to reunite with her son on the planet . Wesley hints about the Custodian to her , while she secretly passes him a tricorder to scan the Aldeans . After Picard fails to get the Aldeans to agree to the children 's return , they fire an energy weapon that sends the Enterprise three days away from Aldea at maximum warp . The Aldeans warn that they can send the Enterprise an impossibly far distance if they refuse to cooperate . During the return trip , Dr. Crusher reviews the scanner results and finds the Aldeans are suffering from radiation poisoning , which has harmed their reproductive capabilities but can be reversed if the source is discovered . On arrival back at the planet , Picard orders the crew to try to find a way through the planet 's shield while he restarts negotiations .
Wesley , aware the Enterprise is in orbit , arranges for the children to passively resist . When the Aldeans request Picard 's help to resolve the issue with the children , the crew finds a way to beam through the shield , allowing Commander Riker and Lt. Commander Data ( Brent Spiner ) to sneak onto the planet . Data manages to disable the Custodian , disrupting the Aldean 's transporter and planetary shield . Dr. Crusher explains to the Aldeans that their shield has weakened the ozone layer of their planet , exposing the inhabitants to ultraviolet radiation that has left them unable to bear children . The radiation would likely have the same effects on the children from the Enterprise . Without the planetary shield , the ozone layer will naturally return , allowing the Aldeans to reproduce again . The Aldeans recognize the error of their ways and return the children to the Enterprise . They accept Starfleet 's help to correct their ancient systems and recognize that they will have to forgo their invisibility to continue their society .
= = Production = =
Writer Hannah Louise Shearer pitched the episode to associate producer D. C. Fontana , highlighting the families living on board the Enterprise . While the pilot episode " Encounter at Farpoint " first mentioned the children on the ship , " When the Bough Breaks " was the first time they had been used as a plot element . Shearer also discussed a story idea with series creator Gene Roddenberry about " a society that had lost its humanity in favor of technology " . Originally , there was a subplot involving the separation of the saucer section with the saucer taken hostage . Shearer described Wheaton 's performance in the episode as " just wonderful " . " When the Bough Breaks " was the first of five episodes credited to Shearer ; she later described it as her favourite episode . It was the only episode of the series directed by Kim Manners . Manners later produced the television series The X @-@ Files and Supernatural .
Visual effects supervisor Robert Legato created a two @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) model of the Aldean computer . It was cheaper to build a model of the computer for around US $ 3 @,@ 000 than to create a series of matte paintings . Ron Jones took a simple approach to the score , using a lilting theme with a piano or flute instead of singing . The theme is representative of the Enterprise 's children and first appeared in the opening cue , " Escape From Calculus " . The technology of Aldea is embodied by electronic music across several pieces , including " Scanning for Children " and " Power Source " .
Among the guest stars in " When the Bough Breaks " were Jerry Hardin who later appeared again in The Next Generation as Mark Twain in the two @-@ part episode " Time 's Arrow " , and appeared in The X @-@ Files as Deep Throat . Brenda Strong went on to appear as Mary Alice Young in 179 episodes of Desperate Housewives , and was nominated for two Emmy Awards . Several uncredited children appeared , including Mackenzie Westmore , the daughter of make @-@ up supervisor Michael Westmore and the younger siblings of Wil Wheaton , Jeremy and Amy .
= = Reception and home media release = =
The episode first aired on February 15 , 1988 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 2 million on the first broadcast , a ratings decrease following " Too Short a Season " , which received ratings of 10 @.@ 9 the previous week . The episode received higher ratings than the following episode , " Home Soil " the week after , which gained ratings of 9 million .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido of Tor.com said it was " A mostly harmless episode that lifts quite a bit from The Cliché Handbook " . He thought the performances were fairly solid and that the overall message about the ozone layer was " unsubtle but not too sledgehammery " . DeCandido praised Patrick Stewart 's performance of Captain Picard , noting that his " anger and outrage and justified self @-@ righteousness at the kidnapping of children modulates nicely into diplomacy when negotiating with the Aldeans and amusingly into total discomfort when he has to actually deal directly with the children " . He gave the episode a score of six out of ten . James Hunt , writing for Den of Geek , said that it was " a decent enough story , but not in a way that makes you want to watch it " . He also felt that it was " a complete throwaway episode and contains almost nothing unique to the franchise " .
Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club said that he was scared by the way he liked the episode despite it focusing on Wesley . He noticed the similarity between the " legendary " planets of Aldea in the episode and Magrathea in The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , a reference Handlen considered possibly deliberate . He thought that the child @-@ heavy episode wasn 't " as bad as it could 've been " , and gave the episode a " B " grade . Michelle Erica Green in her review for TrekNation , described " When the Bough Breaks " as " tedious , plodding and didactic " with a " preposterous " ending . She thought that the plot element of ozone damage was not optimal and that the quality of the episode was typical of the first season .
" When the Bough Breaks " was first released on VHS cassette in the United States and Canada on August 26 , 1992 . The episode was released in March 2002 on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set . It was included as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= The Lion King =
The Lion King is a 1994 American animated epic musical film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released by Walt Disney Pictures . It is the 32nd animated feature in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series . The story takes place in a kingdom of lions in Africa , and was influenced by William Shakespeare 's Hamlet . The film was produced during a period known as the Disney Renaissance . The Lion King was directed by Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff , produced by Don Hahn , and has a screenplay credited to Irene Mecchi , Jonathan Roberts and Linda Woolverton . Its original songs were written by composer Elton John and lyricist Tim Rice , and original scores were written by Hans Zimmer . The film features an ensemble voice cast that includes Matthew Broderick , James Earl Jones , Jeremy Irons , Jonathan Taylor Thomas , Moira Kelly , Nathan Lane , Ernie Sabella , Rowan Atkinson , Robert Guillaume , Madge Sinclair , Whoopi Goldberg , Cheech Marin , and Jim Cummings .
The Lion King tells the story of Simba , a young lion who is to succeed his father , Mufasa , as king ; however , after Simba 's uncle Scar murders Mufasa , Simba is manipulated into thinking he was responsible and flees into exile in shame and despair . Upon maturation living with two wastrels , Simba is given some valuable perspective from his childhood friend , Nala , and his shaman , Rafiki , before returning to challenge Scar to end his tyranny .
Development of The Lion King began in 1988 during a meeting between Jeffrey Katzenberg , Roy E. Disney and Peter Schneider while promoting Oliver & Company in Europe . Thomas Disch wrote a film treatment , and Woolverton developed the first scripts while George Scribner was signed on as director , being later joined by Allers . Production began in 1991 concurrently with Pocahontas , which wound up attracting most of Disney 's top animators . Some time after the staff traveled to Hell 's Gate National Park in Kenya to research on the film 's setting and animals , Scribner left production disagreeing with the decision to turn the film into a musical , and was replaced by Minkoff . When Hahn joined the project , he was dissatisfied with the script and the story was promptly rewritten . Nearly 20 minutes of animation sequences were produced at Disney @-@ MGM Studios in Florida . Computer animation was also used in several scenes , most notably in the wildebeest stampede sequence .
The Lion King was released on June 15 , 1994 , to a positive reaction from critics , who praised the film for its music , story and animation ; it finished its theatrical run as the highest @-@ grossing release of 1994 and the second highest @-@ grossing film of all time . The Lion King garnered two Academy Awards for its achievement in music and the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy . The film has led to many derived works , such as a Broadway adaptation ; two direct @-@ to @-@ video follow @-@ ups — the sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride ( 1998 ) and the prequel / parallel The Lion King 1 ½ ( 2004 ) — two television series , Timon and Pumbaa and The Lion Guard , and a 3D re @-@ release in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
In the Pride Lands of Africa , a lion rules over the animals as king . The birth of King Mufasa and Queen Sarabi 's son Simba creates envy and resentment in Mufasa 's younger brother , Scar , who knows his nephew now replaces him as heir to the throne . After Simba has grown into a young cub , Mufasa gives him a tour of the Pride Lands , teaching him the responsibilities of being a king and the Circle of Life . Later that day , Scar tricks Simba and his best friend Nala into exploring a forbidden elephant graveyard , despite the protests of Mufasa 's hornbill majordomo Zazu . At the graveyard , three spotted hyenas named Shenzi , Banzai and Ed attack the cubs before Mufasa , alerted by Zazu , rescues them and forgives Simba for his actions . That night , the hyenas , who are allied with Scar , plot with him to kill Mufasa and Simba .
The next day Scar lures Simba to a gorge and tells him to wait there while he gets Mufasa . On Scar 's orders , the hyenas stampede a large herd of wildebeest into the gorge . Mufasa rescues Simba , but as Mufasa tries to climb up the gorge 's walls , Scar throws him back into the stampede , where he is trampled to death . After Simba finds Mufasa 's body , Scar convinces him he was responsible for his father 's death and advises Simba to flee the kingdom . As Simba leaves , Scar orders Shenzi , Banzai and Ed to kill the cub , but Simba escapes . That night , Scar announces to the pride that both Mufasa and Simba were killed in the stampede and steps forward as the new king , allowing a pack of hyenas to live in the Pride Lands .
After running far away , Simba collapses from exhaustion in a desert . Timon and Pumbaa , a meerkat and a warthog , find him and nurse him back to health . Simba subsequently grows up with them in the jungle , living a carefree life with his friends under the motto " hakuna matata " ( " no worries " in Swahili ) . When he is a young adult , Simba rescues Timon and Pumbaa from a hungry lioness , who turns out to be Nala . She and Simba reunite and fall in love . Nala urges Simba to return home , telling him the Pride Lands have become a wasteland with not enough food and water . Feeling guilty over his father 's death , Simba refuses and storms off , leaving Nala disappointed and angry . As Simba exits the jungle , he encounters Mufasa 's mandrill friend and advisor , Rafiki . Rafiki tells Simba that Mufasa is " alive " and takes him to a pond . There Simba is visited by the ghost of Mufasa in the sky , who tells him he must take his rightful place as the king of the Pride Lands . Simba realizes he can no longer run from his past and goes home . Nala , Timon , and Pumbaa join him , and agree to help him fight .
At the Pride Lands , Simba sees Scar hit Sarabi and confronts him , but Scar taunts Simba over his " part " in Mufasa 's death . However , when Scar pushes Simba to the edge of Pride Rock , he reveals that he killed Mufasa . Enraged , Simba roars back up and forces Scar to reveal the truth to the pride . Timon , Pumbaa , Rafiki , Zazu , and the lionesses fend off the hyenas while Scar , attempting to escape , is cornered by Simba at the top of Pride Rock . Scar begs Simba for mercy , insisting that he is family and placing the blame on the hyenas . Simba no longer believes Scar , but spares his life on the grounds of forever leaving the Pride Lands . Scar appears to comply , but then attacks his nephew . After a fierce fight , Simba throws his uncle off Pride Rock . Scar survives the fall , but is attacked and eaten alive by the hyenas , who overheard his attempt to betray them .
With Scar and the hyenas gone , Simba ascends to the top of Pride Rock and takes over the kingdom as the rain falls again . Sometime later , with Pride Rock restored to its former glory , Simba looks down happily at his kingdom with Nala , Timon , and Pumbaa by his side ; Rafiki presents Simba and Nala 's newborn cub to the inhabitants of the Pride Lands , and the Circle of Life continues .
= = Voice cast = =
Matthew Broderick as Simba , son of Mufasa and Sarabi , who grows up to become King of the Pride Lands . Joseph Williams provided adult Simba 's singing voice . Mark Henn and Ruben A. Aquino respectively served as the supervising animators for young and adult Simba.Jonathan Taylor Thomas voiced young Simba , while Jason Weaver provided the cub 's singing voice .
James Earl Jones as Mufasa , Simba 's father , King of the Pride Lands as the film begins . Tony Fucile served as the supervising animator for Mufasa .
Jeremy Irons as Scar , Mufasa 's younger brother and Simba 's uncle , who usurps the throne . Andreas Deja served as the supervising animator for Scar .
Moira Kelly as Nala , Simba 's best friend and later his wife . Sally Dworsky provided her singing voice . Aaron Blaise and Anthony de Rosa respectively served as the supervising animators for young and adult Nala.Niketa Calame provided the voice of young Nala while Laura Williams provided her singing voice .
Nathan Lane as Timon , a wise @-@ cracking and self @-@ absorbed yet somewhat loyal meerkat who becomes one of Simba 's best friends and adoptive parents . Michael Surrey served as his supervising animator .
Ernie Sabella as Pumbaa , a naïve warthog who suffers from flatulence and is Timon 's best friend and also becomes one of Simba 's best friends and adoptive parents . Tony Bancroft served as his supervising animator .
Robert Guillaume as Rafiki , a wise old mandrill ( although , while counseling Simba , he jokes that " you are a baboon , and I am not " ) who serves as shaman of the Pride Lands and presents newborn cubs of the King and Queen to the animals of the Pride Lands . James Baxter served as the supervising animator for Rafiki .
Rowan Atkinson as Zazu , a hornbill who serves as the king 's majordomo ( or " Mufasa 's little stooge " , as Shenzi calls him ) . Ellen Woodbury served as the supervising animator for Zazu .
Madge Sinclair as Sarabi , Mufasa 's mate , Simba 's mother , and the leader of the lioness hunting party . Russ Edmonds served as the supervising animator for Sarabi .
The three hyenas who serve Scar were animated by Alex Kupershmidt and David Burgess.Whoopi Goldberg as Shenzi , the sassy and short @-@ tempered female leader of the trio .
Cheech Marin as Banzai , an aggressive and hot @-@ headed hyena prone to complaining and acting on impulse .
Jim Cummings as Ed , a dim @-@ witted hyena who does not talk , only communicating through laughter . Cummings also voiced a gopher that talks with Zazu and replaced Irons as Scar in certain lines of " Be Prepared " after Irons blew his voice .
Zoe Leader as Sarafina , Nala 's mother , who is shown briefly talking to Simba 's mother , Sarabi .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for The Lion King was conceived in late 1988 during a conversation between Jeffrey Katzenberg , Roy E. Disney and Peter Schneider on a plane to Europe to promote Oliver & Company . During the conversation , the topic of a story set in Africa came up , and Katzenberg immediately jumped at the idea . The idea was then developed by Walt Disney Feature Animation 's vice president for creative affairs Charlie Fink . Katzenberg decided to add elements involving coming of age and death , and ideas from personal life experiences , such as some of his trials in his bumpy road in politics , saying about the film , " It is a little bit about myself . " In November of that year Thomas Disch ( author of The Brave Little Toaster ) wrote a treatment entitled King of the Kalahari , and afterwards Linda Woolverton spent a year writing drafts of the script , which was titled King of the Beasts and then King of the Jungle . The original version of the film was very different from the final film . The plot was centered in a battle being between lions and baboons with Scar being the leader of the baboons , Rafiki being a cheetah , and Timon and Pumbaa being Simba 's childhood friends . Simba would also not leave the kingdom , but become a " lazy , slovenly , horrible character " due to manipulations from Scar , so Simba could be overthrown after coming of age . By 1990 , producer Thomas Schumacher , who had just completed The Rescuers Down Under , decided to attach himself to the project " because lions are cool " . Schumacher likened the script for King of the Jungle to " an animated National Geographic special " .
Oliver & Company director George Scribner was the initial director of the film , being later joined by Roger Allers , who was the lead story man on Beauty and the Beast in October 1991 . Allers brought with him Brenda Chapman , who would become the head of story . Afterwards , several of the lead crew members , including Allers , Scribner , Hahn , Chapman , and production designer Chris Sanders , took a trip to Hell 's Gate National Park in Kenya , in order to study and gain an appreciation of the environment for the film . After six months of story development work Scribner decided to leave the project , as he clashed with Allers and the producers on their decision to turn the film into a musical , as Scribner 's intention was of making a documentary @-@ like film more focused on natural aspects . Rob Minkoff replaced Scribner , and producer Don Hahn joined the production as Schumacher became only an executive producer due to Disney promoting him to Vice President of Development for Feature Animation . Hahn found the script unfocused and lacking a clear theme , and after establishing the main theme as " leaving childhood and facing up to the realities of the world " , asked for a final retool . Allers , Minkoff , Chapman and Hahn then rewrote the story across two weeks of meetings with directors Kirk Wise and Gary Trousdale , who had just finished Beauty and the Beast . The script also had its title changed from King of the Jungle to The Lion King , as the setting was not the jungle but the savannah .
The Lion King was the first Disney animated feature to be an original story , rather than being based on an already @-@ existing work . The filmmakers have said that the story of The Lion King was inspired by the lives of Joseph and Moses from the Bible and William Shakespeare 's Hamlet . During the summer of 1992 , the team was joined by screenwriter Irene Mecchi , with a second screenwriter , Jonathan Roberts , joining a few months later . Mecchi and Roberts took charge of the revision process , fixing unresolved emotional issues in the script and adding comic business for Pumbaa , Timon and the hyenas . Lyricist Tim Rice worked closely with the writing team , flying to California at least once a month , as his songs needed to work in the narrative continuity . Rice 's lyrics – which were reworked up to the production 's end – were even pinned to the storyboards during development . Rewrites were frequent , with animator Andreas Deja saying that completed scenes would be delivered only for the response to be that parts needed to be reanimated due to dialog changes .
= = = Casting = = =
The voice actors were chosen for how they fit and could add to the characters – for instance , James Earl Jones was cast because the directors found his voice " powerful " and similar to a lion 's roar . Jones commented that during the years of production , Mufasa " became more and more of a dopey dad instead of [ a ] grand king " .
Nathan Lane originally auditioned for Zazu , and Ernie Sabella , for one of the hyenas . Upon meeting each other at the recording studio , the actors , who at the time both co @-@ starred in Guys and Dolls , were asked to record together as hyenas . The directors laughed at their performance and decided to cast them as Timon and Pumbaa . For the hyenas , the original intention was to reunite Cheech & Chong , but while Cheech Marin accepted to play Banzai , Tommy Chong was unavailable . Thus his role was changed into a female hyena , Shenzi , who was voiced by Whoopi Goldberg .
Matthew Broderick was cast as adult Simba early during production , and during the three years of voice acting only recorded with another actor once , and only discovered Moira Kelly voiced Nala at the premiere . Jeremy Irons had at first refused the role due to not being comfortable going from the dramatic performance as Claus von Bülow in Reversal of Fortune to a comedic role . But once he came in , Irons ' performance even inspired the writers to incorporate more of his acting as von Bülow — even adding one of that character 's lines , " You have no idea " - and animator Andreas Deja to watch both Reversal of Fortune and Damage to pick up Irons ' facial traits and tics .
= = = Animation = = =
The development of The Lion King started concurrently with Pocahontas , which most of the animators of Walt Disney Feature Animation decided to work on instead , believing it would be the more prestigious and successful of the two . The story artists also did not have much faith in the project , with Chapman declaring she was reluctant to accept the job " because the story wasn 't very good " , and writer Burny Mattinson saying to co @-@ worker Joe Ranft about the film that " I don 't know who is going to want to watch that one . " Most of the leading animators were either doing their first major work supervising a character , or had much interest in animating an animal . Thirteen of these supervising animators , both in California and Florida , were responsible for establishing the personalities and setting the tone for the film 's main characters . The animation leads for the main characters included Mark Henn on young Simba , Ruben A. Aquino on adult Simba , Andreas Deja on Scar , Aaron Blaise on young Nala , Anthony DeRosa on adult Nala , and Tony Fucile on Mufasa . Nearly 20 minutes of the film , including the " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " sequence , were animated at the Disney @-@ MGM Studios facility . Ultimately , more than 600 artists , animators and technicians contributed to The Lion King over the course of its production . Weeks before the film was to be released , production was affected by the 1994 Northridge earthquake , which shut off the studio and required the animators to finish their work from home .
The character animators studied real @-@ life animals for reference , as was done for the 1942 Disney film Bambi . Jim Fowler , renowned wildlife expert , visited the studios on several occasions with an assortment of lions and other savannah inhabitants to discuss behavior and help the animators give their drawings an authentic feel . The animators also studied various animal movements in natural settings at the Miami MetroZoo under guidance from wildlife expert Ron Magill . The Pride Lands are modeled on the Kenyan national park visited by the crew . Varied focal lengths and lenses were employed to differ from the habitual portrayal of Africa in documentaries – which employ telephoto lenses to shoot the wildlife from a distance . The epic feel drew inspiration from concept studies by artist Hans Bacher – which , following Scribner 's request for realism , tried to depict effects such as lens flare – and the works of painters Charles Marion Russell , Frederic Remington and Maxfield Parrish . Since the characters were not anthropomorphized , all the animators had to learn to draw four @-@ legged animals , and the story and character development was done through usage of longer shots following the characters .
The use of computers helped the filmmakers present their vision in new ways . For the " wildebeest stampede " sequence , several distinct wildebeest characters were created in a 3D computer program , multiplied into hundreds , cel shaded to look like drawn animation , and given randomized paths down a mountainside to simulate the real , unpredictable movement of a herd . Five specially trained animators and technicians spent more than two years creating the two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minute stampede sequence . Other usages of computer animation were done through CAPS , which helped simulate camera movements such as tracking shots , and was employed on the coloring , lighting and particle effects .
= = Music = =
Lyricist Tim Rice , who was working with composer Alan Menken on songs for Aladdin , was invited to write the songs , and accepted on the condition of finding a composing partner . As Menken was unavailable , the producers accepted Rice 's suggestion of Elton John , after Rice 's invitation of ABBA fell through due to Benny Andersson being busy with the musical Kristina från Duvemåla . John expressed an interest in writing " ultra @-@ pop songs that kids would like ; then adults can go and see those movies and get just as much pleasure out of them " , mentioning a possible influence of The Jungle Book , where he felt the " music was so funny and appealed to kids and adults " .
John and Rice wrote five original songs for this film ( " Circle of Life " , " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " , " Be Prepared " , " Hakuna Matata " and " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " ) with the singer 's performance of " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " playing over the end credits . The IMAX and DVD releases added another song , " The Morning Report " , which was based on a song discarded during development that eventually got featured in the live musical version of The Lion King . The film 's score was composed by Hans Zimmer , who was hired based on his work in two films in African settings , The Power of One and A World Apart , and supplemented the score with traditional African music and choir elements arranged by Lebo M. Zimmer 's partners Mark Mancina and Jay Rifkin helped with arrangements and song production .
The film 's original motion picture soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on July 13 , 1994 . It was the fourth @-@ best @-@ selling album of the year on the Billboard 200 and the top @-@ selling soundtrack . It is the only soundtrack for an animated film to be certified Diamond ( 10 × platinum ) by the Recording Industry Association of America . Zimmer 's complete instrumental score for the film was never originally given a full release by Disney , until the soundtrack 's commemorative 20th anniversary re @-@ release in 2014 . The Lion King also inspired the 1995 release Rhythm of the Pride Lands , with eight songs by Zimmer , Mancina , and Lebo M.
The use of the song " The Lion Sleeps Tonight " in a scene with Timon and Pumbaa has led to disputes between Disney and the family of South African Solomon Linda , who composed the song ( originally titled " Mbube " ) in 1939 . In July 2004 , the family filed suit , seeking $ 1 @.@ 6 million in royalties from Disney . In February 2006 , Linda 's heirs reached a legal settlement with Abilene Music , who held the worldwide rights and had licensed the song to Disney for an undisclosed amount of money .
= = Release = =
For The Lion King 's first film trailer , Disney opted to feature a
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top 100 games " lists : a staff @-@ voted list in January 2000 , a staff- and reader @-@ voted list in July 2007 , a list of " The 100 Best Games to Play Today " in March 2009 , and a 2013 readers ' poll selecting the 20 best games released since the magazine 's launch in 1993 . Game Informer ranked it as its 11th favorite game of all time and described it as " untouchable " . In May 2011 , IGN held a tournament @-@ style competition celebrating the 25th anniversary of the original The Legend of Zelda 's release in which fans voted Ocarina of Time the greatest Zelda game ; it beat Majora 's Mask in the final round .
The graphics were praised for their depth and detail , although reviewers noted they were not always the best the console had to offer . Game Revolution noted the characters ' faces , the " toughest graphical challenge on 3D characters " , saying that the characters ' expressions and animation featured " surprising grace " . IGN believed that Ocarina of Time improved on the graphics of Super Mario 64 , giving a larger sense of scale . Impressive draw distances and large boss characters were also mentioned as graphical highlights . Although excelling in the use of color and the visibility and detail of the environment , reviewers noted that some graphical elements of Ocarina of Time did not perform as well as Banjo @-@ Kazooie , a game released for the same platform earlier that year . IGN said that the frame rate and textures of Ocarina of Time were not as good as those of Banjo @-@ Kazooie , particularly in the marketplace of Hyrule Castle , which was called " blurry " .
Gameplay was generally praised as detailed , with many side quests to occupy players ' time . IGN said players would be " amazed at the detail " of the environment and the " amount of thought that went into designing it " . EGM enjoyed that Nintendo was able to take the elements of the older , 2D Zelda games and " translate it all into 3D flawlessly " . Nintendo Power cited Ocarina of Time , along with Super Mario 64 , as two games that " blazed trails " into the 3D era . The context @-@ sensitive control system was seen as one of the strongest elements of the gameplay . Reviewers noted that it allowed for simpler control using fewer buttons , but that it occasionally caused the player to perform unintended actions . The camera control was quoted as making combat " second nature " , although the new system took time for the player to get used to .
The game 's audio was generally well received , with IGN comparing some of Koji Kondo 's pieces to the work of Philip Glass . Many atmospheric sounds and surround sound were designed to effectively immerse the player in the game world . Some reviewers complained that the audio samples used in the game sounded dated ; others considered this a benefit , calling them " retro " . Game Revolution called the sound " good for the Nintendo , but not great in the larger scheme of things " and noted that the cartridge format necessitated " MIDI tunes that range from fair to terrible " .
In 1998 , Ocarina of Time won the Grand Prize in the Interactive Art division at the Japan Media Arts Festival . It also won six honors at the 2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards , including " Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Interactive Design " , " Outstanding Achievement in Software Engineering " , " Console Game of the Year " , " Console Adventure Game of the Year " and " Console RPG of the Year " . Electronic Gaming Monthly gave it both the editors ' choice and readers ' choice awards for " Game of the Year for All Systems " , " Nintendo 64 Game of the Year " and " Action RPG of the Year " as well as the readers ' choice awards for " Best Music " and " Best Graphics " , and it was runner @-@ up for the reader 's choice " Best Sound Effects " award . Edge gave it the awards for " Game of the Year " and " Gameplay Innovation " and placed it 2nd place for " Graphical Achievement " ( behind Virtua Fighter 3tb ) . The game was placed second in Official Nintendo Magazine 's " 100 greatest Nintendo games of all time " , behind only Super Mario Bros.
Reception for the Master Quest and Virtual Console rereleases was positive ; while some considered aspects of the graphics and audio to be outdated , most thought that the game has aged well . The Master Quest version holds an average score of 89 @.@ 50 % on GameRankings and 91 / 100 on Metacritic . IGN said in their review , " Ocarina of Time has aged extremely well " , and noted in regard to the game 's graphics , " While the textures and models look dated , the game 's wonderful visual presentation stood the test of time . " Game Revolution said that although the game has " noticeably aged compared to brand new RPGs [ ... ] it 's still a terrific game " , awarding 91 out of 100 . Former GameSpot editor Jeff Gerstmann gave the Virtual Console port 8 @.@ 9 out of 10 , writing , " Even after nine years , Ocarina of Time holds up surprisingly well , offering a lengthy and often @-@ amazing adventure " . Edge magazine commented in its 2007 " The 100 Best Games " special issue , " [ Ocarina of Time ] was an astonishing achievement in 1998 and , almost a decade later , still serves as the landmark for its successors and 3D adventure games in general ... In a series composed of awfully big adventures , Ocarina may no longer be the prettiest , or even the biggest , but it 's still the best of all . "
= U.S. Route 220 in Maryland =
U.S. Route 220 ( US 220 ) is a part of the U.S. Highway System that runs from Rockingham , North Carolina to Waverly , New York . In Maryland , the federal highway runs 27 @.@ 30 miles ( 43 @.@ 94 km ) from the West Virginia state line at the Potomac River in McCoole north to the Pennsylvania state line in Dickens . Known as McMullen Highway for much of its length in Maryland , US 220 is the primary north – south route in central Allegany County , connecting Cumberland with its southern suburbs and Keyser , West Virginia to the south and Bedford , Pennsylvania to the north . The federal highway is part of the National Highway System between the West Virginia state line and Maryland Route 53 ( MD 53 ) in Cresaptown and between Interstate 68 ( I @-@ 68 ) , with which it is concurrent through Cumberland , and the Pennsylvania state line .
The road to Bedford was paved within the city of Cumberland by 1910 and constructed north to Pennsylvania in the 1910s . This highway comprised the southernmost portion of US 220 when the U.S. Highway System was established in 1927 . McMullen Highway was constructed starting from Cumberland and finishing in McCoole in the 1920s . When that highway was completed around 1930 , US 220 was extended south into West Virginia . Both the northern and southern portions of the federal highway were reconstructed in the 1940s and 1950s , including a new bridge over the Potomac River . US 220 was rerouted within Cumberland multiple times before being placed on I @-@ 68 in the early 1980s to bypass downtown Cumberland . The bypass of Bedford Road between I @-@ 68 and the Pennsylvania state line opened in 2000 . A new bridge over the Potomac River is currently under construction . In addition , relocation of the highway from I @-@ 68 south into West Virginia is under consideration .
= = Route description = =
US 220 enters Maryland in southwestern Allegany County , crossing the Potomac River and its own old alignment on a bridge from Keyser to McCoole . The highway meets the eastern terminus of MD 135 ( Paxton Street ) before gaining a climbing lane and ascending a hill . US 220 crosses over its old alignment again , then meets the old alignment , unsigned MD 135A , at the top of the hill . The federal highway turns northeast as McMullen Highway , a two @-@ lane road paralleling the Potomac River north to Cumberland . The highway passes through the hamlet of Dawson , where it passes a curve of its old alignment designated MD 830A and closely parallels CSX 's Mountain Subdivision . US 220 splits away from the railroad tracks to follow the valley of Deep Hollow Creek between Fort Hill immediately to the east and Dans Mountain further to the west . After passing through the hamlet of Danville , the federal highway passes into the valley of Mill Run . After passing another curve of old alignment designated MD 830B , US 220 leaves Fort Hill and Mill Run behind .
US 220 passes through the villages of Rawlings and Bier before intersecting the western end of MD 956 ( Patriot Parkway ) near Pinto . Beyond MD 956 , US 220 enters a more densely populated area , passing through the community of Bel Air . The federal highway enters Cresaptown , where US 220 intersects MD 53 ( Winchester Road ) , which is also the southern terminus of US 220 Truck . Access to northbound MD 53 is provided by unsigned MD 636 ( Warrior Drive ) shortly after .
After crossing Warrior Run , Haystack Mountain flanks US 220 to the west as the federal highway passes through Amcelle , the former site of the Celanese chemical plant that is now the location of the North Branch Correctional Institution . The federal highway curves through Potomac Park , home of the Allegany County Fairgrounds . After passing the Upper Potomac Industrial Park , US 220 parallels CSX 's Mountain Subdivision again before entering the city of Cumberland , where the highway is municipally @-@ maintained . Shortly after , US 220 meets I @-@ 68 and US 40 ( National Freeway ) at Exit 42 . Trucks and buses are prohibited from using the ramp in the diamond interchange from eastbound I @-@ 68 to southbound US 220 ; those vehicles must follow US 220 Truck instead . Greene Street , the old alignment of US 220 , continues north from the interchange as a municipal street toward downtown Cumberland .
US 220 becomes concurrent with eastbound I @-@ 68 and US 40 , passing through downtown Cumberland on a narrow , curvaceous viaduct where the highway meets the northern end of MD 51 and the east end of US 40 ALT . After passing through the eastern part of the city , US 220 exits the freeway at Exit 46 onto MD 144 ( Ali Ghan Road ) , which it follows east a short distance before turning north over I @-@ 68 onto a two @-@ lane limited access highway with a speed limit of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . MD 144 , the old alignment of US 40 , continues east toward Rocky Gap State Park . The southbound direction of US 220 joins westbound I @-@ 68 via a long ramp on a sweeping curve . After crossing Evitts Creek , Mason Road , and Bealls Mill Road , the federal highway reaches the intersection with MD 807 ( Bedford Road ) and MD 807E ( Smouses Mill Road ) in Dickens , the former being the old alignment of US 220 . US 220 turns northeast , passing MD 807D ( Pine Ridge Road ) and MD 807C before crossing the Pennsylvania state line , where the route continues north as Bedford Valley Road toward Bedford .
= = History = =
Bedford Street was paved in the city of Cumberland from downtown to Naves Cross Road by 1910 . Bedford Road was paved between Naves Cross Road and roughly the present intersection of US 220 and Bedford Road by 1915 , with the final segment to the Pennsylvania state line completed shortly thereafter . When the U.S. Highway System was organized in 1926 , Bedford Road and Bedford Street were designated the southernmost portion of US 220 . The first section of McMullen Highway — named for Hugh A. McMullen , an Allegany County miner , merchant , and banker who was Comptroller of Maryland from 1916 to 1920 — was completed between Cumberland and Cresaptown in 1920 . The highway was extended to Rawlings by 1927 and to Dawson in 1928 . McMullen Highway was completed to McCoole by 1930 . The US 220 designation was extended south of Cumberland into West Virginia at the same time . Within Cumberland , US 220 followed Greene Street north and east to Wills Creek . The federal highway crossed Wills Creek via Baltimore Street , which the highway followed east to Henderson Avenue . US 220 was concurrent with US 40 on Henderson Avenue before turning northeast onto Bedford Street . In McCoole , US 220 followed a twisty route down to the Potomac River . The federal highway followed what is today MD 135A to MD 135 , then turned east on the present MD 135 and past the present bridge to Parkland Drive , where the highway crossed the river on a bridge in line with Main Street in Keyser .
The first round of improvements to US 220 began around 1936 when the highway was widened from McMullen to Amcelle . The widened highway was extended south through Cresaptown by 1938 and to McCoole by 1942 , making all of McMullen Highway at least 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide . A second round of widening occurred during World War II as a military access project ; the highway was expanded to at least 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) in width from Cumberland to Pinto to improve access to the many wartime manufacturing centers along the highway , including the Allegany Ordnance Plant in West Virginia across the Potomac River from Pinto .
Improvements to US 220 continued after the war . Bedford Road was rebuilt between 1946 and 1950 . McMullen Highway from Cumberland to Cresaptown was widened a third time in a project completed in 1950 . The present bridge between McCoole and Keyser was completed in 1951 , with the approach road on the Maryland side completed in 1952 . Reconstruction of US 220 between Cresaptown and Rawlings occurred between 1952 and 1954 . The final segment of McMullen Highway to be rebuilt , from Rawlings to McCoole , was completed in 1956 .
The first rerouting of US 220 within Cumberland occurred in 1956 , when Frederick Street was reconstructed and became the northbound direction of a one @-@ way pair in conjunction with Bedford Street . By 1964 , the federal highway followed Mechanic Street north to the Frederick / Bedford pair instead of Henderson Avenue . In 1977 , a viaduct was completed to carry US 220 over the railroad tracks and US 40 ALT . US 220 was moved off of surface streets in downtown Cumberland when the highway was placed on the Cumberland Thruway ( now I @-@ 68 ) between McMullen Highway and Naves Cross Road in 1982 . The highway used Naves Cross Road to reconnect with Bedford Road , which was designated MD 807 between Naves Cross Road and the Cumberland city line . In 2000 , the two @-@ lane , limited @-@ access bypass of Bedford Road was completed northeast of Cumberland ; MD 807 was extended north along the bypassed part of Bedford Road . The portion of US 220 between the southern city limit of Cumberland and I @-@ 68 was transferred from municipal maintenance to state maintenance in 2010 .
= = Future = =
The 1951 bridge over the Potomac River between McCoole and Keyser is presently being replaced . Construction on the new bridge , which will be located immediately to the east of the present bridge , began in 2010 and is expected to conclude in 2013 . A study is underway concerning upgrading or relocating US 220 between I @-@ 68 and the Potomac River . The proposed routing would involve MD 53 between I @-@ 68 and Cresaptown , and is part of a larger study of a highway to connect Cumberland with Corridor H near Scherr , West Virginia .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Allegany County .
= American paddlefish =
The American paddlefish ( Polyodon spathula ) is a species of basal ray @-@ finned fish closely related to sturgeons in the order Acipenseriformes . Fossil records of paddlefish date back over 300 million years , nearly 50 million years before dinosaurs first appeared . American paddlefish are smooth @-@ skinned freshwater fish commonly called paddlefish , but are also referred to as Mississippi paddlefish , spoon @-@ billed cats , or spoonbills . They are one of only two extant species in the paddlefish family , Polyodontidae . The other is the critically endangered Chinese paddlefish ( Psephurus gladius ) endemic to the Yangtze River basin in China . American paddlefish are often referred to as primitive fish , or relict species because they retain some morphological characteristics of their early ancestors , including a skeleton that is almost entirely cartilaginous , a paddle @-@ shaped rostrum ( snout ) that extends nearly one @-@ third their body length , and a heterocercal tail or caudal fin , much like that of sharks . American paddlefish are a highly derived fish because they have evolved with adaptations such as filter feeding . Their rostrum and cranium are covered with tens of thousands of sensory receptors for locating swarms of zooplankton , which is their primary food source .
American paddlefish are native to the Mississippi River basin and once moved freely under the relatively natural , unaltered conditions that existed prior to the early 1900s . They commonly inhabited large , free @-@ flowing rivers , braided channels , backwaters , and oxbow lakes throughout the Mississippi River drainage basin , and adjacent Gulf drainages . Their peripheral range extended into the Great Lakes , with occurrences in Lake Huron and Lake Helen in Canada until about 90 years ago . American paddlefish populations have declined dramatically primarily because of overfishing , habitat destruction , and pollution . Poaching has also been a contributing factor to their decline and will continue to be as long as the demand for caviar remains strong . Naturally occurring American paddlefish populations have been extirpated from most of their peripheral range , as well as from New York , Maryland , Virginia , and Pennsylvania . The current range of American paddlefish has been reduced to the Mississippi and Missouri River tributaries and Mobile Bay drainage basin . They are currently found in twenty @-@ two states in the U.S. , and those populations are protected under state , federal and international laws .
= = Taxonomy , etymology and evolution = =
American paddlefish are closely related to sturgeons in the order Acipenseriformes , an order of basal ray @-@ finned fishes that includes sturgeon and paddlefish , several species of which are now extinct . Paddlefish are among the oldest of fishes as evidenced in the fossil record which dates their first appearance approximately 300 to 400 million years ago , almost 50 million years before the dinosaurs . Fossils of a second extinct species , P. tuberculata , which date back approximately 60 million years ago , were found in the Lower Paleocene Tullock Formation in Montana .
In 1797 , French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède established the genus Polyodon for paddlefish , which today includes a single extant species , Polyodon spathula . Lacépède disagreed with Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre 's description in Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique ( 1788 ) , which suggested paddlefish were a species of shark . Lacépède noted , " The country and habits of this fish are still unknown . " When Lacépède established the binomial , Polydon feuille , he was unaware the species had already been named in 1772 by taxonomist , Johann Julius Walbaum , who described paddlefish as Squalus spathula . As a result of Lacépède 's inadvertent double naming , Polyodon spathula became the preferred scientific name of American paddlefish , and Squalus spathula became the synonym as one of two names applied to the group . Walbuam , 1792 , is recognized and cited as the authority .
The family Polyodontidae comprises five known taxa ; three extinct taxa from western North America , and two extant taxa including the American paddlefish ( Polyodon spathula ) native to the Mississippi River Basin in the United States , and the critically endangered Chinese paddlefish ( Psephurus glades ) endemic to the Yangtze River Basin in China . American paddlefish are the only living species in the genus Polyodon . They are often referred to as primitive fish , or relict species , because of morphological characteristics they retain from some of their early ancestors as evidenced in the fossil record which dates them back to the Late Cretaceous , 70 to 75 million years ago . Some of their primitive characteristics include a skeleton composed primarily of cartilage , and a deeply forked heterocercal caudal fin similar to that of sharks , although they are not closely related .
Fossil paddlefishes with recognizable rostrums date from the Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene periods 65 million years ago . An elongated rostrum is a morphological characteristic of Polyodontidae , but only the genus Polyodon ( P. spathula and the extinct P. tuberculata ) have characteristics adapted specifically for filter feeding , including the jaw , gill arches , and cranium . The gill rakers of American paddlefish are composed of extensive comb @-@ like filaments believed to have inspired the etymology of the genus name , Polyodon , a Greek compound word meaning " many toothed " . Adult American paddlefish are actually toothless , although numerous small teeth less than 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) were found in a juvenile paddlefish measuring 630 mm ( 25 in ) . Spathula references the elongated , paddle shaped snout or rostrum . Compared to Chinese paddlefish and fossil genera , American paddlefish ( and by extension , a fossil relative , P. tuberculata ) are considered to be a highly derived species because of their novel adaptations .
Chinese paddlefish are the closest extant relative of American paddlefish . They are currently listed as critically endangered on the IUCN Red List . Several reports have suggested that Chinese paddlefish may now be extinct . The primary reasons for their decline are similar to those of American paddlefish and include overfishing , the construction of dams , and destruction of habitat . Unlike the planktivorous American paddlefish , Chinese paddlefish are strong swimmers , grow larger , and are opportunistic piscivores that feed on small fishes and crustaceans . Some distinct morphological differences of Chinese paddlefish include a narrower , sword @-@ like rostrum , and a protrusible mouth . They also have fewer , thicker gill rakers than American paddlefish . The last confirmed sighting of a live Chinese paddlefish was made on the Yangtzee River on January 24 , 2003 . From 2006 to 2008 , scientists conducted surveys in an effort to locate the fish . They used several boats , deployed 4762 setlines , 111 anchored setlines and 950 drift nets covering 488 @.@ 5 km ( 303 @.@ 5 mi ) on the upper Yangtze River , most of which lies within the protected area of the Upper Yangtze National Nature Reserve . They did not catch a single fish . They also used hydroacoustic equipment to monitor active sound in water ( sonar ) , but were unable to confirm the presence of paddlefish .
= = Description = =
American paddlefish are among the largest and longest lived freshwater fishes in North America . They have a shark @-@ like body , average 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in length , weigh 27 kilograms ( 60 lb ) , and can live in excess of thirty years . For most populations the median age is five to eight years and the maximum age is fourteen to eighteen years . The age of American paddlefish is best determined by dentary studies , a process which usually occurs on fish harvested during snagging season , a popular sport fishing activity in certain parts of the U.S. The dentary is removed from the lower jawbone , cleaned of any remaining soft tissue , and cross @-@ sectioned to expose the annual rings . The dentary rings are counted in much the same way a tree is aged . Dentary studies suggest that some individuals can live 60 years or longer , and that females typically live longer and grow larger than males .
American paddlefish are smooth @-@ skinned and almost entirely cartilaginous . Their eyes are small and directed laterally . They have a large , tapering operculum flap , a large mouth , and a flat , paddle @-@ shaped rostrum that measures approximately one @-@ third of their body length . During the initial stages of development from embryo to hatchling , American paddlefish have no rostrum . It begins to form shortly after hatching . The rostrum is an extension of the cranium , not of the upper and lower jaws or olfactory system as with the long snouts of other fishes . Other distinguishing characteristics include a deeply forked heterocercal caudal fin and dull coloration , often with mottling , ranging from bluish @-@ gray to black dorsally grading to a whitish underbelly .
= = Feeding ecology and physiology = =
Scientists began to debate the function of the American paddlefish 's rostrum when the species was described in the late 1700s . They had once believed it was used to excavate bottom substrate or functioned as a balancing mechanism and navigational aid . However , laboratory experiments in 1993 that utilized advanced technology in the field of electron microscopy have established conclusively that the rostrum of American paddlefish is covered with tens of thousands of sensory receptors . These receptors are morphologically similar to the ampullae of Lorenzini of sharks and rays , and are indeed passive ampullary @-@ type electroreceptors used by American paddlefish to detect plankton . Clusters of electroreceptors also cover the head and operculum flaps . The American paddlefish 's diet consists primarily of zooplankton . Their electroreceptors can detect weak electrical fields , which signal not only the presence of zooplankton , but also the individual feeding and swimming movements of zooplankton appendages . When a swarm of zooplankton is detected , the paddlefish swims forward continuously with their mouth wide open , forcing water over the gill rakers to filter out prey . Such feeding behavior is considered ram suspension @-@ feeding . Further research has indicated that their electroreceptors may also serve as a navigational aid for obstacle avoidance .
American paddlefish have small undeveloped eyes that are directed laterally . Unlike most fishes , American paddlefish hardly respond to overhead shadows or changes in illumination . Electroreception appears to have largely replaced vision as a primary sensory modality , which indicates a reliance on electroreceptors for detecting prey . However , the rostrum is not their only means of food detection . Some reports suggest a damaged rostrum would render American paddlefish less capable of foraging efficiently to maintain good health , but laboratory experiments and field research indicate otherwise . As well as electroreceptors on the rostrum , American paddlefish have sensory pores covering nearly half of the skin surface extending from the rostrum to the top of the head down to the tips of the operculum flaps . Studies have indicated that American paddlefish with damaged or abbreviated rostrums are still able to forage and maintain good health .
= = Reproduction and life cycle = =
American paddlefish are long @-@ lived , sexually late maturing pelagic fish . Females do not begin spawning until they are seven to ten years old , some as late as sixteen to eighteen years old . Females do not spawn every year , rather they spawn every second or third year . Males spawn more frequently , usually every year or every other year beginning around age seven , some as late as nine or ten years of age .
American paddlefish begin their upstream spawning migration sometime during early spring ; some begin in late fall . They spawn on silt @-@ free gravel bars that would otherwise be exposed to air or covered by very shallow water were it not for the rises in the river from snow melt and annual spring rains that cause flooding . Although availability of preferred spawning habitat is essential , there are three precise environmental events that must occur before American paddlefish will spawn . The water temperature must be from 55 to 60 ° F ( 13 to 16 ° C ) ; the lengthened photoperiod which occurs in spring triggers biological and behavioral processes that are dependent on increasing day length ; and there must be a proper rise and flow in the river before a successful spawn can occur . Historically , American paddlefish did not spawn every year because the precise environmental events only occurred once every 4 or 5 years .
American paddlefish are broadcast spawners , also referred to as mass spawners or synchronous spawners . Gravid females release their eggs into the water over bare rocks or gravel at the same time males release their sperm . Fertilization occurs externally . The eggs become sticky after they are released into the water and will attach to the bottom substrate . Incubation varies depending on water temperature , but in 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) water the eggs will hatch into larval fish in about seven days . After hatching , the larval fish drift downstream into areas of low flow velocity where they forage on zooplankton .
Young American paddlefish are poor swimmers which makes them susceptible to predation . Therefore , rapid first @-@ year growth is important to their survival . Fry can grow about 1 in ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) per week , and by late July the fingerlings are around 5 – 6 in ( 13 – 15 cm ) long . Their rate of growth is variable and highly dependent on food abundance . Higher growth rates occur in areas where food is not limited . The feeding behavior of fingerlings is quite different from that of older juveniles and adults . They capture individual plankton one by one , which requires detection and location of individual Daphnia on approach , followed by an intercept maneuver to capture the selected prey . By late September fingerlings have developed into juveniles , and are around 10 – 12 in ( 25 – 30 cm ) long . After the 1st year their growth rate slows and is highly variable . Studies indicate that by age 5 their growth rate averages around 2 in ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) per year depending on the abundance of food and other environmental influences .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
American paddlefish are highly mobile and well adapted to living in rivers . They inhabit many types of riverine habitats throughout much of the Mississippi Valley and adjacent Gulf slope drainages . They occur most frequently in deeper , low current areas such as side channels , oxbows , backwater lakes , bayous , and tailwaters below dams . They have been observed to move more than 2 @,@ 000 mi ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) in a river system .
American paddlefish are endemic to the Mississippi River Basin , historically occurring from the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers in the northwest to the Ohio and Allegheny rivers of the northeast ; the headwaters of the Mississippi River south to its mouth , from the San Jacinto River in the southwest to the Tombigbee and Alabama rivers of the southeast . They were extirpated from New York , Maryland and Pennsylvania , as well as from much of their peripheral range in the Great Lakes region , including Lake Huron and Lake Helen in Canada . In 1991 , Pennsylvania implemented a reintroduction program utilizing hatchery @-@ reared American paddlefish in an effort to establish self @-@ sustaining populations in the upper Ohio and lower Allegheny rivers . In 1998 , New York initiated a stocking program upstream in the Allegheny Reservoir above Kinzua Dam , and a second stocking in 2006 in Conewango Creek , a relatively unaltered section of their historic range . Reports of free ranging adults captured by gill nets have since been documented in Pennsylvania and New York , but there is no evidence of natural reproduction . They are currently found in 22 states in the US , and are protected under state and federal laws . There are 13 states that allow commercial or sport fishing for American paddlefish .
= = Human interaction = =
= = = Propagation and culture = = =
The artificial propagation of American paddlefish began with the efforts of the Missouri Department of Conservation during the early 1960s , and focused primarily on maintenance of the sport fishery . However , it was the growing importance of American paddlefish for their meat and roe that became the catalyst for further development of culture techniques for aquaculture in the United States . Artificial propagation requires broodstock which , because of the late sexual maturation of American paddlefish , are initially obtained from the wild and brought into a hatchery environment . The fish are injected with LH @-@ RH hormone to stimulate spawning . The number of eggs a female may produce depends on the size of the fish and can range anywhere from 70 @,@ 000 – 300 @,@ 000 eggs . Unlike most teleosts , the oviduct branches of American paddlefish and sturgeons are not directly attached to the ovaries ; rather , they open dorsally into the body cavity . To determine the status of progression toward maturation , ova staging is performed . The process begins with a minor procedure that involves a small abdominal incision from which to extract a few sample oocytes . The oocytes are boiled in water for a few minutes until the yolk is hardened , and then they are cut in half to expose the nucleus . The exposed nucleus is examined under a microscope to determine stage of maturity .
Once maturation is confirmed , one of three procedures is used to extract the eggs from a female paddlefish . The three procedures are ( 1 ) the traditional hand @-@ stripping method , considered to be time consuming and laborious ; ( 2 ) Caesarean section , a relatively quick surgical method of extracting eggs through a 4 in ( 10 cm ) abdominal incision ; considered faster than hand stripping , suturing can be time consuming and the incision may result in muscular stress and poor suture retention which lowers survival rate ; and ( 3 ) MIST , ( minimally invasive surgical technique ) which is the fastest of the three procedures because it requires less handling of the fish and eliminates the need for suturing . A small internal incision is made in the dorsal area of the oviduct , which allows direct stripping of eggs from the body cavity through the gonopore bypassing the oviductal funnels .
A spermiating male indicates successful production of mature spermatozoa which results in the release of large volumes of milt over the course of three to four days . Milt is collected by inserting a short plastic tube with syringe attached into the urogenital opening of the male and applying light suction with the syringe to draw the milt . The collected milt is diluted in water just prior to adding it to the eggs and the combination is gently stirred for about a minute to achieve fertilization . Fertilized eggs are adhesive and demersal , therefore if incubation is to take place in a flow @-@ through hatching jar , the eggs must be treated to prevent clumping . Incubation usually takes anywhere from five to twelve days .
= = = Global commercial market = = =
Advancements in biotechnology have created a global commercial market for the polyculture of American paddlefish . In 1970 , American paddlefish were stocked in several rivers in Europe and Asia . Introduction began when five thousand hatched larvae from Missouri hatcheries in the United States were exported to the former USSR for aquacultural utilization . Reproduction was successful in 1988 and 1989 , and resulted in the exportation of juveniles to Romania and Hungary . American paddlefish are now being raised in Ukraine , Germany , Austria , the Czech Republic , and the Plovdiv and Vidin regions in Bulgaria . In May 2006 , specimens of different sizes and weights were caught by professional fisherman near Prahovo in the Serbian part of the Danube River .
In 1988 , fertilized American paddlefish eggs and larvae from Missouri hatcheries were first introduced into China . Since that time , China imports approximately 4 @.@ 5 million fertilized eggs and larvae every year from hatcheries in Russia and the United States . Some American paddlefish are polycultured in carp ponds and sold to restaurants while others are cultured for brood stock and caviar production . China has also exported American paddlefish to Cuba , where they are farmed for caviar production .
= = = Sport fishing = = =
American paddlefish are a popular sport fish where their populations are sufficient to allow such activity . Areas where there are no self @-@ sustaining populations rely on state and federal restocking programs to maintain a viable fishery . A 2009 report includes the following states as allowing American paddlefish sport fishing per their respective state and federal regulations : Arkansas , Illinois , Indiana , Iowa , Kansas , Kentucky , Mississippi , Missouri , Montana , Nebraska , North Dakota , Nebraska , Oklahoma , Montana , South Dakota and Tennessee . Since American paddlefish are filter @-@ feeders , they will not take bait or lures , and must be caught by snagging . The official state record in Kansas is a 144 lb ( 65 kg ) American paddlefish snagged in 2004 ; Montana , a 142 @.@ 5 lb ( 64 @.@ 6 kg ) American paddlefish snagged in 1973 ; and in North Dakota , a 130 lb ( 59 kg ) American paddlefish snagged in 2010 . The largest American paddlefish on record was captured in West Okoboji Lake , Iowa in 1916 by a spear fisherman , and measured 85 in ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) long , and weighed an estimated 198 lb ( 90 kg ) .
= = Population declines = =
= = = Overfishing and habitat destruction = = =
American paddlefish populations have declined dramatically , primarily as a result of overfishing and habitat destruction . In 2004 they were listed as Vulnerable ( VU A3de ver 3 @.@ 1 ) on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . They are currently proposed for listing as VU 3de throughout their range as the result of a U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service assessment . The assessment concluded that " an overall population size reduction of at least 30 % may occur within the next 10 years or three generations due to actual or potential levels of exploitation and the effects of introduced taxa , pollutants , competitors or parasites . " American paddlefish are filter feeding pelagic fish that require large , free @-@ flowing rivers with braided channels , backwater areas , oxbow lakes that are rich in zooplankton , and gravel bars for spawning . Series of dams on rivers such as those constructed on the Missouri River have impounded large populations of American paddlefish , and blocked their upstream migration to spawning shoals . Channelization and groynes or wing dykes have caused the narrowing of rivers and altered flow , destroying crucial spawning and nursery habitat . As a result , most impounded populations are not self @-@ sustaining and must be stocked to maintain a viable sport fishery .
= = = Zebra mussels = = =
Zebra mussel infestations in the Mississippi River , Great Lakes and other Midwest rivers are also negatively affecting American paddlefish populations . Zebra mussels are an invasive species well adapted for explosive population growth as a result of high rates of fecundity and recruitment . As filter feeders , zebra mussels rely on plankton and can filter significant amounts of phytoplankton and zooplankton from the water , altering the availability of an important food source for paddlefish and native unionidae . A few days after the fertilization of zebra mussel eggs , a microscopic larva emerges called a veliger . During this initial stage of development , which usually lasts a few weeks , veligers are able to swim freely in the water column with other microscopic animals comprising zooplankton . Veligers are poor swimmers , making them susceptible to predation by any animal that feeds on zooplankton . However , natural predation of zebra mussels at any stage of development has not made a significant contribution to the long @-@ term reduction of zebra mussel populations .
= = = Poaching = = =
Poaching is also a contributing factor to declining populations of American paddlefish in the states where they are commercially exploited , particularly while the demand for caviar remains strong . Since the 1980s , a trade embargo on Iran restricted imports of the highly sought after and most expensive beluga caviar from the Caspian Sea , limiting U.S. sources of caviar . The most sought after caviar is produced by sturgeons in the Northern Caspian Sea , but overfishing and poaching have exhausted the supply . American sturgeon and paddlefish populations were targeted as likely substitutes .
The roe of American paddlefish can be processed into caviar similar in taste , color , size and texture to sevruga sturgeon caviar from the Caspian Sea . Several cases of mislabeled American paddlefish roe sold as Caspian Sea caviar have been prosecuted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) . State and federal regulations restricting the harvest of American paddlefish populations in the wild , and the illegal trafficking of their roe are strictly enforced . Related violations such as the illegal transport of American paddlefish roe have resulted in convictions with substantial fines and prison sentences . Paddlefish are also protected under CITES , ( Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora ) .
= Battle of Orbetello =
The Battle of Orbetello , also known as the Battle of Isola del Giglio , was a major naval engagement of the Franco @-@ Spanish War of 1635 . It was fought on 14 June 1646 off the Spanish @-@ ruled town of Orbetello , on the coast of Tuscany , Italy , between a French fleet led by Admiral Armand de Maillé , Marquis of Brézé , and a Spanish fleet commanded by Miguel de Noronha , 4th Count of Linhares sent to break the blockade of Orbetello and relieve the town , besieged since 12 May by a French army under the command of Prince Thomas of Savoy . The Battle of Orbetello was tactically very unusual , since it was fought by sailing ships towed by galleys in a light breeze .
After a hard but inconclusive fight during which Admiral Brézé was killed , the French fleet withdrew to Toulon leaving the sea to the Spanish , who decided not to pursue them to relieve Orbetello . The land forces disembarked by Count of Linhares a few days later , however , failed to dislodge the French lines , and the siege could be undertaken until 24 July , when another Spanish army led by the Marquis of Torrecuso and the Duke of Arcos , which had come from the Kingdom of Naples across the Papal States , defeated the besieging French troops , forcing them to retreat with heavy losses .
= = Background = =
In 1646 , after several naval successes against Spain along the Mediterranean , Cardinal Mazarin planned a naval expedition to conquer the Spanish @-@ held State of Presidi with the aim of interrupting Spanish communications with the Kingdom of Naples , threatening the initial stage of the Spanish military corridor , the so @-@ called Spanish Road , and also to frighten pope Innocent X , whose Spanish sympathies displeased him . For this purpose , a fleet commanded by young Admiral Marquis of Brézé was assembled at Toulon . Made of 36 galleons , 20 galleys and a large complement of minor vessels , it had on board an army of some 8 @,@ 000 infantry and 800 cavalry with baggage under the command of Thomas Francis of Savoy , who had previously been at the employ of the Spanish Crown .
Orbetello was erected in a spit between two inner bays of a big lagoon . Various fortified positions made it a strong defensive position : Porto Ercole at the east , San Stefano at the west , and the fort San Filippo on the Monte Argentario island , linked to the mainland by a narrow isthmus . In the end , the French army landed at Talamone , where Brézé left to the Prince a half @-@ dozen of vessels and galleys to bombard the forts of the town . Meanwhile , he went to Porto San Stefano with 5 sailing ships and 4 galleys and bombarded the fort until it surrendered . After the loss of those positions , Don Carlo de la Gatta , the castillan of Orbetello , retreated to the hermitage of Cristo . The isthmus was occupied thanks to a battery mounted aboard the French galleys , and soon the lagoon was filled with armed boats gathered by Jean @-@ Paul de Saumeur , Chevalier Paul . Don Carlo de la Gatta , supported by just 200 Spanish and Italian soldiers , had very few opportunities to resist without help . An early relief force of 35 boats and 5 escort galleys sent from Naples with munitions and supplies was beaten , so a major fleet action was expected .
When news of the siege reached Spain , Philip IV gave orders to assemble a relief fleet . Second @-@ hand goods were purchased in the Netherlands and extraordinary levies were carried out across the country . The command of the expedition was entrusted to the Portuguese loyalist Miguel de Noronha , Count of Linhares , who was Captain General of the Galleys of the Mediterranean , and therefore supreme commander of the Spanish naval forces of this sea . He received orders to sail to Orbetello in command of 22 men @-@ of @-@ war of the Silver fleet and the Dunkirk squadron ; the later providing 8 frigates . At least 3 @,@ 300 soldiers were brought aboard these ships for the relief . Linhares ' second in command was Admiral General Francisco Díaz de Pimienta , who displeased by his always secondary role , had recently resigned , claiming ill health . While Pimienta would be in charge of the sailing ships , Linhares would do so with the galleys . Once at sea , the Spanish fleet was joined off the Sardinian Cape Carbonara by 18 galleys from the squadrons of Naples , Sardinia , Genoa , and Sicily , which drove up its strength to 22 galleons and frigates and 30 galleys . Grand Admiral Jean Armand de Maillé @-@ Brézé , Admiral de Maille Brézé , in the meantime , could be reinforced by the divisions of Montade and Saint @-@ Tropez , and was able to oppose Linhares and Pimienta with 24 sailing ships and 20 galleys .
= = Battle = =
At dawn on June 14 the Spanish fleet bore down off the Giglio Island in a line astern with the galleons and the galleys at the forefront and 8 lagging vessels closing the formation . Admiral Brézé formed his fleet in a line shortly after , alternating galleons and galleys , and sailed westward in a gentle breeze , closed with Linhares ' ships . At 9 : 00 PM . Brézé had approached four miles to the Spanish , when , due to the lightness of the wind , the galleons of the two fleets had to be towed by the galleys while awaiting to be at windward . Brézé , aboard his flagship Grand Saint @-@ Louis , stood in front of the line flanked by Vice @-@ admiral Louis de Foucault de Saint @-@ Germain Beaupré , comte du Daugnon 's la Lune and Rear @-@ admiral Jules de Montigny 's le Soleil . His ship was in tow of Lieutenant @-@ General Vinguerre 's Patrone galley . Fifteen other vessels composed the French line of battle , each one towed by a galley . Montade 's six @-@ ship division was left in reserve . Both fleets sailed along each other until Linhares , thanks to the superior number of galleys that he had , gained the windward and was able to move towards the French line , attempting to overrun its line to catch it between two fires . Linhares had in tow Pimienta 's flag galleon Santiago ; don Álvaro de Bazán del Viso , general of the Neapolitan galleys , the galleon Trinidad , flagship of Admiral Pablo de Contreras ; and Enrique de Benavides , general of the Sicilian galleys , other large Spanish galleons .
Brézé , unable to dispatch his fireships over the Spanish vessels , as he had done in his victories at Cádiz , Barcelona and Cartagena , lunged over Pimienta 's galleon Santiago and riddled the ship with his artillery Santiago lost its main @-@ mast and had to be succored by Linhares and Pablo de Contreras . Fearing the attack of the French fireships or the boarding of Brézé 's galleys , Contreras covered the damaged galleon at the head of six vessels , while Linhares flag galley towed it out of danger . The remaining ships engaged Brézé in an inconclusive action which lasted until both fleets separated at dusk . The Spanish lost the frigate Santa Catalina , burnt by its own crew to avoid capture when she was surrounded by the French la Mazarine and three other vessels . The foremost Spanish galleons Testa de Oro , León Rojo and Caballo marino received heavy damage , while a French fireship blew up . Two French galleons were also badly damaged . The human loss aboard the Spanish fleet is unknown . Forty men were killed or wounded aboard the French fleet One of them was Admiral Brézé , cut in half by a cannonball which hit the stern of his flagship Grand Saint Louis .
The following morning the Spanish and French fleets were 12 miles apart . Comte du Daugnon , Brézé 's successor , decided set sail to Porto Ercole to make repairs instead of pursuing the Spanish fleet , which had sought refuge behind the Giglio island . Linhares chased him during all the 15th and part of the 16th . 4 French storeships , unaware of the main fleet 's departure , fell amidst the Spanish fleet the first night , but managed to escape by following Linhares maneuvers . The Spanish admiral finally abandoned the pursuit to relieve Orbetello . This proved to be impossible because a storm dispersed most of the ships during the night . Some of them took refuge in Sardinia ; others at Giglio and Montecristo . The galley Santa Bárbara sank off Giglio , causing the death of 46 rowers . The French also suffered from the storm . One of their galleys , la Grimaldi , sank off Piombino , although its crew and artillery was taken aboard the Spanish fleet . Another ship , Saint @-@ Dominique , lagged behind along with a fireship and was captured by Pimienta off Cape Corse .
= = Aftermath = =
On 23 June the Spanish fleet anchored off Porto Longone , where it was decided during a war council to relieve Orbetello after the most essential repairs had been made . Two days later several Dunkirkers were dispatched to force the Talamone 's port mouth , and 8 ships arrived from Naples at Porto Santo Stefano , destroying or capturing about 70 tartanes and barges which contained the supplies of Thomas of Savoy 's army during the operation . Du Daugnon , meanwhile , returned to Toulon . Despite his failure , reinforcements could later be carried to Talamone aboard five ships , and Linhares ' attempts to dislodge the French siege lines were unsuccessful . Linhares disembarked 3 @.@ 300 soldiers led by Pimienta , who divided them in two corps and advanced upon the French lines . The first one managed to occupy a hill on which a French cavalry attack was repulsed , but the second corps was dislodged after a 6 @-@ hour battle and forced to reembark . 400 wounded men were evacuated ; the killed were left on the battlefield . The siege was not lifted until an army under the Duke of Arcos and the Marquis of Torrecuso stormed the besieger camp a month later , killing or capturing over 7 @,@ 000 men and taking all the artillery and the baggage , which turned the whole French campaign into a failure .
Dissatisfied with the outcome of the naval battle , Philip IV , who expected that the French fleet would have been destroyed , and the honour of his navy restored , dismissed and imprisoned Count of Linhares and Admiral Pimienta , among other officers , accusing them of mismanagement and abandonement of their forces . Linhares was replaced by Luis Fernández de Córdoba , Pimienta by Jerónimo Gómez de Sandoval , and Bazán del Viso by Giannettino Doria . Philip IV also appointed his 17 years old illegitimate son John of Austria as Príncipe de la mar , commander of all the Hispanic maritime forces , giving them widespread orders and powers in order to end with the misrule of the Spanish Navy . The French failure at Orbetello , nevertheless , contributed greatly to the reduction the French pressure in Italy . 6 @,@ 000 soldiers from Naples could be consequently carried to Valencia to fight against the French armies in Catalonia . On September , a French expedition led by Charles de la Porte de la Meilleraye , with Portuguese help , succeeded in capturing both the presidi of Piombino and Porto Longone , which encouraged the Francesco I d 'Este , Duke of Modena , to change his allegiance from the Spanish monarchy to France .
= Drive ( 2011 film ) =
Drive is a 2011 American neo @-@ noir crime thriller film directed by Nicolas Winding Refn . The screenplay by Hossein Amini is based on the 2005 novel of the same name by James Sallis . It stars Ryan Gosling , Carey Mulligan , Bryan Cranston , Christina Hendricks , Ron Perlman , Oscar Isaac and Albert Brooks .
Like the book , the film is about an unnamed Hollywood stunt driver ( Gosling ) who moonlights as a getaway driver . After he becomes attracted to a female neighbor ( Mulligan ) whose husband ( Isaac ) owes money to local gangsters , he is drawn deeper into the dangerous underworld . Prior to its September 2011 release , it had been shown at a number of film festivals . At the 2011 Cannes Film Festival , Drive was praised and received a standing ovation . Winding Refn won the festival 's Best Director Award for the film . Reviews from critics have been positive , and many drew comparisons to work from previous eras . The film was nominated for Best Film and Best Direction at the 65th British Academy Film Awards .
= = Plot = =
The unnamed driver ( Ryan Gosling ) , who lives in an Echo Park , Los Angeles apartment , works repairing cars and as a part @-@ time movie double . Managed in both jobs by auto shop owner Shannon ( Bryan Cranston ) , the duo also provides a getaway driver service . With Shannon organizing the schemes , the driver gives criminals only five minutes to perpetrate robberies and reach his car . After meeting his new neighbor , Irene ( Carey Mulligan ) , the driver soon becomes close to her and befriends her young son , Benicio ( Kaden Leos ) , while Irene 's husband , Standard Gabriel ( Oscar Isaac ) , is in prison . After her husband is freed , Irene still asks the driver to visit them .
Shannon persuades Jewish mobsters Bernie Rose ( Albert Brooks ) and Nino ( Ron Perlman ) to purchase a stock car chassis and build it for the driver to race . Irene 's husband , owing protection money from his time in prison , is beaten up by Albanian gangster Cook ( James Biberi ) , who demands that Standard rob a pawnshop for $ 40 @,@ 000 to pay the debt . The gangster gives the young boy Benicio a bullet as a symbol that he and his mother are in danger . The driver , concerned for the safety of Irene and Benicio , steals a Ford Mustang and offers to act as the getaway driver for the pawnshop job .
While waiting for Standard and Cook 's accomplice Blanche ( Christina Hendricks ) to complete the heist , the driver sees a custom Chrysler 300 pull into the parking lot . Blanche returns with a large bag , but Standard is shot in the back several times and killed by the pawnshop owner . The driver flees with Blanche and the money . They are pursued by the Chrysler , which bumps them but skids in the fast turns and eventually spins out . Eluding the other vehicle , the driver hides with Blanche in a motel . Learning that the bag contains a million dollars , yet the TV news reports the robbery as no money stolen , the driver threatens to beat Blanche
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ard 's 1920s play Hay Fever . Writing for The Observer , Robert Cushman thought that Le Mesurier played the role with " deeply grizzled torpor " , while Michael Billington , reviewing for The Guardian , saw him as a " grey , gentle wisp of a man , full of half @-@ completed gestures and seraphic smiles " .
He took on the role of Father Mowbray in Granada Television 's 1981 adaptation of Brideshead Revisited . He guest @-@ starred in episodes of the British comedy television series The Goodies , and in an early episode of Hi @-@ de @-@ Hi ! . His final film appearance was also Peter Sellers 's final cinema role , The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu , which was completed just months before Sellers 's death in July 1980 .
In 1982 Le Mesurier reprised the role of Arthur Wilson for It Sticks Out Half a Mile , a radio sequel to Dad 's Army , in which Wilson had become bank manager of the Frambourne @-@ on @-@ Sea branch , while Arthur Lowe 's character , Captain George Mainwaring , was trying to apply for a loan to renovate the local pier . The death of Lowe in April 1982 meant that only a pilot episode was recorded , and the project was suspended . It was revived in 1982 with Lowe 's role replaced by two other Dad 's Army cast members : Pike , played by Ian Lavender , and Hodges , played by Bill Pertwee . A pilot and twelve episodes were subsequently recorded , and broadcast in 1984 . Le Mesurier also teamed up with another ex @-@ Dad 's Army colleague , Clive Dunn , to record a novelty single , " There Ain 't Much Change from a Pound These Days " / " After All These Years " , which had been written by Le Mesurier 's stepson , David Malin . The single was released on KA Records in 1982 .
He appeared opposite Anthony Hopkins in a four @-@ part television series , A Married Man , in March 1983 , before undertaking the narration on the short film The Passionate Pilgrim , an Eric Morecambe vehicle , which was Morecambe 's last film before his death .
= = = Personal life = = =
In 1939 , Le Mesurier accepted a role in the Robert Morley play Goodness , How Sad ! , directed by June Melville — whose father Frederick owned a number of theatres , including the Lyceum , Prince 's and Brixton . Melville and Le Mesurier soon began a romance , and were married in April 1940 . Le Mesurier was conscripted into the army in September 1940 ; after his demobilisation in 1946 , he discovered that his wife had become an alcoholic : " She became careless about appointments and haphazard professionally " . As a result , the couple separated and were divorced in 1949 .
In June 1947 , Le Mesurier went with fellow actor Geoffrey Hibbert to the Players ' Theatre in London , where among the performers was Hattie Jacques . Le Mesurier and Jacques began to see each other regularly , although Le Mesurier was still married , albeit estranged from his wife . In 1949 , when his divorce came through , Jacques proposed to Le Mesurier , asking him , " Don 't you think it 's about time we got married ? " . The couple married in November 1949 and had two sons , Robin and Kim .
Jacques began an affair in 1962 with her driver , John Schofield , who gave her the attention and support that Le Mesurier did not . When Jacques decided to move Schofield into the family home , Le Mesurier moved into a separate room and tried to repair the marriage . He later commented about this period : " I could have walked out , but , whatever my feelings , I loved Hattie and the children and I was certain — I had to be certain — that we could repair the damage " . The affair caused a downturn in his health ; he collapsed on holiday in Tangier in 1963 and was hospitalised in Gibraltar . He returned to London to find the situation between his wife and her lover was unchanged , which caused a relapse .
During the final stages of the breakdown of his marriage , Le Mesurier met Joan Malin at the Establishment club in Soho in 1963 . The following year he moved out of his marital house , and that day proposed to Joan , who accepted his offer . Le Mesurier allowed Jacques to bring a divorce suit on grounds of his own infidelity , to ensure that the press blamed him for the break @-@ up , thus avoiding any negative publicity for Jacques . Le Mesurier and Malin married in March 1966 . A few months after they were married , Joan began a relationship with Tony Hancock , and left Le Mesurier to move in with the comedian . Hancock was a self @-@ confessed alcoholic by this time , and was verbally and physically abusive to Joan during their relationship . After a year together , with Hancock 's violence towards her worsening , Joan attempted suicide ; she subsequently realised that she could no longer live with Hancock and returned to her husband . Despite this , Le Mesurier remained friends with Hancock , calling him " a comic of true genius , capable of great warmth and generosity , but a tormented and unhappy man " .
Le Mesurier was a heavy drinker , but was never noticeably drunk . In 1977 he collapsed in Australia and flew home , where he was diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver and ordered to stop drinking . Until then he had not considered himself an alcoholic , although he accepted that " it was the cumulative effect over the years that had done the damage " . It was a year and a half before he drank alcohol again , when he avoided spirits and drank only beer . Jacques claimed that his calculated vagueness was the result of his dependence on cannabis , although according to Le Mesurier the drug was not to his taste ; he smoked it only during his period of abstinence from alcohol . Le Mesurier 's favoured pastime was visiting the jazz clubs around Soho , such as The Establishment or Ronnie Scott 's , and he observed that " listening to artists like Bill Evans , Oscar Peterson or Alan Clare always made life seem that little bit brighter " .
Towards the end of his life Le Mesurier wrote his autobiography , A Jobbing Actor ; the book was published in 1984 , after his death . Le Mesurier 's health visibly declined from July 1983 when he was hospitalised for a short time after suffering a haemorrhage . When the condition recurred later in the year he was taken to Ramsgate Hospital ; after saying to his wife , " It 's all been rather lovely " , he slipped into a coma and died on 15 November 1983 , aged 71 . His remains were cremated , and the ashes buried at the Church of St. George the Martyr , Church Hill , Ramsgate . His epitaph reads : " John Le Mesurier . Much loved actor . Resting . " His self @-@ penned death notice in The Times of 16 November 1983 stated that he had " conked out " and that he " sadly misses family and friends " .
After Le Mesurier 's death fellow comedian Eric Sykes commented : " I never heard a bad word said against him . He was one of the great drolls of our time " . Le Mesurier 's fellow Dad 's Army actor Bill Pertwee mourned the loss of his friend , saying , " It 's a shattering loss . He was a great professional , very quiet but with a lovely sense of humour " . Director Peter Cotes , writing in The Guardian , called him one of Britain 's " most accomplished screen character actors " , while The Times obituarist observed that he " could lend distinction to the smallest part " .
The Guardian reflected on Le Mesurier 's popularity , observing that " No wonder so many whose lives were very different from his own came to be so enormously fond of him " . A memorial service was held on 16 February 1984 at the " Actors ' Church " , St Paul 's , Covent Garden , at which Bill Pertwee gave the eulogy .
= = Approach to acting = =
Le Mesurier took a relaxed approach to acting , saying , " You know the way you get jobbing gardeners ? Well , I 'm a jobbing actor ... as long as they pay me I couldn 't care less if my name is billed above or below the title " . Although Le Mesurier played a wide range of parts , he became known as " an indispensable figure in the gallery of second @-@ rank players which were the glory of the British film industry in its more prolific days " . He felt his characterisations owed " a lot to my customary expression of bewildered innocence " and tried to stress for many of his roles that his parts were those of " a decent chap all at sea in a chaotic world not of his own making " .
Philip French of The Observer considered that when playing a representative of bureaucracy , Le Mesurier " registered something ... complex . A feeling of exasperation , disturbance , anxiety [ that ] constantly lurked behind that handsome bloodhound face " . The impression he gave in these roles became an " inimitable brand of bewildered persistence under fire which Le Mesurier made his own " . The Times noted of him that although he was best known for his comedic roles , he , " could be equally effective in straight parts " , as evidenced by his BAFTA @-@ award @-@ winning role in Traitor . Director Peter Cotes agreed , adding , " he had depths unrealised through the mechanical pieces in which he generally appeared " ; while Philip Oakes considered that , " single @-@ handed , he has made more films watchable , even absorbing , than anyone else around " .
= = Portrayals = =
Le Mesurier 's second and third marriages have been the subject of two BBC Four biographical films , the 2008 Hancock and Joan on Joan Le Mesurier 's affair with Tony Hancock — with Le Mesurier played by Alex Jennings — and the 2011 Hattie on Jacques 's affair with John Schofield — with Le Mesurier played by Robert Bathurst .
= = Filmography and other works = =
= Strawberry Panic ! =
Strawberry Panic ! ( ストロベリー ・ パニック ! , Sutoroberī Panikku ! ) is a series of Japanese illustrated short stories written by Sakurako Kimino , which focus on a group of teenage girls attending three affiliated all @-@ girl schools on Astraea Hill . A common theme throughout the stories is the intimate lesbian relationships between the characters . The original artist was Chitose Maki , who was succeeded by Namuchi Takumi when production of the manga and light novels began .
Following Strawberry Panic ! ' s first run in Dengeki G 's Magazine it was six months before results began to indicate that the series was a success , and that its fans were growing in number ; the manga and light novels which followed were a reflection of its popularity . The series became sufficiently popular for Seven Seas Entertainment to license the manga series and light novels for English language distribution . Strawberry Panic ! was one of the debut titles on the company 's light novel and yuri manga production lines . An anime series was produced in 2006 by Madhouse and is licensed by Media Blasters . A visual novel was produced in 2006 by MediaWorks for the PlayStation 2 .
There is a slight difference in the title of the series between media and national affiliation . The original short stories , manga , light novels , and video game used the exclamation mark in the title ; the anime excluded it . When the manga and light novel series were licensed for English language distribution , Seven Seas Entertainment did not use the exclamation mark in the title . The appearance of the logo for Strawberry Panic ! has changed four times . The subtitle " Girls ' School in Fullbloom " was added during the short stories stage , and later appeared on the Japanese covers of the light novels , manga , and video game version , but was excluded from the anime adaptation and the English covers of the light novels and manga .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The setting for Strawberry Panic ! is Astraea Hill ( アストラエアの丘 , Asutoraea no Oka ) , a very large hilltop where the three affiliated schools of Miator , Spica and Lulim , are located . Each school has its own student council , which governs the matters of each respective school . Periodically the three student councils , along with the Etoiles , meet in the Astraea Joint Student Council . The Astraea Hill school system employs the Scottish system of grade numbering . Students are ranged from grades one through six , the equivalent of the three years of junior @-@ high and high school in Japan , and seventh through twelfth grade in North America .
The hill is known as a sacred area which no men are allowed to enter . A prominent feature is a very large Catholic church in the center of the hill near a small lake ; the church can be seen from a long distance away . There is a horse ranch at Spica . The students may go and study for their classes at a library on the lake 's shore . Although only implied in the anime , the manga explains that the library building has another name , " The Secret Garden " . It is well @-@ known on campus as a rendezvous for secret lovers .
Students living on campus occupy a dormitory referred to as the " Strawberry Dorms " ( いちご舎 , Ichigo Sha , lit . " Strawberry House " ) , although its correct name is Astraea Dormitory , named after Astraea Hill . The building is a triangular shape , allowing for the segregation of students from the three schools ; each section is about the same size . It was built about 100 years before the story begins , around the same time that Miator was established , for students whose homes are far away . Each student is assigned a roommate in their year until graduation . If there is an odd number of students enrolled in a given year , one of the new students must live alone until a student in their year transfers into their school .
The building 's name is based on its similarity to the cross @-@ section of a strawberry viewed from above . When Strawberry Panic ! was initially created , the three schools were arranged in a triangle , with the Strawberry Dorms in the center , and the dormitory was not a single building but three separate dormitories also arranged in a triangle around a central courtyard .
= = = Story = = =
The plot of Strawberry Panic ! revolves around the lives of the adolescents who attend one of three affiliated all @-@ girl schools which share a campus and dormitories . The schools are : St. Miator 's Girls ' Academy , St. Spica 's Girls ' Institute , and St. Lulim 's Girls ' School . There are twelve characters the story revolves around , four at each school . The story 's main character is Nagisa Aoi , a young girl entering her fourth year at St. Miator after being transferred from another school . On first entering the campus grounds , she is overcome with joy by the overall appearance of the surrounding area , but her joy is soon turned to sorrow as she accidentally stumbles down a hill , causing her to be lost and disoriented . While walking around the grounds trying to work out where she is , Nagisa comes across an older student named Shizuma Hanazono , who happens to be Astraea Hill 's Etoile , a very important person who acts as a representative between the different schools and has specific duties that she must fulfill . Nagisa is instantly overcome by Shizuma 's beauty , and after Shizuma kisses her on the forehead , Nagisa loses consciousness and awakens in the school 's infirmary . In an adjacent chair is another girl of the same age , Tamao Suzumi , who informs her that they are to be roommates in the dormitory .
In the ensuing story , Nagisa is introduced to other students from each of the three schools ; some she admires , some she is intimidated by , and some are merely friends encountered while attending St. Miator . The series encompasses the relationships the characters build with each other , climaxing whenever two of the characters start dating . The central focuses of Strawberry Panic ! are the lesbian relationships and friendships between the girls from the three schools and the Etoile position and competition ; the anime is more relationship @-@ heavy while the manga is more competition @-@ heavy . The story of what happens to the other half of St. Miator 's Etoile pairing is explored in the latter portion of the anime . Depending on the media type , the depiction of the relationships between the girls is variously presented , with more explicit fan service – appealing visuals of the girls in provocative situations – in the anime adaptation than in the manga or light novels . A hint of astronomical star imagery is seen throughout the series , as well as minor Catholic religious undertones including a St. Mary statue on campus and a large Catholic church in the center of Astraea Hill .
= = = Main characters and schools = = =
At each of the three schools , there are four main characters , who comprise the original twelve characters created for the short stories when the series began . Only those twelve appear in the subsequently adapted visual novel version . Other characters were introduced in the manga and light novel versions to create plotlines and conflict , and these additional characters are also featured in the anime adaptation .
St. Miator 's Girls ' Academy
St. Miator 's Girls ' Academy ( 聖ミアトル女学園 , Sei Miatoru Jogakuen ) , the oldest of the three schools which has a history of over 100 years , is known for upholding old traditions . It was founded on a monastery and is seen as the school for " brides " , reinforced by the existence of extracurricular classes including tea ceremony , flower arrangement , and Japanese dancing . It is not unusual for students to be engaged before graduation . The school uniform is a long black dress , designed in the Gothic Lolita fashion . At Miator , the class names are associated with objects from nature , such as moon ( 月 , tsuki ) , flower ( 花 , hana ) and snow ( 雪 , yuki ) . In the Strawberry Dorms , there is a concept called the room temp system for students from Miator . Every underclassman entering the dormitories , if they are chosen to serve the upperclassman as room temps , perform maid duties , which include cleaning the room of the students they are assigned to serve .
Nagisa Aoi is the main character of the story . She is a cheerful girl who finds pleasure in making new friends , which she finds easy to do because of her open personality and sociable attitude . The first person she meets at Miator is Shizuma Hanazono , a mysterious upperclassman and the Etoile as the story begins , which gives Miator significant influence . Nagisa at first finds that she is strangely affected when in the presence of Shizuma , who in turn is extremely interested in Nagisa in both the manga and the anime . The next girl she meets is Tamao Suzumi , who becomes her close friend and roommate . Tamao is well regarded among her fellow Miator students ; among the first @-@ years , she is seen as a viable Etoile candidate . She expresses some light and playful interest in Nagisa , but it is much less overt than Shizuma 's interest and is very downplayed in the manga . The last main character from Miator is Chiyo Tsukidate , a timid first year student who is employed as the room temp for Nagisa and Tamao ; in the anime , she deeply admires Nagisa .
St. Spica 's Girls ' Institute
St. Spica 's Girls ' Institute ( 聖スピカ女学院 , Sei Supika Jogakuin ) has the white colored buildings and uniforms , and was built after Miator . The school prides itself in advancing the independence of women who play a role in improving society . It is well known for its culture and the accomplishments of its sports program compared to the other two schools . Spica has what is known as the St. Spica Choir , or the " Saintly Chorus , " which consists of students from Spica who perform at special events and even concerts for students at Astraea Hill . At Spica , the class names are numbers in French , such as un ( one ) , deux ( two ) , and trois ( three ) . Spica and Miator compete with each other quite aggressively , which often ends in dispute when students from these two schools get together .
Hikari Konohana , a shy and quiet girl , is the main focus among the main characters who attend Spica . The next Spica character is Yaya Nanto , a rebellious girl who is Hikari 's best friend and roommate in the dormitory . In the anime , she is very much enamored with Hikari , but Hikari sees her as a friend ; in the manga , Yaya is not a prominent character . Both she and Hikari are members of the St. Spica Choir . Hikari meets an older girl named Amane Ohtori early on in the story who is seen much like a prince from a fairy tale by other Spica students due to often riding a white horse named Star Bright . Amane is admired by many of the students from Spica as well as students from the other two schools , although she does not enjoy the attention . In the anime , Hikari admires her deeply , and she and Amane have mutual interest in each other . The final girl from Spica is Tsubomi Okuwaka , a young first year student who acts maturely for her age and gets on Yaya 's nerves . She too is in the St. Spica Choir , although Hikari was her main motivation for joining . In the anime , her interest in Hikari seems to purely be one of friendship ; in the manga , she , like Yaya , is not a prominent character . Tsubomi once remarked that Yaya was more skilled than Hikari at singing in the choir .
St. Lulim 's Girls ' School
St. Lulim 's Girls ' School ( 聖ル ・ リム女学校 , Sei Ru Rimu Jogakkō ) ( originally Le Lim ) is the newest of the three schools , and has pink colored buildings and uniforms . Its uniform is modeled after a traditional Japanese school uniform style . At Lulim , the class names are the letters from the Latin alphabet : A , B , C , etc . Students at St. Lulim 's are traditionally free and relaxed , and are rarely seen fighting . The students enjoy a lot of freedom in terms of activities , or the clubs they are allowed to form . In effect , there are a wide range of clubs at St. Lulim 's ranging from dancing , to cooking , to anything else a group of at least three people can think up .
Of the three schools , St. Lulim has the least emphasis on romance between characters , although the Lulim characters are typically found together . The leader of their friendly group is Chikaru Minamoto , the student council president of Lulim , and a born leader . She has a friendly and supportive personality which she often uses to offer advice or simply a shoulder to cry on . The other three girls include Kizuna Hyūga , a very outgoing and excitable girl who enjoys following Chikaru 's decisions , finding fun in doing so . She is very expressive in her actions and words , not wasting a chance to introduce herself to anyone new . Her close friend is Remon Natsume , who is much like Kizuna in personality , but is not as accident @-@ prone as her . Of the pair , Kizuna is the more talkative ; Remon often agrees with her companion and will offer up an opinion when need be . Lastly , there is Kagome Byakudan , the youngest of the group , who is typically accompanied by her stuffed bear Percival ( パーシバル , Pāshibaru ) which she often talks to as if it were alive . Although she does not talk or express her emotions much , she has a heightened perception of others ' emotions and can tell when those around her are distraught or in emotional pain .
= = = Etoile system = = =
Etoile ( エトワール , Etowāru ) is a French word meaning star . The Etoile system of Astraea Hill is employed as the internal politics between the schools and governs school operations . Little is shown as to the influence the teachers and sisters have on the inter @-@ school politics . The system is designed for two Etoiles to be instated at the same time in order to work as a team . In the anime , Shizuma Hanazono is the sole Etoile , the other Etoile having died , which is explained in the latter part of the story . The two Etoiles are seen as figureheads for Astraea Hill . Although Astraea has three schools , both Etoiles must come from the same school . They have certain specific duties , such as greeting new students arriving at Astraea Hill , participating in important school events , and serving as mediator between disputes in student council meetings of the three schools , among others . They are given a private greenhouse in which to grow flowers for use during school events .
The Etoiles are elected after going through what is known as The Etoile Election ( エトワール選 , Etowāru @-@ sen ) , which consists of three competitions in the light novels and the manga versions . The higher scoring pairs from the first two competitions carry on to the third competition , and the pair that wins the third competition becomes the Etoile Couple . In the anime , the competition aspect of the story is toned down . Still , it facilitates the culmination of the story in the finale , and thus serves an important purpose . Once the winners have been named , a special ceremony marks the end of the election , at which the president of the student council from the school that won the election presents two necklaces for the winners to wear during their tenure as Etoiles . They are both identical except for the colors of the pendants : one is red , the other is blue . The older student receives the blue pendant and the younger of the two is given the red pendant .
= = Production = =
Since the first issue of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Magazine was published , the editors of the magazine have hosted reader participation games whose outcome is directly influenced by the people who read the magazine . Strawberry Panic ! ' s origin was in the October 2003 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine where it was announced after the ending of Sakurako Kimino 's previous work Sister Princess that a new reader participation project would start the following month . In the November 2003 issue , the first batch of characters from St. Miator were introduced ( Nagisa , Shizuma , Tamao , and Chiyo ) and it was revealed how readers could participate in the project . The initial system had the three main girls of Nagisa , Hikari , and Kizuna ( given without surnames ) who were sisters and at the same time younger sisters of the readers of the magazine , effectively putting the reader in the position of the elder brother . Each girl entered her respective school and became the main character of that school . It was explained that the coupling of the main characters could be to an upperclassman , a classmate , or an underclassman , but had to stay within the school they attended . For example , Nagisa , who attended Miator could not be coupled with another character from either Spica or Lulim at first . Playing the role of the elder brother , the reader gave advice to the younger sisters who were bewildered by their new lives at each of the schools . Thus , the readers had the ability to influence the coupling formations which would later be written by Kimino as short stories serialized in Dengeki G 's Magazine .
In December 2003 , the characters from Spica ( Hikari , Amane , Yaya , and Tsubomi ) and Lulim ( Kizuna , Chikaru , Remon , and Kagome ) were introduced and in the January 2004 issue the first illustrations of the three schools and the Strawberry Dorms were published , drawn by Chitose Maki ; the reader participation game began in this issue . Polls were posted in the January 2004 issue where the readers could vote on how the story would start and progress in the following months . Before the votes were counted , the first three short stories were written and published in the February 2004 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine . Each story featured an illustration of the two girls who were the couple paired in each respective story .
When the results of the polls were printed in the March 2004 issue , the rules of the game had been changed from the original concept , showing that readers wanted to focus on the relationships between the girls , and in this respect , the readers could vote on who they wanted to be coupled together . The number of votes for this first round were less than 2000 . Noting this , the editorial staff lifted the restriction on only coupling within the same school , along with the restriction of only allowing the three main girls of Nagisa , Hikari , and Kizuna to couple . This resulted in a total of 66 different possibilities between the twelve characters in the series . In this issue , it was explained that four events were planned for the stories that followed : Easter , Athletic Carnival , Cultural Festival , and Christmas Bazaar . The " Etoile " title was born in this issue , which was initially used to crown the best couple voted first by the readers in each of the four events to follow . These events were going to be carried out by the three schools in cooperation . It became such that the planning of the schools resulted in them in a triangle position , having the dormitories at the center . The reader 's position as the elder brother was canceled in this issue , and the game became a simple popularity vote for coupling . Due to this new system , Nagisa , Hikari , and Kizuna ceased to be sisters ; surnames were later added to clarify this . After the first story arc of the short stories concluded , it was shown that the number of votes had increased sharply due to the new voting mechanisms . The Etoile voting was announced in the July 2004 issue to take place every month as opposed to every two months which had been the case beforehand . The deadline for voting was shifted to the middle of every month , and online voting was introduced . In September 2004 , the voting for the next Etoile was shifted to be online @-@ only ; the voting for the Dormitory Panic arc became mail voting only .
The reader participation game ended after ten rounds of voting in the February 2005 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine where it was announced that the series would be continued in other forms , such as the light novels and manga that followed . The original short stories and the poll results of the reader participation game were used as a basis for subsequent releases of Strawberry Panic ! .
= = Media = =
= = = Short stories = = =
The first results of the polls from the reader participation project appeared in the form of the first three short stories which resulted from direct fan involvement in the March 2004 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine . The stories were written by Sakurako Kimino and illustrated by Chitose Maki . Over the following months , the stories continued , producing the first story arc named the Etoile Chapter ( エトワール編 , Etowāru @-@ hen ) containing eighteen stories which ran between March and July 2004 . Due to the concerns that there was not enough time between the Athletic Festival ( an early summer event ) and the Cultural Festival ( an autumn event ) , the second , and last , story arc named the Dormitory Panic Chapter ( 寄宿舎パニック編 , Kishukusha Panikku @-@ hen ) containing seven stories began the next month , running between August 2004 and January 2005 . The second arc 's stories , which were longer than the earlier pieces , involved taking one of the three main characters , performing coupling for them with one of the other eleven girls and presenting them in various situations . None of the original stories were ever published again in bound volumes . The stories themselves were more or less vignettes , in which each gave a brief glimpse into what was referred to as a " yuri coupling " .
Between May and September 2005 , a revised series of the short stories was produced ; once per month , five more supplementary short stories were published during this time period , each of which was longer than any of the previous pieces . Although each individual story had its own title , the stories were under the collective title of " The Girls , who art in heaven " . After the ending of this short compilation in September 2005 , it was decided that the original illustrator , Chitose Maki , would be replaced by Namuchi Takumi for future Strawberry Panic ! projects .
= = = Internet radio show = = =
Between November 2005 and December 2006 , Lantis Web Radio hosted a radio show entitled Mai & Ai no Dengeki G 's Radio Strawberry Panic ! : Oneesama to Ichigo Sōdō ( 麻衣 & 愛の電撃G ’ sラジオ ストロベリー ・ パニック ! ~ お姉様といちごそうどう ~ ) . The show was hosted by Mai Nakahara , who voiced Nagisa Aoi in the anime edition , and Ai Shimizu , who voiced both Tamao Suzumi and Kizuna Hyūga in the anime . The show contained sixty @-@ one episodes , which were divided between three CDs ; the first went on sale on March 8 , 2006 . The other two releases came out on July 5 , 2006 and January 11 , 2007 in Japan . The radio show included nine guests who had played other voice acting roles in the anime version , and Rino , singer of the opening theme " Sweetest " in the PlayStation 2 game version .
= = = Manga = = =
The Strawberry Panic ! manga , written by Sakurako Kimino and illustrated by Namuchi Takumi , was serialized in Dengeki G 's Magazine between September 30 , 2005 and February 28 , 2007 with a new chapter released once a month . Two bound volumes have been published in Japan under MediaWorks ' Dengeki Comics label . The first went on sale on March 27 , 2006 featuring Nagisa and Shizuma on the cover , and the second volume came out on October 27 , 2006 featuring Nagisa and Tamao on the cover . While the manga 's story is unfinished , Strawberry Panic ! has not made an appearance in Dengeki G 's Magazine since the publication of the April 2007 issue on February 28 , 2007 . Major differences between the anime and manga center around the plot and character interaction . Characters have vastly different character designs , such as Shion Tōmori and Kaname Kenjō . The manga introduces the Etoile election early on while the anime waits until the latter part of the series for dramatic effect . The first volume was released in English on December 23 , 2007 , the second in March 2008 , and the omnibus with two additional chapters in October 2010 , published by Seven Seas Entertainment .
= = = Light novels = = =
The announcement that a Strawberry Panic ! light novel series was to be written based on the original short stories appeared in the April 2005 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine . Work on writing and illustrating the novels began in May 2005 , by the same two people who worked on the manga . The announcement that the writing was finished appeared in the September 2005 issue of the same magazine , although the first novel was published by MediaWorks on their Dengeki Bunko publishing label , on March 10 , 2006 . The first volume had Shizuma and Nagisa on the cover and the second volume , released on August 9 , 2006 , had Amane and Hikari on the cover . The third and last volume , released on December 10 , 2006 , had Chikaru and Kizuna on the cover .
Seven Seas Entertainment announced on September 13 , 2006 that they had licensed the right to release the English translations of the Strawberry Panic ! light novels and the manga series . After several delays , the English version of the first light novel was released in March 2008 , and the second volume light novel was released on July 8 , 2008 . An omnibus volume containing the three light novels was released in June 2011 .
= = = Anime = = =
The anime series , entitled Strawberry Panic ( without the exclamation mark ) , was produced by the Japanese animation studio Madhouse and directed by Masayuki Sakoi . The series was composed by Tatsuhiko Urahata , and featured two other screenwriters Hideo Takayashiki and Kazuyuki Fudeyasu . The character design was done by Kyūta Sakai , working from the original designs by Chitose Maki and later Namuchi Takumi . The twenty @-@ six episode anime aired in Japan between April 3 and September 25 , 2006 , and has a central yuri theme .
The anime series is mainly based on the short stories and manga which preceded it . The anime focuses on Nagisa Aoi and , to a slightly lesser extent , Hikari Konohana , and the three girls that they each are or become close to at their respective schools ; some admire them or wish to be their friend , and others are vying for their affections . Of particular focus are the romantic relationships between Nagisa and Shizuma Hanazono and between Hikari and Amane Ōtori . The series culminates in the election of the new Etoile pairing , although this aspect of the story is downplayed compared to the manga . Fan service , or giving appealing visuals of the girls nude or in provocative situations , is seen in the anime , but only briefly .
In Japan , eight DVD compilations , in regular and special editions , were released containing three episodes each , between June 23 , 2006 , and January 25 , 2007 . The regular and special editions are similar in content , but the special editions are packaged in jacket sleeve , and contain an original booklet which includes additional merchandise such as portable plates and straps . The special edition includes different versions of the opening and closing themes , and deleted scenes . Media Blasters released five English @-@ subtitled DVDs of Strawberry Panic between March 4 , 2007 and November 11 , 2008 . The English @-@ subtitled DVDs contain five episodes , except for its first release , which contains six . The series premiered on Toku in the United States on December 31 , 2015 .
= = = Audio CDs = = =
The original soundtrack for the anime adaptation was first released on September 6 , 2006 by Lantis . On September 21 , 2006 , the soundtrack for the video game was released by the same company . The two opening themes for the anime , " Shōjo Meiro de Tsukamaete " and " Kuchibiru Daydream " were sung by Aki Misato . The " Shōjo Meiro de Tsukamaete " single was released on April 26 , 2006 , and reached an Oricon chart position of thirty @-@ eight ; " Kuchibiru Daydream " was released on August 9 , 2006 , and achieved forty @-@ seven in the charts . The two main closing themes for the anime , " Himitsu Dolls " ( released on May 24 , 2006 ) and " Ichigo Tsumi Monogatari " ( released on August 23 , 2006 ) , were sung by Mai Nakahara and Ai Shimizu as a duet . The final closing theme in the last episode was a slower remix version of " Shōjo Meiro de Tsukamaete " , sung by Aki Misato .
There have been three drama CDs released based on the anime adaptation . The first , entitled Strawberry Panic Lyric 1 " Miator volume " was released in Japan on July 26 , 2006 . It featured the same voice actresses from the anime , and featured thirteen characters . It came with a CD containing twelve tracks of small scenes involving the characters in various situations . The second drama CD , Strawberry Panic Lyric 2 " Spica volume " was released on October 25 , 2006 and a third was released on December 6 , 2006 titled Strawberry Panic Lyric 3 " Lulim volume " .
= = = Visual novel = = =
A visual novel named Strawberry Panic ! Girls ' School in Fullbloom was released on the PlayStation 2 on August 24 , 2006 in Japan by MediaWorks . Two versions of the game were released , a regular edition and a limited edition which included a drama CD ; there is a different cover for each of the versions . The drama CD contained three tracks , one for students of each school .
There are three playable characters , one from each of the schools : Nagisa , Hikari , and Kizuna . They have no family names in the game , as when the series of short stories were first published . While Ai Shimizu maintained her role for Kizuna in the game , Miyuki Sawashiro performed the voice for Tamao Suzumi . The game features a " boy mode " and a " girl mode " . Choosing the male version means that the story is told via emails from the player 's younger sister ; choosing the female version means that the story is told in the player 's own diary . The player is given the chance to pair their chosen character with one of the other nine available girls , not including the other possible playable characters . There are twenty @-@ seven different combinations depending on which girl the player chooses at the start of the game .
The game is played over the course of a school semester ; the first day of school is on April 1 . In " boy mode " , each day concludes with a super deformed image of the heroine the player chose at the onset of the game slumped over her computer in her room ; an email message from a girl that she interacted with during the day in on the monitor . As the heroine sleeps , the object of her affection appears in a thought bubble above her head . In " girl mode " , she is seen writing in her diary instead . The first day in the game requires no interaction from the player . The player gets through the first day by reading the text and getting acquainted with the girls . The game uses an angel and devil system where miniature angel and devil versions of each girl float beside her when critical decisions have to be made ; this is not restricted to the three playable characters . It also features a " Strawberry chance " system , where the outcome of some scenes changes if the player presses one of the analog sticks fast enough after the message " Chance ! " ( チャンス ! , Chansu ! ) is displayed in the upper right screen corner .
= = Reception = =
During the reader participation game running in Dengeki G 's Magazine , voting polls were first posted in the January 2004 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , which were to determine who would be the subjects in the couplings between the characters of each respective school . The results were printed in the March 2004 issue , after about 1 @,@ 979 votes had been cast . The three couples with the highest number of votes were Nagisa / Tamao at 481 votes , Hikari / Amane at 343 votes , and Kizuna / Chikaru at 260 votes . The results from the second round of voting were published in the May 2004 issue of the magazine which included the figures for the sixty @-@ four different combinations between the twelve girls . The three couples with the highest number of votes this time were Nagisa / Tamao again at 150 votes , Nagisa / Amane at 114 votes , and Hikari / Amane for a second time at 102 votes . In the third round of voting in the July 2004 issue , the number of votes increased dramatically ; the number one voted couple for the third time in a row was Nagisa / Tamao at 1 @,@ 215 votes .
The Strawberry Panic ! short stories were initially panned by Erica Friedman as being " distinctly derivative of Maria @-@ sama ga Miteru " . Friedman is the president of Yuricon , an anime convention geared towards fans of yuri anime and manga , and ALC Publishing , a publishing house dedicated to yuri . Friedman described the stories as , " candy apples without the apples - all sugary , and gooey and sweet , with not much of anything else to support it " . After initially having this stance for the entire series , including an early opinion on the anime version , Friedman later changed her opinion slightly , writing that " [ the anime ] turned out pretty good " . She went on to say , " There 's no denying that Strawberry Panic ! wasn 't brilliant , but considering that it was meant to be trashy , it pulled out a few moments of dignity and elegance out of the trash heap . " Jason Thompson regarded the Strawberry Panic ! manga as " a nearly plotless cascade [ where ] everything seems rushed , and it is difficult to keep track of the characters and plot . "
The five subtitled DVDs released by Media Blasters were reviewed by Anime News Network ( ANN ) . The first DVD was declared rental @-@ worthy by ANN , citing the characters as being " a lot of fun " and the series as being a " very laid @-@ back show " that would work well as a relaxing watch over a weekend . The content , however , was described as getting the series off to a " slow start " , with limitations of the first six episodes being the lack in fan service , humor , and that it " struggles to find any other reason to be compelling " . The second DVD , containing episodes seven through eleven , was reviewed as failing to " materialize much real plot " and content of the episodes was described as existing " only to appeal to otaku who can get excited about moe content " . The third DVD , compiling episodes twelve through sixteen , shows " signs of an actual plot " and contains a " sudden explosion of fan service " , which are noted as " noteworthy developments " in the review . In the fourth DVD , containing episodes seventeen through twenty @-@ one , " the series ' romantic side does finally pay off with a romantic arc that actually engages " . In the fifth and final DVD containing the last five episodes , the Hikari and Amane relationship is described as lacking chemistry , although the Nagisa and Shizuma pairing is regarded as satisfying .
Strawberry Panic ! was one of the premier titles in the Light Novel and Strawberry ( for yuri manga ) production lines when it was licensed for English language distribution by Seven Seas Entertainment . In an interview with Seven Seas Entertainment founder Jason DeAngelis , he was posed the question , " How do you attract a fan base for a novel before its release in English ? " His response was , " We try to choose titles that are already well @-@ known , like Pita @-@ Ten , Shinigami no Ballad or Strawberry Panic ! .... In terms of attracting a fan base , though , in the end it 's all about word @-@ of @-@ mouth . If the material is great , it will stand out on its own and find its audience . The small format that we 're publishing these books in is frankly stunning , and it will definitely attract fans who may not have heard of the property otherwise . "
Strawberry Panic ! Girls ' School in Fullbloom received a total review score of 26 / 40 ( out of the four individual review scores of 6 , 7 , 7 , and 6 ) from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu . The game is listed by MediaWorks as one of their most @-@ popular game titles .
= Where 's Herb ? =
Where 's Herb ? was an advertising campaign for the fast food chain Burger King in 1985 and 1986 . The television commercials featured a fictional character named Herb , who was described as never having eaten a Burger King burger in his life . They called on fans to visit their local Burger King in the hope of finding Herb and winning a prize . The campaign also included an " I 'm not Herb " promotion , in which customers could get a discounted Whopper by including the phrase in their order . At first , people were confused because they did not know what Herb looked like . When his appearance was revealed , however , many people lost interest in the promotion . The promotion was poorly received and was the last campaign that the J. Walter Thompson firm was hired to design for Burger King .
= = Campaign = =
When the commercials were created , Burger King was suffering due to their marketing efforts . The promotion was designed to counter the marketing efforts of McDonald 's , which was spending an estimated US $ 80 to 100 million to promote the McDLT ( McDonald 's Lettuce and Tomato ) , and Wendy 's , which had found success with its " Where 's the beef ? " commercials . The Herb commercials , launched in November 1985 , were created by the J. Walter Thompson advertising firm at an expense of approximately US $ 40 million . Donald Dempsey , J. Walter Thompson 's Executive Vice President of Marketing , oversaw the creation of the campaign , and it continued under the direction of Tom Sawyer , the company 's Vice President of Marketing . Before settling on the name Herb , the firm considered such names as Mitch and Oscar .
The campaign began with three weeks of " cryptic " messages designed to create interest in the promotion . Herb was mentioned in newspaper advertisements , on banners at football games , and in flyers distributed to the public . On November 24 , 1985 , the first commercials were aired on CBS , NBC , and ABC . The premise of the commercials was that Herb was the only person in the United States who had not eaten a burger from Burger King . The advertising agency created a fictional biography for the character , claiming that he was raised in Wisconsin , had worked in a cheese factory , and had also sold decoy ducks . The character is commonly referred to as " Herb the Nerd " .
The Herb character was played by actor Jon Menick , who would randomly appear at Burger King restaurants nationwide . Herb 's identity was not revealed until Super Bowl XX in January 1986 ; he was shown to be wearing white socks , black " flood pants " , and thick @-@ rimmed glasses . If a customer spotted Herb at a Burger King , he or she would win $ 5 @,@ 000 . Everyone in the restaurant when Herb was discovered was also entered into a draw for the promotion 's grand prize of $ 1 million . The draw was won by Christopher Kelly of Louisville , Kentucky , who was present when Herb was spotted at the Burger King in the city 's Oxmoor Center mall .
In addition to encouraging people to search for Herb , Burger King added an " I 'm not Herb " promotion to their marketing campaign . Because Burger King claimed to be angry at Herb for not eating at their restaurants , they offered a 99 @-@ cent Whopper hamburger to everybody except Herb . To get the discounted price , customers had to say , " I 'm not Herb " while ordering . Customers named Herb were told to say , " I 'm not the Herb you 're looking for " .
= = Reception = =
The campaign led to controversy in early 1986 . A 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy spotted Herb at the Burger King restaurant in Bessemer , Alabama and believed that he had won $ 5 @,@ 000 . Because he was under the age of 16 , the minimum age for participating in the promotion , the prize money was given to the boy 's older friend , who was with him at the time . Burger King defended their decision , stating that the restriction was intended to dissuade students from skipping school to search for Herb . The boy 's parents complained to their representative in the Alabama State Senate . The matter was then brought before the full State Senate , which passed a resolution condemning Burger King 's actions as " consumer fraud " .
The World Wrestling Federation had Herb appear as a guest timekeeper during the boxing match between Roddy Piper and Mr. T at WrestleMania 2 at the Nassau Coliseum on April 7 , 1986 . Clara Peller , the star of the " Where 's the beef ? " commercials from Wendy 's , also appeared at the event , working as guest timekeeper during a battle royal .
The promotion met with some positive reviews . Time called it " clever " , and a columnist for the Chicago Tribune stated that Herb was " one of the most famous men in America " . Ultimately , however , the Herb promotion has been described as a flop . The advertising campaign lasted three months before it was discontinued . One Burger King franchise owner stated that the problem was that " there was absolutely no relevant message " . Although some initial results were positive , the mystique was lost after Herb 's appearance was revealed during the Super Bowl . Burger King 's profits fell 40 % in 1986 . As a result of the poorly received campaign , Burger King dropped J. Walter Thompson from their future advertising . The US $ 200 million account was initially given to N. W. Ayer . After 18 months it went to another agency , as Ayer was having problems , and Burger King wanted to improve the bottom line .
Other restaurants , including Wendy 's , capitalized on the promotion by advertising that Herb ate at their locations .
= The D 'oh @-@ cial Network =
" The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " , also known as The ( Annoyed Grunt ) -cial Network , is the eleventh episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 15 , 2012 . In the episode , Lisa is sad that she has no real friends . She discovers that it is easier to make friends on the Internet and therefore creates a social networking website called SpringFace . It becomes incredibly popular in Springfield and Lisa gets many online friends . However , they still ignore her in real life , and the website starts to cause trouble in the town when people use it while driving and cause accidents . Lisa is put on trial and the court orders her to close down SpringFace .
The episode is a satire of the social networking website Facebook and parodies the film The Social Network , which tells the story of how Facebook was founded . The Winklevoss twins , who sued Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg for stealing their idea , are featured in the episode . Actor Armie Hammer portrayed the twins in both The Social Network and " The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " . This episode also features a guest appearance by talk show host David Letterman as himself , appearing in the Simpsons opening sequence . Around 11 @.@ 48 million Americans tuned in to watch the episode during its original broadcast .
= = Plot = =
The episode starts in a courtroom where Lisa is on trial . The Blue @-@ Haired Lawyer is accusing her of bringing devastation upon Springfield because of her selfish desire to be accepted by others . Lisa starts telling everyone in the courtroom about her side of the story . A few months ago , she and her family went to the new mall in town . There , she encountered her schoolmates Sherri and Terri and asked them if she could spend some time with them at the mall . The two twins said no to Lisa , which made her realize that she has no real friends . Later , Lisa went on Homer 's computer and discovered that it is easier to make friends online than in real life , and thus she started a social networking website called SpringFace to get friends . The site became instantly popular among all the citizens of Springfield and Lisa made over a thousand friends in a short period of time . However , Lisa soon noticed that these friends only talked to her on SpringFace and not in real life . She also discovered that the website grew too big to control , with people becoming so addicted to it that they even used it while driving their cars . This caused chaos in the town after numerous car crashes and deaths .
In the present time , the court orders Lisa to shut down SpringFace , and Lisa agrees to do this . The people of Springfield throw away their smartphones and computers soon after the website is closed . When Lisa looks outside her window , she sees Sherri and Terri and a bunch of their friends playing Marco Polo , and they invite Lisa to join them . Patty and Selma are then seen competing in a rowing race against the Winklevoss twins at the London 2012 Olympics , with Patty and Selma winning . This is followed by a short entitled " A Simpsons ' Show 's Too Short ' Story " , animated in the dark , grim style of American artist Edward Gorey . It tells the story of how Bart was a troublemaker from the day he was born , and shows him and Milhouse wrapping Springfield Elementary School in toilet paper .
= = Production = =
" The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " was written by J. Stewart Burns and directed by Chris Clements as part of the twenty @-@ third season of The Simpsons ( 2011 – 2012 ) . It was the second episode written by Burns that season , the first being " Holidays of Future Passed " . According to Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club , the episode satirizes the phenomenon of the social networking website Facebook . He commented that " the thrust of the satire can be summed up with the age @-@ old cry of parents to their offspring to put that damn thing down and go outside already . " Childs added that the episode points out " the most blatant of the many faults of Facebook — namely , its hypnotic ability to distract people in a semi @-@ narcissistic haze [ ... ] " .
" The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " also parodies the 2010 drama film The Social Network , which portrays the founding of Facebook by Mark Zuckerberg and the subsequent lawsuit by American rowers Cameron Winklevoss and Tyler Winklevoss who claimed Zuckerberg stole their idea . The Social Network , like the episode , features a scene in which the Winklevoss twins are seen rowing . In July 2011 , it was announced in Entertainment Weekly that American actor Armie Hammer would make a guest appearance in " The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " , playing the Winklevoss twins . Hammer previously attained that role in The Social Network . According to The Simpsons showrunner Al Jean , the staff of the show decided not to ask the Winklevoss twins to guest star in the episode as themselves because " We [ the staff ] were like , ' Wait , [ Hammer ] played them , that 's who people think they are , we should just get him . ' " Hammer met with the producers of the series in May 2011 to record his lines .
American talk show host David Letterman also guest starred in " The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " , appearing as himself in the couch gag in the Simpsons opening sequence at the beginning of the episode . The couch gag sees the Simpson family arriving in New York City to the tune of " Rhapsody in Blue " to be guests on Late Show with David Letterman . The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma wrote on his blog that there was originally a discussion among the staff of the show about how the sequence would be scored . According to Ledesma , Jean " wanted something hustly @-@ bustly that represented New York City . Thoughts immediately turned to the music of George Gershwin . Woody Allen had used ' Rhapsody in Blue ' to great effect in Manhattan and probably connected forever in people ’ s minds the black & white images of New York with the melodies of that piece . " Ledesma wrote that acquiring the license to use the musical piece was expensive , but Jean thought " it would be the perfect piece to use for the couch gag . " The dark cabaret band Tiger Lillies performed their version of the Simpsons theme over the closing credits of the episode . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening , a fan of the band , was responsible for recruiting its members to the show .
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 15 , 2012 . It was watched by approximately 11 @.@ 48 million people during this broadcast , and in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 5 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating and a thirteen percent share . This was a large increase over the previous episode of the series , " Politically Inept , with Homer Simpson " , which received a 2 @.@ 3 rating . However , " The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " was preceded by a popular National Football League playoffs game that helped improve its rating . The episode became the highest @-@ rated broadcast in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of both total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing ahead of new episodes of Family Guy and Napoleon Dynamite . For the week of January 9 – 15 , 2012 , " The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " placed third in the ratings among all prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic , being beaten only by two football games . This meant The Simpsons was the top scripted show among adults aged 18 – 49 that week .
The reception of " The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " by television critics has been generally mixed . The Guardian reviewer Sam Wollaston called the episode " lovely " , arguing that while " The Simpsons perhaps doesn 't deliver as often as it once did , " this episode proved " it still can , after all this time . " The Evening Herald 's Pat Stacey wrote that it has " been a while since The Simpsons delivered a gold medal @-@ standard performance , yet at least there were satisfying flashes of silver [ in this episode ] . " She added that she " liked the moment when Hans Moleman is hit by Homer 's car and frantically hammers the ' Dislike ' button as he sails through the air . "
Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club thought the episode was less successful at satirizing Facebook compared to the episode " Holidays of Future Passed " . He explained that there is " a moment in ' Holidays ' when Lisa steps into the future version of the Internet and is immediately besieged by a mountain of friend requests . That was a small yet sharp parody of Facebook ’ s ubiquity , but [ ' The D 'oh @-@ cial Network ' ] lays into the same topic with a less deft touch . " Childs added that the episode " has a few good jokes to keep the proceedings moving along , but not enough to rescue [ it ] from mediocrity . " He concluded that he thought the story ended too fast with Lisa shutting down her website and the citizens of Springfield returning to their everyday technology @-@ lacking life : " That ’ s a bit too quick a turn , [ ... ] slapping a moralistic tone onto all of the preceding satire . " David Crawford of Radio Times commented that " The D 'oh @-@ cial Network " features " a rather thin attempt to parody The Social Network " . Yahoo ! TV 's Brian Davis criticized the episode for being too " straightforward in terms of the satire " as it was " generally obvious [ ... ] what each reference and joke was referring to . "
= Sinking of the RMS Titanic =
The sinking of the RMS Titanic occurred on the night of 14 April through to the morning of 15 April 1912 in the North Atlantic Ocean , four days into the ship 's maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City . The largest passenger liner in service at the time , Titanic had an estimated 2 @,@ 224 people on board when she struck an iceberg at around 23 : 40 ( ship 's time ) on Sunday , 14 April 1912 . Her sinking two hours and forty minutes later at 02 : 20 ( 05 : 18 GMT ) on 15 April resulted in the deaths of more than 1 @,@ 500 people , which made it one of the deadliest peacetime maritime disasters in history .
Titanic received six warnings of sea ice on 14 April but was travelling near her maximum speed when her lookouts sighted the iceberg . Unable to turn quickly enough , the ship suffered a glancing blow that buckled her starboard ( right ) side and opened five of her sixteen compartments to the sea . Titanic had been designed to stay afloat with four of her forward compartments flooded but not more , and the crew soon realised that the ship would sink . They used distress flares and radio ( wireless ) messages to attract help as the passengers were put into lifeboats . In accordance with existing practice , Titanic 's lifeboat system was designed to ferry passengers to nearby rescue vessels , not to hold everyone on board simultaneously . So with the ship sinking fast and help still hours away , there was no safe refuge for many of the passengers and crew . Compounding this , poor management of the evacuation meant many boats were launched before they were totally full .
Titanic sank with over a thousand passengers and crew still on board . Almost all those who jumped or fell into the water drowned within minutes due to the effects of hypothermia . RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene about an hour and a half after the sinking and had rescued the last of the survivors by 09 : 15 on 15 April , some nine and a half hours after the collision . The disaster caused widespread outrage over the lack of lifeboats , lax regulations , and the unequal treatment of the three passenger classes during the evacuation . Subsequent inquiries recommended sweeping changes to maritime regulations , leading to the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea ( SOLAS ) , which still governs maritime safety today .
= = Background = =
At the time of her entry into service on 2 April 1912 , Royal Mail Ship ( RMS ) Titanic was the second of three Olympic @-@ class ocean liner sister ships , and was the largest ship in the world . She and her sister , RMS Olympic , were almost one and half times the gross register tonnage of Cunard 's RMS Lusitania and RMS Mauretania , the previous record holders , and were nearly 100 feet ( 30 m ) longer . Titanic could carry 3 @,@ 547 people in speed and comfort , and was built on a hitherto unprecedented scale . Her reciprocating engines were the largest that had ever been built , standing 40 feet ( 12 m ) high and with cylinders 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) in diameter requiring the burning of 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of coal per day .
Her passenger accommodations , especially those of the ship 's First Class section , were said to be " of unrivalled extent and magnificence " , indicated by the fares that First Class accommodation commanded . The Parlour Suites ( the most @-@ expensive and most @-@ luxurious suites on the ship ) with private promenade cost over $ 4 @,@ 350 ( equivalent to $ 106 @,@ 660 today ) for a one @-@ way transatlantic passage . Even Third Class , though considerably less luxurious than Second and First Classes , was unusually comfortable by contemporary standards and was supplied with plentiful quantities of good food , providing its passengers with better conditions than many of them had experienced at home .
Titanic 's maiden voyage began shortly after noon on 10 April 1912 when she left Southampton on the first leg of her journey to New York . A few hours later she called at Cherbourg in northern France , a journey of 80 nautical miles ( 148 km ; 92 mi ) , where she took on passengers . Her next port of call was Queenstown ( now Cobh ) in Ireland , which she reached around midday on 11 April . She left in the afternoon after taking on more passengers and stores .
By the time she departed westwards across the Atlantic she was carrying 892 crew members and 1 @,@ 320 passengers . This was only about half of her full passenger capacity of 2 @,@ 435 , as it was the low season and shipping from the UK had been disrupted by a coal miners ' strike . Her passengers were a cross @-@ section of Edwardian society , from millionaires such as John Jacob Astor and Benjamin Guggenheim , to poor emigrants from countries as disparate as Armenia , Ireland , Italy , Sweden , Syria and Russia seeking a new life in America .
The ship was commanded by 62 @-@ year @-@ old Captain Edward John Smith , the most senior of the White Star Line 's captains . He had four decades of seafaring experience and had served as captain of the RMS Olympic , from which he was transferred to command Titanic . The vast majority of the crew who served under him were not trained sailors , but were either engineers , firemen , or stokers , responsible for looking after the engines ; or stewards and galley staff , responsible for the passengers . The 6 watch officers and 39 able @-@ bodied seamen constituted only around 5 percent of the crew , and most of these had been taken on at Southampton so had not had time to familiarise themselves with the ship .
The ice conditions were attributed to a mild winter that caused large numbers of icebergs to shift off the west coast of Greenland . In addition , it is now known that in January 1912 , the Moon came closer to the Earth than at any time in the previous 1 @,@ 400 years , at the same time as the Earth made its closest annual approach to the Sun . This caused exceptionally high tides that may have resulted in a larger number of icebergs than usual reaching the shipping lanes a few months later . The weather improved significantly during the course of the day , from brisk winds and moderate seas in the morning to a crystal @-@ clear calm by evening , as the ship entered an arctic high pressure system . There was no moon on the clear night .
= = 14 April 1912 = =
= = = Iceberg warnings ( 09 : 00 – 23 : 39 ) = = =
During 14 April 1912 , Titanic 's radio operators received six messages from other ships warning of drifting ice , which passengers on Titanic had begun to notice during the afternoon . The ice conditions in the North Atlantic were the worst for any April in the previous 50 years ( which was the reason why the lookouts were unaware that they were about to steam into a line of drifting ice several miles wide and many miles long ) . Not all of these messages were relayed by the radio operators . At the time , all wireless operators on ocean liners were employees of the Marconi Company and not members of their ship 's crew ; their primary responsibility was to send messages for the passengers , with weather reports as a secondary concern .
The first warning came at 09 : 00 from RMS Caronia reporting " bergs , growlers and field ice " . Captain Smith acknowledged receipt of the message . At 13 : 42 , RMS Baltic relayed a report from the Greek ship Athenia that she had been " passing icebergs and large quantities of field ice " . This too was acknowledged by Smith , who showed the report to J. Bruce Ismay , the chairman of the White Star Line , aboard Titanic for
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23 ) and Beornwulf ( 823 – 26 ) restored relations with Archbishop Wulfred , and Beornwulf appointed a sub @-@ king of Kent , Baldred .
England had suffered Viking raids in the late eighth century , but no attacks are recorded between 794 and 835 , when the Isle of Sheppey in Kent was ravaged . In 836 Egbert was defeated by the Vikings at Carhampton in Somerset , but in 838 he was victorious over an alliance of Cornishmen and Vikings at the Battle of Hingston Down , reducing Cornwall to the status of a client kingdom .
= = Family = =
Æthelwulf was the son of Egbert , King of Wessex from 802 to 839 . His mother 's name is unknown , and he had no recorded siblings . So far as is known , his wife Osburh was the mother of all his children . She was the daughter of Oslac , described by Asser , biographer of their son Alfred the Great , as " King Æthelwulf 's famous butler " , a man who was descended from Jutes who had ruled the Isle of Wight . Æthelwulf had six known children . His eldest son , Æthelstan , was old enough to be appointed King of Kent in 839 , so he must have been born by the early 820s , and he died in the early 850s . The second son , Æthelbald , is first recorded as a charter witness in 841 , and if , like Alfred , he began to attest when he was around six , he would have been born around 835 ; he was King of Wessex from 858 to 860 . Æthelwulf 's third son , Æthelberht , was probably born around 839 and was king from 860 to 865 . The only daughter , Æthelswith , married Burgred , King of Mercia , in 853 . The other two sons were much younger : Æthelred was born around 848 and was king from 865 to 871 , and Alfred was born around 849 and was king from 871 to 899 . In 856 Æthelwulf married Judith , daughter of Charles the Bald , King of West Francia and future Holy Roman Emperor , and his wife Ermentrude . Osburh had probably died , although it is possible that she had been repudiated . There were no children from Æthelwulf 's marriage to Judith , and after his death she married his eldest surviving son and successor , Æthelbald .
= = Early life = =
Æthelwulf was first recorded in 825 , when Egbert won the crucial Battle of Ellandun against King Beornwulf of Mercia , ending the long Mercian ascendancy over southern England . Egbert followed it up by sending Æthelwulf with Eahlstan , Bishop of Sherborne , and Wulfheard , Ealdorman of Hampshire , with a large army into Kent to expel sub @-@ king Baldred . Æthelwulf was descended from kings of Kent , and he was sub @-@ king of Kent , and of Surrey , Sussex and Essex , which were then included in the sub @-@ kingdom , until he inherited the throne of Wessex in 839 . His sub @-@ kingship is recorded in charters , in some of which King Egbert acted with his son 's permission , such as a grant in 838 to Bishop Beornmod of Rochester , and Æthelwulf himself issued a charter as King of Kent in the same year . Unlike their Mercian predecessors , who alienated the Kentish people by ruling from a distance , Æthelwulf and his father successfully cultivated local support by governing through Kentish ealdormen and promoting their interests . In Abels 's view , Egbert and Æthelwulf rewarded their friends and purged Mercian supporters . Historians take differing views on the attitude of the new regime to the Kentish church . At Canterbury in 828 Egbert granted privileges to the bishopric of Rochester , and according to the historian of Anglo @-@ Saxon England Simon Keynes , Egbert and Æthelwulf took steps to secure the support of Archbishop Wulfred . However , the medievalist Nicholas Brooks argues that Wulfred 's Mercian origin and connections proved a liability . Æthelwulf seized an estate in East Malling from the Canterbury church on the ground that it had only been granted by Baldred when he was in flight from the West Saxon forces ; the issue of archiepiscopal coinage was suspended for several years ; and the only estate Wulfred was granted after 825 he received from King Wiglaf of Mercia .
In 829 Egbert conquered Mercia , only for Wiglaf to recover his kingdom a year later . The scholar D. P. Kirby sees Wiglaf 's restoration in 830 as a dramatic reversal for Egbert , which was probably followed by his loss of control of the London mint and the Mercian recovery of Essex and Berkshire , and the historian Heather Edwards states that his " immense conquest could not be maintained " . However , in the view of Keynes :
It is interesting ... that both Egbert and his son Æthelwulf appear to have respected the separate identity of Kent and its associated provinces , as if there appears to have been no plan at this stage to absorb the southeast into an enlarged kingdom stretching across the whole of southern England . Nor does it seem to have been the intention of Egbert and his successors to maintain supremacy of any kind over the kingdom of Mercia ... It is quite possible that Egbert had relinquished Mercia of his own volition ; and there is no suggestion that any residual antagonism affected relations between the rulers of Wessex and Mercia thereafter .
In 838 King Egbert held an assembly at Kingston in Surrey , where Æthelwulf may have received royal consecration by the archbishop . Egbert restored the East Malling estate to Wulfred 's successor as Archbishop of Canterbury , Ceolnoth , in return for a promise of " firm and unbroken friendship " for himself and Æthelwulf and their heirs , and the same condition is specified in a grant to the see of Winchester . Egbert thus ensured support for Æthelwulf , who became the first son to succeed his father as West Saxon king since 641 . At the same meeting Kentish monasteries chose Æthelwulf as their lord , and he undertook that , after his death , they would have freedom to elect their heads . Wulfred had devoted his archiepiscopate to fighting against secular power over Kentish monasteries , but Ceolnoth now surrendered effective control to Æthelwulf , whose offer of freedom from control after his death was unlikely to be honoured by his successors . Kentish ecclesiastics and laymen now looked for protection against Viking attacks to West Saxon rather than Mercian royal power .
Egbert 's conquests brought him wealth far greater than his predecessors had enjoyed , and enabled him to purchase the support which secured the West Saxon throne for his descendants . The stability brought by the dynastic succession of Egbert and Æthelwulf led to an expansion of commercial and agrarian resources , and to an expansion of royal income . The wealth of the West Saxon kings was also increased by the agreement in 838 – 39 with Archbishop Ceolnoth for the previously independent West Saxon minsters to accept the king as their secular lord in return for his protection . However , there was no certainty that the hegemony of Wessex would prove more permanent than that of Mercia .
= = King of Wessex = =
When Æthelwulf succeeded to the throne of Wessex in 839 , his experience as sub @-@ king of Kent had given him valuable training in kingship , and he in turn made his own sons sub @-@ kings . According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , on his accession " he gave to his son Æthelstan the kingdom of the people of Kent , and the kingdom of the East Saxons and of the people of Surrey and of the South Saxons " . However , Æthelwulf did not give Æthelstan the same power as his father had given him , and although Æthelstan attested his father 's charters as king , he does not appear to have been given the power to issue his own charters . Æthelwulf exercised authority in the south @-@ east and made regular visits there . He governed Wessex and Kent as separate spheres , and assemblies in each kingdom were only attended by the nobility of that country . The historian Janet Nelson says that " Æthelwulf ran a Carolingian @-@ style family firm of plural realms , held together by his own authority as father @-@ king , and by the consent of distinct élites . " He maintained his father 's policy of governing Kent through ealdormen appointed from the local nobility and advancing their interests , but gave less support to the church . In 843 Æthelwulf granted ten hides at Little Chart to Æthelmod , the brother of the leading Kentish ealdorman Ealhere , and Æthelmod succeeded to the post on his brother 's death in 853 . In 844 Æthelwulf granted land at Horton in Kent to Ealdorman Eadred , with permission to transfer parts of it to local landowners ; in a culture of reciprocity , this created a network of mutual friendships and obligations between the beneficiaries and the king . Archbishops of Canterbury were firmly in the West Saxon king 's sphere . His ealdormen enjoyed a high status , and sometimes attested charters above the king 's sons . His reign is the first for which there is evidence of royal priests , and Malmesbury Abbey regarded him as an important benefactor , who is said to have been the donor of a shrine for the relics of Saint Aldhelm .
After 830 , Egbert had followed a policy of maintaining good relations with Mercia , and this was continued by Æthelwulf when he became king . London was traditionally a Mercian town , but in the 830s it was under West Saxon control ; soon after Æthelwulf 's accession it reverted to Mercian control . King Wiglaf of Mercia died in 839 and his successor , Berhtwulf , revived the Mercian mint in London ; the two kingdoms appear to have struck a joint issue in the mid @-@ 840s , possibly indicating West Saxon help in reviving Mercian coinage , and showing the friendly relations between the two powers . Berkshire was still Mercian in 844 , but by 849 it was part of Wessex , as Alfred was born in that year at the West Saxon royal estate in Wantage , then in Berkshire . However , the local Mercian ealdorman , also called Æthelwulf , retained his position under the West Saxon kings . Berhtwulf died in 852 and cooperation with Wessex continued under Burgred , his successor as King of Mercia , who married Æthelwulf 's daughter Æthelswith in 853 . In the same year Æthelwulf assisted Burgred in a successful attack on Wales to restore the traditional Mercian hegemony over the Welsh .
In ninth @-@ century Mercia and Kent , royal charters were produced by religious houses , each with its own style , but in Wessex there was a single royal diplomatic tradition , probably by a single agency acting for the king . This may have originated in Egbert 's reign , and it becomes clear in the 840s , when Æthelwulf had a Frankish secretary called Felix . There were strong contacts between the West Saxon and Carolingian courts . The Annals of St Bertin took particular interest in Viking attacks on Britain , and in 852 Lupus , the Abbot of Ferrières and a protégé of Charles the Bald , wrote to Æthelwulf congratulating him on his victory over the Vikings and requesting a gift of lead to cover his church roof . Lupus also wrote to his " most beloved friend " Felix , asking him to manage the transport of the lead . Unlike Canterbury and the south @-@ east , Wessex did not see a sharp decline in the standard of Latin in charters in the mid @-@ ninth century , and this may have been partly due to Felix and his continental contacts . Lupus thought that Felix had great influence over the King . Charters were mainly issued from royal estates in counties which were the heartland of ancient Wessex , namely Hampshire , Somerset , Wiltshire and Dorset , with a few in Kent .
An ancient division between east and west Wessex continued to be important in the ninth century , with the boundary being Selwood Forest on the borders of Somerset , Dorset and Wiltshire . The two bishoprics of Wessex were Selborne in the west and Winchester in the east . Æthelwulf 's family connections seem to have been west of Selwood , but his patronage was concentrated further east , particularly on Winchester , where his father was buried , and where he appointed Swithun to succeed Helmstan as bishop in 852 – 853 . However , he made a grant of land in Somerset to his leading ealdorman , Eanwulf , and on 26 December 846 he granted a large estate to himself in South Hams in west Devon . He thus changed it from royal demesne , which he was obliged to pass on to his successor as king , to bookland , which could be transferred as the owner pleased , so he could make land grants to followers to improve security in a frontier zone .
= = Viking threat = =
Viking raids increased in the early 840s on both sides of the English Channel , and in 843 Æthelwulf was defeated by the companies of thirty @-@ five Danish ships at Carhampton in Somerset . In 850 sub @-@ king Æthelstan and Ealdorman Ealhhere of Kent won a naval victory over a large Viking fleet off Sandwich in Kent , capturing nine ships and driving off the rest . Æthelwulf granted Ealhhere a large estate in Kent , but Æthelstan is not heard of again , and probably died soon afterwards . The following year the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle records five different attacks on southern England . A Danish fleet of 350 Viking ships took London and Canterbury , and when King Berhtwulf of Mercia went to their relief he was defeated . The Vikings then moved on to Surrey , where they were defeated by Æthelwulf and his son Æthelbald at the Battle of Aclea . According to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle the West Saxon levies " there made the greatest slaughter of a heathen that we have heard tell of up to the present day " . The Chronicle frequently reported victories during Æthelwulf 's reign won by levies led by ealdormen , unlike the 870s when royal command was emphasised , reflecting a more consensual style of leadership in the earlier period .
In 850 a Danish army wintered on Thanet , and in 853 ealdormen Ealhhere of Kent and Huda of Surrey were killed in a battle against the Vikings , also on Thanet . In 855 Danish Vikings stayed over the winter on Sheppey , before carrying on their pillaging of eastern England . However , during Æthelwulf 's reign Viking attacks were contained and did not present a major threat .
= = Coinage = =
The silver penny was almost the only coin used in middle and later Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Æthelwulf 's coinage came from a main mint in Canterbury and a secondary one at Rochester ; both had been used by Egbert for his own coinage after he gained control of Kent . During Æthelwulf 's reign , there were four main phases of the coinage distinguishable at both mints , though they are not exactly parallel and it is uncertain when the transitions took place . The first issue at Canterbury carried a design known as Saxoniorum , which had been used by Egbert for one of his own issues . This was replaced by a portrait design in about 843 , which can be subdivided further ; the earliest coins have cruder designs than the later ones . At the Rochester mint the sequence was reversed , with an initial portrait design replaced , also in about 843 , by a non @-@ portrait design carrying a cross @-@ and @-@ wedges pattern on the obverse .
In about 848 both mints switched to a common design known as Dor ¯ b ¯ / Cant – the characters " Dor ¯ b ¯ " on the obverse of these coins indicates either Dorobernia ( Canterbury ) or Dorobrevia ( Rochester ) , and " Cant " , referring to Kent , appeared on the reverse . It is possible that the Canterbury mint continued to produce portrait coins at the same time . The Canterbury issue seems to have been ended in 850 – 851 by Viking raids , though it is possible that Rochester was spared , and the issue may have continued there . The final issue , again at both mints , was introduced in about 852 ; it has an inscribed cross on the reverse and a portrait on the obverse . Æthelwulf 's coinage became debased by the end of his reign , and though the problem became worse after his death it is possible that the debasement prompted the changes in coin type from as early as 850 .
Æthelwulf 's first Rochester coinage may have begun when he was still sub @-@ king of Kent , under Egbert . A hoard of coins deposited at the beginning of Æthelwulf 's reign in about 840 , found in the Middle Temple in London , contained 22 coins from Rochester and two from Canterbury of the first issue of each mint . Some numismatists argue that the high proportion of Rochester coins means that the issue must have commenced before Egbert 's death , but an alternative explanation is that whoever hoarded the coins simply happened to have access to more Rochester coins . No coins were issued by Æthelwulf 's sons during his reign .
Ceolnoth , Archbishop of Canterbury throughout Æthelwulf 's reign , also minted coins of his own at Canterbury : there were three different portrait designs , thought to be contemporary with each of the first three of Æthelwulf 's Canterbury issues . These were followed by an inscribed cross design that was uniform with Æthelwulf 's final coinage . At Rochester , Bishop Beornmod produced only one issue , a cross @-@ and @-@ wedges design which was contemporary with Æthelwulf 's Saxoniorum issue .
In the view of the numismatists Philip Grierson and Mark Blackburn , the mints of Wessex , Mercia and East Anglia were not greatly affected by changes in political control : " the remarkable continuity of moneyers which can be seen at each of these mints suggests that the actual mint organisation was largely independent of the royal administration and was founded in the stable trading communities of each city " .
= = Decimation Charters = =
The early twentieth @-@ century historian W. H. Stevenson observed that : " Few things in our early history have led to so much discussion " as Æthelwulf 's Decimation Charters ; a hundred years later the charter expert Susan Kelly described them as " one of the most controversial groups of Anglo @-@ Saxon diplomas " . Both Asser and the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle say that Æthelwulf gave a decimation , in 855 , shortly before leaving on pilgrimage to Rome . According to the Chronicle " King Æthelwulf conveyed by charter the tenth part of his land throughout all his kingdom to the praise of God and to his own eternal salvation " . However , Asser states that " Æthelwulf , the esteemed king , freed the tenth part of his whole kingdom from royal service and tribute , and as an everlasting inheritance he made it over on the cross of Christ to the triune God , for the redemption of his soul and those of his predecessors . " According to Keynes , Asser 's version may just be a " loose translation " of the Chronicle , and his implication that Æthelwulf released a tenth of all land from secular burdens was probably not intended . All land could be regarded as the king 's land , so the Chronicle reference to " his land " does not necessarily refer to royal property , and since the booking of land – conveying it by charter – was always regarded as a pious act , Asser 's statement that he made it over to God does not necessarily mean that the charters were in favour of the church .
The Decimation Charters are divided by Susan Kelly into four groups :
1 . Two dated at Winchester on 5 November 844 . In a charter in the Malmesbury archive , Æthelwulf refers in the proem to the perilous state of his kingdom as the result of the assaults of pagans and barbarians . For the sake of his soul and in return for masses for the king and ealdormen each Wednesday , " I have decided to give in perpetual liberty some portion of hereditary lands to all those ranks previously in possession , both to God 's servants and handmaidens serving God and to laymen , always the tenth hide , and where it is less , then the tenth part . "
2 . Six dated at Wilton on Easter Day , 22 April 854 . In the common text of these charters , Æthelwulf states that " for the sake of his soul and the prosperity of the kingdom and [ the salvation of ] the people assigned to him by God , he has acted upon the advice given to him by his bishops , comites , and all his nobles . He has granted the tenth part of the lands throughout his kingdom , not only to the churches , but also to his thegns . The land is granted in perpetual liberty , so that it will remain free of royal services and all secular burdens . In return there will be liturgical commemoration of the king and of his bishops and ealdormen . "
3 . Five from Old Minster , Winchester , connected with the Wilton meeting but generally considered spurious .
4 . One from Kent dated 855 , the only one to have the same date as the decimation according to Chronicle and Asser . The king grants to his thegn Dunn property in Rochester " on account of the decimation of lands which by God 's gift I have decided to do " . Dunn left the land to his wife with reversion to Rochester Cathedral .
None of the charters are original , and Stevenson dismissed all of them as fraudulent apart from the Kentish one of 855 . Stevenson saw the decimation as a donation of royal demesne to churches and laymen , with those grants which were made to laymen being on the understanding that there would be reversion to a religious institution . Up to the 1990s , his view on the authenticity of the charters was generally accepted by scholars , with the exception of the historian H. P. R. Finberg , who argued in 1964 that most are based on authentic diplomas . He coined the terms the First Decimation of 844 , which he saw as the removal of public dues on a tenth of all bookland , and the Second Decimation of 854 , the donation of a tenth of " the private domain of the royal house " to the churches . He considered it unlikely that the First Decimation had been carried into effect , probably due to the threat from the Vikings . Finberg 's terminology has been adopted , but his defence of the First Decimation generally rejected . In 1994 Keynes defended the Wilton charters in group 2 , and his arguments have been widely accepted .
Historians have been divided on how to interpret the Second Decimation , and in 1994 Keynes described it as " one of the most perplexing problems " in the study of ninth @-@ century charters . He set out three alternatives :
1 . It conveyed a tenth of the royal demesne – the lands of the crown as opposed to the personal property of the sovereign – into the hands of churches , ecclesiastics and laymen . In Anglo @-@ Saxon England property was either folkland or bookland . The transmission of folkland was governed by the customary rights of kinsmen , subject to the king 's approval , whereas bookland was established by the grant of a royal charter , and could be disposed of freely by the owner . Booking land thus converted it by charter from folkland to bookland . The royal demesne was the crown 's folkland , whereas the king 's bookland was his own personal property which he could leave by will as he chose . In the decimation Æthelwulf may have conveyed royal folkland by charter to become bookland , in some cases to laymen who already rented the land .
2 . It was the booking of a tenth of folkland to its owners , who would then be free to convey it to a church .
3 . It was a reduction of one tenth in the secular burdens on lands already in the possession of landowners . The secular burdens would have included the provision of supplies for the king and his officials , and payment of various taxes .
Some scholars , for example Frank Stenton , author of the standard history of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , along with Keynes and Abels , see the Second Decimation as a donation of royal demesne . In Abels ' view Æthelwulf sought loyalty from the aristocracy and church during the king 's forthcoming absence from Wessex , and displayed a sense of dynastic insecurity also evident in his father 's generosity towards the Kentish church in 838 , and in an " avid attention " in this period to compiling and revising royal genealogies . Keynes suggests that " Æthelwulf 's purpose was presumably to earn divine assistance in his struggles against the Vikings " , and the mid @-@ twentieth @-@ century historian Eric John observes that " a lifetime of medieval studies teaches one that an early medieval king was never so political as when he was on his knees " . The view that the decimation was a donation of the king 's own personal estate is supported by the Anglo @-@ Saxonist Alfred Smyth , who argues that these were the only lands the king was entitled to alienate by book . The historian Martin Ryan prefers the view that Æthelwulf freed a tenth part of land owned by laymen from secular obligations , who could now endow churches under their own patronage . Ryan sees it as part of a campaign of religious devotion . According to the historian David Pratt , it " is best interpreted as a strategic ' tax cut ' , designed to encourage cooperation in defensive measures through a partial remission of royal dues " . Nelson states that the decimation took place in two phases , in Wessex in 854 and Kent in 855 , reflecting the fact that they remained separate kingdoms .
Kelly argues that most charters were based on genuine originals , including the First Decimation of 844 . She says : " Commentators have been unkind [ and ] the 844 version has not been given the benefit of the doubt " . In her view Æthelwulf then gave a 10 % tax reduction on bookland , and ten years later he took the more generous step of " a widespread distribution of royal lands " . Unlike Finberg , she believes that both decimations were carried out , although the second one may not have been completed due to opposition from Æthelwulf 's son Æthelbald . She thinks that the grants of bookland to laymen in the Second Decimation were unconditional , not with reversion to religious houses as Stevenson had argued . However , Keynes is not convinced by Kelly 's arguments , and thinks that the First Decimation charters were eleventh- or early twelfth @-@ century fabrications .
= = Pilgrimage to Rome and later life = =
In the early 850s Æthelwulf decided to go on pilgrimage to Rome . According to Abels : " Æthelwulf was at the height of his power and prestige . It was a propitious time for the West Saxon king to claim a place of honour among the kings and emperors of christendom . " His eldest surviving sons Æthelbald and Æthelberht were then adults , while Æthelred and Alfred were still young children . In 853 Æthelwulf sent his younger sons to Rome , perhaps accompanying envoys in connection with his own forthcoming visit . Alfred , and possibly Æthelred as well , were invested with the " belt of consulship " . Æthelred 's part in the journey is only known from a contemporary record in the liber vitae of San Salvatore , Brescia , as later records such as the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle were only interested in recording the honour paid to Alfred . Abels sees the embassy as paving the way for Æthelwulf 's pilgrimage , and the presence of Alfred , his youngest and therefore most expendable son , as a gesture of goodwill to the papacy ; confirmation by Pope Leo IV made Alfred his spiritual son , and thus created a spiritual link between the two " fathers " . Kirby argues that the journey may indicate that Alfred was intended for the church , while Nelson on the contrary sees Æthelwulf 's purpose as affirming his younger sons ' throneworthiness , thus protecting them against being tonsured by their elder brothers , which would have rendered them ineligible for kingship .
Æthelwulf set out for Rome in the spring of 855 , accompanied by Alfred and a large retinue . The King left Wessex in the care of his oldest surviving son , Æthelbald , and the sub @-@ kingdom of Kent to the rule of Æthelberht , and thereby confirmed that they were to succeed to the two kingdoms . On the way the party stayed with Charles the Bald in Francia , where there were the usual banquets and exchange of gifts . Æthelwulf stayed a year in Rome , and his gifts to St Peter included a gold crown weighing four pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kilograms ) , two gold goblets , a sword bound with gold , four silver @-@ gilt bowls , two silk tunics and two gold @-@ interwoven veils . He also gave gold to the clergy and leading men and silver to the people of Rome . According to the historian Joanna Story , his gifts rivalled those of Carolingian donors and the Byzantine emperor and " were clearly chosen to reflect the personal generosity and spiritual wealth of the West Saxon king ; here was no Germanic ' hillbilly ' from the backwoods of the Christian world but , rather , a sophisticated , wealthy and utterly contemporary monarch " . According to the twelfth @-@ century chronicler William of Malmesbury , he helped to pay for the restoration of the Saxon quarter for English pilgrims , which had recently been destroyed by fire .
The pilgrimage puzzles historians and Kelly comments that " it is extraordinary that an early medieval king could consider his position safe enough to abandon his kingdom in a time of extreme crisis " . She suggests that Æthelwulf may have been motivated by a personal religious impulse . Ryan sees it as an attempt to placate the divine wrath displayed by Viking attacks , whereas Nelson thinks he aimed to enhance his prestige in dealing with the demands of his adult sons . In Kirby 's view :
Æthelwulf 's journey to Rome is of great interest for it did not signify abdication and a retreat from the world as their journeys to Rome had for Cædwalla and Ine and other Anglo @-@ Saxon kings . It was more a display of the king 's international standing and a demonstration of the prestige his dynasty enjoyed in Frankish and papal circles .
On his way back from Rome Æthelwulf again stayed with King Charles the Bald , and may have joined him on a campaign against a Viking warband . On 1 October 856 Æthelwulf married Charles 's 12- or 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Judith , at Verberie . The marriage was considered extraordinary by contemporaries and by modern historians . Carolingian princesses rarely married and were usually sent to nunneries , and it was almost unknown for them to marry foreigners . Judith was crowned queen and anointed by Hincmar , Archbishop of Rheims . Although empresses had been anointed before , this is the first definitely known anointing of a Carolingian queen . In addition West Saxon custom , described by Asser as " perverse and detestable " , was that the wife of a king of Wessex could not be called queen or sit on the throne with her husband – she was just the king 's wife .
Æthelwulf returned to Wessex to face a revolt by Æthelbald , who attempted to prevent his father from recovering his throne . Historians give varying explanations for both the rebellion and the marriage . In Nelson 's view , Æthelwulf 's marriage to Judith added the West Saxon king to the family of kings and princely allies which Charles was creating . Charles was under attack both from Vikings and a rising among his own nobility , and Æthelwulf had great prestige due to his victories over the Vikings ; some historians such as Kirby and Pauline Stafford see the marriage as sealing an anti @-@ Viking alliance . The marriage gave Æthelwulf a share in Carolingian prestige , and Kirby describes the anointing of Judith as " a charismatic sanctification which enhanced her status , blessed her womb and conferred additional throne @-@ worthiness on her male offspring . " These marks of a special status implied that a son of hers would succeed to at least part of Æthelwulf 's kingdom , and explain Æthelbald 's decision to rebel . The historian Michael Enright denies that an anti @-@ Viking alliance between two such distant kingdoms could serve any useful purpose , and argues that the marriage was Æthelwulf 's response to news that his son was planning to rebel ; his son by an anointed Carolingian queen would be in a strong position to succeed as king of Wessex instead of the rebellious Æthelbald . Abels suggests that Æthelwulf sought Judith 's hand because he needed her father 's money and support to overcome his son 's rebellion , but Kirby and Smyth argue that it is extremely unlikely that Charles the Bald would have agreed to marry his daughter to a ruler who was known to be in serious political difficulty . Æthelbald may also have acted out of resentment at the loss of patrimony he suffered as a result of the decimation .
Æthelbald 's rebellion was supported by Ealhstan , Bishop of Sherborne , and Eanwulf , ealdorman of Somerset , even though they appear to have been two of the king 's most trusted advisers . According to Asser , the plot was concerted " in the western part of Selwood " , and western nobles may have backed Æthelbald because they resented the patronage Æthelwulf gave to eastern Wessex . Asser also stated that Æthelwulf agreed to give up the western part of his kingdom in order to avoid a civil war . Some historians such as Keynes and Abels think that his rule was then confined to the south @-@ east , while others such as Kirby think it is more likely that it was Wessex itself which was divided , with Æthelbald keeping Wessex west of Selwood , Æthelwulf holding the centre and east , and Æthelberht keeping the south @-@ east . Æthelwulf insisted that Judith should sit beside him on the throne until the end of his life , and according to Asser this was " without any disagreement or dissatisfaction on the part of his nobles " .
= = King Æthelwulf 's ring = =
King Æthelwulf 's ring was found in a cart rut in Laverstock in Wiltshire in about August 1780 by one William Petty , who sold it to a silversmith in Salisbury . The silversmith sold it to the Earl of Radnor , and the earl 's son , William , donated it to the British Museum in 1829 . The ring , together with a similar ring of Æthelwulf 's daughter Æthelswith , is one of two key examples of nielloed ninth @-@ century metalwork . They appear to represent the emergence of a " court style " of West Saxon metalwork , characterised by an unusual Christian iconography , such as a pair of peacocks at the Fountain of Life on the Æthelwulf ring , associated with Christian immortality . The ring is inscribed " Æthelwulf Rex " , firmly associating it with the King , and the inscription forms part of the design , so it cannot have been added later . Many of its features are typical of ninth @-@ century metalwork , such as the design of two birds , beaded and speckled borders , and a saltire with arrow @-@ like terminals on the back . It was probably manufactured in Wessex , but was typical of the uniformity of animal ornament in England in the ninth century . In the view of the expert on medieval art Leslie Webster : " Its fine Trewhiddle style ornament would certainly fit a mid ninth @-@ century date . " In Nelson 's view , " it was surely made to be a gift from this royal lord to a brawny follower : the sign of a successful ninth @-@ century kingship " . The art historian David Wilson sees it as a survival of the pagan tradition of the generous king as the " ring @-@ giver " .
= = Æthelwulf 's will = =
Æthelwulf 's will has not survived , but Alfred 's has and it provides some information about his father 's intentions . The kingdom was to be divided between the two oldest surviving sons , with Æthelbald getting Wessex and Æthelberht Kent and the south @-@ east . The survivor of Æthelbald , Æthelred and Alfred was to inherit their father 's bookland – his personal property as opposed to the royal lands which went with the kingship – and Abels and Yorke argue that this probably means that the survivor was to inherit the throne of Wessex as well . Other historians disagree . Nelson states that the provision regarding the personal property had nothing to do with the kingship , and Kirby comments : " Such an arrangement would have led to fratricidal strife . With three older brothers , Alfred 's chances of reaching adulthood would , one feels , have been minimal . " Æthelwulf 's moveable wealth , such as gold and silver , was to be divided between " children , nobles and the needs of the king 's soul " . For the latter , he left one tenth of his hereditary land to be set aside to feed the poor , and he ordered that three hundred mancuses be sent to Rome each year , one hundred to be spent on lighting the lamps in St Peter 's at Easter , one hundred for the lights of St Paul 's , and one hundred for the pope .
= = Death and succession = =
Æthelwulf died on 13 January 858 . According to the Annals of St Neots , he was buried at Steyning in Sussex , but his body was later transferred to Winchester , probably by Alfred . Æthelwulf was succeeded by Æthelbald in Wessex and Æthelberht in Kent and the south @-@ east . The prestige conferred by a Frankish marriage was so great that Æthelbald then wedded his step @-@ mother Judith , to Asser 's retrospective horror ; he described the marriage as a " great disgrace " , and " against God 's prohibition and Christian dignity " . When Æthelbald died only two years later , Æthelberht became King of Wessex as well as Kent , and Æthelwulf 's intention of dividing his kingdoms between his sons was thus set aside . In the view of Yorke and Abels this was because Æthelred and Alfred were too young to rule , and Æthelberht agreed in return that his younger brothers would inherit the whole kingdom on his death , whereas Kirby and Nelson think that Æthelberht just became the trustee for his younger brothers ' share of the bookland .
After Æthelbald 's death Judith sold her possessions and returned to her father , but two years later she eloped with Baldwin , Count of Flanders . In the 890s their son , also called Baldwin , married Æthelwulf 's granddaughter Ælfthryth .
= = Historiography = =
Æthelwulf 's reputation among historians was poor in the twentieth century . In 1935 the historian R. H. Hodgkin attributed his pilgrimage to Rome to " the unpractical piety which had led him to desert his kingdom at a time of great danger " , and described his marriage to Judith as " the folly of a man senile before his time " . To Stenton in the 1960s he was " a religious and unambitious man , for whom engagement in war and politics was an unwelcome consequence of rank " . One dissenter was Finberg , who in 1964 described him as " a king whose valour in war and princely munificence recalled the figures of the heroic age " , but in 1979 Enright said : " More than anything else he appears to have been an impractical religious enthusiast . " Early medieval writers , especially Asser , emphasise his religiosity and his preference for consensus , seen in the concessions made to avert a civil war on his return from Rome . In Story 's view " his legacy has been clouded by accusations of excessive piety which ( to modern sensibilities at least ) has seemed at odds with the demands of early medieval kingship " . In 839 an unnamed Anglo @-@ Saxon king wrote to the Holy Roman Emperor Louis the Pious asking for permission to travel through his territory on the way to Rome , and relating an English priest 's dream which foretold disaster unless Christians abandoned their sins . This is now believed to have been an unrealised project of Egbert at the end of his life , but it was formerly attributed to Æthelwulf , and seen as exhibiting what Story calls his reputation for " dramatic piety " , and irresponsibility for planning to abandon his kingdom at the beginning of his reign .
In the twenty @-@ first century he is seen very differently by historians . Æthelwulf is not listed in the index of Peter Hunter Blair 's An Introduction to Anglo @-@ Saxon England , first published in 1956 , but in a new introduction to the 2003 edition Keynes listed him among people " who have not always been accorded the attention they might be thought to deserve ... for it was he , more than any other , who secured the political fortune of his people in the ninth century , and who opened up channels of communication which led through Frankish realms and across the Alps to Rome " . According to Story : " Æthelwulf acquired and cultivated a reputation both in Francia and Rome which is unparalleled in the sources since the height of Offa 's and Coenwulf 's power at the turn of the ninth century " .
Nelson describes him as " one of the great underrated among Anglo @-@ Saxons " , and complains that she was only allowed 2 @,@ 500 words for him in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , compared with 15 @,@ 000 for Edward II and 35 @,@ 000 for Elizabeth I. She says :
Æthelwulf 's reign has been relatively under @-@ appreciated in modern scholarship . Yet he laid the foundations for Alfred 's success . To the perennial problems of husbanding the kingdom 's resources , containing conflicts within the royal family , and managing relations with neighbouring kingdoms , Æthelwulf found new as well as traditional answers . He consolidated old Wessex , and extended his reach over what is now Devon and Cornwall . He ruled Kent , working with the grain of its political community . He borrowed ideological props from Mercians and Franks alike , and went to Rome , not to die there , like his predecessor Ine , ... but to return , as Charlemagne had , with enhanced prestige . Æthelwulf coped more effectively with Scandinavian attacks than did most contemporary rulers .
= Guardians of the Galaxy ( film ) =
Guardians of the Galaxy is a 2014 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team of the same name , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures . It is the tenth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . The film was directed by James Gunn , who wrote the screenplay with Nicole Perlman , and features an ensemble cast including Chris Pratt , Zoe Saldana , Dave Bautista , Vin Diesel , Bradley Cooper , Lee Pace , Michael Rooker , Karen Gillan , Djimon Hounsou , John C. Reilly , Glenn Close , and Benicio del Toro . In Guardians of the Galaxy , Peter Quill forms an uneasy alliance with a group of extraterrestrial misfits who are fleeing after stealing a powerful artifact .
Perlman began working on the screenplay in 2009 . Producer Kevin Feige first publicly mentioned Guardians of the Galaxy as a potential film in 2010 and Marvel Studios announced it was in active development at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in July 2012 . Gunn was hired to write and direct the film that September . In February 2013 , Pratt was hired to play Peter Quill / Star @-@ Lord , and the supporting cast members were subsequently confirmed . Principal photography began in July 2013 at Shepperton Studios , England , with filming continuing in London before wrapping up in October 2013 . Post @-@ production was finished on July 7 , 2014 .
Guardians of the Galaxy premiered in Hollywood on July 21 , 2014 . It was released in theaters August 1 , 2014 in the United States in the 3D and IMAX 3D formats . The film became a critical and commercial success , grossing $ 773 @.@ 3 million worldwide and becoming the highest @-@ grossing superhero film of 2014 , as well as the third highest @-@ grossing film in North America of 2014 . The film garnered praise for its humor , action , soundtrack , visual effects , direction , musical score , and acting . A sequel titled Guardians of the Galaxy Vol . 2 is scheduled to be released on May 5 , 2017 .
= = Plot = =
In 1988 , following his mother 's death , a young Peter Quill is abducted from Earth by the Ravagers , a group of space pirates led by Yondu Udonta . Twenty @-@ six years later on the planet Morag , Quill steals an orb , after which Korath , a subordinate to the fanatical Kree , Ronan , intercepts him . Although Quill escapes with the orb , Yondu discovers his theft and issues a bounty for his capture , while Ronan sends the assassin Gamora after the orb .
When Quill attempts to sell the orb on the Nova Empire capital world , Xandar , Gamora ambushes him and steals it . A fight ensues , drawing in a pair of bounty hunters : the genetically and cybernetically modified raccoon Rocket , and the tree @-@ like humanoid Groot . The Nova Corps arrives and captures the four , detaining them in the Kyln . While there , a powerful inmate , Drax , attempts to kill Gamora due to her association with Ronan , who killed his family . Quill convinces Drax that Gamora can bring Ronan to him . Gamora reveals that she has betrayed Ronan , unwilling to let him use the orb 's power to destroy planets , starting with Xandar . Learning that Gamora has a buyer for the orb , she , Quill , Rocket , Groot , and Drax work together to escape from the Kyln .
Elsewhere , Ronan meets with Gamora 's adoptive father , Thanos , to discuss her betrayal . Accompanied by Drax , Quill 's group escapes the Kyln in his ship – the Milano – and flees to Knowhere , a remote criminal outpost in space built in the giant severed head of a Celestial . A drunken Drax summons Ronan while the rest of the group meet Gamora 's contact , the collector Taneleer Tivan . Tivan opens the orb , revealing an Infinity Stone , an item of immeasurable power that destroys all but the most powerful beings who wield it . Suddenly , Tivan 's tormented assistant grabs the Stone , triggering an explosion that engulfs Tivan 's archive .
Ronan arrives and easily defeats Drax , while the others flee by ship , pursued by Ronan 's followers and Gamora 's sister Nebula . Nebula destroys Gamora 's ship , leaving her floating in space , and Ronan 's forces capture the orb . Quill contacts Yondu before following Gamora into space , giving her his helmet to survive ; Yondu arrives and retrieves the pair . Rocket , Drax , and Groot threaten to attack Yondu 's ship to rescue them , but Quill negotiates a truce by convincing Yondu that they can recover the orb . Quill 's group agrees that facing Ronan means certain death , but that they cannot let him use the Infinity Stone to destroy the galaxy . On Ronan 's flagship , the Dark Aster , Ronan embeds the Stone in his warhammer , taking its power for himself . He contacts Thanos , threatening to kill him after the destruction of Xandar ; hateful of her adoptive father , Nebula allies with Ronan .
Near Xandar , the Ravagers , the Nova Corps , and Quill ’ s group confront and breach the Dark Aster . Ronan uses his empowered warhammer to destroy the Nova Corps fleet . On the Dark Aster , after Gamora defeats Nebula ( who escapes ) , she unlocks Ronan 's chambers , but the group find themselves outmatched by his power until Rocket crashes the Milano through the Dark Aster . The damaged Dark Aster crash @-@ lands on Xandar , with Groot sacrificing himself to shield the group . Ronan emerges from the wreck and prepares to destroy Xandar , but Quill distracts him , allowing Drax and Rocket to destroy Ronan 's warhammer . Quill grabs the freed Stone , and with Gamora , Drax , and Rocket sharing its burden , they use it to destroy Ronan .
In the aftermath , Quill tricks Yondu into taking a container supposedly containing the Stone , and gives the real Stone to the Nova Corps . As the Ravagers leave Xandar , Yondu remarks that it turned out well that they did not deliver Quill to his father per their contract . Quill 's group , now known as the Guardians of the Galaxy , have their criminal records expunged , and Quill learns that he is only half @-@ human , his father being part of an ancient , unknown species . Quill finally opens the last present he received from his mother : a cassette tape filled with her favorite songs . The Guardians leave in the rebuilt Milano along with a sapling cut from Groot .
In a post @-@ credits scene , Tivan sits in his destroyed archive with two of his living exhibits : a canine cosmonaut and an anthropomorphic duck .
= = Cast = =
Chris Pratt as Peter Quill / Star @-@ Lord :
The half human , half alien leader of the Guardians who was abducted from Missouri as a child in 1988 and raised by a group of alien thieves and smugglers called the Ravagers . About the character , Pratt said , " He had a hard time as a kid , and now he goes around space , making out with hot alien girls and just being a rogue and a bit of a jerk , and through teaming up with these guys , finds a higher purpose for himself . " He also added that the character is a mix of Han Solo and Marty McFly . Pratt , who was mostly known for playing supporting characters , notably the portly Andy Dwyer on the television series Parks and Recreation , initially turned down the role . Pratt had lost weight to portray fit characters in films such as Moneyball and Zero Dark Thirty , and had given up ambitions to play the lead role in action films after humbling auditions for Star Trek and Avatar . Casting director Sarah Finn suggested Pratt to Gunn , who dismissed the idea despite struggling to cast that role . Despite this , Finn arranged for a meeting between the two , at which point Gunn was immediately convinced that Pratt was perfect for the role . Pratt also won over Feige , despite having gained weight again for Delivery Man . Prior to filming , Pratt underwent a strict diet and training regimen to lose 60 lb ( 27 kg ) in six months . Pratt signed a multi @-@ film contract with Marvel , and was granted a temporary leave from his work on Parks and Recreation in order to accommodate his participation in the film . Wyatt Oleff portrays a young Quill .
Zoe Saldana as Gamora :
An orphan from an alien world who seeks redemption for her past crimes . She was trained by Thanos to be his personal assassin . Saldana said that she became Gamora through make @-@ up rather than computer generated imagery ( CGI ) or performance capture . On taking the role , Saldana said , " I was just excited to be asked to join by James Gunn and to also play someone green . I 've been blue before [ in Avatar ] . " Saldana described Gamora as " ... a warrior , she ’ s an assassin and she ’ s very lethal but what saves her is the same thing that can doom her . She has a sense of righteousness . She ’ s a very righteous individual . "
Dave Bautista as Drax the Destroyer :
A warrior who seeks to avenge his family 's death at the hands of Ronan . On relating to the character , Bautista said , " I can just relate to Drax so much it 's not even funny . Just the simple things that we have in common . Simple things like the tattoos , the tragedy – because you know , I had a bit of tragedy in my life as well . So it 's really easy for me to pull from that . " Bautista also said that there was " a lot of comic relief to Drax " , but the character was not aware of it . Bautista stated that he did not do much preparation for role , because " Luckily , for me , I 'm a lifelong athlete and I adapted real quick . " Bautista 's makeup took approximately four hours to apply , though it could be removed in just 90 minutes . Drax has various scarring patterns on his body , which replace the simple tattoos from the comics , each having a specific story . Additionally , his skin tone was changed from the bright green in the comics to a muddier grey , to avoid visual similarities to the Hulk .
Vin Diesel as Groot :
A tree @-@ like humanoid who is the accomplice of Rocket . Diesel stated that he provided the voice and motion capture for Groot , after originally being in talks to star in a new Phase Three Marvel film . Diesel also provided Groot 's voice for several foreign @-@ language releases of the film . Krystian Godlewski portrayed the character on set , though his acting was not used in the final character CGI . On the character , which Gunn based on his dog , Gunn said , " All the Guardians start out the movie as bastards – except Groot . He 's an innocent . He 's a hundred percent deadly and a hundred percent sweet . He 's caught up in Rocket 's life , really . " Gunn added that the design and movement of Groot took " the better part of a year " to create . Gunn added , " The ways in which Vin Diesel says , ' I am Groot , ' I am astounded . All of the ' I am Groots ' that were earlier voices didn 't sound very good at all ... Vin came in and in one day , laid down all these ' I am Groot ' tracks , and he 's a perfectionist . He made me explain to him with ever [ sic ] ' I am Groot , ' exactly what he was saying ... It was amazing when we first put that voice in there how much the character changed and how much he influenced the character . " Regarding the limited words used by Groot , Diesel said in many ways this was , " ... the most challenging thing to ask an actor to do . " Diesel found an emotional note in his performance , invoking the death of his friend and Fast and Furious co @-@ star Paul Walker , saying , " This was in December [ 2013 ] , and the first time I came back to dealing with human beings after dealing with death , so playing a character who celebrates life in the way Groot does was very nice . " Groot 's form and size @-@ changing abilities are seen , with Gunn stating that he has the ability to grow in the film .
Bradley Cooper as Rocket :
A genetically engineered raccoon @-@ like bounty hunter and mercenary , and is a master of weapons and battle tactics . Gunn worked with live raccoons to get the correct feel for the character , and to make sure it was " not a cartoon character " , saying , " It 's not Bugs Bunny in the middle of the Avengers , it 's a real , little , somewhat mangled beast that 's alone . There 's no one else in the universe quite like him , he 's been created by these guys to be a mean @-@ ass fighting machine . " Gunn also based the character on himself . Describing Rocket in relation to the rest of the Guardians , Cooper said , " I think Rocket is dynamic . He 's the sort of Joe Pesci in Goodfellas guy . " Cooper voiced Rocket , while Sean Gunn ( James ' younger brother ) stood in for the character during filming . James Gunn said that for the role of Rocket , some physical movement from Cooper , including facial expressions and hand movements , was recorded as potential reference for the animators , though much of Sean Gunn 's acting is used throughout the film . Before Cooper was cast , James Gunn said that it was a challenge finding a voice for Rocket , that he was looking for someone that could balance " the fast @-@ talking speech patterns that Rocket has , but also can be funny , because he is really funny . But also has the heart that Rocket has . Because there are actually some pretty dramatic scenes with Rocket . "
Lee Pace as Ronan the Accuser :
A Kree radical who agrees to retrieve an artifact for Thanos in exchange for eradicating his mortal enemies , the Xandarians . Ronan and his Sakaaran army hunt down the Guardians when they interfere with his goals . Describing Ronan , Gunn said , " He is the primary villain , and he is a really twisted guy , he has a really religious bent in this film . He has a very sick and twisted view of what morality is ; strength is virtue and weakness is sin and that is what he lives by , and I think he is very scary because of his beliefs , which are real to him . " Pace , who originally auditioned for Peter Quill , described Ronan as a " psycho " and a " monster " .
Michael Rooker as Yondu Udonta :
A blue @-@ skinned bandit who is the leader of the Ravagers and a paternal figure to Quill . Yondu helps Quill to steal the orb before Quill betrays him , leaving Yondu and the Ravagers to chase the Guardians . On the character , Rooker said , he has " some interesting issues – not a good guy , not a bad guy . There 's hope and there 's a heart inside Yondu . " Gunn created the film 's version of the character specifically with Rooker in mind , while borrowing the character 's mohawk and use of a whistle @-@ controlled arrow from the comics . Rooker fully committed to the role once he knew his role on the TV series The Walking Dead would be ending . Rooker 's makeup took approximately four hours to apply .
Karen Gillan as Nebula :
An adopted daughter of Thanos who was raised with Gamora as siblings and is a loyal lieutenant in the employ of Ronan and Thanos . About the character , Gillan said , " She is the female villain of the film ... She is very sadistic and evil , but I like to think for a very valid reason . " She also added , " I think she 's a really interesting character . What I like to play around with is how jealous she is . She 's Gamora 's sister , and there 's a lot of sibling rivalry . That 's the most interesting aspect to me , because jealously can consume you and turn you bitter , and ugly . And she 's a total sadist , so that 's fun too . " Gillan researched the ancient Spartans , shaved off her hair , and trained for two months for the role . The character 's makeup took approximately four and a half hours to be applied .
Djimon Hounsou as Korath :
A Kree ally of Ronan who is a feared intergalactic hunter . As to why he took the role Hounsou said , " I have a four @-@ year old son who loves superheroes from Spider @-@ Man to Iron Man to Batman . He 's got all the costumes . One day he looks at me and says ' Dad , I want to be light @-@ skinned so I could be Spider @-@ Man . Spider @-@ Man has light skin . ' That was sort of a shock . This is why I am excited to be a part of the Marvel Universe , so I could hopefully provide that diversity in the role of the superhero . "
John C. Reilly as Rhomann Dey :
A corpsman in the Nova Corps , the Nova Empire 's military and police force .
Glenn Close as Irani Rael :
The leader of the Nova Corps , known as Nova Prime , whose mission is to protect the citizens of the Nova Empire and keep peace . Close stated that she " had always wanted to be in a movie like [ Guardians of the Galaxy ] , and that it would be " the most fun to play something like the Judi Dench [ as M or ] Samuel L. Jackson [ as Nick Fury ] role " . She said that she took the role because she " love [ s ] to do stuff that 's different " and wanted to show that she " [ has ] always been up for anything . " She also stated that her contract has " several " films on it , and that she would be open to working on other Marvel Studios films in addition to returning for Guardians sequels .
Benicio del Toro as Taneleer Tivan / The Collector :
An obsessive keeper of the largest collection of interstellar fauna , relics , and species in the galaxy who operates out of a place in space named Knowhere . Describing del Toro 's performance , Gunn said , " He 's like an outer @-@ space Liberace . That 's what it says in the script , which he 's kind of doing . " On bringing the character to life , del Toro said , " What James [ Gunn ] wanted , that I found out little by little as I was doing it , is that he wanted me to explore and just keep pushing the character and keep creating [ him ] as I was in front of the camera . "
Additionally , Josh Brolin appears , uncredited , as Thanos through voice acting and performance capture . Sean Gunn stood in for Thanos during filming and portrays Kraglin , Yondu 's first mate in the Ravagers . Alexis Denisof reprises his role as Thanos 's vizier , " The Other " , from The Avengers . Ophelia Lovibond plays Carina , the Collector 's slave ; Peter Serafinowicz plays Denarian Garthan Saal , a Nova Corps officer ; Gregg Henry plays Quill 's grandfather ; Laura Haddock plays Quill 's mother , Meredith ; Melia Kreiling plays Bereet ; Christopher Fairbank plays The Broker ; Mikaela Hoover plays Nova Prime 's assistant ; Marama Corlett plays a pit boss at the bar , The Boot ; Emmett J. Scanlan plays a Nova riot guard ; Alexis Rodney plays Moloka Dar ; Tom Proctor plays Horuz , a Ravenger ; and Spencer Wilding plays a prison guard who confiscates Quill 's Walkman . Canine actor Fred appears as Cosmo . Stephen Blackehart had a supporting role . Naomi Ryan also had a supporting role in the film , though it was cut in the final version . Cameos in the film include : James Gunn as a Sakaaran ; Stan Lee as a Xandarian Ladies ' Man ; Lloyd Kaufman as an inmate ; Nathan Fillion as the voice of an inmate ; Rob Zombie as the voice of the Ravager Navigator ; composer Tyler Bates as a Ravager pilot ; and Seth Green as the voice of Howard the Duck .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Marvel Studios President Kevin Feige first mentioned Guardians of the Galaxy as a potential film at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , stating , " There are some obscure titles , too , like Guardians of the Galaxy . I think they 've been revamped recently in a fun way in the [ comic ] book . " Feige reiterated that sentiment in a September 2011 issue of Entertainment Weekly , saying , " There 's an opportunity to do a big space epic , which Thor sort of hints at , in the cosmic side " of the Marvel Cinematic Universe . Feige added , should the film be made , it would feature an ensemble of characters , similar to X @-@ Men and The Avengers .
Feige announced that the film was in active development at the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International during the Marvel Studios panel , with an intended release date of August 1 , 2014 . He stated that the film 's titular team would consist of the characters Star @-@ Lord , Drax the Destroyer , Gamora , Groot , and Rocket Raccoon . Two pieces of concept art were also displayed , one of Rocket Raccoon , and one featuring the entire team . In August 2012 , Gunn entered talks to direct the film , beating out other contenders , including Peyton Reed and the duo Ryan Fleck and Anna Boden . The Avengers director Joss Whedon , who signed a deal to creatively consult on all of the films leading up to The Avengers sequel , was enthusiastic about the selection of Gunn to direct , saying " James [ Gunn ] is what makes me think it will work ... He is so off the wall , and so crazy , but so smart , such a craftsman and he builds from his heart . He loves the raccoon . Needs the raccoon ... He has a very twisted take on it , but it all comes from a real love for the material . It 's going to be hard for [ the human characters ] to keep up . "
= = = = Writing = = = =
Nicole Perlman , who was enrolled in Marvel 's screenwriting program in 2009 , was offered several of their lesser known properties to base a screenplay on . Out of those , Perlman chose Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning 's Guardians of the Galaxy , due to her interest in space and science fiction . " I can ’ t tell you what the other titles were that [ Marvel ] were offering up on the table , but I can tell you that one of them was a little bit more appropriate for me , just based on gender , " she says . " I think they were a little taken aback when I chose Guardians , because there were ones that would make a lot more sense if you were a romantic @-@ comedy writer or something like that . " Perlman spent two years writing a draft , immersing herself in the Guardians universe . In late 2011 , Perlman was asked to create another draft , and in early 2012 , James Gunn was brought in to contribute to the script . Gunn eventually rewrote the script entirely because " it didn ’ t work " for him ; he would use the film The Dirty Dozen as a reference to convey his ideas of the film to Marvel . Gunn later explained that Perlman 's draft was very different from the script he used during filming , including a different story , character arcs and no Walkman ; he stated , " In Nicole ’ s script everything is pretty different ... it 's not about the same stuff . But that 's how the WGA works . They like first writers an awful lot . " In August 2012 , Marvel Studios hired writer Chris McCoy to rewrite Perlman 's script , however , it is unclear what contribution he had to the final script , since he did not receive production credit .
In December 2014 , Gunn revealed that character introductions were the " hardest scenes to crack " , with Thanos ' introduction the most difficult . He felt that " having Thanos be in that scene was more helpful to the Marvel [ Cinematic U ] niverse than it was to Guardians of the Galaxy , " yet he still wanted Thanos in the film , without " [ belittling ] the actual antagonist of the film , which is Ronan . " To solve his dilemma , Gunn chose to have Ronan kill " The Other " , Thanos ' vizier , saying , " I thought that was interesting , because we ’ ve had the Other , who ’ s obviously very powerful even in comparison to Loki , and then we see Ronan wipe his ass with him . So that I liked , but even that was sort of difficult , because it played as funnier when I first wrote it , and the humor didn ’ t work so much . "
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
In September 2012 , Gunn confirmed that he had signed on to direct the film and rewrite the script . By the end of November , Joel Edgerton , Jack Huston , Jim Sturgess , and Eddie Redmayne signed deals to test for the role of Peter Quill , as did Lee Pace , which he confirmed a week later in early December . Other actors who were considered for the role included Thor : The Dark World 's Zachary Levi , Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt , and Michael Rosenbaum . Chris Pratt was cast in the role in February 2013 , as part of a multi @-@ film deal that he signed with Marvel .
In January 2013 , filming was scheduled to take place at Shepperton Studios in London , United Kingdom , and Marvel Studios announced that the film would be released in 3D . Victoria Alonso , an executive producer on the film , said that filming would begin in June . She also said that both Rocket Raccoon and Groot would be created through a combination of CGI and motion capture , going on to say that " You can 't do any motion capture with a raccoon – they won 't let you put the suit on . But we will do rotomation , probably , for some of the behavior ... we definitely will have performers to emulate what James Gunn will lead to be , the behavior and the performance . He 's very clear on where he wants to take the characters . " In March 2013 , Feige discussed Guardians of the Galaxy in relation to the Marvel Cinematic Universe , saying , " It 's much more of a standalone film . It takes place in the same universe . And when we 've been on the other side of that universe in other movies , you might see those characteristics in Guardians , but the Avengers are not involved with what 's happening out there at this time . " Feige also stated that 95 % of the film would take place in space . In mid @-@ March , Dave Bautista was signed to play Drax the Destroyer . Other actors who had been considered for the role included Isaiah Mustafa , Brian Patrick Wade and Jason Momoa . By the following week , sculptor Brian Muir , who sculpted Darth Vader 's mask for the Star Wars films , was revealed to be working on the film .
In early April 2013 , Zoe Saldana entered into negotiations to star as Gamora in the film , and it was confirmed she had been cast later that month . Also in April , Michael Rooker joined the film 's cast as Yondu , and it was announced that Ophelia Lovibond had been cast in a supporting role . By this point in time , Lee Pace was in final negotiations to play the villain of the film . In May , Marvel offered John C. Reilly the role of Rhomann Dey . At the same time , it was disclosed that filmmakers were looking at actors including Hugh Laurie , Alan Rickman , and Ken Watanabe , for another role , and that Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely were providing finishing touches to the script . A few days later , Glenn Close was cast as the head of the Nova Corps in the film , followed shortly by the casting of Karen Gillan as the film 's lead female villain . By June 2013 , Benicio del Toro was cast in the film , as part of a multi @-@ film deal with Marvel Studios . Later in the month , it was confirmed that Reilly had been cast as Rhomann Dey .
Special effects makeup designer David White took head and body casts of actors , such as Bautista , to experiment with materials used to create the characters . White said , " James always pushed for practical and makeup effects . He wanted , like me , to see the real deal there on set . " White was careful not to use " modern " creature designs to ensure they did not fall short in Gunn 's uniquely envisioned world . White and his team created upwards of 1 @,@
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coco by Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl . Many annals recount history year @-@ by @-@ year and are normally written by anonymous authors . These works are sometimes evidently based on pre @-@ Columbian pictorial year counts that existed , such as the Cuauhtitlan annals and the Anales de Tlatelolco . Purely mythological narratives are also found , like the " Legend of the Five Suns " , the Aztec creation myth recounted in Codex Chimalpopoca .
One of the most important works of prose written in Nahuatl is the twelve @-@ volume compilation generally known as the Florentine Codex , produced in the mid @-@ 16th century by the Franciscan missionary Bernardino de Sahagún with the help of a number of Nahua informants . With this work Sahagún bestowed an enormous ethnographic description of the Nahua , written in side @-@ by @-@ side translations of Nahuatl and Spanish and illustrated throughout by color plates drawn by indigenous painters . Its volumes cover a diverse range of topics : Aztec history , material culture , social organization , religious and ceremonial life , rhetorical style and metaphors . The twelfth volume provides an indigenous perspective on the conquest itself . Sahagún also made a point of trying to document the richness of the Nahuatl language , stating :
This work is like a dragnet to bring to light all the words of this language with their exact and metaphorical meanings , and all their ways of speaking , and most of their practices good and evil .
Nahuatl poetry is preserved in principally two sources : the Cantares Mexicanos and the Romances de los señores de Nueva España , both collections of Aztec songs written down in the 16th and 17th centuries . Some songs may have been preserved through oral tradition from pre @-@ conquest times until the time of their writing , for example the songs attributed to the poet @-@ king of Texcoco , Nezahualcoyotl . Karttunen & Lockhart ( 1980 ) identify more than four distinct styles of songs , e.g. the icnocuicatl ( " sad song " ) , the xopancuicatl ( " song of spring " ) , melahuaccuicatl ( " plain song " ) and yaocuicatl ( " song of war " ) , each with distinct stylistic traits . Aztec poetry makes rich use of metaphoric imagery and themes and are lamentation of the brevity of human existence , the celebration of valiant warriors who die in battle , and the appreciation of the beauty of life .
= = = Stylistics = = =
The Aztecs distinguished between at least two social registers of language : the language of commoners ( macehuallahtolli ) and the language of the nobility ( tecpillahtolli ) . The latter was marked by the use of a distinct rhetorical style . Since literacy was confined mainly to these higher social classes , most of the existing prose and poetical documents were written in this style . An important feature of this high rhetorical style of formal oratory was the use of parallelism , whereby the orator structured their speech in couplets consisting of two parallel phrases . For example :
ye maca timiquican
" May we not die "
ye maca tipolihuican
" May we not perish "
Another kind of parallelism used is referred to by modern linguists as difrasismo , in which two phrases are symbolically combined to give a metaphorical reading . Classical Nahuatl was rich in such diphrasal metaphors , many of which are explicated by Sahagún in the Florentine Codex and by Andrés de Olmos in his Arte . Such difrasismos include :
in xochitl , in cuicatl
" The flower , the song " – meaning " poetry "
in cuitlapilli , in atlapalli
" the tail , the wing " – meaning " the common people "
in toptli , in petlacalli
" the chest , the box " – meaning " something secret "
in yollohtli , in eztli
" the heart , the blood " – meaning " cacao "
in iztlactli , in tenqualactli
" the drool , the spittle " – meaning " lies "
= = Sample text = =
The sample text below is an excerpt from a statement issued in Nahuatl by Emiliano Zapata in 1918 in order to convince the Nahua towns in the area of Tlaxcala to join the Revolution against the regime of Venustiano Carranza . The orthography employed in the letter is improvised , and does not distinguish long vowels and only sporadically marks " saltillo " ( with both 〈 h 〉 and acute accent ) .
= George Martin =
Sir George Henry Martin CBE ( 3 January 1926 – 8 March 2016 ) was an English record producer , arranger , composer , conductor , audio engineer and musician . He was referred to as the " Fifth Beatle " , including by Paul McCartney , in reference to his extensive involvement on each of the Beatles ' original albums . Martin had 30 number @-@ one hit singles in the United Kingdom and 23 number @-@ one hits in the United States .
Martin produced comedy and novelty records in the early 1950s , working with Peter Sellers , Spike Milligan and Bernard Cribbins , among others . His career spanned more than six decades of work in music , film , television and live performance . He held a number of senior executive roles at media companies and contributed to a wide range of charitable causes , including his work for The Prince 's Trust and the Caribbean island of Montserrat . In recognition of his services to the music industry and popular culture , he was made a Knight Bachelor in 1996 .
= = Early years = =
When he was six , Martin 's family acquired a piano that sparked his interest in music . At eight years of age , Martin persuaded his parents , Henry and Betha Beatrice ( nėe Simpson ) Martin , that he should take piano lessons , but those ended after only eight lessons because of a disagreement between his mother and the teacher .
As a child , he attended several schools , including a " convent school in Holloway " , St Joseph 's School ( Highgate ) , and at St Ignatius ' College ( Stamford Hill ) , where he had won a scholarship . When WWII broke out , and St. Ignatius College students were evacuated to Welwyn Garden City , his family left London , and he was enrolled at Bromley Grammar School .
I remember well the very first time I heard a symphony orchestra . I was just in my teens when Sir Adrian Boult brought the BBC Symphony Orchestra to my school for a public concert . It was absolutely magical . Hearing such glorious sounds I found it difficult to connect them with ninety men and women blowing into brass and wooden instruments or scraping away at strings with horsehair bows .
Despite Martin 's continued interest in music , and " fantasies about being the next Rachmaninov " , he did not initially choose music as a career . He worked briefly as a quantity surveyor , and later for the War Office as a Temporary Clerk ( Grade Three ) , which meant filing paperwork and making tea .
In 1943 , when he was seventeen , he joined the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy and became an aerial observer and a commissioned officer . The war ended before Martin was involved in any combat , and he left the service in 1947 . Encouraged by Sidney Harrison ( a member of the Committee for the Promotion of New Music ) Martin used his veteran 's grant to attend the Guildhall School of Music and Drama from 1947 to 1950 , where he studied piano and oboe , and was interested in the music of Rachmaninov and Ravel , as well as Cole Porter . Martin 's oboe teacher was Margaret Eliot ( the mother of Jane Asher , who would later become involved with Paul McCartney ) . After that , Martin explained that he had just picked it up by himself . On 3 January 1948 – while still at the Academy – Martin married Sheena Chisholm , with whom he had two children , Alexis and Gregory Paul Martin . He later married Judy Lockhart @-@ Smith on 24 June 1966 , and they also had two children , Lucie and Giles Martin .
= = = Parlophone = = =
Following his graduation , he worked for the BBC 's classical music department , then joined EMI in 1950 , as an assistant to Oscar Preuss , the head of EMI 's Parlophone Records from 1950 to 1955 . Although having been regarded by EMI as a vital German imprint in the past , it was then not taken seriously and only used for EMI 's insignificant acts . After taking over Parlophone when Preuss retired in 1955 , Martin recorded classical and Baroque music , original cast recordings , and regional music from around Britain and Ireland .
Martin also produced numerous comedy and novelty records . His first hit for Parlophone was the " Mock Mozart " single by Peter Ustinov with Antony Hopkins – a record reluctantly released in 1952 by EMI , only after Preuss insisted they give his young assistant , Martin , a chance . Later that decade Martin worked with Peter Sellers on two very popular comedy LPs . One was released on 10 format and called The Best Of Sellers , the second was released in 1957 , being called Songs for Swinging Sellers ( a spoof on Frank Sinatra 's LP Songs for Swingin ' Lovers ! ) . As he had worked with Sellers , he also came to know Spike Milligan , with whom he became a firm friend , and best man at Milligan 's second marriage : " I loved The Goon Show , and issued an album of it on my label Parlophone , which is how I got to know Spike . " The album was Bridge on the River Wye . It was a spoof of the film The Bridge on the River Kwai , being based on the 1957 Goon Show episode " An African Incident " . It was intended to have the same name as the film , but shortly before its release , the film company threatened legal action if the name was used . Martin edited out the ' K ' every time the word Kwai was spoken , with Bridge on the River Wye being the result . The River Wye is a river that runs through England and Wales . The album featured Milligan , Sellers , Jonathan Miller and Peter Cook , playing various characters .
Other comedians Martin worked with included Bernard Cribbins , Charlie Drake , Terry Scott , Bruce Forsyth , Michael Bentine , Dudley Moore , Flanders and Swann , Lance Percival , Joan Sims , Bill Oddie , and The Alberts . Martin worked with both Jim Dale and the Vipers Skiffle Group , with whom he had a number of hits . In early 1962 , under the pseudonym " Ray Cathode " , Martin released an early electronic dance single , " Time Beat " – recorded at the BBC Radiophonic Workshop . As Martin wanted to add rock and roll to Parlophone 's repertoire , he struggled to find a " fireproof " hit @-@ making pop artist or group . Martin also became involved with engineering — producing some of the recorded material of Australian hit @-@ maker Rolf Harris , and is alleged to have been responsible for the close @-@ miking of the " wobble @-@ board " sound that became an audio trade @-@ mark of Harris on several of his hit songs , including his only international hit , " Tie Me Kangaroo Down , Sport " ( 1960 – 1961 ) . Martin was credited as an engineer on some of Harris ' albums .
As a producer , Martin recorded the two @-@ man show featuring Michael Flanders and Donald Swann , At the Drop of a Hat , which sold steadily for twenty @-@ five years , although Martin 's breakthrough as a producer came with the Beyond the Fringe show cast album , which starred Peter Cook , Dudley Moore , Alan Bennett , and Jonathan Miller , and he would also produce the accompanying soundtrack album for David Frost 's satirical BBC TV show That Was the Week That Was in 1963 . Martin 's work transformed the profile of Parlophone from a " sad little company " to a very profitable business .
= = The Beatles = =
Martin was contacted by Sid Coleman of Ardmore & Beechwood , who told him about Brian Epstein , the manager of a band whom he had met . He thought Martin might be interested in the group , even though they had been turned down by Decca Records . Until that time , although he had had considerable success with the comedy records , and a number 1 hit with the Temperance Seven , Martin had only minor success with pop music , such as " Who Could Be Bluer " by Jerry Lordan , and singles with Shane Fenton and Matt Monro . After the telephone call by Coleman , Martin arranged a meeting on 13 February 1962 with Brian Epstein . Martin listened to a tape recorded at Decca , and thought that Epstein 's group was " rather unpromising " , but liked the sound of Lennon 's and McCartney 's vocals .
After another meeting with Epstein on 9 May at the Abbey Road studios , Martin was impressed by Epstein 's enthusiasm and agreed to sign the unknown Beatles to a recording contract , without having met them or seen them play live . The contract was not what it seemed , however , as Martin would not sign it himself until he had heard an audition , and later said that EMI had " nothing to lose , " as it offered one penny for each record sold , which was split among the four members . Martin suggested to EMI ( after the release of " From Me to You " ) that the royalty rate should be doubled without asking for anything in return , which led to Martin being thought of as a " traitor in EMI " .
The Beatles auditioned for Martin on 6 June 1962 , in studio three at the Abbey Road studios . Ron Richards and his engineer Norman Smith recorded four songs , which Martin ( who was not present during the recording ) listened to at the end of the session . The verdict was not promising , however , as Richards complained about Pete Best 's drumming , and Martin thought their original songs were simply not good enough . Martin asked the individual Beatles if there was anything they personally did not like , to which George Harrison replied , " Well , there 's your tie , for a start . " That was the turning point , according to Smith , as John Lennon and Paul McCartney joined in with jokes and comic wordplay , that made Martin think that he should sign them to a contract for their wit alone .
The Beatles ' second recording session with Martin was on 4 September 1962 , when they recorded " How Do You Do It " , heavily modified by The Beatles which Martin thought was a sure @-@ fire hit , even though Lennon and McCartney did not want to release it , not being one of their own compositions or style . Martin was correct : Gerry & the Pacemakers ' version , which Martin produced , spent three weeks at No. 1 in April 1963 , before being displaced by " From Me to You " . On 11 September 1962 , the Beatles re @-@ recorded " Love Me Do " with session player Andy White playing drums . Ringo Starr was asked to play tambourine and maracas , and although he complied , he was definitely " not pleased " . Due to an EMI library error , a 4 September version with Starr playing drums was issued on the British single release ; afterwards , the tape was destroyed , and the 11 September recording with Andy White on drums was used for all subsequent releases . Martin would later praise Starr 's drumming , calling him " probably ... the finest rock drummer in the world today " . As " Love Me Do " peaked at number 17 in the British charts , on 26 November 1962 Martin recorded " Please Please Me " , which he did only after Lennon and McCartney had almost begged him to record another of their original songs . Martin 's crucial contribution to the song was to tell them to speed up what was initially a slow ballad . After the recording Martin looked over the mixing desk and said , " Gentlemen , you have just made your first number one record " . Martin directed Epstein to find a good publisher , as Ardmore & Beechwood had done nothing to promote " Love Me Do " , informing Epstein of three publishers who , in Martin 's opinion , would be fair and honest , which led them to Dick James .
= = = As an arranger = = =
Martin 's more formal musical expertise helped fill the gaps between the Beatles ' unrefined talent , and the sound which distinguished them from other groups , which would eventually make them successful . Most of the Beatles ' orchestral arrangements and instrumentation ( as well as frequent keyboard parts on the early records ) were written or performed by Martin , in collaboration with the less musically experienced band . It was Martin 's idea to put a string quartet on " Yesterday " , against McCartney 's initial reluctance . Martin played the song in the style of Bach to show McCartney the voicings that were available . Another example is the song " Penny Lane " , which featured a piccolo trumpet solo . McCartney hummed the melody he wanted , and Martin notated it for David Mason , the classically trained trumpeter .
His work as an arranger was used for many Beatles recordings . For " Eleanor Rigby " he scored and conducted a strings @-@ only accompaniment inspired by Bernard Herrmann . On a Canadian speaking tour in 2007 , Martin said his " Eleanor Rigby " score was influenced by Herrmann 's score for the Alfred Hitchcock thriller , Psycho . For " Strawberry Fields Forever " , he and recording engineer Geoff Emerick turned two very different takes into a single master through careful use of vari @-@ speed and editing . For " I Am the Walrus " , he provided a quirky and original arrangement for brass , violins , cellos , and the Mike Sammes Singers vocal ensemble . On " In My Life " , he played a speeded @-@ up baroque piano solo . He worked with McCartney to implement the orchestral ' climax ' in " A Day in the Life " , and he and McCartney shared conducting duties the day it was recorded .
Martin contributed integral parts to other songs , including the piano in " Lovely Rita " , the harpsichord in " Fixing a Hole " , the organs and tape loop arrangement that create the Pablo Fanque circus atmosphere that Lennon requested on " Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite ! " ( both Martin and Lennon played organ parts for this song ) , and the orchestration in " Good Night " . The first song that Martin did not arrange was " She 's Leaving Home " , as he had a prior engagement to produce a Cilla Black session , so McCartney contacted arranger Mike Leander to do it . Martin was reportedly hurt by this , but still produced the recording and conducted the orchestra himself . Martin was in demand as an independent arranger and producer by the time of The White Album , so the Beatles were left to produce various tracks by themselves .
Martin arranged the score for the Beatles ' film Yellow Submarine and the James Bond film Live and Let Die , for which Paul McCartney wrote and sang the title song . He helped arrange Paul and Linda McCartney 's American Number 1 single " Uncle Albert / Admiral Halsey " .
Paul McCartney once commended Martin by saying : " George Martin [ was ] quite experimental for who he was , a grown @-@ up . "
= = = Film and composing work = = =
Beginning in the late 1950s , Martin began to supplement his producer income by publishing music and having his artists record it . He used the pseudonyms Lezlo Anales and John Chisholm , before settling on Graham Fisher as his primary pseudonym .
Martin composed , arranged , and produced film scores since the early 1960s , including the instrumental scores of the films A Hard Day 's Night ( 1964 , for which he won an Academy Award Nomination ) , Ferry Cross the Mersey ( 1965 ) , Yellow Submarine ( 1968 ) , and Live and Let Die ( 1973 ) . Other notable movie scores include Crooks Anonymous ( 1962 ) , The Family Way ( 1966 ) , Pulp ( 1972 , starring Michael Caine and Mickey Rooney ) , the Peter Sellers film The Optimists of Nine Elms ( 1973 ) , and the John Schlesinger directed Honky Tonk Freeway ( 1981 ) .
He also composed the David Frost theme " By George " , " Eary @-@ Feary " ( the theme from the 1970 LWT horror series Tales of Unease ) , " Theme One " for BBC Radio 1 , " Adagietto for Harmonica & Strings " for Tommy Reilly , and " Magic Carpet " for the Dakotas .
= = = The Beatles Anthology = = =
Martin oversaw post @-@ production on The Beatles Anthology ( which was originally entitled The Long and Winding Road ) in 1994 and 1995 , working again with Geoff Emerick . Martin decided to use an old 8 @-@ track analogue deck – which EMI learned an engineer still had – to mix the songs for the project , instead of a modern digital deck . He explained this by saying that the old deck created a completely different sound , which a new deck could not accurately reproduce . He also said he found the whole project a strange experience ( and McCartney agreed ) , as they had to listen to themselves chatting in the studio , 25 – 30 years previously .
Martin stepped down when it came to producing the two new singles reuniting McCartney , Harrison , and Starr , who wanted to overdub two old Lennon demos . Martin had suffered a hearing loss , so he left the work to writer / producer Jeff Lynne of the Electric Light Orchestra .
= = = Cirque du Soleil and Love = = =
In 2006 , Martin and his son , Giles Martin , remixed 80 minutes of Beatles music for the Las Vegas stage performance Love , a joint venture between Cirque du Soleil and the Beatles ' Apple Corps Ltd . A soundtrack album from the show was released that same year .
= = = Public image = = =
Martin 's contribution to the Beatles ' work received regular critical acclaim , and led to him being described as the " Fifth Beatle " ( in 2016 , Paul McCartney wrote that " If anyone earned the title of the fifth Beatle it was George " ) . However , he distanced himself from this claim , stating that assistant and roadie Neil Aspinall would be more deserving of that title .
In the immediate aftermath of the Beatles ' break @-@ up , a time when he made many angry utterances , John Lennon trivialised Martin 's importance to the Beatles ' music . In his 1970 interview with Jann Wenner , Lennon said , " [ Dick James is ] another one of those people , who think they made us . They didn 't . I 'd like to hear Dick James ' music and I 'd like to hear George Martin 's music , please , just play me some . "
In a 1971 letter to Paul McCartney , Lennon wrote , " When people ask me questions about ' What did George Martin really do for you ? , ' I have only one answer , ' What does he do now ? ' I noticed you had no answer for that ! It 's not a putdown , it 's the truth . " Lennon wrote that Martin took too much credit for the Beatles ' music . Commenting specifically on " Revolution 9 " , Lennon said with ironic authority , " For Martin to state that he was ' painting a sound picture ' is pure hallucination . Ask any of the other people involved . The final editing Yoko and I did alone . "
Lennon later retracted many of the comments he made in that era , attributing them to his anger . He subsequently spoke with great affection and fondness for Martin . In 1971 he said : " George Martin made us what we were in the studio . He helped us develop a language to talk to other musicians . "
According to Alan Parsons , he had " great ears " and " rightfully earned the title of " Fifth Beatle " . Julian Lennon called Martin " The Fifth Beatle , without question " .
= = Other artists = =
Martin produced recordings for many other artists , including contemporaries of the Beatles , such as Matt Monro , Cilla Black , Gerry & The Pacemakers , Billy J. Kramer & the Dakotas , The Fourmost , David and Jonathan , and The Action , as well as The King 's Singers , the band America , guitarists Jeff Beck and John Williams , sixties duo Edwards Hand , Gary Brooker , Neil Sedaka , Ultravox , country singer Kenny Rogers , UFO , Cheap Trick , Elton John , Celine Dion and Yoshiki Hayashi of X Japan .
Also working with Gary Glitter before his chart success , Martin recorded several songs with him in the early 1960s , with the singer using the pseudonym of " Paul Raven " . He also produced the album The Man in the Bowler Hat ( 1974 ) for the eccentric British folk @-@ rock group Stackridge . Martin worked with Paul Winter on his ( 1972 ) Icarus album , which was recorded in a rented house by the sea in Marblehead , Massachusetts . Winter said that Martin taught him " how to use the studio as a tool " , and allowed him to record the album in a relaxed atmosphere , which was different from the pressurised control in a professional studio . In 1979 he worked with Ron Goodwin to produce the album containing The Beatles Concerto , written by John Rutter . In 2010 , Martin was the executive producer of the hard rock debut of Arms of the Sun , an all @-@ star project featuring Rex Brown ( Pantera , Down ) , John Luke Hebert ( King Diamond ) , Lance Harvill and Ben Bunker .
In 1991 , Martin contributed the string arrangement and conducted the orchestra for the song " Ticket To Heaven " on the last Dire Straits studio album On Every Street . In 1992 , Martin worked with Pete Townshend on the musical stage production of The Who 's Tommy . The play opened on Broadway in 1993 , with the original cast album being released that summer . Martin won the Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album in 1993 , as the producer of that album .
In 1995 , he contributed the horn and string arrangement for the song " Latitude " on the Elton John Made in England album , which was recorded at Martin 's AIR Studios London . He also produced " Candle in the Wind 1997 " , Elton 's tribute single to the late Diana , Princess of Wales , which topped charts around the world in September 1997 .
= = Associated Independent Recording ( AIR ) = =
Within the recording industry , Martin was known for having become independent at a time when many producers were still salaried . In 1965 , the Beatles ' success gave Martin the leverage to start Associated Independent Recording ( AIR ) , which enabled him to hire out his services to other artists . AIR demonstrated how important Martin 's talents were to his artists , and it allowed him a share in record royalties on his hits . To this day , AIR remains one of the world 's pre @-@ eminent recording studios . In 1979 , Martin opened a studio on the Caribbean island of Montserrat . This studio was destroyed by Hurricane Hugo ten years later .
= = Music from the James Bond series = =
Martin also directly and indirectly contributed to the main themes of three films in the James Bond series . Although Martin did not produce the theme for the second Bond film , From Russia with Love , he was responsible for the signing of Matt Monro to EMI , just months prior to his recording of the song of the same title .
Martin also produced two of the best @-@ known James Bond themes . The first was " Goldfinger " by Shirley Bassey in 1964 . The second , in 1973 , was " Live and Let Die " by Paul McCartney and Wings for the film of the same name . He also composed and produced the film 's score .
= = Books and audio retrospective = =
In 1979 , Martin published a memoir , All You Need is Ears ( co @-@ written with Jeremy Hornsby ) , that described his work with the Beatles and other artists ( including Peter Sellers , Sophia Loren , Shirley Bassey , Flanders and Swann , Matt Monro , and Dudley Moore ) , and gave an informal introduction to the art and science of sound recording . In 1993 he published Summer of Love : The Making of Sgt Pepper ( published in the U.S. as With a Little Help from My Friends : The Making of Sgt Pepper , co @-@ authored with William Pearson ) , which also included interview quotations from a 1992 South Bank Show episode discussing the album . Martin also edited a 1983 book called Making Music : The Guide to Writing , Performing and Recording .
In 2001 , Martin released Produced by George Martin : 50 Years in Recording , a six @-@ CD retrospective of his entire studio career , and in 2002 , Martin launched Playback , his limited @-@ edition illustrated autobiography , published by Genesis Publications .
= = Television = =
= = = The Rhythm of Life = = =
In 1997 – 98 , Martin hosted a three @-@ part BBC co @-@ produced documentary series titled " The Rhythm of Life " , in which he discussed various aspects of musical composition with professional musicians and singers , among them Brian Wilson , Billy Joel , and Celine Dion . The series aired on the Ovation television network in the United States .
= = = Produced by George Martin = = =
On 25 April 2011 , a 90 @-@ minute documentary feature film co @-@ produced by the BBC Arena team , Produced by George Martin , aired to critical acclaim for the first time in the UK . It combines rare archive footage and new interviews with , among others , Paul McCartney , Ringo Starr , Jeff Beck , Cilla Black , and Giles Martin , and tells the life story of how George Martin , a schoolboy growing up in the Depression , grew up to become a legendary music producer . The film , with over 50 minutes of extra footage , including interviews from Rick Rubin , T @-@ Bone Burnett and Ken Scott , was released world @-@ wide by Eagle Rock Entertainment on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 10 September 2012 .
= = Death = =
Martin died in his sleep on the night of 8 March 2016 at his home in Wiltshire , England , at the age of 90 . His death was announced by Ringo Starr on his Twitter account . A spokesperson for the Universal Music Group confirmed his death . The cause of death has not been announced . He is survived by his wife of nearly fifty years , Judy Lockhart Smith , and his four children .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Academy Award 1964 – Scoring of Music ( for A Hard Day 's Night )
Grammy Award 1967 – Best Contemporary Album ( as producer of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band )
Grammy Award 1967 – Album of the Year ( as producer of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band )
Grammy Award 1973 – Best Arrangement , Accompanying Vocalist ( s ) ( as arranger of " Live and Let Die " )
BRIT Awards 1977 – Best British Producer ( of the past 25 years ) .
BRIT Awards 1984 – Outstanding Contribution To Music
Grammy Award 1993 – Best Musical Show Album ( as producer of The Who 's Tommy )
Grammy Award 2007 – Best Compilation Soundtrack Album For Motion Picture , Television Or Other Visual Media , producer together with Giles Martin , of The Beatles album Love
Grammy Award 2007 – Best Surround Sound Album , producer together with Giles Martin , of The Beatles album Love
Martin was named the British Phonographic Industry 's " Man of the Year " of 1998 .
In April 1989 , he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate in Music by Berklee College of Music in Boston , Massachusetts .
On 9 July 1992 , he was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree by University of Salford , in recognition of his involvement with the innovative BSc Hons Popular Music and Recording validated by the university ( taught at University College Salford ) , and his contribution to British popular music in general .
He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on 15 March 1999 and into the UK Music Hall of Fame on 14 November 2006 .
In 2002 , he was given the Lifetime Achievement Award for Services to Film by the World Soundtrack Academy at Belgium 's Flanders International Film Festival .
He was granted his own coat of arms in March 2004 by the College of Arms . His shield features three beetles , a house martin holding a recorder , and the Latin motto Amore Solum Opus Est ( " All You Need Is Love " ) .
In November 2006 , he was awarded an Honorary Doctorate in Music by Leeds Beckett University .
In September 2008 , he was awarded the James Joyce Award by the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin .
Martin was honoured with a Gold Medal for Services to the Arts from the CISAC ( the International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers ) .
On 25 May 2010 , he was given an honorary membership in the Audio Engineering Society at the 128th AES Convention in London .
On 29 June 2011 , he was given an honorary degree , Doctor of Music , from the University of Oxford .
On 19 October 2012 , he won a lifetime award in the 39th Golden Badge Awards
Martin was one of a handful of producers to have number one records in three or more consecutive decades ( 1960s , 1970s , 1980s , and 1990s ) . Others in this group include Phil Spector ( 1950s , 1960s and 1970s ) , Quincy Jones ( 1960s , 1970s and 1980s ) , Michael Omartian ( 1970s , 1980s and 1990s ) , and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis ( 1980s , 1990s , and 2000s ) .
= = Selected non @-@ Beatles hit records produced or co @-@ produced by George Martin = =
Records produced by Martin have achieved 30 number one singles and 16 number one albums in the UK – plus 23 number one singles and 19 number one albums in North America ( most of which were by The Beatles ) .
" You 're Driving Me Crazy " , The Temperance Seven ( 25 May 1961 , # 1 )
" My Kind of Girl " , Matt Monro ( 31 July 1961 , # 5 )
" My Boomerang Won 't Come Back " , Charlie Drake ( 5 October 1961 , # 14 )
" Sun Arise " , Rolf Harris ( 25 October 1962 , # 3 )
" Little Children " , Billy J. Kramer with the Dakotas ( 19 March 1964 , # 1 )
" Bad to Me " , Billy J. Kramer with the Dakotas ( 22 August 1963 , # 1 )
" Hello Little Girl " , The Fourmost ( 30 August 1963 , # 9 )
" Don 't Let the Sun Catch You Crying " , Gerry & the Pacemakers ( 4 July 1964 , # 4 )
" You 're My World " , Cilla Black ( 1 August 1964 , # 1 )
" How Do You Do It ? " , Gerry & the Pacemakers ( 11 April 1963 , # 1 )
" Can 't Buy Me Love " , Ella Fitzgerald ( 1 May 1964 , # 34 )
" Walk Away " , Matt Monro ( 4 September 1964 , # 4 )
" I Like It " , Gerry & the Pacemakers ( 7 November 1964 , # 1 )
" I 'll Be There " , Gerry & the Pacemakers ( 30 January 1965 , # 14 )
" Ferry Cross the Mersey " , Gerry & the Pacemakers ( 20 March 1965 , # 6 )
" Goldfinger " , Shirley Bassey ( 27 March 1965 , # 8 )
" You 'll Never Walk Alone " , Gerry & the Pacemakers ( 3 July 1965 , # 48 )
" Trains and Boats and Planes " , Billy J. Kramer with the Dakotas ( 31 July 1965 , # 47 )
" Alfie " , Cilla Black ( 10 September 1966 , # UK6 # 95 )
" Girl on a Swing " , Gerry & the Pacemakers ( 22 October 1966 , # 28 )
" Live and Let Die " , Paul McCartney & Wings ( 1 June 1973 , UK # 9 US # 2 )
" Tin Man " , America ( 9 November 1974 , # 4 )
" Lonely People " , America ( 8 March 1975 , # 5 )
" Sister Golden Hair " , America ( 14 June 1975 , # 1 )
" Oh ! Darling " , Robin Gibb ( 7 October 1978 , # 15 )
" The Night Owls " , Little River Band ( 1981 , US # 6 )
" Ebony and Ivory " , Paul McCartney & Stevie Wonder ( 29 March 1982 US # 1 )
" Say , Say , Say " , Paul McCartney & Michael Jackson ( 10 December 1983 , # 1 )
" No More Lonely Nights " , Paul McCartney ( 8 December 1984 , # 6 )
" Morning Desire " , Kenny Rogers ( 10 July 1985 , # 1 )
" The Man I Love " , Kate Bush & Larry Adler ( 18 July 1994 , # 27 )
" Candle in the Wind 1997 " , Elton John ( 11 October 1997 , # 1 )
" Pure " , Hayley Westenra ( 10 July 2003 , # 1 UK classical charts , No. 8 , UK pop charts )
= = Discography = =
Off the Beatle Track ( 1964 Parlophone PCS 3057 )
A Hard Day 's Night : Instrumental Versions of the Motion Picture Score ( 19 February 1965 , United Artists )
George Martin Scores Instrumental Versions of the Hits ( 1965 )
Help ! ( 1965 , Columbia TWO 102 )
.. and I Love Her ( 1966 , Columbia TWO 141 )
George Martin Instrumentally Salutes The Beatle Girls ( 1966 )
British Maid ( 1968 , United Artists SULP 1196 , released in the US as London by George )
Yellow Submarine ( side one : The Beatles , side two : The George Martin Orchestra , 1969 )
By George ! ( 1970 , Sunset SLS 50182 , reissue of British Maid )
Live and Let Die ( producer for Paul McCartney 's song , and composer of musical score , 1973 )
Beatles to Bond and Bach ( 1978 )
In My Life ( 1998 )
Produced by George Martin ( 2001 )
The Family Way ( 2003 )
= = Selected discography ( as producer ) = =
Sidney Torch – " Barwick Green " ( The Archers theme ) ( 1951 )
Jack Parnell – " The White Suit Samba " ( 1951 )
Jimmy Shand – " Bluebell Polka " ( 1952 )
Kenneth McKellar – " Ae Fond Kiss " ( 1952 )
Tommy Reilly – " Melody on the Move " ( 1952 )
Peter Ustinov – " Mock Mozart " ( 1952 )
Eve Boswell – " Pickin ' a Chicken " ( 1955 )
Edna Savage – " Arrivederci Darling " ( 1955 )
Eamonn Andrews – " The Shifting Whispering Sands " ( 1956 )
Dick James – " Robin Hood " ( 1956 )
The Ivor and Basil Kirchin Band - " Rock @-@ A @-@ Beatin ' Boogie " ( 1956 )
Johnny Dankworth – " Experiments With Mice " ( 1956 )
Shirley Abicair – " Smiley " ( 1956 )
Mandy Miller – " Nellie the Elephant " ( 1956 )
The Vipers Skiffle Group – " Don 't You Rock Me Daddy @-@ O " ( 1957 )
Jim Dale – " Be My Girl " ( 1957 )
Ian Wallace – " The Hippopotamus Song " ( 1957 )
Charlie Drake – " Splish Splash " ( 1958 )
Peter Sellers – " A Drop of the Hard Stuff " ( 1958 )
Humphrey Lyttelton – " Saturday Jump " ( 1959 )
Bruce Forsyth – " I 'm in Charge " ( 1959 )
Flanders and Swann – At the Drop of a Hat ( 1960 )
Matt Monro – " Portrait of My Love " ( 1960 )
Peter Sellers and Sophia Loren – " Goodness Gracious Me " ( 1960 )
Beyond the Fringe ( Original Cast Recording ) ( 1961 )
Dudley Moore – " Strictly for the Birds " ( 1961 )
Bernard Cribbins – " Right Said Fred " ( 1962 ) ; " A Hole in the Ground " ( 1962 ) ; " Gossip Calypso " ( 1962 )
The Alberts – " Morse Code Melody " ( 1962 )
Michael Bentine – " Football Results " ( 1962 )
Terry Scott – " My Brother " ( 1963 )
Joan Sims – " Oh Not Again Ken " ( 1963 )
Shirley Bassey – " I ( Who Have Nothing ) " ( 1963 )
David Frost and Millicent Martin – That Was the Week That Was ( 1963 )
Cambridge Circus ( Original Cast Recording ) ( 1963 )
Flanders and Swann – At the Drop of Another Hat ( 1964 )
Alma Cogan – " It 's You " ( 1964 )
The Scaffold – " 2 Day 's Monday " ( 1966 )
Ron Goodwin – Adventure ( 1966 )
Edwards Hand – Edwards Hand ( 1969 )
Stan Getz – Marrakesh Express ( 1969 )
Ringo Starr – Sentimental Journey ( 1970 )
Seatrain – Seatrain ( 1970 )
The King 's Singers – " The King 's Singers Collection " ( 1972 )
Paul Winter Consort – Icarus ( 1972 )
The King 's Singers – " A French Collection " ( 1973 )
The King 's Singers – " Deck the Hall " ( 1973 )
John Williams – The Height Below ( 1973 )
Stackridge – The Man in the Bowler Hat ( 1974 , released as Pinafore Days in the US and Canada )
Mahavishnu Orchestra – Apocalypse ( 1974 )
America – Holiday ( 1974 )
Tommy Steele – My Life , My Song ( 1974 )
Jeff Beck – Blow by Blow ( 1975 )
America – Hearts ( 1975 )
America – Hideaway ( 1976 )
American Flyer – American Flyer ( 1976 )
Jeff Beck – Wired ( 1976 )
Cleo Laine – Born On a Friday ( 1976 )
Jimmy Webb – El Mirage ( 1977 )
America – Harbor ( 1977 )
Neil Sedaka – A Song ( 1977 )
Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band ( 1978 , original soundtrack )
America – Silent Letter ( 1979 )
Gary Brooker – No More Fear of Flying ( 1979 )
Cheap Trick – All Shook Up ( 1980 )
UFO – No Place to Run ( 1980 )
Little River Band – Time Exposure ( 1981 )
Ultravox – Quartet ( 1982 )
Paul McCartney – Tug of War ( 1982 )
Paul McCartney – Pipes of Peace ( 1983 )
Paul McCartney – Give My Regards to Broad Street ( 1984 )
Andy Leek – Say Something ( 1988 )
Yoshiki – Eternal Melody ( 1993 )
Tommy ( Original Cast Recording ) ( 1993 )
Celine Dion – " The Reason " ( 1997 )
George Martin – In My Life ( 1998 )
The Beatles – Love ( 2006 )
= Nikita Whitlock =
Nikita Nehemiah Whitlock ( born May 16 , 1991 ) is an American football fullback for the New York Giants of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was signed by the Cincinnati Bengals as an undrafted free agent in 2014 . He played college football at Wake Forest . Whitlock has also been a member of the Dallas Cowboys practice squad .
Whitlock had a standout high school career at Wylie High School , earning AP Defensive Player of the Year honors in 2008 . After playing defensive tackle and linebacker throughout high school and college , the undersized Whitlock switched to fullback in the NFL . He won the starting fullback job for the Giants in 2015 after strong special teams work in the pre @-@ season .
= = Personal = =
Whitlock is the son of Raymond and Genny Whitlock . Whitlock was originally going to be named Sergio Nehemiah Whitlock , but his grandmother did not like the name . His father , who worked for Yellow Pages , opened up a phone book to a random page and put his finger down to select his name , ending up with Nikita . Whitlock graduated from Wake Forest with a Health and Exercise Science major .
= = High school career = =
Whitlock attended and played football at Wylie High School . He was named the AP Texas Class 5A Defensive Player of the Year in 2008 . The Dallas Morning News named him the All @-@ Area Defensive Player of the Year . Whitlock 's height made it difficult for him to get noticed by college recruiters . As a freshman , he was 5 ft 9 in ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) , 175 pounds ( 79 kg ) . He grew to 5 ft 10 in ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) , 240 pounds ( 110 kg ) by his senior year . His high school coach said , " If he was 6 @-@ foot @-@ 3 , he 'd be the No. 1 defensive lineman in the country " . Mesquite Horn coach Rodney Webb called Whitlock " the best defensive player he had seen at the high school level " . Whitlock set the school bench press record at 405 pounds ( 184 kg ) as a senior . Dallas Morning News sportswriter Matt Wixon called Whitlock " one of the most dominant high school linemen " he has ever seen .
He was offered scholarships to play football for SMU and Northwestern State , and also received interest from TCU and Utah State , before committing to Wake Forest .
= = College career = =
Whitlock played college football at Wake Forest from 2009 to 2013 . At Wake Forest , Whitlock played nose guard . Whitlock redshirted his freshman year in 2009 , practicing as a linebacker .
As a redshirt freshman , he was named second @-@ team freshman All @-@ American by College Football News and Rivals.com. Phil Steele named him fourth team All @-@ ACC in 2012 , as well as second @-@ team pre @-@ season All @-@ ACC in 2013 . He earned second @-@ team All @-@ ACC defensive honors in 2011 and 2012 . In 2013 , he was on the Bednarik Award watchlist .
= = = College statistics = = =
from Wakeforrestsports.com
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cincinnati Bengals = = =
On May 12 , 2014 , Whitlock was signed as an undrafted free agent with the Cincinnati Bengals . Upon signing with the Bengals , Whitlock was moved from defensive tackle to fullback . At 5 ' 10 " , 250 pounds ( 110 kg ) , Whitlock was considered too small to play defensive tackle at the NFL level .
He was released by the Bengals on August 30 , 2014 .
= = = Dallas Cowboys = = =
After being released by the Bengals , the Dallas Cowboys signed Whitlock to their practice squad on September 1 , 2014 . He was then released on September 9 . The Cowboys resigned Whitlock to the practice squad on September 16 . He was then released again on November 3 .
A week later , Whitlock worked out for the Baltimore Ravens but was not signed . While a free agent , Whitlock was suspended by the NFL for four games on November 21 ; the league did not announce why he was suspended .
= = = New York Giants = = =
On December 17 , 2014 , Whitlock was signed to the New York Giants practice squad . He worked as both a fullback and a linebacker during practice . On December 29 , 2014 , Whitlock signed a futures contract with the Giants .
In the 2015 NFL season , Whitlock defeated incumbent Henry Hynoski for the fullback spot after surviving final cuts . Whitlock won the roster spot by his special teams play , as well as being younger and less expensive than Hynoski . In the final preseason game , Whitlock took snaps at both fullback and defensive tackle . He performed dual duty again during the Giants game against the Washington Redskins on September 24 , 2015 . On December 23 , 2015 , Whitlock suffered a knee injury in the week 15 game against the Carolina Panthers , and was placed on season @-@ ending injured reserve .
He finished the season playing 132 offensive plays , 61 defensive plays , and 276 special teams plays .
= Myst IV : Revelation =
Myst IV : Revelation is the fourth installment in the Myst computer game series , developed and published by Ubisoft . Revelation was the first game in the series released exclusively on a DVD @-@ ROM format ; a multiple CD @-@ ROM version was not produced as it would have taken twelve compact discs to fit all the data . Like Myst III : Exile , Revelation combines pre @-@ rendered graphics with digital video , but also features real @-@ time 3D effects for added realism .
The plot of Revelation ties up loose ends from the original Myst . The player is summoned by Atrus , a man who creates links to other worlds known as Ages by writing special linking books . Almost twenty years earlier , Atrus ' two sons nearly destroyed all of his linking books and were imprisoned ; Atrus now wishes to see if his sons ' imprisonment has reformed them . The player ends up traveling to each brother 's prison , in an effort to recover Atrus ' daughter Yeesha from the brothers ' plot .
Development of Revelation lasted more than three years ; Ubisoft had as many as eighty employees working on the game . Musician Peter Gabriel lent his voice and a song to the game 's audio ; the original score was written by Exile 's composer Jack Wall . Overall , reception to the game was positive ; reviewers lauded the impressive visuals , sound , and puzzles . Publications such as Computer Gaming World took issue with the control scheme of the game . Revelation is the last game in the Myst series to use both prerendered backgrounds and full @-@ motion video ; the final game in the series , End of Ages , is rendered in real @-@ time throughout .
= = Gameplay = =
Myst IV : Revelation is an adventure game in which the player experiences gameplay from the eyes of an unnamed protagonist referred to as the Stranger . Players explore interactive worlds known as Ages by using the mouse or keyboard , solving puzzles and uncovering the game 's narrative . Players cannot move freely across each Age ; instead , as in the previous games in the Myst series , they travel by clicking set locations called " nodes " , where players can rotate their view in any direction . Revelation also features a " Zip " mode , which allows a method of rapidly crossing explored areas by skipping intermediate nodes ; areas that can be instantly traveled to are stored as thumbnail representations for rapid movement across Ages .
The mouse cursor helps to provide visual cues for player actions and movement . The cursor appears as a hand that changes depending on what the player is hovering the cursor over . For example , to move in a direction , the cursor changes to point in the intended direction . If players can view an item in greater detail , the cursor changes to a hand holding a magnifying glass . By clicking and dragging the cursor , the player performs actions such as pushing , pulling , and tapping items .
Revelation features several gameplay enhancements that aid puzzle solving and plot progression . Early in the game , players receive a camera , which can be used to take screenshots or pictures of clues . Players can use an on @-@ screen journal to jot down notes instead of having to write down clues as with previous Myst games . Much of the game 's story is revealed via flashbacks triggered by an amulet that has the power to relay memories attached to objects . Zip mode , the amulet , the camera , and the journal are available via a menu on the bottom of the game screen .
= = Plot = =
Atrus calls the Stranger to his home in Tomahna to request his friend 's assistance . Atrus is the writer of special books , which serve as links to worlds known as Ages . Twenty years earlier , his two sons , Sirrus and Achenar , destroyed his library on Myst and trapped their parents in order to plunder the wealth of Atrus ' Ages . The Stranger 's intervention saved Atrus , who had imprisoned his sons via traps intended for thieves . Atrus ' wife Catherine hopes that , after twenty years , they have finally repented for their crimes . Atrus is not as sure his sons have reformed , and so wishes the Stranger to act as an impartial judge . After being knocked unconscious by an explosion , the Stranger realizes that Yeesha , Atrus ' daughter , has disappeared .
The Stranger sets out to find Yeesha , travelling to the prison Ages of Spire and Haven . On Spire , Sirrus has used his scientific knowledge to craft explosives , allowing him to breach the chamber that contained the linking book back to Tomahna , and has escaped ; journeying to Haven reveals that Sirrus has also freed Achenar . The Stranger journeys to the Age of Serenia and encounters Achenar , holding a " Life Stone " ; Achenar tells the Stranger that Sirrus is mad and has captured Yeesha , reveals that he kept a journal from twenty years earlier hidden on the island , and warns the Stranger not to let Atrus come after them . Achenar 's journal reveals that he and Sirrus planned to trap their mother Catherine on Riven and use a " Memory Chamber " , a gigantic flower @-@ like structure used to preserve the memories of the dead , to take control of Atrus ' body and steal his knowledge of the Art of Writing . The Life Stone that Achenar stole is used to power the Memory Chambers , leaving the current one in danger of collapse . Shortly afterwards , the Stranger finds Sirrus in an underwater harvester used for collecting memory globes for storing those memories ; he blows up the harvester and flees to an older Memory Chamber , decrepit and abandoned . After encountering the Stranger there , Sirrus tells the Stranger that Achenar is the guilty one , and asks the Stranger to find Atrus and bring him to Serenia to set things right .
Finding that the old Memory Chamber door has been locked by Sirrus with a special color @-@ code combination , the Stranger goes to the active Memory Chamber to seek aid from the Serenian Protectors , who believe that the answers can be found in their " mirror realm " , known simply as Dream . Obtaining a " spirit guide " , the Stranger enters Dream and interacts with their guide , who tells them to interact with the Ancestors , the spirits of all Serenians who have died and had their memories preserved , to bring them into harmony . After bringing the Ancestors into harmony , the Stranger discovers the combination to Sirrus ' color @-@ code lock . Returning to the " waking world " and entering the old Memory Chamber , the Stranger finds Yeesha strapped into a chair , and she begs to be released from it with a silver lever . At that moment , Achenar arrives with a crossbow and the Life Stone , and warns that Sirrus used the Memory Chamber to remove Yeesha 's memories and transfer his own into her body ; Achenar points to an amber lever , which will reverse the mind @-@ transfer .
At this point , as in the other games , the ending varies . Delaying too long will result in Yeesha ( who is in fact Sirrus ) taking Achenar 's crossbow and shooting first him , then the Stranger . The silver lever will release Yeesha ( again , possessed by Sirrus ) , who drops a large stone on Achenar and the Stranger , and then shoots the Stranger dead . In the good ending , the Stranger pulls the amber lever , reversing the mind @-@ transfer process . But because of the age of the Memory Chamber , it becomes unstable ; Achenar tells the Stranger to return to Dream and set Yeesha 's memories right , while he uses the Life Stone to stabilize the chamber by inserting it into the chamber 's shrine , poisoning him with its contained toxic spores . In Dream , the Stranger finds a monstrous creature , representing Sirrus ' Dream @-@ form , anchored to Yeesha 's essence and preventing her from returning to her body ; with no spirit guide , Sirrus is forced to cling to Yeesha to avoid being lost forever . He maintains his anchors by jumbling up Yeesha 's memories . The Stranger restores Yeesha 's memories and frees her from Sirrus ' grasp ; Sirrus ' Dream @-@ form is destroyed by the shifting waves of Dream , killing him . The Stranger awakens to find Achenar , fatally poisoned , confirming that the transfer was successful ; he dies shortly afterward . The Stranger then returns to Tomahna to meet with Atrus , who says that Catherine has taken Yeesha to Tay ( the " rebel Age " used to evacuate Catherine 's people in Riven ) , and remarks that while his sons are gone , his daughter is safe .
= = Development = =
When Mattel Interactive still owned the rights to the Myst series , development of Myst IV was contracted out to DreamForge Intertainment , developers of the game Sanitarium ; Dreamforge was hired before Presto Studios to develop Myst III : Exile . Dreamforge 's Myst used real @-@ time graphics , and was two years into development and twenty percent complete when Ubisoft , who had by this point acquired the rights to the series , cancelled the project and decided to restart development from scratch internally .
According to Geneviève Lord , Revelation 's producer , concluding the story of the two brothers had originally been intended as the plot for Myst III , but due to a limited amount of time to develop the game , as well as to not interfere with Dreamforge 's Myst game , whose plot details were still forming , the plot was dropped and then redeveloped when Ubisoft began work on Myst IV . Cyan , Myst and Riven 's developer , set down " a certain number of rules " that Ubisoft had to follow , according to Lord , but otherwise the team was free to develop new ideas , keeping in the spirit of Myst lore .
Ubisoft 's development of Revelation took over three years and more than eighty employees . Early on , the development team made the decision to use pre @-@ rendered graphics for the game , to match the style of previous Myst games . This proved to be a challenge , as the studio had never developed a pre @-@ rendered game before , and had to hire over fifty new employees who had experience in the field . Full production was started on the game before artistic direction and engine development tools were fully established , and the resulting lack of focus and communication meant that a bad working relationship existed between the game designers , programmers , and modelers for most of the production .
As an improvement over the prerendered technology present in Myst , Riven , and Exile , Revelation uses its " ALIVE " engine to animate nearly everything in the game . The water animations , for example , are fully rendered for each location . The trees sway in the breeze , and the sky has moving clouds . Wildlife includes creatures that walk through the environment and occasionally interact with the player . The game also features a number of effects applied in real time , such as lens flares , dynamic lighting , and an optional focal blur . In a trend started by the original Myst , the game uses live actors to play the game 's roles in live @-@ action video sequences . There are more than 70 minutes of video , and the game allows players to look around and interact with the video while it is playing .
= = = Audio = = =
Jack Wall composed , conducted , and produced the music for Revelation ; the game was his second game score , following the music for Myst III : Exile . Wall was initially a sound engineer and producer , and stated composing " was kind of like a next step for me , rather than something I decided to do early on " . The success and recognition of Exile 's score landed Wall the job of writing Revelation 's music with a budget of $ 100 @,@ 000 — twice the amount he had worked with for Exile .
Wall reused , reorchestrated and expanded themes composed by previous Myst composer Robyn Miller ; for example , Wall reused Atrus ' Theme from Riven and the brothers ' leitmotifs from the original game . Wall credited the Myst universe and story with allowing him to write music " Western ears are somewhat less accustomed to " ; Revelation 's score was inspired by Eastern European music that Wall enjoyed in the 1990s .
In addition to Jack Wall 's score , the game features a song by Peter Gabriel entitled " Curtains " , originally a B @-@ side from Gabriel 's single " Don 't Give Up " . Gabriel also performed a voiceover for the game .
= = Reception = =
Overall , Revelation was received positively by critics ; the game garnered 82 % and 81 % averages on aggregate sites Metacritic and GameRankings , respectively ; the Xbox version of the game received less favorable scores than the PC version .
As with previous Myst games , the visuals and interactivity of Revelation were singled out as the strongest features . Reviewers praised the use of subtle animations to bring the scenery to life ; GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin stated that the additions " truly helps make each scene in the game seem like more than just a panoramic picture , and instead it feels like a real place " . Jack Wall 's score and the sound design were consistently praised . The addition of the in @-@ game camera and notes system was also positively received . PC Zone proclaimed that although it would have been easy for the developers to lose heart after the disappointing Uru : Ages Beyond Myst , Ubisoft had instead produced " one of the most polished games " the reviewer , Paul Presley , had ever come across .
Certain reviewers criticized aspects of the gameplay that had not been fixed or altered from previous Myst titles . Computer Gaming World , for example , complained about having to hunt for the small hotspots that allowed actions to occur . A reviewer for The Houston Chronicle judged the method of traveling from node to node as tiresome to navigate . Another complaint was that the slow cursor animations made searching for actions occasionally tedious . Many publications noted the rather steep computer requirements ; in addition to requiring a DVD @-@ ROM drive , the game took up more than 7 gigabytes when fully installed . Charles Herold of The New York Times , the only mainstream critic with a negative view of Revelation 's music , dismissed the score as " tediously literal " .
Revelation would be the last Myst game that used prerendered graphics or full motion video . Cyan Worlds , the original developer of both Myst and Riven , used real @-@ time rendered graphics for the next installment in the series , Myst V : End of Ages . Myst V was announced as the final game in the series .
= Boeing Galleries =
Boeing Galleries ( North Boeing Gallery and South Boeing Gallery ) are a pair of outdoor exhibition spaces within Millennium Park in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , USA . The spaces are located along the south and north mid @-@ level terraces , above and east of Wrigley Square and the Crown Fountain . In a conference at the Chicago Cultural Center , Boeing President and Chief Executive Officer James Bell to Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley announced Boeing would make a $ 5 million grant to fund both the construction of and an endowment for the space .
= = Details = =
Lying between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , Grant Park has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid 19th century . Its northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Today , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .
The city sought Boeing 's financial support in the form of a $ 6 million donation . The purpose of the eventual $ 5 million donation was to fund a space for use as open @-@ air gallery spaces to accommodate regular exhibitions of both visual arts and sculpture . The exhibitions primarily occur in the spring and summer months . The galleries were commissioned in December 2004 ( after the park 's first summer ) , and they provide necessary formal space for the presentation of public exhibitions of modern and contemporary art . Boeing also previously funded the Family Album photograph exhibition that debuted in Millennium Park during its opening weekend .
The galleries were constructed between March and June 2005 . The south gallery is 19 @,@ 200 square feet ( 1 @,@ 780 m2 ) ( 240 by 80 feet ( 73 by 24 m ) ) and the north is 14 @,@ 400 square feet ( 1 @,@ 338 m2 ) ( 180 by 80 feet ( 55 by 24 m ) ) . The galleries are surrounded by sycamore trees , which are very rare in Chicago . There is seating on a series of black granite steps , which match The Crown Fountain , along each gallery 's east side . The South Gallery is connected to the fountain by a precast concrete staircase . The galleries are also paved in granite . The north and south galleries are physically separated by AT & T Plaza , which hosts Cloud Gate ( The Bean ) .
= = Exhibitions = =
= = = Past exhibitions = = =
2005
The first exhibition in the renamed Galleries was Revealing Chicago : An Aerial Portrait , which was displayed on the Central Chase Promenade and South Boeing Gallery , appeared from June 10 – October 10 , 2005 . The exhibit featured 100 images from Chicago metropolitan area taken on 50 flights that occurred between March 2003 and August 2004 at various seasons of the year . Photographer , Terry Evans , a Chicagoan , says that although 90 % of the photographs were taken while in a helicopter , her preferred method of travel hot air balloon , but Chicago was usually too windy to shoot by balloon . At the time of the installation of the exhibition , the North Boeing Gallery was not complete so the exhibition partially took place on the Central Chase Promenade .
2006
The galleries hosted In Search of Paradise : Great Gardens of the World from May 12 – October 22 , 2006 . The opening was delayed a week . This exhibition was developed by the Chicago Botanic Garden and included 65 photomurals of gardens from 21 countries including Lurie Garden . All of the photographs were less than five years old . The exhibition was curated by Penelope Hobhouse and presented by the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs , Millennium Park with support from The Boeing Company and the Richard H. Driehaus Foundation . The photographs were formatted at 4 by 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 by 1 @.@ 8 m
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) . The production schedule for the photomural formatted photography used was longer than expected , which led to the week @-@ long delay in opening the exhibition . The exhibition was a thematic reference to the Chicago motto , " Urbs in Horto " , which means city in a garden , and was a modern adaptation of a 2003 exhibition at the Chicago Botanic Garden . The exhibit provided viewers with an appreciation for the landscape design , aesthetics and the horticulture of gardens .
2007 – 2008
The gallery hosted Mark di Suvero , whose large @-@ scale abstract expressionism sculptures were on display from April 17 , 2007 – October 12 , 2008 . The original duration of the exhibition was supposed to only be until April 1 , 2008 , but the exhibit was extended through the summer and fall of 2008 . It is presented by the Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs , Millennium Park , in cooperation with Millennium Park , Inc . , and is sponsored by The Boeing Company with support from the Richard H. Driehaus Foundation .
The exhibit included five pieces in total : two pieces in the North Boeing Gallery and three in the South Boeing Gallery . It was originally scheduled to include only four works . Orion , which was the largest of these , is a bright orange sculpture that measures 53 feet ( 16 @.@ 2 m ) tall and 12 short tons ( 10 @.@ 9 t ; 10 @.@ 7 long tons ) . It has been installed on the North Boeing Gallery . The exhibit featured an interactive piece , Shang , which visitors were invited to climb on in the South Gallery . Shang was 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) tall and had a suspended steel beam that acted as a swing .
Chicago Tribune art critic Alan G. Artner felt that the installation was a bit cramped in the Boeing Galleries . He explained that this was why di Suvero was limited to his midsize pieces and felt the Chase Promenade might have served as a better forum and left the artist unfettered to choose from a wider range of pieces . He also wondered why a city that abounds in public sculpture has not ventured to acquire any of his work .
2009 – 2010
The di Suvero exhibit was removed at the end of October 2008 . In March 2009 , the park announced its plans to install four large @-@ scale contemporary outdoor works by Chinese sculptors in Boeing Galleries from April 9 – October 2010 . The exhibition , entitled " A Conversation With Chicago : Contemporary Sculpture From China " , complements the " The Big World : Recent Art From China " exhibition hosted at the Chicago Cultural Center beginning April 25 , 2009 but was conceived independently and is a distinct body of work . Chen Wenling 's " Valiant Struggle No. 11 , " symbolizes Chinese society . The open @-@ work sculpture " Windy City Dinosaur , " created by Sui Jianguo stamped with the phrase " Made in China " is a critique on the cheap mass @-@ produced goods that are building the Chinese export economy . " Kowtow Pump , " is a caricature of the oil rigs by Shen Shaomin that will have limited Thursday active display times from June 11 through Aug. 27 . Zhan Wang 's " Jia Shan Shi No. 46 " is considered the most abstract and depicts the scholar 's rock in stainless steel .
2011 – 2012
On February 1 , 2011 , the city announced that the April 6 , 2011 – October 2012 Millennium Park Boeing Galleries , Large @-@ Scale Sculptures Exhibition would feature the work of Mexican sculptor Yvonne Domenge under the exhibition title " Interconnected : The Sculptures of Yvonne Domenge " . In addition to several traditional park sponsors , the exhibit is sponsored by the National Council for Culture and Arts , Richard H. Driehaus Foundation , the National Museum of Mexican Art , and the Consulate General of Mexico . This marks the first installation by a female or Latina artist at the Boeing Galleries . It is regarded as Chicago 's last event of the " Mexico 2010 " city @-@ wide yearlong 70 @-@ event celebration of the bicentennial of Mexico 's independence and the centennial of its Revolution . These are the first sculptures by a Latina artist displayed anywhere in Millennium Park . The exhibition was three years in the making and preliminary sketches were on display at the Chicago Cultural Center in the fall of 2010 . Also , prior to installation the sculptures ' maquettes were displayed at the Chicago Cultural Center as a preview of the exhibit .
The city describes Domenge 's sculptures as unifying perceived opposites and harmonizing apparent dissonances by geometrically referencing the natural world . The four piece installation includes a 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) tall red @-@ painted bronze sculpture , Tree of Life on the North Boeing Gallery , which stands as the tallest of work in the exhibit with its 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) wide and 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) tall pair of companion seeds . The tree and seed 's represent life in it full form and its new emergence . They are said to represent the " Circle of life " . The South Boeing Gallery hosts three steel spheres : Tabachin Ribbon , a 13 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) tall yellow sculpture ; Wind Waves , a white sculpture measuring approximately 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high and Coral , in blue , approximately 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) high . Domenge ’ s spheres defy gravity and space , conveying a rhythmic beauty and a sense of a larger universal order . The Boeing installation 's spheres are said to express a type of beauty that pays respect to a larger universal order with reference to biological examples . The installation on the Boeing Galleries places the works above and to the east of Wrigley Square ( North Gallery ) and Crown Fountain ( South Gallery ) . Domenge stated that she attempts to express the beauty of natures geometric order that it expresses in the molecular structures of flowers and plants . She feels that the spheres on exhibit in the South gallery depict the geometric perfection of the cosmos and that the celebrate this in a " festival of color and form " . In keeping with her belief in the harmony of nature and out of respect for the park , she presented an installation that required no welding or screws .
2013
In 2013 , the Boeing Galleries hosted ceramic sculpture by Jun Kaneko . The " Legends , Myths and Truths : Jun Kaneko " exhibit ran from April 12 - November 3 , 2013 . The exhibition included both old and new works by Kaneko . The old subject matter was work on Dangos and the new work focused on Tanuki .
= = = Current installation ( 2014 @-@ 2015 ) = = =
= = = = 1004 Portraits = = = =
In 2009 starting with the 66 feet ( 20 @.@ 12 m ) tall Dream , Plensa began creating massive head sculptures . On June 18th , 2014 , four new large head sculpture pieces were added to Millennium Park in celebration of its 10th anniversary . Standing at 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 10 m ) tall , three of the works ( Laura , Paula , and Inez ) were located in the South Boeing Galleries . Each work depicts a female subject on the brink of maturation . They came from Barcelona . The fourth and tallest work at 39 feet ( 11 @.@ 89 m ) , originally titled Looking Into My Dreams and by the time of its Chicago arrival titled Looking Into My Dreams , Awilda or Awilda for short , was placed on Michigan Avenue facing Madison Avenue . It had been created in 2012 for an installation in Rio de Janeiro 's Guanabara Bay and arrived in 15 pieces that were bolted together . Awilda is made of resin , while the others are made of cast iron . Jaume Plensa , creator of the adjacent Crown Fountain sculptures , named the four sculptures " 1004 Portraits " because the sculptures added four new faces to the previous 1000 LED faces projected on the Crown Fountain . The works are on loan from Plensa and will be on display until December 2015 .
He wanted the statues to have a dreamlike quality ; as a result all the faces have closed eyes and are in a dreamlike position . Plensa wanted everyone who viewed the sculptures to dream with him and the sculptures .
= = = = Millennium Park : An Anatomy in Photographs = = = =
Located in the North Boeing Gallery , next to Wrigley Square , is the Millennium Park : An Anatomy in Photographs display in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the completion of Millennium Park runs from June 18th , 2014 through October 2015 . Curated by John Vinci and Hamp Architects , the display features over 58 images of Millennium Park before , during , and after construction , showcasing work done by 16 photographers . Some of the photos document construction of the park while others document its art and architecture , and other photographers used the park as their inspiration for their photographs .
= Deanna Merryman =
Deanna Merryman ( born 1972 ) is an American actress , glamor model , and fitness model . Merryman went to high @-@ school with model and sports commentator Leeann Tweeden . She was part of Playboy 's Great Lingerie Model Search in 1997 and was a contestant in the Miss Hawaiian Tropic beauty pageant in 1998 ; later becoming a model for Hawaiian Tropic . The next year , she was featured on the cover of Iron Man Magazine .
She starred on the documentary soap drama Desperately Seeking Stardom in 1999 . This garnered her roles on Baywatch and Veronica 's Closet . Merryman met stock car racing driver Jeff Gordon in 2000 and they had a brief relationship while the NASCAR driver was still married . Merryman was featured in a pictorial in the October 2003 issue of Playboy magazine .
= = Early life = =
Deanna Merryman was born in 1972 . Her father was a clergyman from Virginia . Merryman attended high @-@ school with Leeann Tweeden . She spent her early years living in Texas . Merryman worked as an exotic dancer in the mid @-@ 1990s . She danced at a nightclub in San Antonio , Texas called PT 's Show Club in 1992 . While employed at PT 's Show Club she suffered injury from a bite by a patron at the facility who was later charged with assault by police . She was transported to the hospital where she received treatment for puncture wounds .
= = Acting and modeling career = =
Merryman was featured in Playboy magazine in 1997 in Playboy 's Great Lingerie Model Search . She was featured in a pictorial in 1998 in an Celebrity Sleuth . In 1998 Merryman was a contestant in the Miss Hawaiian Tropic beauty pageant . She later became a model for Hawaiian Tropic . Merryman worked as a fitness model . She was featured on the cover of Iron Man Magazine in 1999 .
She starred on the documentary soap drama Desperately Seeking Stardom in 1999 . Broadcast on the ITV network , the program featured six individuals living in a house in California and documented their attempts to become successful actors in Los Angeles .
During this time attempting to gain a foothold in the acting industry , Merryman worked simultaneously as a model for lingerie , and a waitress , and was featured in Playboy . The show chronicled her audition process for a horror film , and a role in the television soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful . She successfully landed a role during Desperately Seeking Stardom , on the television show Baywatch . Merryman subsequently gained a part on the television series Veronica 's Closet . In 2000 , Merryman was selected for a photo shoot by American photographer Mark Daughn ; her pictures were used to advertise the Internet company Bomis . Daughn 's photographs of Merryman also appeared in Mystique Magazine in January 2003 , alongside models including : Aria Giovanni , Sunny Leone , Lisa Marie Scott , Natasha Yi , and Kalin Olson . She was featured in the book Mystique : Models of Mystique in the same year , photographed by Daughn .
Merryman posed nude in the October 2003 Playboy issue , and was photographed for the publication by Daughn . In May 2004 , Merryman appeared onstage at the " Porn Star Ball " at the Uptown Cabaret in Charlotte , North Carolina ; she was introduced to the audience by Ron Jeremy . Merryman starred in the 2004 comedy film Busty Cops alongside Nikki Nova , Jesse Jane , Katie James , Sunn Leone and Seana Ryan . She again appeared in a Celebrity Sleuth pictorial in its October 2004 issue . She was photographed by Sam T 'Ang for Beach Babes calendar in 2005 , and by Daughn for the Mystique calendar published the same year . In 2006 , Merryman moved from Los Angeles , California and hosted a party in South Beach , Florida at Club Deep which was sponsored by FireStar Film Works and Phunhauz Ent . In 2011 she resided in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , where she worked as a makeup artist .
= = Personal life = =
Merryman had a relationship with stock car racing driver Jeff Gordon . She first met Gordon in 2000 while she was employed in Palm Beach , Florida at a Neiman Marcus store in a mall where she advised customers about cosmetics products . Merryman did not recognize the race @-@ car driver at their first meeting , though her friends were excited to meet him during the same encounter . Initially Merryman turned down Gordon 's request to take her out for lunch . One year after their initial encounter , they began a relationship . They were romantically @-@ linked for 11 months . Merryman and Gordon vacationed together in Saint @-@ Jean , Saint Barthélemy in the Caribbean in January 2003 to celebrate the New Year . This relationship caused difficulty for his then @-@ ongoing marriage to Brooke Sealy . Sealy discovered Gordon 's relationship with Merryman and subsequently divorced the race @-@ car driver . Gordon 's wife , who also went by the name Jennifer Brooke Gordon , cited Merryman by name in her divorce papers with the racecar driver . Merryman was featured in the October 2003 issue of Playboy magazine , where she was interviewed about her relationship with Gordon . Merryman stated that Gordon had confided in her : " He got married when he was 23 and has been on the racetrack since he was a kid . He used to tell me all the time he never had a chance to have fun . " She reflected on what she had learned after her period of time with Gordon , saying in the future she would avoid relationships both with men of his occupation and those who were married . Gordon did not comment on Merryman 's 2003 appearance in the magazine . When asked about the article , Gordon refused to comment on it . He stated : " It 's not even worth commenting on . All I want to talk about is being fast " . Gordon 's divorce was finalized in June 2003 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= Confessions on a Dance Floor =
Confessions on a Dance Floor is the tenth studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on November 11 , 2005 by Warner Bros. Records . A complete departure from her previous studio album American Life ( 2003 ) , the album includes influences of 1970s and 1980s disco , as well as modern @-@ day club music . Initially , she began working with Mirwais Ahmadzaï for the album , but later felt that their collaboration was not going in the direction she desired . Madonna took her collaboration with Stuart Price who was overviewing her documentary I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret . The album was mainly recorded at Price 's home @-@ studio where Madonna spent most of her time during the recordings .
Musically , the album is structured like a DJ 's set . The songs are sequenced and blended together so that they are played continuously without any gaps . The title arrived from the fact that the album track listing consists of light @-@ hearted and happy songs in the beginning , and progresses to much darker melodies and lyrics describing personal feelings and commitments . Songs on the album use samples and references of music by other dance @-@ oriented artists like ABBA , Donna Summer , Pet Shop Boys , Bee Gees and Depeche Mode , as well as Madonna 's earlier work in the 1980s .
Madonna promoted the album through several live performances and a promotional tour . She embarked on the Confessions Tour in 2006 , which became the highest grossing tour ever for a female artist at that time . Four singles were released from the album . " Hung Up " , the lead single , topped the charts in a total of 41 countries . According to Billboard , it was the most successful dance song of the decade . It was followed by " Sorry " which became Madonna 's twelfth number @-@ one single in the United Kingdom . " Get Together " and " Jump " were released as the third and fourth singles respectively , both becoming top @-@ ten hits in several countries .
Most critics lauded the album calling it a return to form for Madonna , ranking it alongside her best albums . Madonna was honored with a Grammy Award for Best Electronic / Dance Album in 2007 , as well as International Female Solo Artist at the 2006 BRIT Awards . Commercially , the album peaked at number one in 40 countries , earning a place in the 2007 Guinness Book of World Records for topping the record charts in the most countries . It has sold an estimated 12 million copies worldwide . Retrospectively , Confessions on a Dance Floor was ranked third on " The 99 Greatest Dance Albums of All Time " by Vice magazine .
= = Development = =
Confessions on a Dance Floor merged elements from 1970s disco , 1980s electropop and modern day club music . Madonna decided to incorporate elements of disco in her songs , while trying not to remake her music from past , instead choosing to pay tribute towards artists like Bee Gees and Giorgio Moroder . The songs reflected Madonna 's thoughts on love , fame and religion , hence the title Confessions on a Dance Floor . It was the complete opposite direction from her previous studio effort American Life ( 2003 ) . The songs on that album were a form of diatribe directed at the American society . However , Madonna decided to take a different direction with this album . Regarding the development , Madonna commented :
" When I wrote American Life , I was very agitated by what was going on in the world around me , [ ... ] I was angry . I had a lot to get off my chest . I made a lot of political statements . But now , I feel that I just want to have fun ; I want to dance ; I want to feel buoyant . And I want to give other people the same feeling . There 's a lot of madness in the world around us , and I want people to be happy . "
She started to work with Mirwais Ahmadzaï with whom she had previously developed her eighth album Music ( 2000 ) . However , that collaboration did not suit Madonna 's musical direction . According to Madonna , " [ Producer ] Mirwais is also very political , seriously cerebral and intellectual . All we did was sit around , talking politics all the time . So , that couldn 't help but find its way into the music . I think there 's an angry aspect to the music that directly reflects my feelings at the time . " Hence after recording tracks with Mirwais , Madonna decided to stop the project and start fresh . It was then that she turned to Stuart Price who had served as musical director on her two previous concert tours and co @-@ wrote one song on American Life .
In 2004 , after the release of American Life , Madonna began working on two different musicals : one tentatively called Hello Suckers and another one with Luc Besson , who previously directed the music video for her single " Love Profusion " . , which would portray her as a woman on her deathbed looking back on her life . Madonna collaborated with Patrick Leonard , Ahmadzaï and Price to write new songs , the latter being assigned to pen disco songs sounding like " ABBA on drugs " . However , Madonna found herself dissatisfied with the script written by Besson and scrapped it . Hence Madonna and Price decided to use the compositions for the album instead . According to Madonna , it was easy for her to shift from her previous album 's sentiments , since she included those political views in her documentary I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret . She elaborated :
I was running back and forth , literally , from the editing room with [ the documentary 's director ] Jonas Akerlund to working with Stuart , who was also mixing the music in the film . We were together , non @-@ stop , all of us . Cutting 350 hours of film down to two hours . There are a lot of serious aspects to the movie . I needed a release . When I would go to Stuart 's , and we 'd go up to his loft , it was like , ' Honey , I want to dance . ' I wanted to be happy , silly and buoyant . I wanted to lift myself and others up with this record . So , yes , the new album was a reaction to all the other stuff I was doing , which was very serious in nature . I hope that doesn 't imply that I wanted to make a superficial record , because it 's not . I want people to smile when they hear this record . I wanted it to put a smile on my face , too .
= = Recording = =
The first three songs that were written for the album were " Hung Up " , " Sorry " and " Future Lovers " In an interview with Billboard , Madonna commented that the recording process was a give @-@ and @-@ take situation . According to her , Price used to stay up all night working on the songs . This was helped by the fact that he is a DJ and is used to staying awake all night . This gave Madonna the chance to work on other aspects of the compositions . She noted the fact that she and Price had opposite characteristics , which helped in their collaboration . The songs were mainly recorded at Price 's home . Madonna said :
We did a lot of recording at his house . I 'd come by in the morning and Stuart would answer the door in his stocking feet – as he 'd been up all night . I 'd bring him a cup of coffee and say , ' Stuart , your house is a mess , there 's no food in the cupboard . ' Then I 'd call someone from my house to bring food over for him . And then we 'd work all day . We 're very much the odd couple .
She further elaborated that their camaraderie was also due to the fact that they had toured together for Madonna 's Re @-@ Invention World Tour . Hence Madonna reflected that her relationship with Price was more of a brother @-@ sister kind than the formal collaborations she was accustomed to during the recording process .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Confessions on a Dance Floor is a full @-@ on dance , electronic and disco record , which is structured like a nightly set composed by a DJ . The music starts out light and happy , and as it progresses , it becomes intense , with the lyrics dealing more about personal feelings , hence " Confessions " . According to Madonna , " [ t ] his is the direction of my record . That 's what we intended , to make a record that you can play at a party or in your car , where you don 't have to skip past a ballad . It 's nonstop . " Madonna used samples and references of music by other disco artists . In the album 's first song , " Hung Up " , she sampled ABBA 's 1979 hit " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) " , for which she wrote a personal letter to songwriters Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus , who gave Madonna permission to use the track . References of other disco @-@ influenced acts , including Pet Shop Boys , Depeche Mode , and Daft Punk , were also used on the album , as were the disco hits of Parisian DJ Cerrone . The album has a song called " Forbidden Love " , which is different from the same titled song from Madonna 's sixth studio album Bedtime Stories . Regarding sampling herself and her own song names , Madonna commented :
" I did all of that on purpose , [ ... ] I mean , if I 'm going to plagiarize somebody , it might as well be me , right ? I feel like I 've earned the right to rip myself off . ' Talent borrows , genius steals , ' [ ... ] " Let 's see how many other clichés I can throw in there . That 's exactly it . I was only hinting early on , but then I tell it like it is . It 's like , now that I have your attention , I have a few things to tell you . "
A pulsating rhythm is present in the song " Isaac " , which is regarded as the only song close to a ballad on the album . However , the song was criticised heavily by a group of Israeli rabbis who commented that Madonna was committing a blasphemy with their religion . They said that the song was about sixteenth century Kabbalah scholar Yitzhak Luria . In reality , the song was named after the featured vocalist Yitzhak Sinwani , who sang portions of the Yemenite Hebrew poem Im Nin 'alu in the track . Initially Madonna toyed with the idea of calling the song as " Fear of Flying " since the idea behind the composition was to let go . However , at the end she decided to just call it " Isaac " after the English version of Sinwani 's name . Regarding the song 's development and the condemnation of the Rabbis , Madonna said :
" You do appreciate the absurdity of a group of rabbis in Israel claiming that I 'm being blasphemous about someone when they haven 't heard the record , right ? And then , everyone in the media runs with it as if it 's the truth . And that 's a little weird . But what 's even weirder is that the song is not about Isaac Lurier [ sic ] , as the rabbis claim . It 's named after Yitzhak Sinwani , who 's singing in Yemenite on the track . I couldn 't think of a title for the song . So I called it " Isaac " [ the English translation of " Yitzhak " ] . It 's interesting how their minds work , those naughty rabbis . [ ... ] He 's saying , " If all of the doors of all of the generous peoples ' homes are closed to you , the gates of heaven will always be open . " The words are about 1 @,@ 000 years old . [ ... ] [ Yitzhak ] is an old friend of mine . He 's never made a record . He comes from generations of beautiful singers . Stuart and I asked him to come into the studio one day . We said , " We 're just going to record you . We don 't know what we 're going to do with it . " He 's flawless . One take , no bad notes . He doesn 't even need a microphone . We took one of the songs he did and I said to Stuart , " Let 's sample these bits . We 'll create a chorus and then I 'll write lyrics around it . " That 's how we constructed it . "
The lyrics of the songs on the album incorporate bits of Madonna 's musical history and are written in the form of confessions . " Hung Up " contains lyrics from Madonna 's 1989 duet with Prince called " Love Song " , from the Like a Prayer album . " How High " refers to two songs from Madonna 's eighth studio album Music , namely " Nobody 's Perfect " and " I Deserve It " . The lyrics of " Push " thank the person who challenged her to expand her limits and also incorporate elements of The Police 's song " Every Breath You Take " . Other tracks like " Sorry " include the title word in ten different languages . " I Love New York " depicts Madonna praising the city that made her the person she is . Elsewhere , Madonna sings about success and fame ( " Let It Will Be " ) and the crossroads of past , present and future ( " Like It or Not " ) .
= = Promotion = =
On November 4 , 2005 , Madonna opened the 2005 MTV Europe Music Awards with her first performance of " Hung Up " . She emerged from a glitter ball to perform sing the song , while wearing a purple leotard and matching leather boots . During the next days , Madonna performed " Hung Up " on TV shows such as Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany , and Star Academy in France , as well as on the Children in Need 2005 telethon in London . In order to promote the album 's release , Madonna appeared on Parkinson . She played a number of songs from the album at London 's Koko Club and G @-@ A @-@ Y as well as in United States , Japan , Germany and France , as part of a promo tour to support the album . The performances saw Madonna emerge from a glitter ball while wearing a purple jacket , velvet pedal pushers and knee @-@ high boots . Songs performed included " Hung Up " , " Get Together " , " Sorry " , " I Love New York " , " Ray of Light " , " Let It Will Be " and " Everybody " .
In December , Madonna travelled to Japan , where " Hung Up " was performed on TV show SMAP × SMAP and her concert at Studio Coast . On February 8 , 2006 , Madonna opened the 2006 Grammy Awards , by pairing up with the fictional animated band Gorillaz . The band appeared on the stage via a three dimensional technique which projected their holograms on the stage . They performed their song " Feel Good Inc . " while rappers De La Soul made a guest appearance . Madonna then appeared on the stage and started performing the song while interchanging places with the hologram figures of the band . She was later joined by her own group of dancers and the performance was finished on the main stage rather than the virtual screen . Another performance of " Hung Up " came on April 30 , 2006 during the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival in Indio , California .
A remix only album titled Confessions Remixed was also released in limited vinyl editions . In Japan , Confessions on a Dance Floor – Japan Tour Special Edition ( CD + DVD ) was released on August 23 , 2006 . It reached number 27 on the Oricon weekly albums chart and stayed on the chart for 12 weeks . The album received further promotion from the Confessions Tour which began in May 2006 . The tour grossed over US $ 194 @.@ 7 million , becoming highest grossing tour ever for a female artist , at that time . Additionally , the tour received the " Most Creative Stage Production " at the Pollstar Concert Industry Awards , as well as " Top Boxscore " from the Billboard Touring Awards .
= = = Singles = = =
" Hung Up " was released as the album 's lead single on October 17 , 2005 . The song received critical appreciation amongst reviewers , who suggested that the track would restore the singer 's popularity , which had diminished following the release of her 2003 album American Life . Critics claimed that it was her best dance track to date and have compared it to other Madonna tracks in the same genre . They also complimented the effective synchronization of the ABBA sample with Madonna 's song . " Hung Up " became a worldwide commercial success , peaking atop the charts of 41 countries and earning a place in the Guinness Book of World Records along with the album . In the United States it became her 36th top ten hit , tying her with Elvis Presley . The corresponding music video was a tribute to John Travolta , his movies and dancing in general . Directed by Johan Renck , the video featured Madonna dancing in a ballet studio in a pink leotard , which she left to go to a gaming parlour to dance with her backup dancers . It also featured the physical discipline parkour .
" Sorry " was released as the second single from the album on February 28 , 2006 . The song received positive reviews from contemporary critics who declared the track as the strongest song on Confessions on a Dance Floor . It achieved commercial success , topping the singles charts in Italy , Spain , Romania and the United Kingdom , where it became Madonna 's 12th number one single . Elsewhere , the song was a top ten hit in more than a dozen countries around the world . However , in the United States , the song was less commercially successful due to underplay on radio , but managed to reach the top of Billboard 's dance charts .
" Get Together " was released as the third single from the album by Warner Bros. Records on June 6 , 2006 . The decision was spurred by the fact that " Get Together " was the third most downloaded song from the album . It was also released to coincide with the start of Madonna 's Confessions Tour . Critics complimented Madonna 's ability to turn cliché comments into pop slogans with the song . The song became a success on the United States dance charts , but failed to enter the Hot 100 . It reached the top ten in countries such as Australia , Canada , United Kingdom and Italy , and peaked at number one in Spain . " Jump " was released as fourth and the final single from the album on October 31 , 2006 . Critics complimented the song and its empowerment theme . The song peaked inside the top ten of the charts in some European countries , while reaching the peak position in Italy and Hungary . In the United States , " Jump " charted in several Billboard dance charts but failed to chart on the Hot 100 .
= = Critical reception = =
Confessions on a Dance Floor received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 80 , based on 28 reviews . Keith Caulfield from Billboard commented that Confessions is a " welcome return to form for the Queen of Pop . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic commented that Confessions is the first album where Madonna sounds like a veteran musician since she created the record for " the dance clubs or , in other words , Madonna 's core audience . " Alan Braidwood from the BBC commented that " [ t ] his is the most commercial album Madonna has made in 15 years and it 's magic . " David Browne from Entertainment Weekly noted that for " all its pretenses of being giddy and spontaneous , though , Confessions is rarely either . "
Alexis Petridis from The Guardian said that the album " may be a return to core values , but there 's still a bravery about Confessions on a Dancefloor . It revels in the delights of wilfully plastic dance pop in an era when lesser dance @-@ pop artists – from Rachel Stevens to Price 's protege Juliet – are having a desperately thin time of it . " Peter Robinson from Observer Music Monthly declared that the album ranks alongside Madonna 's other albums like True Blue ( 1986 ) and Like a Prayer ( 1989 ) . He credited producer Stuart Price for the album , noting that " Confessions clearly wouldn 't exist without Madonna , but it 's Price who steals the show . " Stephen M. Deusner from Pitchfork Media noted that with the album " Madonna again reinvents herself , and it appears she 's nearly lapped herself . " According to Deusner , the music also makes her appear young . However he felt that the first half of the album till " I Love New York " was strong , while the second half " loses its delicate balance between pop frivolity and spiritual gravity . "
Thomas Inskeep from Stylus Magazine stated that the album is " Madonna 's most purely beat @-@ driven album since her self @-@ titled 1983 debut " and " easily her finest effort since Ray of Light . " Kelefa Sanneh from The New York Times called the album " exuberant . " Christian John Wikane from PopMatters commented that the album " proved that Madonna , approaching 50 years @-@ old , is a vital force in the ever @-@ expansive landscape of popular music . " Joan Morgan from The Village Voice noted that " [ w ] ith Confessions on a Dance Floor , Madonna at long last finds her musical footing . Easily dance record of the year , Confessions is an almost seamless tribute to the strobe @-@ lit sensuality of the ' 80s New York club scene that gave Madge her roots , which she explores with compelling aplomb . " Josh Tyrangiel from Time magazine commented that " In dance music , words exist to be repeated , twisted , obscured and resurrected . How they sound in the moment is far more important than what they mean , and Madonna knows that better than anyone . Confessions on a Dance Floor is 56 minutes of energetic moments . It will leave you feeling silly for all the right reasons . "
Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was impressed with the album and said that " Madonna , with the help of Price , [ ... ] has succeeded at creating a dance @-@ pop odyssey with an emotional , if not necessarily narrative , arc — and one big continuously @-@ mixed fuck @-@ you to the art @-@ dismantling iPod Shuffle in the process . " He compared the album to Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue 's studio album Light Years ( 2000 ) , saying " Comparisons to Light Years , Kylie Minogue 's own discofied comeback album from 2000 , are inevitable " . Alan Light from Rolling Stone declared that the album illustrated that " Madonna has never lost her faith in the power of the beat . " However , he opined that " Confessions on a Dance Floor won 't stand the test of time like her glorious early club hits , but it proves its point . Like Rakim back in the day , Madonna can still move the crowd . "
= = Commercial response = =
Despite being released late in the year , Confessions on a Dance Floor was ranked by the IFPI as the sixth biggest @-@ selling album of 2005 worldwide , with sales of 6 @.@ 3 million . Worldwide sales of the album stand at 12 million copies as of January 2012 . In the United States , the album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It became her sixth number one album on the chart and the third consecutive album to debut at the top , following Music ( 2000 ) and American Life ( 2003 ) . To date , the album has sold over 1 @.@ 703 million copies in America , according to Nielsen SoundScan . On December 14 , 2005 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of one million copies of the album . The album also debuted at the top of the charts in Canada , with first @-@ week sales of 74 @,@ 000 . It was present on the chart for a total of 46 weeks and received a quintuple platinum certification from Music Canada ( MC ) for total shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the country .
In Australia , Confessions on a Dance Floor debuted at the top of the ARIA Albums Chart for the issue dated November 21 , 2005 , and was present for a total of 33 weeks within the top 50 of the chart . It was certified two times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) denoting shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies . It debuted at number five on the New Zealand albums chart , and was certified platinum by Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies . The same peak position was attained on the Oricon charts in Japan , where the album was certified double platinum for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) .
In the United Kingdom , Confessions on the Dance Floor debuted at the top of the UK Albums Chart with first week sales of 217 @,@ 610 units , her highest ever in the country . It became Madonna 's ninth number @-@ one album , and has sold 1 @,@ 340 @,@ 000 copies as of November 2015 , according to the Official Charts Company , while being certified quadruple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . That same week , the first single from the album , " Hung Up " , topped the singles chart . The album became the fifth consecutive Madonna album to top the chart . The album also went to number one on the European charts and , on September 13 , 2006 , was certified quadruple platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for shipping a total of four million copies across Europe . In Ireland , the album debuted and peaked at number three . In France , the album debuted at position 113 on the albums chart , jumping to the top of the chart the next week . In Hong Kong , the album was awarded a Gold Disc Award by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for becoming one of ten biggest @-@ selling international album for 2005 . Across Europe , the album peaked at number one in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Greece , Hungary , Norway , Poland , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland .
= = Accolades = =
Madonna won the Best International Female Solo Artist at the 2006 BRIT Awards . She also won World 's Best Selling Pop Artist and Best Selling U.S. Artist at the 2006 World Music Awards for the album . She was nominated for five awards at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards for the music video of the album 's first single , " Hung Up " . Madonna also got nominated for Best Album of the Year , Best Pop Video , and Best Female Artist at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2006 . She also won a Grammy Award in the category of " Best Dance / Electronic Album " at the 2007 ceremony .
Rolling Stone ranked Confessions on a Dance Floor as the twenty @-@ second top album of 2005 . NME also placed it at number 29 on the magazine 's list of the 50 best albums of 2005 . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine ranked the album at the third position on his list of the top ten albums of 2005 . The same magazine considered the album the 38th best one from the 2000s . Three critics writing for Stylus Magazine also included Confessions on a Dance Floor in their year @-@ end lists of the best albums of 2005 . Q Magazine named the record the 26th best one of 2005 . On their ranking of the best albums from 2005 , The Observer listed the album at number 26 . By the end of the 2000s , Slant Magazine placed the album at number 38 on their list of " The 100 Best Albums of the Aughts " . In 2015 , Confessions on a Dance Floor was ranked third on " The 99 Greatest Dance Albums of All Time " by Vice magazine .
= = Track listing = =
" Hung Up " samples " Gimme ! Gimme ! Gimme ! ( A Man After Midnight ) " recorded by ABBA and written by Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus .
All track listing adapted per album 's liner notes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – Lead vocals , backing vocals , producer
Stuart Price – Producer , keyboards , synthesizers , vocoders , programming , sequencing , sampling
Roberta Carraro – keyboards , bass , drums , harmonica
Yitzhak Sinwani – additional vocals on " Isaac "
Monte Pittman – guitar
Magnus " Mango " Wallbert – programming
Photography – Steven Klein
Art direction and graphic design – Giovanni Bianco
Legal documents – Grubman Indursky
Management – Guy Oseary and Angela Becker
Mixing – Mark " Spike " Stent at Olympic Studios and Record Plant Studios , Los Angeles ( " Forbidden Love " : mixed by Stuart Price at Shirland Road )
Recording – Stuart Price at Shirland Road ( " How High " and " Like It or Not " : recorded at Murlyn Studios , Stockholm and Shirland Road ; " Future Lovers " : recorded at Mayfair Studios . )
Assistant engineer – Alex Dromgoole
Second assistant engineer at Olympic – David Emery
Second assistant engineer at Record Plant , Los Angeles – Antony Kilhoffer
Mastering – Brian " Big Bass " Gardner at Bernie Grundman Mastering
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= The Simpsons Guy =
" The Simpsons Guy " is the first episode of the thirteenth season of the animated television series Family Guy , and the 232nd overall episode . " The Simpsons Guy " is a 45 @-@ minute @-@ long crossover with The Simpsons , and was written by Patrick Meighan and directed by Peter Shin . It originally aired in the United States on September 28 , 2014 on Fox , where both The Simpsons and Family Guy have aired since their respective debuts .
In the episode , the Griffins stay with the Simpsons after the former family 's car is stolen just outside Springfield . After the Griffins get their car back , Peter is taken to court as a representative of the Pawtucket Patriot brewery , his employer , when it is discovered that its ale is an unauthorized copy of Duff Beer .
The idea for a crossover episode was suggested by Family Guy executive producer and former Simpsons writer Richard Appel , and the episode was announced by Fox in July 2013 . Five of the six main members of the voice cast of The Simpsons — the exception being Harry Shearer — voiced their characters in the episode . " The Simpsons Guy " was met with a mixed reception by critics , who had differing opinions on how well the two shows combined .
= = Plot = =
Peter creates a controversial comic panel for the Quahog newspaper called " For Pete 's Sake , " which angers local women for its sexist humor . Peter drives the Griffin family out of Quahog to escape the townspeople 's ire . When they stop at a gas station , their car is stolen , leaving them stranded outside Springfield . At the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , Homer Simpson introduces himself to the Griffins and takes them to the Springfield Police Department , where they are turned away by Chief Wiggum .
The Simpson family puts up the Griffin family in their home until things improve . Bart shows Stewie his slingshot , and teaches him how to skateboard , and Bart and Stewie become good friends . When Bart is bullied by Nelson Muntz , Stewie , who is worried about Bart , takes revenge by kidnapping and torturing Nelson . Meanwhile , Lisa tries to find a talent possessed by Meg . When she finds that Meg is a natural at the saxophone , she downplays the talent out of jealousy . Chris and Brian take the Simpsons ' dog , Santa 's Little Helper , for a walk . Brian tries to teach Santa 's Little Helper independence , but the latter runs off when freed . Marge notices Santa 's Little Helper is missing , and Chris and Brian fake his presence until he eventually returns . Homer and Peter try different plans to find Peter 's car , each one backfiring , until they discover it in the possession of Hans Moleman when he accidentally runs Peter over .
The men celebrate at Moe 's Tavern , but relationships sour when Peter tries to introduce Homer to Pawtucket Patriot ale . The drink is revealed to be an imitation of Duff Beer with a new label . This results in Duff , represented by the Blue Haired Lawyer , filing a lawsuit against Pawtucket Brewery for patent infringement , with Peter forced to defend the brewery to save Quahog . Fred Flintstone is the judge who presides over the case . During the trial , similar characters from both shows interact with each other including both shows ' versions of James Woods . Fred finds in favor of Duff Beer , but declares that both Pawtucket Patriot ale and Duff Beer are imitations of his own favorite beer Bud Rock .
The Griffins prepare to return to Quahog , where Peter faces the prospect of finding a new job . Lisa gives Meg her saxophone , but Peter throws it away , as there is no room for any more luggage . Stewie points out that he took revenge on not just Nelson , but all of Bart 's enemies ; Bart is sickened by this and bids him goodbye . Homer tries to explain his actions , but Peter reacts angrily and the two end up having a fight in the style of fights between Peter and The Giant Chicken through Springfield . The pair gain superpowers when they hit Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , then end up in Kang and Kodos ' spaceship , where they lose their powers before landing in Springfield Gorge . Peter and Homer stop fighting and admit their respect and admiration for each other while agreeing to stay away in the future . Returning home , the Griffins find that the heat from Peter 's comic has died down and the Pawtucket Brewery is safe when Lois doubts that the inhabitants of Springfield will visit Quahog to enforce the ruling . Stewie tries to pretend he is over Bart , but goes to his room crying while writing " I will not think about Bart anymore " several times on a chalkboard .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea of a crossover with The Simpsons was first suggested while the thirteenth season of Family Guy was being planned out . Executive producer Richard Appel received Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane 's approval and input after brainstorming ideas . Appel then asked for permission from Simpsons executive producers Matt Groening , James L. Brooks and Al Jean to use their characters . This was approved ; Appel was previously a writer @-@ producer on The Simpsons for four seasons , and retained his former colleagues ' trust . Dan Castellaneta , Julie Kavner , Nancy Cartwright , Yeardley Smith and Hank Azaria guest star as their Simpsons characters , but Harry Shearer , the final main cast member of The Simpsons , was unavailable . Asked how he felt about the crossover , Shearer replied , " Matter and anti @-@ matter . "
Family Guy writers pitched several storylines for the crossover , including one in which the Griffins stay with Lenny and Carl and never meet the Simpsons , and another one in which their whole series is revealed to be a figment of Ralph Wiggum 's imagination . When the final script was read to the show 's staff , Appel expressed his concern about the length of the episode . MacFarlane said that Fox would be happy to make it an hour long . Supervising director Peter Shin , a former layout artist on The Simpsons , spent time adjusting the Griffins to the specifications of Springfield — changes included dimming the whites of their eyeballs so they would not look too bright — and animating the eight @-@ minute fight between Peter and Homer . Appel said there are no plans to do a sequel to the episode , but stated that " by season 43 of The Simpsons and season 27 of Family Guy , someone who 's looking at a blank board is going to say , ' Well , the Griffins went to Springfield ... what if the Simpsons went to Quahog ? ' And more heads will explode at Fox . "
= = = Announcement and promotion = = =
The episode was first announced by Fox in July 2013 to premiere in the fall of 2014 . In May 2014 , the network presented two clips from the episode at their annual upfront presentation . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly about the episode , MacFarlane stated that the key to a good crossover episode is " really about the character interaction . People want to see Peter interact with Homer . They want to see Bart interact with Stewie . In a way , the story in a crossover episode , while it has to be there , is never quite as important as how the characters interact with each other . " The Simpsons creator Groening added , " In this case , it 's two really vivid shows and seeing what they can do together . You want to see them having a good time and you want to see Peter and Homer duke it out " .
" The Simpsons Guy " includes cameo appearances by Roger of American Dad ! , Bob Belcher of Bob 's Burgers and Fred Flintstone of The Flintstones . The episode also pokes fun at the different characters ' skin colors ; upon entering Springfield , Peter warns the family not to drink the water because all the citizens appear to have hepatitis , while Homer refers to the Griffin family as " our albino visitors . " The Springfield Gorge scene in Homer and Peter 's fight sequence is a reference to the finale of the season two episode " Bart the Daredevil " in which Homer inadvertently ends up jumping the Gorge on Bart 's skateboard .
= = Reception = =
The episode was watched by 8 @.@ 45 million people . This was slightly more than the second season premiere of Resurrection on ABC but less than The Good Wife on CBS , both shows in the same timeslot . " Clown in the Dumps " , the earlier premiere of the twenty @-@ sixth season of The Simpsons was watched by 8 @.@ 53 million .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Simpsons Guy " received mixed reviews . Writing in USA Today , Mike Foss gave the episode a positive review , but criticized how the episode was written by Family Guy staff and thus lacked elements of The Simpsons ' humor . Jason Hughes of TheWrap was also generally in praise of the episode , but felt that certain scenes — including both Peter and Homer 's fight and an erotic car wash sequence — were " squeamish " and out of place for The Simpsons . He however acknowledged that Bart 's disgust at Stewie 's behavior was " a good statement " of the difference between the two shows . Positive reviews of the crossover also came from IGN , the International Business Times , the Standard @-@ Examiner , and TVLine .
Other critics responded negatively . Scott Meslow , of The Week , pointed out his disappointment that the episode parodied a scene in " Bart the Daredevil " , as that episode dealt with Homer and Bart 's relationship , " The Simpsons Guy " used it as a joke in a violent sequence . Todd VanDerWerff wrote on VOX that while he expected the episode to be mediocre , it actually ended up a " blight on humanity itself " . He listed nine reasons for this statement , including his dissatisfaction with the car wash and fight scenes , and the use of sexist jokes which had lost their shock value . After the episode aired in the United Kingdom in July 2015 , Ellen E. Jones , of The Independent , criticized the episode 's rape jokes and violence , and theorized that with the poor box @-@ office performance of his latest film Ted 2 , audiences were growing tired of MacFarlane 's humor . Ed Power of The Daily Telegraph , however , wrote that Family Guy 's usual objectionable content was restrained in the episode , as if it had been " infected " by recent seasons of The Simpsons .
The A.V. Club named the episode among the " The worst TV of 2014 " under " Worst crossover " , writing that " for no real reason , Homer and Peter find themselves in an interminable ' sexy car wash ' montage , sudsing and squirting each other in tied @-@ off tees and denim cutoffs . Family Guy prides itself on cutaway gags , but the car @-@ wash scene ... is its most successful look @-@ away gag " .
= = = Controversy = = =
" The Simpsons Guy " attracted controversy before it had aired . Tim Winter , the President of the Parents Television Council , a socially conservative media monitoring organization and longtime critic of Family Guy , wrote to Matt Groening , Seth MacFarlane and Fox about a joke seen in the trailer for the episode . In it , after Bart 's prank call to Moe asking for a man with an innuendo name , Stewie makes his own call and tells Moe that his sister is being raped . Winter felt that jokes about rape make it " less outrageous in real life " , and that people who watch The Simpsons but not Family Guy would be unfamiliar with the latter show 's brand of humor . A Fox spokeswoman declined to comment on the joke , while MacFarlane , interviewed by Entertainment Weekly , said that although he would be attacked for stating it as such , the joke was " pretty funny ... in context " . A spokeswoman from the Rape , Abuse & Incest National Network said " I think the show is making it clear that rape is not funny by how they are positioning the joke . "
The Parents Television Council declared the episode worst show of the week , saying that it was significantly distasteful to involve The Simpsons because although that series is rated PG , Family Guy aims " to reach the most extreme and outlandish conclusion of any joke , no matter how harsh the punchline may be . For subjecting viewers to jokes about rape , cartoon nudity , and disturbing acts of violence , Fox 's Family Guy will remain the Worst TV Show of the Week " .
= Hurricane Eugene ( 1987 ) =
Hurricane Eugene was the only tropical cyclone to make landfall in Mexico during the 1987 Pacific hurricane season . The eighth tropical cyclone , fifth named storm , and first hurricane of the season , Eugene developed on July 22 from a tropical disturbance centered well offshore of Mexico . Later that day , the system intensified into a tropical storm while moving northwestward . Eugene reached hurricane status on July 24 ; it briefly peaked as a Category 2 hurricane two days later . Hurricane Eugene weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane ; subsequently , the hurricane made landfall near Manzanillo . Shortly after landfall , Eugene rapidly weakened inland , and was only a tropical storm when it re @-@ emerged into open water , where it quickly dissipated . Throughout Mexico , the storm produced high winds , especially in the southwestern portion of the country . The hurricane deluged the southwest Mexican coastline , resulting in the highest rainfall totals from a tropical cyclone in five Mexican states . Over 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , including 60 in Manzanillo . The cities airport control tower was also damaged , thus requiring closure . Elsewhere , 200 to 300 houses were destroyed in Colima . In all , Eugene injured 18 people and caused three fatalities and $ 142 @.@ 12 million ( 1987 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Eugene originated from a tropical disturbance that formed in the southwest Caribbean Sea on July 18 . Over the next two days , the wave moved across Central America and on July 20 , it was located off the coast of Nicaragua . Over the next few days , the system was steered westward due to easterly flow . By 0000 UTC July
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22 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center had classified the system as a tropical depression while centered 745 mi ( 1 @,@ 200 km ) south of Manzanillo . Subsequently , the depression slowly began curving to the north @-@ northwest , towards a stationary inverted trough over central Mexico . That day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Eugene . The storm slowed down on July 24 , and located on the southwest side of an upper @-@ level low , the system turned northwestward . Eugene was upgraded into a hurricane later that day , the first of the season . Further intensification occurred , and Eugene attained its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) the next day .
Shortly after its peak , the hurricane began to interact with land . The hurricane weakened to a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale later that day . At 1200 UTC on July 25 , Eugene made landfall near Manzanillo with winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) , making Hurricane Eugene the only tropical system to move ashore during the season , though one hurricane and one tropical storm came close to land in September and October respectively . Because of the topography of Mexico , the storm weakened rapidly , and Eugene was downgraded to a tropical storm six hours after landfall . After briefly moving inland , Eugene emerged into the southern Gulf of California . However , re @-@ intensification did not occur ; instead , Eugene continued weakening due to its close proximity to land . The weakening system was downgraded to a tropical depression early on July 26 , and Eugene dissipated at 1200 UTC that day .
= = Preparations and impact = =
When the storm first posed a threat to Mexico on July 24 , several ports such as the port of Zihuatanejo and Manzanillo . In Acapulco , navigation classes were suspended . The Mexican navy was put on alert for a total distance of 945 mi ( 1 @,@ 520 km ) spanning from Acapulco to Guaymas . The Servicio Meteorologico Nacional issued navigation warnings for three coastal states . Hurricane Eugene caused extremely heavy rains in coastal parts of Mexico . Rainfall peaked at 20 @.@ 68 in ( 525 mm ) in Aqulia . The cyclone is responsible for the highest tropical cyclone rainfall in the Mexican states of Aguascalientes , Michoacán , Querétaro , Tlaxcala , and Zacatecas . Waves of 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) were also reported .
Hurricane Eugene brought widespread flooding , heavy rain , and high winds across Mexico , which leveled homes and palm trees . Numerous poorly built homes lost their roofs , though well @-@ built structures did not sustain any significant damage . In Puerto Vallarta , Hurricane Eugene was responsible for extensive damage to homes and for knocking out power to most of the city , which , along with surrounding areas , was also flooded with 1 @.@ 5 ft ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) of water . In Manzanillo , the storm knocked down trees and beach huts and power was knocked out for most of the city . The Manzanillo Airport was closed for a few days after the airport 's control tower was damaged . A highway from Manzanillo to Colima was closed to thru traffic because of the storm . Throughout the state of Colima , crop damage was severe and 200 @-@ 300 homes were destroyed statewide . Several hundred miles further south , in Tecoman and Pueblo Capos , many homes and public buildings received damage . In Michoacán , the Grande River spilled over its banks , flooding five villages and leaving at least 10 @,@ 000 people without transportation or communication services . Several landslides were reported along a number of main highways , making travel in the area difficult . Overall , crop damage in the state was severe .
The hurricane destroyed about 15 sq. mi ( 39 km2 ) of fruit crop . A total of 18 people were injured during the storm . The storm destroyed 3 @,@ 107 acres of mango trees and 5 @,@ 662 acres of bananas were destroyed , with the worst crop damage occurring in Jalisco . Moreover , 540 acres of cocoa , 580 acres of papaya , and at least 382 acres of lemon trees were also destroyed by Eugene . Due to a combination of Eugene and Hurricane Greg , the region registered rainfall amounts for times the average . In addition , three people were killed ; two of the deaths occurred in Michoacán . One man died in Venustiano Carrazano when a palm tree was blown over . Another man perished in Manzanillo when he was struck by a fallen palm tree . Over 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless ( mostly from poor and rural areas ) , including 60 people in Manzanillo . Total crop damage amounted to $ 142 million ( 1987 USD ) ; fruit crop damage alone amounted to more than $ 2 @.@ 6 million ( 1987 USD ) . Damage to eight beach houses totaled to $ 120 @,@ 000 .
= = Aftermath = =
During the aftermath of the storm , the navy , army , and local government devised a cleanup plan . Three hundred government employees ( with guidance of the military ) worked to clear debris . They quickly restored water and power service , and within a few days streets had been cleaned for most of the impacted area . Authorities in Manzanillo asked for medicine , clothing and food from nearby areas while the red cross treated the injured . Many of the displaced were evacuated to government offices . Within a few days after the storm , the ports of Manzanillo , Acapulco , Zihuatanejo and Lazaro Cardenas were reopened . The remnants of the storm later brought rain to the Rockie Mountains and the Southwestern United States . Eugene is one of three known July Pacific hurricane strikes , where hurricane @-@ force winds are estimated over land . The other two hurricanes were Hurricane Calvin in 1993 and a hurricane that struck Baja California Sur in 1954 .
= SMS Breslau =
SMS Breslau was a Magdeburg @-@ class cruiser of the Imperial German Navy , built in the early 1910s . Following her commissioning , Breslau and the battlecruiser Goeben were assigned to the Mittelmeerdivision ( Mediterranean Division ) in response to the Balkan Wars . After evading British warships in the Mediterranean to reach Constantinople , Breslau and Goeben were transferred to the Ottoman Empire in August 1914 , to entice the Ottomans to join the Central Powers in World War I. The two ships , along with several other Ottoman vessels , raided Russian ports in October 1914 , prompting a Russian declaration of war . The ships were renamed Midilli and Yavûz Sultân Selîm , respectively , and saw extensive service with the Ottoman fleet , primarily in the Black Sea against the Russian Black Sea Fleet .
Midilli was active in laying minefields off the Russian coast , bombarding Russian ports and installations and , because of a shortage of Ottoman merchant ships , transporting troops and supplies to the Black Sea ports supplying Ottoman troops fighting in the Caucasus Campaign . She was lightly damaged several times by Russian ships , but the most serious damage was inflicted by a mine in 1915 , which kept her out of service for half of a year . The ship was mined and sunk in January 1918 during the Battle of Imbros , with the loss of the vast majority of her crew .
= = Construction = =
Breslau was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Falke " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1910 . At her launching ceremony on 16 May 1911 , she was christened by the mayor of Breslau , the ship 's namesake . After her launching , fitting @-@ out work commenced and lasted until mid @-@ 1912 . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1912 .
The ship was 138 @.@ 7 meters ( 455 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 570 t ( 4 @,@ 500 long tons ; 5 @,@ 040 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of AEG @-@ Vulcan steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 4 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 25 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 19 @,@ 000 kW ) , but reached 33 @,@ 482 shp ( 24 @,@ 968 kW ) in service . These were powered by sixteen coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers , although they were later altered to use fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . Breslau carried 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 106 tonnes ( 104 long tons ) of oil that gave her a range of approximately 5 @,@ 820 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 780 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Breslau had a crew of 18 officers and 336 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , eight were located amidships , four on either side , and two were side by side aft . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 12 @,@ 700 m ( 41 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 800 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . By 1917 , the 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were replaced with eight 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) SK L / 45 guns , one fore and aft and three on each broadside . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes submerged in the hull on the broadside . She could also carry 120 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with up to 60 mm thick armor plate .
= = Service history = =
Following her commissioning in 1912 , Breslau was attached to the German Mittelmeerdivision ( Mediterranean Division ) along with the battlecruiser Goeben under the command of Admiral Wilhelm Souchon . The German Navy decided it needed a permanent naval presence in the Mediterranean in the aftermath of the Balkan Wars that began in 1912 . Karl Dönitz , the future Grand Admiral during World War II , served aboard Breslau from 1912 to 1916 . At the outbreak of World War I , Breslau and Goeben were to interdict French transports transferring troops from Algeria to France . On 3 August 1914 , Souchon 's two ships were steaming off Algeria ; shortly after 06 : 00 , Breslau bombarded the embarkation port of Bône while Goeben attacked Philippeville . The attacks caused minimal damage , however , and Souchon quickly broke off and returned to Messina to replenish his coal stocks .
Although the British were not yet at war with Germany , the two British battlecruisers HMS Indomitable and Indefatigable shadowed the German ships while en route to Messina . After partially replenishing Goeben 's coal on the 5th , Souchon arranged to meet a collier in the Aegean . Goeben and Breslau left port the following morning bound for Constantinople , pursued by the British Mediterranean Fleet . That evening , the 1st Cruiser Squadron , commanded by Rear Admiral Ernest Troubridge , intercepted the Germans ; Breslau briefly exchanged fire with the light cruiser Gloucester before Troubridge broke off the attack , fearing Goeben 's powerful 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns .
On 8 August , Goeben and Breslau met the collier off the island of Donoussa near Naxos , and two days later they entered the Dardanelles . To circumvent neutrality requirements , Germany transferred the two ships to the Ottoman Navy on 16 August , though the supposed sale was simply a ruse . On 23 September , Souchon accepted an offer to command the Turkish fleet . Breslau was renamed Midilli while Goeben was renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm ; their German crews remained with the ships and donned Ottoman uniforms and fezzes . The British did not accept the sale of the ships to the Ottoman Empire and stationed a blockading force outside the Dardanelles with orders to attack the ships if they appeared , regardless of the flag they flew .
= = = Ottoman service = = =
On the evening of 27 October , Midilli and the rest of the Ottoman fleet left the Bosporus and steamed into the Black Sea , ostensibly to conduct maneuvers . Instead , the fleet split into four groups to attack Russian bases on the other side of the Black Sea ; Midilli and another cruiser were tasked with mining the Strait of Kerch and then attacking the port of Novorossisk . Midilli laid sixty mines in the Strait , which later claimed two Russian merchant ships , and then joined the other ship in bombarding Novorossisk . They set the port 's oil tanks on fire , damaged seven merchant ships , and sank Nikolai of 1 @,@ 085 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Although the damage inflicted on the Russians was relatively light , it forced the Russians to declare war on the Ottoman Empire , bringing the country into the war on the side of Germany .
In early November 1914 , while Midilli was operating in the eastern Black Sea and covering Ottoman transports , she was detached to shell the Russian port of Poti in retaliation for Russian attacks on Turkish shipping . On 17 November , she sortied with Yavûz Sultân Selîm , under the command of Souchon , in an attempt to intercept the Black Sea Fleet as it returned from bombarding Trebizond . Midilli discovered the Russian ships off Cape Sarych , the southern tip of the Crimea in poor visibility at short range . In the resulting engagement , Souchon ordered Midilli to assume a safer position to Yavûz 's rear , but she was engaged by the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Tri Sviatitelia and Rostislav without effect before Souchon ordered the Turkish ships to disengage shortly afterward . The cruiser spent the rest of the month escorting shipping to Trebizond . On 5 December , she escorted a small raiding party to Akkerman , Bessarabia , that was intended to attack railroad installations . On the return voyage , Midilli bombarded Sevastopol , damaging some minesweepers at anchor .
A month later , on 23 December , Midilli sortied to rendezvous with Yavûz Sultân Selîm off Sinope , and in the darkness the following morning she encountered the Russian transport Oleg , which was intended to be sunk as a blockship in Zonguldak . Midilli quickly sank Oleg but was forced to turn away after spotting Rostislav . She then encountered another blockship , Athos , and forced her crew to scuttle the ship . She then briefly engaged Russian destroyers before moving ahead of the Russian fleet to monitor their progress . Ottoman coastal guns forced the remaining blockships to scuttle in deep water . Midilli conducted a series of sorties against the Russians in early 1915 , including an operation in concert with the cruiser Hamidiye in January , during which they inadvertently came into contact with the Black Sea Fleet . Midilli scored a hit on the battleship Evstafi 's main battery turret before the Ottoman ships withdrew .
On 3 April , the Ottoman fleet sortied to attack Russian transports off Odessa . Midilli and Yavûz Sultân Selîm provided the covering force for the attack , which failed after the cruiser Mecidiye struck a mine and sank off Odessa . The Russian fleet attempted to intercept the Turkish force , but Midilli and Yavûz Sultân Selîm were able to escape undamaged . The two ships , joined by Hamidiye , conducted a sweep to attack Russian transports on 6 May , but found no targets . Later that month , detachments of naval infantry from Midilli and Yavûz Sultân Selîm were landed to assist in the defense against the Allied landings at Gallipoli . On the night of 10 / 11 June , Midilli encountered the Russian destroyers Derzki and Gnevny off Zonguldak . In a brief firefight , the cruiser crippled Gnevny with a hit in her starboard engine compartment that broke the main steam line to the engines , but was forced to turn away when Gnevny fired five torpedoes at her . Midilli was hit seven times herself with only slight damage and Gnevny was towed back to Sevastopol the following day by Derzki .
Midilli struck a mine on 18 July as she sailed from Constantinople to escort a merchant ship through the minefields defending the capital . The explosion under No. 4 boiler room killed eight crewmen and she was flooded with over 600 t ( 590 long tons ) of water . The ship made it to port at İstinye and an inspection revealed that she was not badly damaged . Hampered by a shortage of trained personnel and material , however , the ship 's repairs took quite a long time . The ship did not return to service until February 1916 , and the opportunity was taken to replace two of her 10 @.@ 5 cm guns with 15 cm pieces . On 27 February , she was used to quickly transport 71 officers and men of a machine @-@ gun company and a significant stock of supplies and munitions to Trebizond , which was then under heavy pressure from the Russian army . While en route on the night of the 28th , she encountered the Russian destroyers Pronzitelni and Bespokoiny . Midilli evaded the Russians and reached Trebizond . On 2 March , she attempted to attack a pair of destroyers north of Zonguldak , but she was unable to catch them . The ship then returned to the Bosporus . On 11 March , Midilli made another run , this time carrying 211 soldiers and twelve barrels of fuel and lubricating oil , which were successfully landed on the 13th . She then stopped in Samsun , where she picked up 30 t ( 30 long tons ; 33 short tons ) of flour , one ton of maize , and 30 tons of coal , before returning to the Bosporus .
A third supply operation followed on 3 April , when the ship brought 107 men , 5 @,@ 000 rifles , and 794 cases of ammunition to Trebizond . After making the delivery , the ship met the U @-@ boat U @-@ 33 and proceeded to attack Russian forces . Midilli shelled Russian positions at Sürmene Bay , where she set the minesweeper T.233 on fire , which was then destroyed by U @-@ 33 's deck gun . Midilli then turned north and sank a Russian sailing vessel off Tuapse before running into the powerful dreadnought battleship Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya . Midilli fled at high speed after being straddled several times , though she was not damaged . In early May , the cruiser laid two minefields , each of 60 mines . The first of these was laid off the Chilia branch of the Danube River and the other off Cape Tarkhankut in the Crimea . On the second trip she bombarded Eupatoria after laying her mines . Midilli transported more troops to Sinope and Samsun on 30 May , returning with grain and tobacco as deck cargo .
In July , Midilli and Yavûz Sultân Selîm sortied to support the Ottoman counterattack at Trebizond , which broke the Russian lines and advanced some 20 km ( 12 mi ) . Midilli sank a pair of Russian ships off Sochi on 4 July and destroyed another that had been torpedoed the previous day . She then rejoined Yavûz Sultân Selîm for the return to the Bosporus , during which the two ships evaded strong Russian forces attempting to intercept them . Later that month , on 21 July , Midilli attempted to lay a minefield off Novorossisk , but Russian wireless interception allowed the dreadnought Imperatritsa Mariya and several destroyers to leave port and attempt to cut Midilli off from the Bosporus . The two ships encountered each other at 13 : 05 , and Midilli quickly turned back south . Her stern 15 cm gun kept Russian destroyers at bay , but the ship only slowly drew out of range of Imperatritsa Mariya 's heavy guns . Several near misses rained shell splinters on the deck and wounded several men . Heavy use of smoke screens and a rain squall allowed Midilli to break contact with her Russian pursuers , and she reached the Bosporus early the following morning . By the end of 1916 , a severe coal shortage prevented Midilli and Yavûz Sultân Selîm from conducting offensive operations .
In May 1917 , Midilli laid a minefield off the mouth of the Danube ; while there , she destroyed the wireless station on Fidonisi Island and captured 11 prisoners . The minefield she laid later sank the destroyer Leytenant Zatsarenni on 30 June . While Midilli was at sea , a Russian force raided the Bosporus , including Imperatritsa Ekaterina Velikaya , which had by then been renamed Svobodnaya Rossiya . Upon returning to port , Midilli was spotted by the Russian fleet , which attempted to cut her off from the safety of the Bosporus . Midilli raced toward port , while salvos from Svobodnaya Rossiya fell around her . The destroyer Gnevny closed to attack , but Midilli 's 15 cm guns drove her off . The cruiser managed to reach port without damage ; this was the last engagement of the war between the former German warships and the Russian fleet . On 1 November , Midilli left the Bosporus to conduct a sweep for Russian warships . The Russians observed the departure and attempted to attack the cruiser with Svobodnaya Rossiya and the new battleship Volya , but mutiny aboard Svobodnaya Rossiya prevented the force from intercepting Midilli before she slipped back into port that night .
= = = Battle of Imbros = = =
On 20 January 1918 , Midilli and Yavûz Sultân Selîm left the Dardanelles under the command of Vice Admiral Hubert von Rebeur @-@ Paschwitz , who had replaced Souchon the previous September . Rebeur @-@ Paschwitz 's intention was to draw Allied naval forces away from Palestine in support of Turkish forces there . Outside the straits , in the course of what became known as the Battle of Imbros , the two Ottoman ships surprised and sank the monitors Raglan and M28 which were at anchor and unsupported by the pre @-@ dreadnoughts that should have been guarding them . Rebeur @-@ Paschwitz then decided to proceed to the port of Mudros ; there the British pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Agamemnon was raising steam to attack the Turkish ships . While en route , Midilli struck a total of five mines and sank ; Yavûz hit three mines as well and was forced to beach to avoid sinking . Three hundred and thirty of Midilli 's crew were killed in her sinking , 162 survivors were rescued by British destroyers . According to Hildebrand , Röhr and Steinmetz , only 133 men were rescued from the ship .
= Typhoon Conson ( 2004 ) =
Typhoon Conson , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Frank , was the first of the record ten typhoons to impact Japan during the 2004 Pacific typhoon season . Developing out of a tropical depression near the northern Philippines in early June , Conson slowly traveled towards the north . Gradually strengthening , the storm reached typhoon status late on June 7 according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and several hours later according to the Japan Meteorological Agency . After turning towards the northeast , the typhoon brushed Taiwan and reached its peak intensity with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) on June 9 . After reaching its peak , Conson gradually weakened , passing through Okinawa before being downgraded to a tropical storm the next day . On June 11 , the storm made landfall as a minimal tropical storm in the Kōchi Prefecture just before becoming extratropical . The extratropical remnants continued towards the northeast and were last mentioned on June 14 crossing the international date line .
Typhoon Conson brought heavy rains and high winds to the Philippines , Taiwan , Okinawa , and Japan . Flooding in the Philippines killed two people and caused about PHP1.6 million ( US $ 35 @,@ 000 ) in damages . However , some reports state that up to 30 people died in the Philippines . In the Ryukyu Islands , the storm brought heavy rains and high winds to several islands , damaging crops and leaving many without power . As it became extratropical , Conson caused moderate damage in southern Japan , including a few landslides which prompted evacuations . Throughout Japan , losses reached 355 @.@ 7 million yen ( US $ 3 @.@ 8 million ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Early on June 4 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring an area of low pressure associated with deep convection about 780 km ( 485 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Hong Kong . Later that day , following notable development , they classified the system as Tropical Depression 07W . At the same time , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) also began monitoring the system as a tropical depression . Slowly moving towards the southeast , 07W gradually strengthened , being classified a tropical storm by the JTWC at 1200 UTC the next day . Around the same time , the storm entered the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration 's area of responsibility and was given the local name Frank . Twenty @-@ four hours later , 07W made its closest approach to the Philippines , passing within 295 km ( 185 mi ) of Manila . A few hours later , the JMA upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and gave it the name Conson ; a name contributed by Vietnam that is a picturesque place in the country , consisting of a mountain , pine forest , streams , pagodas and many historical monuments .
A ridge located over the central Philippines caused Conson to turn towards the north . Continuing to intensify , the JTWC assessed the storm to have reached typhoon status at 1800 UTC on June 7 . The JMA also upgraded the storm to a typhoon about twelve hours later . A 28 km ( 17 mi ) wide eye developed as the cyclone turned towards the northeast . Originally , forecasts showed the typhoon making landfall in southern Taiwan but the turn towards the northeast spared the island from a direct hit . Shortly after being classified as a typhoon by the JMA , the JTWC upgraded Conson to a Category 2 typhoon on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale with winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . The eye later became slightly disorganized and the cloud tops around the center warmed . However , the storm reorganized the next day and was upgraded to a Category 3 typhoon by the JTWC with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph 1 @-@ minute winds ) . The intensification was the result of the influence of an approaching shortwave trough which enhanced poleward outflow . Around this time , PAGASA issued their final advisory on Typhoon ' Frank ' as it moved out of their area of responsibility .
The strengthening was the result of Conson passing over the warm waters of the Kuroshio Current . The forward motion on the typhoon also began to increase as it interacted with a baroclinic zone . Shortly after , the JMA assessed the storm to have reached its peak intensity with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph 10 @-@ minute winds ) and a minimum pressure of 960 hPa ( mbar ) . Later that day , the storm passed over Okinawa as it weakened . By June 10 , Conson began to undergo an extratropical transition . Continuing increase in forward speed caused the low to become exposed from shower and thunderstorm activity on the southern edge of the circulation . Around 1200 UTC , the center of circulation became separated from deep convection , leading to the typhoon being downgraded to a tropical storm by both agencies several hours later . Early on June 11 , the JTWC reported that the storm had completed its extratropical transition just south of Japan . However , the JMA kept Conson has a tropical cyclone through its landfall in Kōchi Prefecture as a minimal tropical storm . Shortly after landfall , it was classified as an extratropical cyclone . Continuing towards the northeast , the storm remained weak and was last mentioned as it crossed the international date line on June 14 near the Aleutian Islands .
The Japan Meteorological Agency uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses 1 @-@ minute sustained winds . The conversion factor between the two is 1.14x. JMA 's peak intensity for Conson was 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 160 km / h ( 105 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Conson was 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained , or 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained . The National Meteorological Center of China estimated a peak intensity of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 160 km / h ( 105 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained . The Hong Kong Observatory assessed Conson to be slightly weaker than other agencies , with peak winds estimated at 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) 1 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Philippines = = =
On June 7 , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration raised Public Storm Signal No. 1 for most of Luzon . As Conson strengthened into a typhoon , northern areas of Luzon were placed under Public Storm Signal No. 3 , resulting in school closures . As the typhoon passed by the Philippines , it dropped heavy rains , peaking at 333 @.@ 8 mm ( 13 @.@ 1 in ) in Iba . The highest 24 ‑ hour rainfall was recorded in Subic Bay at 230 mm ( 9 in ) . Minor flooding and power outages were reported in Manila . These heavy rains led to flooding which reportedly killed 30 people in Luzon . However , the fatalities are uncertain as PAGASA reported that two people were killed by the storm . In all , Conson caused about PHP1.6 million ( US35,000 ) in damage .
= = = Taiwan and Hong Kong = = =
High winds and heavy rain warnings were issued for most of Taiwan along with sea warnings . Schools and businesses on Orchid Island were suspended on June 9 and 10 as Typhoon Conson passed by . Some domestic flights were cancelled and rail and ferry services were suspended ahead of the storm . When Conson was first classified , Hong Kong was placed under a standby signal as the storm was located within 800 km ( 500 mi ) of the city Only a few showers were reported in the city due to the storm . Taiwanese officials checked water gates throughout the island on June 8 and found that 68 were missing . Water management officials stated that the missing gates could " ... wreak unnecessary damage ... " . The following day , 42 of the missing gates had been replaced . Fishing boats returned to port for shelter during the storm . An emergency operations center was set up to carry out search and rescue missions during and following the typhoon . Heavy rains from the typhoon peaked at 262 @.@ 5 mm ( 10 @.@ 3 in ) in Yilan County . The storm caused minor damage and one minor injury during as it passed by Taiwan . Although Conson dropped heavy rains across the island , it was not enough to alleviate drought conditions in the southern areas .
= = = Japan = = =
Traveling towards the northeast , Conson headed towards Okinawa where schools were closed and local transportation was disrupted due to the storm . The Japan Meteorological Agency warned residents about the threat of heavy rains and high winds resulting from the storm . A United States naval base located in Okinawa was placed under a Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness ( TCCR ) Four as Typhoon Conson was approaching . As the storm neared the islands , the naval base was put under TCCR Three , indicating that winds of 92 km / h ( 57 mph ) were anticipated within 48 hours . Ahead of the storm , upwards of 254 mm ( 10 in ) fell across the islands , which were indirectly related to the storm . In southern Japan , several airlines canceled flights due to poor weather conditions .
Heavy rains , peaking at 345 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) on Tarama , triggered flooding and landslides throughout the islands . The highest sustained winds on the islands were also recorded on Tarama at 137 km / h ( 85 mph ) and the highest gust was recorded on Miyako @-@ jima at 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Despite transitioning into an extratropical cyclone while impacting Japan , Conson brought heavy rains and high winds to Kyūshū . The highest rainfall and gusts were recorded in Tanegashima at 277 @.@ 5 mm ( 10 @.@ 9 in ) and 146 km / h ( 91 mph ) respectively ; the highest sustained wind was recorded in Muroto , Kōchi at 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) .
On Ishigaki Island , high winds and heavy rains cut power to many residences and damaged crops . A total of 1 @,@ 960 ha ( 4 @,@ 800 acres ) of agricultural land was damaged by the storm , leaving 31 @.@ 9 million yen ( US $ 346 @,@ 000 ) in losses . Significant agricultural damage was also sustained on Miyako @-@ jima , leaving 76 @.@ 5 million yen ( US $ 805 @,@ 000 ) in losses . Okinawa sustained moderate damage during the passage of Conson , with several homes flooded and large lengths of power lines were lost . At the height of the storm , roughly 3 @,@ 300 residences were without power and 1 @,@ 305 power lines were downed . Additionally , 1 @,@ 685 ha ( 4 @,@ 160 acres ) of agricultural land was damaged , leaving 32 @.@ 3 million yen ( US $ 350 @,@ 000 ) in losses .
In Kagoshima Prefecture , Conson damaged 1 @,@ 846 ha ( 4 @,@ 560 acres ) of agricultural land and flooded six homes . Agricultural and property damage in the prefecture amounted to 100 million yen ( US $ 1 million ) and 115 million yen ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) respectively . A large landslide , roughly 30 m ( 98 ft ) wide , in Matsuyama , Ehime prompted the evacuation of 19 homes ; however , no known damage resulted from the incident . Throughout Kōchi Prefecture , several highways were shut down after being damaged by Conson . Over 20 schools were let out early due to the deteriorating conditions .
= Telescopium =
Telescopium is a minor constellation in the southern celestial hemisphere , one of twelve named in the 18th century by French astronomer Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille and one of several depicting scientific instruments . Its name is a Latinized form of the Greek word for telescope . Telescopium was later much reduced in size by Francis Baily and Benjamin Gould .
The brightest star in the constellation is Alpha Telescopii , a blue @-@ white subgiant with an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 5 , followed by the orange giant star Zeta Telescopii at magnitude 4 @.@ 1 . Eta and PZ Telescopii are two young star systems with debris disks and brown dwarf companions . Telescopium hosts two unusual stars with very little hydrogen that are likely to be the result of two merged white dwarfs : PV Telescopii , also known as HD 168476 , is a hot blue extreme helium star , while RS Telescopii is an R Coronae Borealis variable . RR Telescopii is a cataclysmic variable that brightened as a nova to magnitude 6 in 1948 .
= = History = =
Telescopium was introduced in 1751 – 52 by Nicolas @-@ Louis de Lacaille with the French name le Telescope , depicting an aerial telescope , after he had observed and catalogued 10 @,@ 000 southern stars during a two @-@ year stay at the Cape of Good Hope . He devised 14 new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe . All but one honored instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment . Covering 40 degrees of the night sky , the telescope stretched out northwards between Sagittarius and Scorpius . Lacaille had Latinised its name to Telescopium by 1763 .
The constellation was known by other names . It was called Tubus Astronomicus in the eighteenth century , during which time three constellations depicting telescopes were recognised — Tubus Herschelii Major between Gemini and Auriga and Tubus Herschelii Minor between Taurus and Orion , both of which had fallen out of use by the nineteenth century . Johann Bode called it the Astronomische Fernrohr in his 1805 Gestirne and kept its size , but later astronomers Francis Baily and Benjamin Gould subsequently shrank its boundaries . The much @-@ reduced constellation lost several brighter stars to neighbouring constellations : Beta Telescopii became Eta Sagittarii , which it had been before Lacaille placed it in Telescopium , Gamma was placed in Scorpius and renamed G Scorpii by Gould , Theta Telescopii reverted to its old appellation of d Ophiuchi , and Sigma Telescopii was placed in Corona Australis . Initially uncatalogued , the latter is now known as HR 6875 . The original object Lacaille had named Eta Telescopii — the open cluster Messier 7 — was in what is now Scorpius , and Gould used the Bayer designation for a magnitude 5 star , which he felt warranted a letter .
= = Characteristics = =
A small constellation , Telescopium is bordered by Sagittarius and Corona Australis to the north , Ara to the west , Pavo to the south , and Indus to the east , cornering on Microscopium to the northeast . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Tel ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a quadrilateral ( illustrated in infobox ) . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 18h 09.1m and 20h 29.5m , while the declination coordinates are between − 45 @.@ 09 ° and − 56 @.@ 98 ° . The whole constellation is visible to observers south of latitude 33 ° N.
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
Within the constellation 's borders , there are 57 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 5 . With a magnitude of 3 @.@ 5 , Alpha Telescopii is the brightest star in the constellation . It is a blue @-@ white subgiant of spectral type B3IV which lies around 250 light @-@ years away . It is radiating nearly 800 times the Sun 's luminosity , and is estimated to be 5 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 4 times as massive and have 3 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 5 times the Sun 's radius . Close by Alpha Telescopii are the two blue @-@ white stars sharing the designation of Delta Telescopii . Delta ¹ Telescopii is of spectral type B6IV and apparent magnitude 4 @.@ 9 , while Delta ² Telescopii is of spectral type B3III and magnitude 5 @.@ 1 . They form an optical double , as the stars are estimated to be around 710 and 1190 light @-@ years away respectively . The faint ( magnitude 12 @.@ 23 ) Gliese 754 , a red dwarf of spectral type M4.5V , is one of the nearest 100 stars to Earth at 19 @.@ 3 light @-@ years distant . Its eccentric orbit around the Galaxy indicates that it may have originated in the Milky Way 's thick disk .
At least four of the fifteen stars visible to the unaided eye are orange giants of spectral class K. The second brightest star in the constellation — at apparent magnitude 4 @.@ 1 — is Zeta Telescopii , an orange subgiant of spectral type K1III @-@ IV . Around 1 @.@ 53 times as massive as the Sun , it shines with 512 times its luminosity . Located 127 light years away from Earth , it has been described as yellow or reddish in appearance . Epsilon Telescopii is a binary star system : the brighter component , Epsilon Telescopii A , is an orange giant of spectral type K0III with an apparent magnitude of + 4 @.@ 52 , while the 13th magnitude companion , Epsilon Telescopii B , is 21 arcseconds away from the primary , and just visible with a 15 cm aperture telescope on a dark night . The system is 417 light @-@ years away . Iota Telescopii and HD 169405 — magnitude 5 orange giants of spectral types K0III and K0.5III respectively — make up the quartet . They are around 370 and 497 light @-@ years away from the Sun respectively . Another ageing star , Kappa Telescopii is a yellow giant with a spectral type G9III and apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 18 . Around 1 @.@ 87 billion years old , this star of around 1 @.@ 6 solar masses has swollen to 11 times the Sun 's diameter . It is approximately 293 light @-@ years from Earth , and is another optical double .
Xi Telescopii is an irregular variable star that ranges between magnitudes 4 @.@ 89 and 4 @.@ 94 . Located 1079 light @-@ years distant , it is a red giant of spectral type M2III that has a diameter around 5 @.@ 6 times the Sun 's , and a luminosity around 2973 times that of the Sun . Another irregular variable , RX Telescopii is a red supergiant that varies between magnitudes 6 @.@ 45 and 7 @.@ 47 , just visible to the unaided eye under good viewing conditions . BL Telescopii is an Algol @-@ like eclipsing binary system that varies between apparent magnitudes 7 @.@ 09 and 9 @.@ 08 over a period of just over 778 days ( 2 years 48 days ) . The primary is a yellow supergiant that is itself intrinsically variable . Dipping from its baseline magnitude of 9 @.@ 6 to 16 @.@ 5 , RS Telescopii is a rare R Coronae Borealis variable — an extremely hydrogen @-@ deficient supergiant thought to have arisen as the result of the merger of two white dwarfs ; fewer than 100 have been discovered as of 2012 . The dimming is thought to be caused by carbon dust expelled by the star . As of 2012 , four dimmings have been observed . PV Telescopii is a class B @-@ type ( blue ) extreme helium star that is the prototype of a class of variables known as PV Telescopii variables . First discovered in 1952 , it was found to have a very low level of hydrogen . One theory of its origin is that it is the result of a merger between a helium- and a carbon @-@ oxygen white dwarf . If the combined mass does not exceed the Chandrasekhar limit , the former will accrete onto the latter star and ignite to form a supergiant . Later this will become an extreme helium star before cooling to become a white dwarf .
While RR Telescopii , also designated Nova Telescopii 1948 , is often called a slow nova , it is now classified as a symbiotic nova system composed of an M5III pulsating red giant and a white dwarf ; between 1944 and 1948 it brightened by about 7 magnitudes before being noticed at apparent magnitude 6 @.@ 0 in mid @-@ 1948 . It has since faded slowly to about apparent magnitude 12 . QS Telescopii is a binary system composed of a white dwarf and main sequence donor star , in this case the two are close enough to be tidally locked , facing one another . Known as polars , material from the donor star does not form an accretion disk around the white dwarf , but rather streams directly onto it . This is due to the presence of the white dwarf 's strong magnetic field .
Although no star systems in Telescopium have confirmed planets , several have been found to have brown dwarf companions . A member of the 12 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Beta Pictoris moving group of stars that share a common proper motion through space , Eta Telescopii is a young white main sequence star of magnitude 5 @.@ 0 and spectral type A0V . It has a debris disk and brown dwarf companion of spectral type M7V or M8V that is between 20 and 50 times as massive as Jupiter . The system is complex , as it has a common proper motion with ( and is gravitationally bound to ) the star HD 181327 , which has its own debris disk . This latter star is a yellow @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type F6V of magnitude 7 @.@ 0 . PZ Telescopii is another young star with a debris disk and substellar brown dwarf companion , though at 24 million years of age appears too old to be part of the Beta Pictoris moving group . HD 191760 is a yellow subgiant — a star that is cooling and expanding off the main sequence — of spectral type G3IV / V. Estimated to be just over four billion years old , it is slightly ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 times ) more massive as the Sun , 2 @.@ 69 times as luminous , and has around 1 @.@ 62 times its radius . Using the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) instrument on the ESO 3 @.@ 6 m Telescope , it was found to have a brown dwarf around 38 times as massive as Jupiter orbiting at an average distance of 1 @.@ 35 AU with a period of 505 days . This is an unusually close distance from the star , within a range that has been termed the brown @-@ dwarf desert .
= = = Deep sky objects = = =
The globular cluster NGC 6584 lies near Theta Arae and is 45 @,@ 000 light @-@ years distant from Earth . It is an Oosterhoff type I cluster , and contains at least 69 variable stars , most of which are RR Lyrae variables . The planetary nebula IC 4699 is of 13th magnitude and lies midway between Alpha and Epsilon Telescopii .
IC 4889 is an elliptical galaxy of apparent magnitude 11 @.@ 3 , which can be found 2 degrees north @-@ north @-@ west of 5 @.@ 3 @-@ magnitude Nu Telescopii . Observing it through a 40 cm telescope will reveal its central region and halo . The Telescopium group is group of twelve galaxies spanning three degrees in the northeastern part of the constellation , lying around 37 megaparsecs ( 120 million light @-@ years ) from our own galaxy . The brightest member is the elliptical galaxy NGC 6868 , and to the west lies the spiral galaxy ( or , perhaps , lenticular galaxy ) NGC 6861 . These are the brightest members of two respective subgroups within the galaxy group , and are heading toward a merger in the future . Occupying an area of around 4 ' × 2 ' , NGC 6845 is an interacting system of four galaxies — two spiral and two lenticular galaxies — that is estimated to be around 88 megaparsecs ( 287 million light @-@ years ) distant . SN 2008da was a type II supernova observed in one of the spiral galaxies , NGC 6845A , in June 2008 . SN 1998bw was a luminous supernova observed in the spiral arm of the galaxy ESO184 @-@ G82 in April 1998 , and is notable in that it is highly likely to be the source of the gamma @-@ ray burst GRB 980425 .
= The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar =
" The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar " is an 1899 poem by Rudyard Kipling , set to music by Sir Arthur Sullivan and often accompanied by an illustration by Richard Caton Woodville . The song was written as part of an appeal by the Daily Mail to raise money for soldiers fighting in the South African War ( usually known as the Boer War ) and their families . The fund was the first such charitable effort for a war .
The chorus of the song exhorted its audience to " pass the hat for your credit 's sake , and pay — pay — pay ! " The patriotic poem and song caused a sensation and were constantly performed throughout the war and beyond . Kipling was offered a knighthood shortly after publication of the poem but declined the honour . Vast numbers of copies of the poem and sheet music were published , and large quantities of related merchandise were sold to aid the charity . The " Absent @-@ Minded Beggar Fund " was an unprecedented success and raised a total of more than £ 250 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
In September 1899 , it was clear that the crisis in South Africa was likely to turn into war . By 2 October , all military leave had been cancelled , and urgent preparations were under way to send a large expeditionary force to the Cape , with horses and supplies being requisitioned and mobilised . On 7 October , a proclamation was issued calling out the Army Reserve . Of 65 @,@ 000 liable men , around 25 @,@ 000 were intended to be called up for service .
Many , if not all , of the men thus mobilised were ex @-@ soldiers in permanent employment for whom returning to military duty meant a significant cut in their income . In addition , there was no contemporary legislation of the time protecting the permanent employment of Reservists . Employers could – and often would – replace them with other workers , with no guarantee that if the soldier returned he would be able to take back his job . As a result , many families were quickly plunged into poverty , since a lifestyle comfortably maintained on a workman 's wage of twenty shillings could not be kept up on the infantryman 's " shilling a day " . As if this were not enough , there was no guarantee that the husband would have a job to return to , even without the prospect of injury or death . A number of charitable funds existed to support these individuals , most notably the Soldiers ' and Sailors ' Families Association , but a number of private appeals were also made .
Simultaneously , a wave of patriotism was sweeping the country , catered to by jingoist newspapers such as the Daily Mail . Many of these newspapers were also involved in the charitable fundraising efforts to benefit the Reservists and their dependents . The Daily Mail proprietor , Alfred Harmsworth , had publicised efforts to help soldiers and their families . This drew the attention of Rudyard Kipling , who produced " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar " on 16 October 1899 and sent the verses to Harmsworth on 22 October with a note that " they are at your service . ... turn [ the proceeds ] over to any one of the regularly ordained relief @-@ funds , as a portion of your contribution . I don 't want my name mixed up in the business except as it will help to get money . It 's catchpenny verse and I want it to catch just as many pennies as it can . ... [ p.s. ] It isn 't a thing I shall care to reprint ; so there is no need of copyrighting it in America . If any one wants to sing it take care that the proceeds go to our men . " By 25 October , Kipling was plotting with Harmsworth on how to maximise the fundraising from the poem by having it recited at music halls . He suggested finding a composer to set it to a " common + catchy " tune .
The poem was first published in The Daily Mail on 31 October 1899 and was an immediate success . Maud Tree , the wife of actor @-@ manager Herbert Beerbohm Tree , recited it at the Palace Theatre , every night before the show , for fourteen months , and other performers recited it at music halls and elsewhere , giving part of the profits to the fund . The country 's premier composer , Sir Arthur Sullivan , was immediately asked to set the poem to music . Sullivan had written some 20 operas , including fourteen comic operas with W. S. Gilbert , and a large volume of songs , orchestral pieces and other music . Although he was in the middle of composing his next opera , The Rose of Persia ( which was to be his last completed opera ) , Sullivan agreed . Both Kipling and Sullivan declined proffered fees for creating the song . Artist Richard Caton Woodville , within several days , provided an illustration , titled " A Gentleman in Kharki " , showing a wounded but defiant British Tommy in battle . This illustration was included in " art editions " of the poem and song .
In 1897 , Sullivan had agreed to compose music for Rudyard Kipling 's poem Recessional , but he never completed the song . When asked to set " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar " to music two years later , Sullivan found Kipling 's verses so difficult to set that he told his diary , " if it wasn 't for charity 's sake , I could never have undertaken the task " . Still , the experienced composer completed the music in four days , on 5 November 1899 . The first public performance was sung by John Coates , under Sullivan 's baton , at the Alhambra Theatre on 13 November 1899 , to a " magnificent reception " of an overflowing theatre .
= = Reception = =
Sullivan 's music captured Britain 's jingoistic mood , and Sullivan 's diary entry notes , " Wild enthusiasm . All sang chorus ! I stood on the stage and conducted the encore – funny sight ! " With characteristic grace , the composer wrote to Kipling , " Your splendid words went with a swing and enthusiasm which even my music cannot stifle " . Kipling , on the other hand , described the music as " a tune guaranteed to pull teeth out of barrel @-@ organs " .
The Daily Chronicle wrote that " It has not been often that the greatest of English writers and the greatest of English musicians have joined inspiring words and stirring melody in a song which expresses the heart feelings of the entire nation " . Sullivan 's manuscript was later auctioned for £ 500 towards the fund . Critic Fuller Maitland disapproved of the composition in The Times , but Sullivan asked a friend , " Did the idiot expect the words to be set in cantata form , or as a developed composition with symphonic introduction , contrapuntal treatment , etc . ? "
The poem , song and piano music sold in extraordinary numbers , as did all kinds of household items , postcards , memorabilia and other merchandise emblazoned , woven or engraved with the " Gentleman in Kharki " figure , the poem itself , the sheet music , or humorous illustrations . Some of these items were very expensive . 40 clerks answered 12 @,@ 000 requests a day for copies of the poem , and it was included in 148 @,@ 000 packets of cigarettes within two months of the first performance . Alternative arrangements of the song were published , such as " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar March " .
The Daily Mail 's charitable fund was eventually titled the " Absent Minded Beggar Relief Corps " or the " Absent @-@ Minded Beggar Fund , " providing small comforts to the soldiers themselves as well as supporting their families . Among other activities of the Corps , it " met the soldiers on arrival in South Africa , welcomed them on their return to Britain and , more importantly , set up overseas centres to minister to the sick and wounded " . The fund raised the unprecedented amount of more than £ 250 @,@ 000 . The money was not raised solely by the Daily Mail ; the poem was publicly available , with anyone permitted to perform or print it in any way , so long as the copyright royalties went to the fund . Newspapers around the world published the poem , hundreds of thousands of copies were quickly sold internationally , and the song was sung widely in theatres and music halls , first being heard in Australia on 23 December 1899 . Local " Absent Minded Beggar Relief Corps " branches were opened in Trinidad , Cape Town , Ireland , New Zealand , China , India and numerous places throughout the world ; all of this contributed to the fund and to other war efforts , such as the building of hospitals . The fund was the first such charitable effort for a war and has been referred to as the origin of the welfare state . In December , after the first £ 50 @,@ 000 was raised , the Daily Mail asserted , " The history of the world can produce no parallel to the extraordinary record of this poem . "
The popularity of the poem was such that allusions to it were common . Mark Twain wrote that " The clarion @-@ peal of its lines thrilled the world " . By 18 November , less than a month after publication of the poem , " a new patriotic play " was advertised to open the next week , titled The Absent Minded Beggar , or , For Queen and Country . The same month , the Charity Organisation Society called " The Absent @-@ Minded Beggar " the " most prominent figure on the charitable horizon at present . " Even a critical book
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1953 Korean War , and he served as the direct commander of the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army for the first half of the war ( though Mao and Zhou Enlai were technically more senior ) . Peng 's experiences in the Korean War convinced him that the Chinese military had to become more professional , organized , and well @-@ equipped in order to prepare itself for the conditions of modern technical warfare . Because the Soviet Union was the only communist country then equipped with a fully modern , professional army , Peng attempted to reform China 's military on the Soviet model over the next several years , making the army less political and more professional ( contrary to the political goals of Mao ) . Peng resisted Mao 's attempts to develop a personality cult throughout the 1950s ; and , when Mao 's economic policies associated with the Great Leap Forward caused a nationwide famine , Peng became critical of Mao 's leadership . The rivalry between Peng and Mao culminated in an open confrontation between the two at the 1959 Lushan Conference . Mao won this confrontation , labeled Peng as a leader of an " anti @-@ Party clique " , and purged Peng from all influential positions for the rest of his life .
Peng lived in virtual obscurity until 1965 , when the reformers Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping supported Peng 's limited return to government , developing military industries in Southwest China . In 1966 , following the advent of the Cultural Revolution , Peng was arrested by Red Guards . From 1966 – 1970 , radical factions within the Communist Party , led by Lin Biao and Mao 's wife , Jiang Qing , singled out Peng for national persecution , and Peng was publicly humiliated in numerous large @-@ scale struggle sessions and subjected to physical and psychological torture in organized efforts to force Peng to confess his " crimes " against Mao Zedong and the Communist Party . In 1970 Peng was formally tried and sentenced to life imprisonment , and he died in prison in 1974 . After Mao died in 1976 , Peng 's old ally , Deng Xiaoping , emerged as China 's paramount leader . Deng led an effort to formally rehabilitate people who had been unjustly persecuted during the Cultural Revolution , and Peng was one of the first leaders to be posthumously rehabilitated , in 1978 . In modern China , Peng is considered one of the most successful and highly respected generals in the history of the early Chinese Communist Party .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Peng was born in 1898 in the village of Shixiang , Xiangtan County , Hunan . His personal name at birth was " Dehua " . Peng 's family lived in a thatched @-@ straw hut and owned approximately 1 @.@ 5 acres of irrigated land , on which the family grew bamboo , sweet potatoes , tea , cotton , and various vegetables . His father also operated a bean curd shop . The income from the land and shop supported an extended family of eight people , including Peng , his three brothers , his parents , his grandmother , and a grand @-@ uncle . Peng 's grand @-@ uncle had joined and fought for the Taiping rebellion , and used to tell Peng about the old Taiping ideals : that everyone should have enough food to eat , that women should not bind their feet , and that land should be redistributed equally . Peng later described his own class background as " lower @-@ middle peasant " .
From 1905 – 1907 , Peng was enrolled in a traditional Confucian primary school . In 1908 Peng attended a modern primary school ; but , at the age of ten , was forced to withdraw from this school due to his family 's deteriorating financial situation . In 1905 – 1906 , there was a severe drought in Hunan . Peng 's mother died in 1905 , and Peng 's six @-@ month @-@ old brother died of hunger . Peng 's father was forced to sell most of his family possessions for food , and to pawn most of his family 's land . When Peng was withdrawn from school in 1908 , he and his brothers were sent to beg for food in their village . From 1908 – 1910 , Peng took a job looking after a pair of water buffaloes .
When Peng 's grand @-@ uncle died in 1911 , Peng left home and worked at a coalmine in Xiangtan , where he pushed carts of coal for thirteen hours a day for a wage of nine yuan a month . In 1912 , shortly after the founding of the Republic of China , the mine went bankrupt and the owners fled , cheating Peng out of half his annual wages . Peng returned home in 1912 and took a number of odd jobs . In 1913 Hunan suffered another drought , and Peng participated in a public demonstration that escalated into the seizure of a grain merchant 's storehouse , and the redistribution of grain among the peasants . Village police issued a warrant for Peng 's arrest , and he fled to northern Hunan , where he worked for two years as a construction laborer for the construction of a dam near Dongting Lake . When the dam was completed , in 1916 , Peng assumed that he was no longer in danger of being arrested and returned home , joining the army of a local Kuomintang @-@ aligned warlord , Tang Xiangming .
= = = Service in warlord armies = = =
Peng enlisted as a private second class , with a monthly wage of 5 @.@ 5 yuan , 2 yuan of which he sent back to support his family . Within seven months he was promoted to private first class , with a monthly wage of 6 yuan , 3 yuan of which he sent to his family . One of Peng 's commanding officers was an idealistic Nationalist who had participated in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution , who influenced Peng to sympathize with the Kuomintang goals of social reform and national reunification . When another civil war broke out in 1917 , Peng 's regiment split from the rest of its army and joined the forces of Tang Shengzhi , who was aligned with Tan Yankai and Sun Yat @-@ sen , against those aligned with the northern warlord Wu Peifu . During this period Peng received training in formal tactics from an officer in his brigade . In July 1918 Peng was captured while on a reconnaissance mission behind enemy lines , but was released after two weeks . In April 1919 Peng was promoted to master sergeant and acting platoon commander . Tang Shengzhi 's forces drove enemy troops out of Hunan in July 1920 , capturing the provincial capital of Changsha .
Peng participated in a failed mutiny over pay , but was pardoned . In August 1921 Peng was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant , and became acting company commander several weeks later . While stationed in a village in Nanxian , Peng noticed that the poor were being mistreated by a local landlord , and encouraged them to establish an " association to help the poor " . When the local villagers hesitated , Peng ordered his soldiers to arrest the landlord and execute him . Peng was reprimanded for his actions , but not demoted or reassigned . After the incident , Peng began to think seriously about leaving the service of his provincial warlord army . On February 1922 , after applying for extended unpaid leave , Peng and several other officers traveled to Guangdong to seek employment in the army of the Kuomintang .
Peng 's impression of the Kuomintang in 1922 was not favorable , and he left Guangzhou with the intention of settling back in Hunan as a farmer . Peng returned to his home village by sea via Shanghai ( then the farthest he had ever been from his home village ) , and farmed with his father for three months on land which his father had bought with money that Peng had sent home , but Peng did not find this occupation satisfying . When one of Peng 's old comrades suggested that Peng apply to the local Hunan Military Academy to seek employment as a formally trained professional officer , Peng accepted . Peng successfully gained admission in August 1922 , using the personal name " Dehuai " for the first time . In August 1923 , after nine months of training , Peng graduated from the academy and rejoined his old regiment with the rank of captain . He was promoted to acting battalion commander in April 1924 .
In 1924 Tang Shengzhi aligned himself with northern warlords against the warlord controlling Guangdong , who was aligned with the Kuomintang . Peng conducted skirmishes along the Hunan @-@ Guangdong border for nine months , but reorganized his battalion along pro @-@ Kuomintang political lines in 1925 . In late 1925 Chiang Kai @-@ shek established the National Revolutionary Army ( NRA ) and led the Kuomintang to take control of Guangdong . Tang then aligned himself with Chiang and joined him in the Northern Expedition , an effort to unify China by defeating the northern warlords . The Hunanese army was reorganized , and Peng was promoted to the rank of major . When Wu Peifu invaded Hunan and occupied Changsha , Chiang sent the NRA to Hunan , beginning the Northern Expedition . Peng 's forces then joined the Kuomintang , though Peng never joined the party as a formal member . It wasn 't until after Peng joined the Kuomintang , in 1925 , that he first heard of the Communist Party .
= = = Kuomintang officer = = =
Between July 1926 and March 1927 Peng campaigned in Hunan , participating in the capture of Changsha and Wuhan . Under general Ho Chien ( 何键 ) , Peng participated in the Battle of Fengtai , in which Kuomintang forces decisively defeated the warlord Wu Peifu . In 1927 , Wang Jingwei attempted to establish a left @-@ leaning Kuomintang government in Wuhan that threatened Chiang Kai @-@ shek 's leadership . Tang Shengzhi , who Peng served under , aligned himself with Wang , and Peng was promoted to lieutenant @-@ colonel and regimental commander . After Tang 's forces were decisively defeated by Chiang , Peng commanded the rear guard , protecting the retreat of Tang 's forces back into Hunan .
In 1927 Peng was approached several times by Communist Party members , some of which were old friends , who attempted to recruit him into the Communist Party . In August 1927 Peng was approached by an old military comrade , Huang Gonglue ( 黄公略 ) : Peng was sympathetic , but could not decide to join the Party . On October 12 , Peng was approached by Duan Dechang ( 段德昌 ) , a Communist Party representative : Peng again expressed sympathy and interest , but at that time considered himself a member of the " Kuomintang left wing " , and could not yet bring himself to break with the party . Peng considered joining the Communist Party for some time , met Duan again later that October , and began to study basic communist theory . Peng secretly joined the Chinese Communist Party in mid @-@ February 1928 .
In February 1928 Peng joined general Ho Chien when Ho defected back to Chiang 's forces , and gained a promotion to full colonel after rejoining Chiang . After rejoining Chiang 's Nanjing government , Peng was stationed in the mountainous Pingjiang County , northwest of Changsha . His orders were to eliminate local groups of communist guerrillas who had fled to the area following the Shanghai massacre of 1927 . Because Peng had secretly joined the Chinese Communist Party , he instead kept his unit passive and began to organize local Communist Party branches . Peng made contact with local communist guerillas , nominally attached to the forces of Mao Zedong and Zhu De , and decided to issue a pronouncement in favor of the Communists on July 18 , 1928 .
In July 22 , 1928 Peng 's forces , approximately 2000 men , occupied Pingjiang County , arresting and executing the county magistrate and over 100 landlords and local militia commanders . On July 23 Peng declared the establishment of the " Hunan Provincial Soviet Government " , formally aligning himself with Mao and Zhu . On July 29 Peng 's former superior , general Ho Chien , attacked Peng 's forces , inflicting heavy casualties . By September , Peng 's forces were driven into the mountains , and by October only several hundred men remained . Peng then abandoned his bases and left to join Mao and Zhu at their base in Jinggangshan . Peng 's forces successfully joined Mao and Zhu in November 1928 . Some of Peng 's subordinates in the rebellion survived and became important military figures themselves , including generals Huang Kecheng and Peng Shaohui ( 彭绍辉 ) .
= = Red Army commander = =
= = = Defending the Jiangxi Soviet = = =
After joining forces with communist guerrillas , one of Peng 's first actions was to save Mao , whose forces were being encircled by Kuomintang units : Peng broke the encirclement and drove the enemy off . Peng then met with Zhu and Mao , and they reorganized their forces and decided to form a base area around the Ruijin , Jiangxi , an agricultural city that was only defended by weak warlord units . Zhu and Mao occupied the area , informally beginning the Jiangxi Soviet in January 1929 .
Peng remained behind to guard Jinggangshan with a force of 800 soldiers , but withdrew from the area when it was attacked by a Hunanese Kuomintang force of 25 @,@ 000 soldiers , joining Zhu and Mao in Ruijin in March . Although he had saved his force from destruction , he was criticized by Mao for withdrawing . Peng returned to Jinggangshan with a force of 1 @,@ 000 men later that year , occupying the area after the Kuomintang withdrew . In mid @-@ 1929 Peng 's forces merged with the forces of two local bandit groups , but conflicts arose over supplies and the command structure , and the two groups rebelled against Peng in July 1929 . One of the bandit leaders was captured and executed by Peng , and the other committed suicide . The remaining forces were incorporated into Peng 's unit , bringing its strength up to 2 @,@ 000 men . Peng then organized a series of increasingly ambitious raids into southern Hunan throughout 1929 and 1930 , capturing an increasing amount of supplies and attracting more recruits .
On July 13 , 1930 , the de facto leader of the Chinese Communist Party , Li Lisan , issued a general order for communist units around China to " conquer one provincial capital " as a signal for a " nationwide revolutionary storm " . Peng took these general orders seriously , and launched an attack on Hunan 's capital , Changsha , on July 25 , with 17 @,@ 000 soldiers under his command , and with the support of another 10 @,@ 000 guerillas . Changsha was then defended by general Ho Chien , Peng 's former superior . Peng 's forces broke through the Kuomintang lines on July 28 , and occupied Changsha proper on July 30 , which Ho hastily evacuated . On August 1 Peng declared the establishment of a " Hunan Provincial Soviet Government " , with Li Lisan ( who was living in the French concession area in Shanghai ) named chairman , and Peng himself as vice @-@ chairman . On August 5 , Ho counterattacked with a force of 35 @,@ 000 men . Peng suffered 7 @,@ 500 casualties , and was forced to withdraw back to Jinggangshan . On September 1 , Peng again attempted to capture Changsha , but this attack was halted on the outskirts of the city with heavy casualties . Mao and Zhu kept their own forces from assisting Peng during his attempts to take Changsha , and Peng withdrew his forces into the Jiangxi Soviet in late 1930 .
Peng was one of the most important generals active in defending the Jiangxi Soviet , taking a leading role in defeating Chiang Kai @-@ shek 's first three Encirclement Campaigns , from December 1930 – May 1931 . His successes were outmatched only by Lin Biao . On November 7 , Peng was named to the Central Military Commission and to the Central Executive Committee of the Jiangxi Soviet , the first time that he had been named to a position of political leadership within the communist movement . After the consolidation of the Jiangxi Soviet , a number of USSR @-@ trained Communist Party leaders arrived and took power in the Soviet : Peng , like most communist military leaders , supported their leadership until the Jiangxi Soviet was eventually overrun . In August 1933 , Peng was named Vice @-@ Chairman of the Central Military Commission ; and , in January 1934 , Peng was appointed as an alternate member to the Sixth CCP Central Committee . Peng continued the defense of the Jiangxi Soviet throughout the early 1930s . In August 1933 , after the indecisive Fourth Encirclement Campaign , Peng broke through Kuomintang defenses and conquered a large area of western Fujian , capturing great quantities of arms and ammunition .
= = = The Long March = = =
In October 1933 Chiang Kai @-@ shek took command of nearly 800 @,@ 000 soldiers , leading the Fifth Encirclement Campaign against the Red Army 's force of 150 @,@ 000 men . By September 1934 the Fifth Encirclement Campaign was largely successful , and Peng 's own units suffered heavy casualties defending the Soviet , shrinking from 35 @,@ 000 to around 20 @,@ 000 men . On October 20 , 1934 the communists broke out of Chiang 's encirclement and began the Long March . Of the 18 @,@ 000 men under Peng 's command when the March began , only about 3 @,@ 000 remained when Peng 's forces reached their eventual destination in Shaanxi on October 20 , 1935 .
Peng was a strong supporter of Mao 's rise to power during the January 1935 Zunyi Conference . Peng continued to consolidate the communists ' base area after arriving in Shaanxi , campaigning in neighboring Shanxi and Gansu . In April 1937 , Peng was named vice commander @-@ in @-@ chief of all Chinese communist forces , outranked only by Zhu De , who was named commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Peng 's promotion was supported by Lin Biao , who had been actively supporting Peng for promotions to senior leadership as early as May 1934 . In early 1935 Lin responded to widespread discontent within the Red Army over Mao 's evasive tactics ( which were perceived inside the Red Army as unnecessarily exhausting ) by publicly proposing that Peng take overall command of the Red Army ; but Mao , who had recently been promoted to the position , attacked Peng and Lin for challenging him and successfully retained his position .
In October 1935 , following the last major battle between the KMT and the Red Army , Mao wrote and dedicated a poem to Peng . ( The poem was not published until 1947 ) .
The mountains are high , the road is long and full of potholes ,
Many soldiers are moving to and fro ,
Who is the courageous one , striking from his horse in all directions ?
None other than our great General Peng !
山高路远坑深
大军纵横驰奔
谁敢横刀立马
唯我彭大将军
In 1936 the American journalist , Edgar Snow , stayed for several days at Peng 's compound in Yuwang while Peng was campaigning in Ningxia , and had long conversations with him . Snow wrote two whole chapters about Peng in his book , Red Star Over China . He wrote more about Peng than any other individual , except for Mao Zedong .
= = = The Second Sino @-@ Japanese War = = =
After the 1937 Marco Polo Bridge Incident , China and Japan formally went to war . When the Kuomintang and Communist Party declared a united front to fight the Japanese , Peng was confirmed as a general in the unified command structure of the NRA . At the August 20 , 1937 Lochuan Conference ( 洛川会议 ) , Mao believed that the united front should be used as a feint , giving token resistance to the Japanese while saving the strength of the Red Army for the eventual confrontation with the Kuomintang , but Peng , along with most other senior military and political leaders at the time , disagreed , and believed that the Red Army should genuinely focus on fighting the Japanese . Mao was not able to force his position , and the communists cooperated with the Kuomintang and fought the Japanese .
When the Japanese invaded Shanxi , the Red Army ( renamed the Eighth Route Army ) assisted the Kuomintang warlord , Yan Xishan , in resisting the Japanese , and Peng travelled to the provincial capital of Taiyuan with Zhou Enlai to coordinate tactics . After the Japanese advanced towards Taiyuan on September 13 , 1937 , Peng directed overall operations from a base in Wutaishan , but was called from duty to attend a Politburo meeting on December 13 . At the meeting , Peng advocated a greater material commitment to the defense of Shanxi , but Mao disagreed and wanted the Red Army to reduce its commitment to fighting the Japanese . In 1938 , after Mao 's rival , Zhang Guotao , defected to the Kuomintang , Peng moved closer to Mao 's position . In late 1938 , Peng set up a base in Taihangshan , on the borders of Shanxi and Hebei , and directed guerrilla operations in both provinces . From Taihangshan , Peng commanded 2 / 3 of the Eighth Route Army , approximately 100 @,@ 000 soldiers .
In July 1940 Peng was given overall command of the largest communist operation of the anti @-@ Japanese war , the Hundred Regiments Offensive . 200 @,@ 000 regular troops from the Eighth Route Army participated in this operation , supported by 200 @,@ 000 irregular communist guerrillas . From August 20 – October 5 , 1940 , communist forces destroyed large numbers of bridges , tunnels , and railroad tracks in Japanese @-@ occupied China , and inflicted relatively heavy Japanese casualties . From October 6 – December 5 , the Japanese counterattacked , and the communists mostly repelled the counterattack successfully . Peng 's operation was successful in disrupting Japanese communication lines and logistics networks , which were not fully restored until 1942 , but the communists suffered heavy losses , In communist sources , the Japanese casualties have two figures , one of which is 20645 and the other of which is 12645 . Foreign sources give figures of 20900 . In early 1941 , the Japanese began a large @-@ scale effort to drive Peng from his base in Taihangshan , and Peng relocated closer to the communist base in Yan 'an in late 1941 .
After being recalled to Yan 'an , Peng was subjected to a political indoctrination campaign in which he was criticized as an " empiricist " for his good relations with the Comintern , and only survived professionally through an unconditional conversion to Mao 's leadership . Mao ordered Peng to be criticized for forty days for the " failings " of the Hundred Regiments Campaign ( even though Mao had supported it , and afterwards praised its successes ) . Peng was not allowed to reply , and was forced to make a self @-@ criticism . Privately , Peng resented Mao 's criticism of him , and in 1959 once told Mao : " At Yan 'an , you fucked my mother for forty days . "
From 1942 – 1945 , Peng 's role in the war was mostly political , and he supported Mao very closely . In June 1944 Peng was part of a team that conferenced with American military personnel that visited Yan 'an as part of the Dixie Mission , briefing the Americans about the military situation in Japanese @-@ occupied China .
= = = Defeating the Kuomintang = = =
The Japanese surrendered on September 3 , 1945 , ending China 's war with Japan and beginning the final stage of the Chinese Civil War . In October Peng took command of troops in northern China , occupied Inner Mongolia , and accepted the surrender of Japanese soldiers there . In March 1946 , Communist forces ( 1 @.@ 1 million soldiers ) were renamed the " People 's Liberation Army " . Peng himself was placed in command of 175 @,@ 000 soldiers , organized as the " Northwest Field Army " , most of which had been under the command of He Long during the war against Japan . He then became Peng 's second @-@ in @-@ command . Peng 's notable subordinates in the Northwest Field Army included Zhang Zongxun and Wang Zhen .
Peng 's forces were the most poorly armed of the newly reorganized army , but were responsible for the area around the communist capital , Yan 'an . In March 1947 , the Kuomintang general , Hu Zongnan , invaded this area with 260 @,@ 000 soldiers . Hu 's forces were among the best @-@ trained and most well @-@ supplied Nationalist units , but one of Zhou Enlai 's spies was able to provide Peng with information about Hu 's strategic plans , his forces ' troop distributions , strength , and positions , and details about the air cover available to Hu . Peng was forced to abandon Yan 'an in late March , but resisted Hu 's forces long enough for Mao and other senior Party leaders to evacuate safely . Mao wanted Peng to provoke a decisive confrontation with Hu immediately , but Peng dissuaded him , and by April Mao agreed that Peng 's objective was to " keep the enemy on the run ... tire him out completely , reduce his food supplies , and then look for an opportunity to destroy him " .
On May 4 Peng 's forces attacked an isolated supply depot in northeast Shaanxi , arrested its commander , and captured food reserves , 40 @,@ 000 army uniforms , and a collection of arms that included over a million pieces of artillery . Peng 's forces were pushed back to the border of Inner Mongolia , but finally managed to decisively defeat Hu 's forces in August , in the Battle of Shajiadian ( 沙家店战役 ) , saving Mao and other members from the Central committee from being taken prisoner . Peng eventually pushed Kuomintang forces out of Shaanxi in February 1948 .
Between 1947 and September 22 , 1949 , Peng 's forces occupied Gansu , Ningxia , and Qinghai . His forces repeatedly defeated , but were not able to destroy , the forces of Hu Zongnan and Ma Bufang , which retreated into Sichuan and were airlifted to Taiwan when the Kuomintang lost the Civil War in December 1949 . In October Peng 's forces , led directly by Wang Zhen , invaded Xinjiang . Most of Xinjiang 's defenders surrendered peacefully , and were incorporated as a new unit in Peng 's army , but some ethnic guerrilla bands resisted Chinese control for several years . After the People 's Republic of China was declared on October 1 , 1949 , Peng was appointed Chairman of the Northwest China Military and Administrative Commission and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief and Political Commissar of Xinjiang , with Wang Zhen as his deputy . This appointment gave Peng responsibility over Shaanxi , Gansu , Ningxia , Qinghai , and Xinjiang , an area of over five million square kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 million square miles ) but under thirty million people . Peng 's forces continued their gradual occupation of Xinjiang , which they completed in September 1951 .
= = The Korean War = =
North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25 , 1950 . After receiving its endorsement from the United Nations , the United States landed its first troops in Korea on September 15 . On October 1 , the first anniversary of the founding of the People 's Republic , UN forces crossed the 38th parallel into North Korea . There was some disagreement within China 's leadership about how to react to the American push to the Chinese border : Mao and Zhou wanted direct military intervention , while most Chinese leaders believed that China should not enter the war unless China was directly attacked . Lin Biao was Mao 's first choice to lead the Chinese People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) into Korea , but Lin refused , citing his bad health .
Mao then sought the support of Peng , who had not yet taken a strong position , to lead the PVA . Peng flew to Beijing from Xi 'an ( where he was still administering northwest China and directing the incorporation of Xinjiang into the PRC ) , and arrived on October 4 . Peng listened to both sides of the debate , and on October 5 decided to support Mao . Peng 's support for Mao 's position changed the atmosphere of the meeting , and most leaders changed their positions to support a direct Chinese intervention in the Korean War . On October 5 Peng was named the Commander and the Commissar of the People 's Volunteer Army and held both titles until the Korean Armistice Agreement in 1953 . Mao directed China 's general strategy , and Zhou was appointed general commander , coordinating Peng 's forces with the Soviet and North Korean governments , and the rest of the Chinese government . Over the next week , Peng established a headquarters in Shenyang , and prepared his invasion strategy with his officers .
After Zhou and Lin negotiated Stalin 's approval , Peng attended a conference in Beijing with Mao , Zhou , and Gao Gang on October 18 , and they ordered the first wave of Chinese soldiers — in total more than 260 @,@ 000 men — to cross into Korea on the night of October 19 . On October 25 the PVA had its first confrontation with UN troops at Onjong and Unsan , and pushed the UN forces south of the Chongchon River by November 4 in the aftermath of First Phase Campaign . From November 24 to December 24 , Peng directed 380 @,@ 000 PVA troops to confront UN forces in the Second Phase Campaign , and he successfully recovered the area north of the thirty @-@ eighth parallel . Despite his personal reservations , Peng then began an ambitious campaign to take the area south of the 38th parallel in order to fulfill Mao 's political objectives for the war . About 230 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers crossed into South Korean territory on December 31 and captured Seoul as part of the Third Phase Campaign , but were forced to evacuate it with heavy losses on March 14 , 1951 as the UN forces counterattacked during the course of Fourth Phase Campaign . Peng launched a final Fifth Phase Campaign from April 22 – June 10 to retake Seoul with 548 @,@ 000 Chinese troops , but it failed , and the Korean War came to a standstill just above the 38th parallel . In the evaluation of Korean War historian Roy Edger Appleman , Peng 's performances in the war were unremarkable in terms of military talents despite his aggressiveness and leadership skills . During the Cultural Revolution , Red Guards claimed that Peng 's successful campaigns , from October – December 1950 , were fought under Mao 's direction , but that his unsuccessful campaigns , from January – May 1951 , were organized by Peng against Mao 's instructions . Modern scholars reject this interpretation , and credit Peng with both the successes and failures of the war .
PVA casualties during the first 12 months of the Korean War , from October 1950 to October 1951 , were heavy . Soviet material support was slight ; and , because the only available means to transport supplies into Korea for the first year of the war was a force of 700 @,@ 000 labourers , all available supplies were light and limited . The UN forces also had complete air superiority . These logistic constraints later caused 45 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers to freeze to death between November 27 and December 12 , 1950 , due to inadequate winter clothing . China 's insufficient artillery , armor , and air support meant that Peng was forced to rely heavily on human wave tactics until the summer of 1951 : stealthy fireteams attacked in column against weak points in enemy defenses , hoping that surprise , attrition and perseverance would break the enemy lines . Participants even drank large quantities of Kaoliang in order to improve their courage . Some of the worst Chinese battle losses occurred during the Second and the Fifth Phase Campaign : up to 40 percent of all Chinese forces in Korea were rendered combat ineffective between November 25 and December 24 , 1950 , and about 12 Chinese divisions were lost in during April 22 – June 10 , 1951 . All in all , over a million Chinese soldiers became casualties during the course of the war . Peng justified the PVA 's high casualty rate by his almost religious belief in the cause of Communism and the Communist Party , and his belief that the ends of the conflict justified the means . Some accounts even claimed that Peng invented the human wave tactic under the name " short attack " in order to exploit his manpower advantage .
In November 19 , 1951 , Zhou called a conference in Shenyang to discuss improvements to China 's logistical network , but these did little to directly resolve China 's supply problems . Peng visited Beijing several times over the next several months to brief Mao and Zhou about the heavy casualties suffered by Chinese troops and the increasing difficulty of keeping the front lines supplied with basic necessities . By the winter of 1951 – 52 , Peng became convinced that the war would be protracted , and that neither side would be able to achieve victory in the foreseeable future . On February 24 , 1952 , the Central Military Commission , presided over by Zhou , discussed the PVA 's logistical problems with members of various government agencies involved in the war effort . After the government representatives emphasized their inability to meet the demands of the war , Peng , in an angry outburst , shouted : " You have this and that problem ... You should go to the front and see with your own eyes what food and clothing the soldiers have ! Not to speak of the casualties ! For what are they giving their lives ? We have no aircraft . We have only a few guns . Transports are not protected . More and more soldiers are dying of starvation . Can 't you overcome some of your difficulties ? " The atmosphere became so tense that Zhou was forced to adjourn the conference . Zhou subsequently called a series of meetings , where it was agreed that the PVA would be divided into three groups , to be dispatched to Korea in shifts ; to accelerate the training of Chinese pilots ; to provide more anti @-@ aircraft guns to the front lines ; to purchase more military equipment and ammunition from the Soviet Union ; to provide the army with more food and clothing ; and , to transfer the responsibility of logistics to the central government . Peng also became a zealous supporter of the Three @-@ anti Campaign due to his belief that corruption and waste were the main causes of the PVA 's hardship .
Truce talks began on July 10 , 1951 , but proceeded slowly . Peng was recalled back to China in April 1952 due to a head tumor , and Chen Geng and Deng Hua later assumed Peng 's responsibilities in the PVA . On July 27 , 1953 , Peng personally signed the Armistice agreement in Panmunjom , ending the Korean War . At a mass rally in Pyongyang on July 31 , Kim Il Sung awarded Peng his second North Korean " National Flag " Order of Merit , First Class ( the first had been awarded to Peng in 1951 ) , and awarded Peng the title of " Hero of the Korean Democratic People 's Republic " . Peng also received a hero 's welcome in Tiananmen Square on August 11 . Chinese troops remained in North Korea until 1958 .
Peng 's experiences in the Korean War strongly affected his outlook over the next decade . The heavy losses sustained during the first year of the war convinced him that the Chinese army needed to change by introducing modern equipment and standards of professionalism , and by developing new tactics more suited to modern conventional warfare . He came to believe strongly that military training should never be reduced in favour of political indoctrination , and that military commanders should enjoy seniority over commissars . Because the only communist country fully prepared for modern technical warfare was the Soviet Union , Peng grew to see the Soviet Red Army as a model for the development of China 's PLA . These perspectives , and Peng 's long @-@ held conviction that the primary role of the Communist Party was to improve the welfare of the common people , were contrary to Mao 's political goals , contributing to their eventual conflict in the late 1950s . Stalin once arbitrated in favor of Peng in a conflict with a Russian diplomat , saying " Trust him in everything ; Peng is a long @-@ tested , talented militarist " .
= = Defense Minister = =
After being recalled back to China in April 1952 , Peng succeeded Zhou in managing the day @-@ to @-@ day affairs of the Central Military Commission in July 1952 ; and , in the spring of 1954 , Peng was confirmed as the vice @-@ chairman of the Commission ( Mao was its chairman ) , becoming effectively the most senior military leader in China . On September 24 , 1954 , the First National People 's Congress confirmed Peng 's position , and appointed him Defense Minister and one of the ten vice @-@ ministers of the State Council . Lin Biao was senior to Peng on the State Council . Soon after accepting these appointments , on October 1 , 1954 , Peng produced an ambitious plan for the modernization of the PLA on the model of the Soviet military .
= = = Political activities = = =
Peng had been an alternate member of the Central Committee since 1934 , a full member since 1938 , and a member of the Politburo since 1945 , but it was not until he became the leader of the PLA and moved permanently to Beijing , in November 1953 , that Peng was able to attend regular political meetings and became active in domestic politics . Peng had been loyal to Mao 's leadership since the 1935 Zunyi Conference , and continued to support Mao for several years after moving to Beijing . Peng ( like Lin Biao ) was implicated in passively supporting Gao Gang 's effort to replace Liu Shaoqi as the second most powerful person in China in 1953 , but then opposed Gao in 1954 , once Mao made his own opposition clear . Mao did not take any action against Peng ( or Lin ) , but Peng 's involvement alienated Peng from Liu and Liu 's supporters . In 1955 Peng supported Mao 's efforts to collectivize agriculture . Along with Liu Shaoqi , Zhu De , Lin Biao , Lin Boqu , and Luo Ronghuan , Peng opposed Mao 's attempt to liberalize China 's culture and politics in the first stages of the 1957 Hundred Flowers Campaign , but then supported Mao 's efforts to arrest and persecute Chinese citizens who had criticized the CCP later that year .
During the late 1950s , Peng developed a personal dislike for Mao 's efforts to promote his own image in Chinese popular culture as a perfect , infallible hero singularly responsible for the Communist victories of his time . In 1955 – 56 Peng was involved in a large number of efforts to moderate Mao 's popular image , developing into a personal campaign . Peng 's preference for modesty and simplicity led Peng to oppose Mao 's efforts to develop his personality cult . In 1955 a draft copy of a book , The Military History of the PVA , was submitted to Peng so that he could edit and authorize it . In the preface of the book it was stated that " the military victories of the PVA " were won " under the correct leadership of the CCP and of Comrade Mao Zedong " :
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connected with the burials . The babies were probably buried in the buildings as ritual sacrifices , but it is unknown whether they were selected for burial because they were already dead , perhaps stillborn , or if they were buried alive or killed for the purpose . A local tale subsequently developed that the grounds of the fort were haunted by the sound of a crying baby .
Towards the end of the 3rd century a Roman naval commander named Carausius , who later declared himself emperor in Britain , was given the task of clearing pirates from the sea between Britain and the European mainland . In so doing he established a new chain of command , the British part of which was later to pass under the control of a Count of the Saxon Shore . The Notitia Dignitatum shows that the fort at Reculver became part of this arrangement , and its location meant that it lay at the " main point of contact in the system [ of Saxon Shore forts ] " . Archaeological evidence indicates that it was abandoned in the 370s .
= = = Medieval = = =
Reculver was part of a landed estate of the Anglo @-@ Saxon kings of Kent by the 7th century , possibly with a royal toll @-@ station or a " significant coastal trading settlement , " given the types and quantity of coins found there . Other early Anglo @-@ Saxon finds include a fragment of a gilt bronze brooch , or fibula , which was originally circular and set with coloured stones or glass , a claw beaker and pottery . Antiquarians such as the 18th @-@ century clergyman John Duncombe believed that King Æthelberht of Kent moved his royal court there from Canterbury in about 597 , and built a palace on the site of the Roman ruins . However , archaeological excavation has shown no evidence of this ; Æthelberht 's household would have been peripatetic , and the story has been described as probably a " pious legend " . A church was built on the site of the Roman fort in about 669 , when King Ecgberht of Kent granted land for the foundation of a monastery , which was dedicated to St Mary .
The monastery developed as the centre of a " large estate , a manor and a parish " , and , by the early 9th century , it had become " extremely wealthy " , but it then fell under the control of the archbishops of Canterbury . In 811 Archbishop Wulfred is recorded as having deprived the monastery of some of its land , and soon after it featured in a " monumental showdown " between Wulfred and King Coenwulf of Mercia over the control of monasteries . In 838 control of all monasteries under Canterbury 's authority was passed to the kings of Wessex , by the agreement of Archbishop Ceolnoth in exchange for protection from Viking attacks . By the 10th century the monastery at Reculver and its estate were both royal property : they were given back to the archbishops of Canterbury in 949 by King Eadred of England , at which time the estate included Hoath and Herne , and land at Chilmington , about 23 @.@ 5 miles ( 37 @.@ 8 km ) to the south @-@ west , and in the west of the Isle of Thanet .
By 1066 the monastery had become a parish church . However , in 1086 Reculver was named in Domesday Book as a hundred , and the manor was valued at £ 42.7s. ( £ 42 @.@ 35 ) . Included in the Domesday account for the manor , as well as the church , farmland , a mill , salt pans and a fishery , are 90 villeins and 25 bordars : these numbers can be multiplied four or five times to account for dependents , as they only represent " adult male heads of households " . In the 13th century Reculver was a parish of " exceptional wealth " , and the considerable enlargement of the church building during the Middle Ages indicates that the settlement had become a " thriving township " , with " dozens of houses " . The parish was broken up in 1310 when chapelries at Herne and , on the Isle of Thanet , St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade and All Saints were converted into parishes , though Hoath was still a perpetual curacy belonging to Reculver parish in the 20th century . Records for the poll tax of 1377 show that there were then 364 individuals of 14 years and above , not including " honest beggars " , in the reduced parish , who paid a total of £ 6.1s.4d. ( £ 6 @.@ 07 ) towards the tax .
= = = Decline and loss to the sea = = =
The thriving medieval township depended partly on its position on a maritime trade route through the Wantsum Channel , already present in Anglo @-@ Saxon times and exemplified by Reculver 's membership of the Cinque Port of Sandwich later in the Middle Ages . The importance of the Wantsum Channel was such that , when the River Thames froze in 1269 , trade between Sandwich and London had to be carried out overland . Historical records for the channel are sparse after 1269 , perhaps " because the route was so well known as to be taken for granted [ in the Middle Ages ] , the whole waterway from London to Sandwich being occasionally spoken of as the ' Thames ' " . But silting and inning had closed the channel to trading vessels sailing along it by about 1460 or soon after , and the first bridge was built over it at Sarre in 1485 , since ferries could no longer operate across it .
Reculver was also diminished by coastal erosion . By 1540 , when John Leland recorded a visit there , the coastline to the north had receded to within little more than a quarter of a mile ( 400 m ) of the " Towne [ which ] at this tyme [ was ] but Village lyke " . Soon afterwards , in 1576 , William Lambarde described Reculver as " poore and simple " . In 1588 there were 165 communicants – people taking part in services of holy communion at the church – and in 1640 there were 169 , but a map of about 1630 shows that the church then stood only about 500 feet ( 152 m ) from the shore . In January 1658 the local justices of the peace were petitioned concerning " encroachments of the sea ... [ which had ] since Michaelmas last [ 29 September 1657 ] encroached on the land near six rods [ 99 feet ( 30 m ) ] , and will doubtless do more harm " . The village 's failure to support two " beer shops " in the 1660s points clearly to a declining population , and the village was mostly abandoned around the end of the 18th century , its residents moving to Hillborough , about 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 km ) south @-@ west of Reculver but within the same parish .
Concern about erosion of the cliff on which the church stood , and the possible inundation of the village , had led the commissioners of sewers to install costly sea defences consisting of planking and piling before 1783 , when it was reported that the commissioners had adopted a scheme proposed by Sir Thomas Page to protect the church : the sea defences had proven counter @-@ productive , since sea water collected behind them and continued to undermine the cliff . Before this , according to John Duncombe , " the commissioners of sewers , and the occupiers who pay scots , [ had ] no view nor interest but to secure the level [ ground ] , which must be overflowed when the hill is washed away . " By 1787 Reculver had " dwindled into an insignificant village , thinly decked with the cottages of fishermen and smugglers . "
[ At about this time , ] from the present shore as far as a place called the Black Rock , seen at lowwater mark , where tradition says , a parish church once stood , there [ were ] found quantities of tiles , bricks , fragments of walls , tesselated pavements , and other marks of a ruinated town , and the household furniture , dress , and equipment of the horses belonging to the inhabitants of it , [ were ] continually found among the sands ...
In September 1804 a high tide and strong winds led to the destruction of five houses , one of which was " an ancient building , immediately opposite the public house , and had the appearance of having been part of some monastic erection " . The following year , according to a set of notes written by the parish clerk John Brett , " Reculver Church and willage stood in safety " , but in 1806 the sea began to encroach on the village , and in 1807 the local farmers dismantled the sea defences , after which " the village became a total [ wreck ] to the mercy of the sea . "
A further scheme to protect the cliff and church was proposed by John Rennie , but a decision was taken on 12 January 1808 to demolish the church . By March 1809 , erosion of the cliff had brought it to within 12 feet ( 4 m ) of the church , and demolition was begun in September that year . Trinity House intervened to ensure that the towers were preserved as a navigational aid , and in 1810 it bought what was left of the structure for £ 100 and built the first groynes , designed to protect the cliff on which the ruined church stands . The vicarage was abandoned at the same time as the church , or a little later , and a replacement parish church was built at Hillborough , opening in 1813 .
After the sea undermined the foundations of the Hoy and Anchor Inn at Reculver in January 1808 , the building was taken down and the redundant vicarage was used as a temporary replacement under the same name . Although it was reported in 1800 that there were then only five or six houses left in the village , a new Hoy and Anchor Inn was built by 1809 , and this was renamed as the King Ethelbert Inn by 1838 . Further construction work is indicated by a stone over the doorway to the inn bearing a date of 1843 , and it was later extended into the form in which it stands today , " probably ... in 1883 " .
Today the site of the church is managed by English Heritage , and the village has all but disappeared . The present appearance of the cliff below the church , a grassy slope above a large stone groyne , was in place by April 1867 , and the sea defences there continue to be maintained by Trinity House . In 2000 the surviving fragments of an early medieval cross that once stood inside the old church were used to design a Millennium Cross to commemorate two thousand years of Christianity . This stands at the entrance to the car park and was commissioned by Canterbury City Council .
= = = Bouncing bombs = = =
During the Second World War , the coastline east of the village was used to test prototypes of Barnes Wallis 's bouncing bomb . This area was chosen for its seclusion , while the clear landmark of the church towers and the ease of recovering prototypes from the shallow water were probably also factors . Different , inert versions of the bomb were tested at Reculver , leading to the development of the operational version known as " Upkeep " . This bomb was used by the RAF 's 617 Squadron in Operation Chastise , otherwise known as the Dambuster raids , in which dams in the Ruhr district of Germany were attacked on the night of 16 – 17 May 1943 by formations of Lancaster bombers . On 17 May 2003 , a Lancaster bomber overflew the Reculver testing site to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the exploit .
Two prototype bouncing bombs , about 6 feet ( 2 m ) long and 3 feet ( 1 m ) wide , lay in marshland behind the sea wall until about 1977 , when they were removed by the Army . Other prototypes were recovered from the shoreline in 1997 , one of which is in Herne Bay Museum and Gallery , a little over 3 miles ( 5 km ) west of Reculver . Others are on display in Dover Castle and in the Spitfire & Hurricane Memorial Museum at the former RAF Manston , on the Isle of Thanet .
= = Governance = =
In the 10th @-@ century charter by which King Eadred gave Reculver to the archbishops of Canterbury , the boundary of the mainland part of the estate was about the same as those for the adjoining parishes of Reculver , Hoath and Herne in the 20th century , and the estate included part of the Isle of Thanet . In 1086 , Domesday Book named Reculver as a hundred , meaning that it was probably the meeting @-@ place for the local hundred court . The hundred included Hoath and Herne , and it may also have included the neighbouring area of Thanet . In 1274 – 75 the local hundred was much larger : it was then named after Bleangate , in a detached part of Chislet parish , and was divided into northern and southern halves ; it also included part of Thanet . By 1540 Bleangate hundred no longer included land on Thanet , its members being listed then as Sturry , Chislet , Reculver and Herne for the archaic taxes known as " fifteenths and tenths " , and in 1659 they were listed as Chislet , Herne , Hoath , Reculver , Stourmouth , Sturry and Westbere . In 1808 the members of the northern half @-@ hundred , or " Bleangate Upper " , were listed as Herne , Reculver , Stourmouth and Hoath . The constable for the northern half @-@ hundred was chosen at the court leet of the manor of Reculver , which by 1800 was usually held at Herne .
The parish was represented by two tithings – known in Kent as " borghs " – in the Hundred Rolls of 1274 – 75 and , 400 years later , for the purposes of the Hearth Tax , levied between 1662 and 1689 . In 1274 – 75 these borghs appear as Reculver borgh and Brookgate borgh ; in 1663 they appear as Reculver Street borgh and Brookgate borgh , which were recorded under a parish heading for Reculver , together with Hoath borgh ; and in 1673 Reculver borgh and Brookgate borgh were recorded under a heading for Herne parish , while Hoath was recorded under its own parish heading . However , borghs in Kent , and tithings generally , were related to the manorial and hundredal administration of the county , rather than to the parishes in which they lay .
The parishes of Herne and , on the Isle of Thanet , St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade were created from parts of Reculver parish in 1310 , although they continued to have a subordinate relationship with their original parish into the 19th century , while Hoath remained a perpetual curacy into the 20th . Thereafter Reculver 's parish boundary , enclosing an area of about 2 square miles ( 5 km2 ) , remained the same for both ecclesiastical and civil purposes until 1934 , and included the settlements of Hillborough , Bishopstone and Brook , now Brook Farm . The parish extended west almost to Beltinge , in Herne parish , and to Broomfield in the south @-@ west , where the boundary with Herne parish ran along the centre of the main thoroughfare , now Margate Road ; it was bounded in open country on the south @-@ east and east by the parish of Chislet . In 1934 the civil functions of the parish were merged into the civil parish of Herne Bay . Conversely , Reculver is now in an electoral ward of the same name , in the local government district of Canterbury , which includes Beltinge , Bishopstone , Brook Farm and Hillborough , and extends into the eastern part of the town of Herne Bay . This ward has three seats on Canterbury City Council , and , in the local elections of 2011 , they were won by the existing councillors Jennie Edwards , Gillian Reuby and Ann Taylor , all Conservative .
At the national level Reculver is in the English parliamentary constituency of North Thanet , for which Roger Gale ( Conservative ) has been MP since 1983 . In the general election of 2015 , Gale won 23 @,@ 045 votes ( 49 @.@ 0 % ) , giving him a majority of 10 @,@ 948 ; the United Kingdom Independence Party won 12 @,@ 097 votes ( 25 @.@ 7 ) and the Labour Party won 8 @,@ 411 votes ( 17 @.@ 9 % ) ; while the Green Party and the Liberal Democrats each won fewer than 2 @,@ 000 votes , the Green Party performed slightly better of the two . For European elections Reculver is in the South East England constituency .
= = Geography = =
The ruins of the Roman fort and medieval church at Reculver stand on the remnant of a promontory , a low hill with a maximum height of 50 feet ( 15 m ) , which is the " last seaward extension of the Blean Hills . " Sediments laid down around 55 million years ago are particularly well displayed in the cliffs to the west . Nearby Herne Bay is the type location for the Thanet Sand Formation , or Thanet Beds , consisting of a fine @-@ grained sand that can be clayey and glauconitic and is of Thanetian ( late Paleocene ) age . It rests unconformably on the Chalk Group , and forms the base of the cliffs in the Reculver and Herne Bay area . Above the Thanet Sand are the Upnor Formation , a medium sandstone , and the sandy clays of the Harwich Formation at the Paleocene / Eocene boundary . The highest cliffs , rising to a maximum height of about 115 feet ( 35 m ) to the west of Reculver , have a cap of London Clay , a fine silty clay of Eocene age . The surface consists mainly of flint gravel with some areas of brickearth , both of which are glacial deposits .
Rocks such as these are easily washed away by the sea . It has been estimated that the Roman fort was originally about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the sea to the north , but the cliffs are eroding at a rate of approximately 3 @.@ 3 feet ( 1 m ) per year . Coastal erosion had washed away most of Reculver village by 1800 , leading residents to re @-@ locate to Hillborough , within Reculver parish . A plan is in place to manage this erosion whereby some parts of the coastline such as the country park will be allowed to continue eroding , and others – including the site of the Roman fort and the medieval church – will be protected from further erosion . New sea defences were built in the 1990s , including covering the beaches around the church with boulders .
The warmest time of year in Kent is in July and August , with average maximum temperatures of around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) , and the coolest is in January and February , with average minimum temperatures of around 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) . Average maximum and minimum temperatures are about 0 @.@ 5 ° C ( 0 @.@ 3 ° F ) higher than they are nationally . Locations on the north coast of Kent , like Reculver , are sometimes warmer than areas further inland , owing to the influence of the North Downs to the south . Average annual rainfall in Kent is about 728 millimetres ( 28 @.@ 7 in ) , with the highest rainfall from October to January . This is lower than the national average annual rainfall of 838 millimetres ( 33 in ) . Occasional drought conditions can lead to the imposition of Temporary Use Bans to conserve water supplies , and it was announced in 2013 that a water desalination plant was to be built at Reculver to increase supplies .
= = Demography = =
In the census of 1801 the number of people present in the parish of Reculver , enclosing an area of about 2 square miles ( 5 km2 ) and including the settlements of Hillborough , Bishopstone and part of Broomfield , was given as 252 , and this figure remained roughly stable until the 20th century when a dramatic increase was recorded : in the census of 1931 , the number was given as 829 . But this included holidaymakers , and in 2005 the number of people at Reculver was estimated to increase to " over 1 @,@ 000 at the height of the [ summer ] holiday season " .
In the 2001 census the relevant census area covered 2 @.@ 79 square miles ( 7 km2 ) and included only Reculver and outlying farms and houses , in which 135 people were found , almost a quarter of whom were in caravans . All were born in the United Kingdom except for three individuals from the Republic of Ireland and three from South Africa . Gender was given as 69 female and 66 male , and the age distribution was 12 individuals aged 0 – 5 years ( 8 @.@ 8 % ) , 16 aged 6 – 16 years ( 14 % ) , 30 aged 17 – 35 years ( 22 @.@ 2 % ) , 14 aged 36 – 45 years ( 10 @.@ 3 % ) , 44 aged 46 – 64 years ( 32 @.@ 5 % ) and 21 aged 65 years and over ( 15 @.@ 5 % ) . Half ( 67 ) of all the individuals recorded were described as economically active , with 58 of these having employers and nine being self @-@ employed ; none were recorded as full @-@ time students or unemployed . Twenty @-@ four people ( 17 @.@ 7 % ) were described as retired . Of those aged 16 – 74 years , 14 ( 12 @.@ 8 % ) were placed at the highest level for education or qualification . Christianity was the only religion represented , by 99 individuals , with 22 recorded as having no religion and 14 whose religion was not stated . From April 2001 to March 2002 the average gross weekly income of households in the electoral ward of Reculver was estimated by the Office for National Statistics as £ 560 , or £ 29 @,@ 120 per year ; this was below the average for the south @-@ east of England , excluding London , which was £ 660 , or £ 34 @,@ 320 .
In the 2011 census the relevant census area was identical to the electoral ward , an area of 3 @.@ 55 square miles ( 9 km2 ) , and produced information for the area as a whole . Therefore , while the total resident population of the ward at the 2011 census numbered 8 @,@ 845 , detailed information comparable to that of the 2001 census is unavailable .
= = Economy = =
In the Middle Ages , probably beginning in the 11th century , Reculver was one of several members , or " limbs " , of the Cinque Port of Sandwich . Like other limbs at Fordwich , Deal , Sarre and Stonar , it was then involved in maritime trade , and it shared in the Cinque Ports ' duty to supply ships and men for the king 's use , in return for concessions such as tax exemption . In 1220 King Henry III granted the archbishop of Canterbury a market to be held weekly at Reculver on Thursdays , and an annual fair was held there on Saint Giles 's Day , 1 September .
Oysters from the " Rutupian shore " – the shoreline around Richborough , a little over 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the south @-@ east – were noted as a delicacy by the 1st – 2nd @-@ century Roman poet Juvenal , and in 1576 oysters from Reculver itself were " reputed as farre to passe those of Whitstaple , as Whitstaple doe surmount the rest of this shyre [ of Kent ] in savorie saltnesse . " An enclosed area of salt water known as the Dene was leased for the breeding of oysters and lobsters in 1867 ; as of 2014 there is a hatchery for oysters in saltwater ponds on the eastern side of Reculver belonging to a seafood company which is based there . Young oysters are transplanted from the hatchery to the sea bed at Whitstable . In May 1914 , Anglo @-@ Westphalian Kent Coalfield Ltd drilled a borehole at Reculver in search of coal , since it had found a seam of coal 48 feet ( 14 @.@ 6 m ) thick at nearby Chislet and was developing a colliery there ; possible samples of coal were retrieved from the borehole at a depth of 1 @,@ 129 feet ( 344 @.@ 1 m ) , but it was abandoned , no workable seam having been found .
Today Reculver is dominated by static caravan parks , the first of which appeared after the Second World War . Also present are a country park , the King Ethelbert public house , which is a free house , and a nearby shop and cafe . Reculver was defined as a " key heritage area " in 2008 , and there are plans for its development as a destination for green tourism . Canterbury City Council 's Reculver Masterplan , adopted in 2009 , envisaged the creation of 100 touring pitches in its caravan park , south @-@ east of the Roman fort , which was then leased to the Camping and Caravanning Club . That caravan park was closed by 2015 , when Canterbury City Council undertook a consultation on its incorporation into the country park .
= = = Community facilities = = =
Reculver Church of England Primary School is adjacent to the church at Hillborough . The school 's site also hosts Beltinge Day Nursery and Reculver Breakfast and Afterschool Club . The nearest school for older children is Herne Bay High School .
The nearest post office is in Beltinge , about 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) to the west @-@ southwest . The nearest general practitioner ( GP ) surgery is about 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) to the south @-@ west , between Bishopstone and Hillborough , with others in Beltinge , Herne Bay , Broomfield and St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade . While the nearest general hospital is the Queen Victoria Memorial Hospital , about 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) to the west in Herne Bay , the closest hospital with an Accident and Emergency ( A & E ) department is the Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother Hospital , about 8 @.@ 2 miles ( 13 @.@ 2 km ) to the east in Margate . The nearest community centre is Reculver and Beltinge Memorial Hall , about 1 @.@ 9 miles ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) to the west @-@ southwest .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Ruined church of St Mary = = =
The medieval towers of the ruined church of St Mary are Reculver 's " most dominant features " . They were added in the late 12th century to a church founded in 669 , when King Ecgberht of Kent granted land to Bassa the priest for the foundation of a monastery . The church was sited near the centre of the Roman fort , and was built " almost completely from demolished Roman structures " . In 692 the monastery 's abbot Berhtwald was elected archbishop of Canterbury , and King Eadberht II of Kent was buried inside the church in the 760s . The church building was considerably enlarged over time , the last additions being made in the 15th century . But it retained many prominent Anglo @-@ Saxon features , including a triple chancel arch and a stone high cross , though this had been removed by 1784 .
The church was demolished in 1809 , in what has been described as " an act of vandalism for which there can be few parallels even in the blackest records of the nineteenth century " . Archaeological excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries established the building sequence of the church , and areas of missing wall are marked on the ground by concrete edged with flint . The ruins are now in the care of English Heritage , and the sea defences protecting them have been maintained by Trinity House since 1810 . Fragments of the cross , and two stone columns that had been part of the church 's triple chancel arch , are on display in Canterbury Cathedral .
A byname for the towers is the " Twin Sisters " , and an account of how this first arose was current about a hundred years after its supposed happening in the late 15th century , but in its usual form , for example in a 19th @-@ century travel guide , it is mostly an invention created around " pseudo @-@ historical detail " . The Ingoldsby Legends includes a re @-@ invention of the story in which two brothers , Robert and Richard de Birchington , are substituted for the two sisters .
= = = Country park = = =
Reculver Country Park is a nature reserve managed by Canterbury City Council and the Kent Wildlife Trust . It covers 64 acres ( 26 ha ) and comprises a narrow strip of protected , cliff @-@ top land about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 km ) long , running from the remaining enclosure of the Roman fort west to Bishopstone Glen . Most of the cliff @-@ top and all of the foreshore in this area are included in the Thanet Coast SSSI , the Thanet Coast and Sandwich Bay SPA and the similarly named Ramsar site ; most of the Country Park is also part of the Bishopstone Cliffs local nature reserve , which covers 166 @.@ 5 acres ( 67 @.@ 4 ha ) of the coastline between Beltinge and Reculver . In winter brent geese and wading birds such as sanderlings and turnstones may be seen ; during the summer months the largest colony of sand martins in Kent nests in the soft cliffs , on top of which fulmars were also reported to have begun nesting in 2013 , and wading curlews may be seen at any time . The grasslands on the cliff top are among the few remaining cliff @-@ top wildflower meadows left in Kent , and are home to butterflies and skylarks . Also present are the nationally scarce hog 's fennel and two species of digger wasp , Alysson lunicornis and Ectemnius ruficornis . The coastline here forms part of the " key on @-@ land Palaeocene site in the London Basin " , and is the only location in the Woolwich Beds to contain wood . The foreshore displays a " rich invertebrate and vertebrate fossil fauna ... and the section has been extensively studied over many years . " The park first won a Green Flag Award in 2005 , and it is estimated that over 200 @,@ 000 people visit it each year , including up to 3 @,@ 500 students for educational trips . Canterbury City Council 's Reculver Masterplan envisages purchasing farmland to the south of the country park to replace land lost to the sea through coastal erosion .
In 2011 it was found that the shoreline in the Herne Bay area , including Reculver , had come under threat from an invasive species , the carpet sea squirt ( Didemnum vexillum ) , also known as " marine vomit " . First recorded in UK waters in 2008 , the carpet sea squirt is indigenous to the sea around Japan , but it has been carried to other parts of the world , including New Zealand and the USA , on boat hulls , fishing equipment and floating seaweed . Carpet sea squirt can overgrow other , sessile species , " potentially smothering species living in gravel and affecting fisheries . "
= = = Centre for renewable energy = = =
A visitor centre in Reculver Country Park re @-@ opened in 2009 as the Reculver Renewable Energy and Interpretation Centre , " marking 200 years of the moving of Reculver village " . The centre features a log burner fuelled by logs from the Blean woodland , solar and photovoltaic panels provide electrical power , and there are displays describing the history , geography and wildlife of the area .
= = Transport = =
Reculver is at the end of an unclassified road , Reculver Lane , and is about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) by road from the nearest major junction of the A299 , or Thanet Way . From Roman times there was a connection to Canterbury by road , the presence of which is reflected in parish boundaries for much of its length . An estate map of 1685 shows the Reculver end of this road as " The King 's highe Way " , which may have been in use until 1875 , when it was reported that a public road had been diverted because of a cliff fall near Love Street Farm . Remains of a Roman road leading to the east gate of the fort have also been found , which were " substantial ... consisting of a sandstone platform [ 10 – 13 feet ( 3 – 4 m ) ] wide and at least [ 11 inches ( 30 cm ) ] deep . "
In 1817 the nearest coaching route was that running between London , Canterbury and the Isle of Thanet , which passed through Upstreet , about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of Reculver , before entering Thanet . In 1839 coaches and vans ran daily from Herne Bay to Canterbury and on to destinations on the southern and eastern coasts of Kent , with access to the English Channel , at Deal , Dover , Sandgate and Hythe . In 1865 transport from Herne Bay was available by " fly " – a type of one @-@ horse hackney carriage .
As of 2014 a bus service , route 7 / 7A , connects Reculver directly with Herne Bay and Canterbury daily except Sundays and bank holidays . Other destinations on this route include Reculver Church of England Primary School at Hillborough , Broomfield , Chislet , Hoath and the railway station at Sturry , on the Ashford to Ramsgate line . Route 36 connects Reculver with Herne Bay and Margate daily except Sundays . Other destinations on this route include Reculver Church of England Primary School at Hillborough , Beltinge , Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea and Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea . The bus stop at Reculver is adjacent to the King Ethelbert Inn .
The nearest railway stations are at Herne Bay , about 3 @.@ 8 miles ( 6 @.@ 1 km ) to the west , and Birchington @-@ on @-@ Sea , about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) to the east . Both stations are on the Chatham Main Line , running between London 's Victoria station and Ramsgate , on the south @-@ eastern coast of the Isle of Thanet . The railway first reached Herne Bay from the west in 1861 and was extended to Ramsgate Harbour railway station by 1863 , but no provision was made for public access from Reculver , although purchase of land for a station there had been envisaged and a short @-@ lived goods station was opened in 1864 . In the same year a passenger station was proposed for Reculver , primarily to serve tourists , but it was not built . In 1884 the South Eastern Railway proposed building a branch line from its station at Grove Ferry on the Ashford to Ramsgate line to join the London , Chatham and Dover Railway 's Chatham Main Line at Reculver , thereby linking Canterbury and Herne Bay . The Canterbury and Kent Coast Railway Bill was presented to a select committee of MPs in January 1885 : the London , Chatham and Dover Railway objected to it , particularly the junction with their main line at Reculver , so the Bill was rejected and the line was not built . Rudimentary houses were erected by the East Kent Railway company on nearby marshland in 1858 for the navvies who constructed the line through the area ; these had been taken over by enginemen of the South Eastern and Chatham Railway by October 1904 , when they were replaced by cottages .
There is no provision for access to Reculver from the sea , but there were maritime connections from at least the 1st century , when the Roman fort of Regulbium had a supporting harbour . The quantity and variety of coins found at Reculver dating from the 7th century to the 8th are almost certainly related to its location on a major trade route through the Wantsum Channel ; there was probably still a harbour in Anglo @-@ Saxon times , and the monastery may well have operated a " fleet of ships and its own boatyard . " Details in the 10th @-@ century charter in which King Eadred gave Reculver to the archbishops of Canterbury suggest that there was then an island immediately to the north , creating a " mini @-@ Wantsum [ Channel that ] could have provided a sheltered channel for beaching and berthing ships " ; the present day Black Rock beyond the shoreline may be a remnant of this island .
In the 17th century an inlet to the north @-@ west was described as " anciently for a harber of ships , called now The Old Pen " . In the 18th century there was a place for landing passengers and goods at the village , and the former name of the King Ethelbert Inn , the " Hoy and Anchor " , makes reference to hoys , a local type of merchant sailing vessel . These continued to serve the coastline of northern Kent in the mid @-@ 19th century . In 1810 a canal was proposed to run from the coast between Reculver and St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade to Canterbury , with a harbour for sea @-@ going vessels at the northern end , which would be accessible from Reculver by a new road beginning at the inn , but none of this was built . Passenger steamships called at Herne Bay pier on their route between London and destinations along the north coast of Kent from 1832 , but this service ceased in the first half of the 20th century . A travel guide of 1865 advised that
[ the ] best way to visit Reculver from Margate is by means of a sailing or rowing boat ... [ although ] Herne Bay is by far the most convenient place to get to Reculver from , as you can be rowed to the foot of the twin towers in little more than half an hour ... [ after which ] we run the boat on the beach , and plant our foot on the famous " Rutupian shore , " sung by Juvenal ...
Coastguards were stationed at Reculver from the mid @-@ 19th century until they were withdrawn in the mid @-@ 20th century , but the towers of the ruined church remain a landmark for mariners , both practically and through their use to mark the division between areas covered by Thames Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre ( MRCC ) and Dover MRCC .
= = Religion = =
A new Anglican parish church was built at Hillborough , about 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 km ) south @-@ west of Reculver , as a replacement for the old church of St Mary . The new church was given the same dedication to St Mary and , standing on a plot of land bought for £ 30 , it was consecrated on 13 April 1813 . A " miserable little [ church ] ... built in a rough and poverty @-@ stricken style " , it had a leaking roof and was already decaying by 1874 , and was replaced by the present structure , begun in 1876 and consecrated on 12 June 1878 .
The church begun in 1876 was designed in the Gothic Revival style by the architect Joseph Clarke , who was surveyor for the diocese of Canterbury at the time . It has seating for about 100 people , and is a " simple and relatively plain building " , though it incorporates stonework from the old church at Reculver . The medieval baptismal font in the church is probably from the former chapel of All Saints , Shuart , on the Isle of Thanet , which was demolished in the 15th century . A war memorial stands at the edge of the churchyard , facing into the adjacent Reculver Lane , and records the names of 27 parishioners who died fighting in the First World War and the Second World War .
= = Notable people = =
King Eadberht II of Kent was buried in the church at Reculver in the 760s . His tomb was in the south porticus of the church , adjacent to the chancel , though this later became part of the church 's south aisle . This was traditionally believed to be the tomb of King Æthelberht I of Kent , and was " of an antique form , mounted with two spires " . Simon of Faversham , a 14th @-@ century philosopher and theologian , was appointed as rector but was forced to defend his appointment to the Pope , and died in France , either on his way to the papal curia in Avignon or after his arrival , some time before 19 July 1306 .
The first recorded owner of Brook , about 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 km ) south @-@ southwest of Reculver , was Nicholas Tingewick , physician to King Edward I and rector of Reculver until 1310 , when he became its first recorded vicar . He was regarded as the " best doctor for the king 's health " , and there are more records of his medical practice than there are for " most physicians of his time . " Brook subsequently passed to James de la Pine , sheriff of Kent in the early 1350s . His grandson sold it to an ancestor of Henry Cheyne , who was elected knight of the shire for Kent in 1563 , and was created " Lord Cheyney " in 1572 . He had sold all of his possessions in Kent by 1574 to " finance his extravagance " , and Brook subsequently became the property of Sir Cavalliero Maycote , who was a leading courtier to Elizabeth I and James I. He had a " handsome monument [ on the south wall of the chancel in the church at Reculver ] representing Sir Cavalliero and Lady Maycote , with their eight children , all in alabaster figures , kneeling " . Brook is now Brook Farm , where there is a remnant of Maycote 's home in the form of a gateway , which is a " very rustic Elizabethan affair " , all of brick , with mouldings .
Thomas Broke , alderman and MP for Calais in the mid @-@ 16th century , may have been a son of Thomas Brooke of Reculver , as well as being a " religious radical " . Ralph Brooke , officer of arms as Rouge Croix Pursuivant and York Herald under Elizabeth I and James I , died in 1625 and was buried inside the church , where he was commemorated by a black marble tablet on the south wall of the chancel , showing him dressed in his herald 's coat .
Robert Hunt , vicar of Reculver from 1595 to 1602 , became minister of religion to the English colonial settlement at Jamestown , Virginia , sailing there in the ship Susan Constant in 1606 , and celebrated probably " the first known service of holy communion in what is today the United States of America on 21 June 1607 . " Barnabas Knell was vicar from 1602 to 1646 : during the English Civil War his son Paul Knell , born in about 1615 , was chaplain to a regiment of Royalist cuirassiers , to whom he preached a sermon , " The convoy of a Christian " , at the siege of Gloucester in August 1643 . An estate map of 1685 shows that much of the land around Reculver then belonged to James Oxenden , who spent much of his life as an MP for Kent constituencies between 1679 and 1702 .
= Troilus =
Troilus ( English pronunciation : / ˈtrɔɪləs / or / ˈtroʊələs / ; Ancient Greek : Τρωΐλος Troïlos ; Latin : Troilus ) is a legendary character associated with the story of the Trojan War . The first surviving reference to him is in Homer 's Iliad , which scholars believe was composed by bards and sung in the late 9th or 8th century BC .
In Greek mythology , Troilus is a young Trojan prince , one of the sons of King Priam ( or sometimes Apollo ) and Hecuba . Prophecies link Troilus ' fate to that of Troy and so he is ambushed and murdered by Achilles . Sophocles was one of the writers to tell this tale . It was also a popular theme among artists of the time . Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents . He was also regarded as a paragon of youthful male beauty .
In Western European medieval and Renaissance versions of the legend , Troilus is the youngest of Priam 's five legitimate sons by Hecuba . Despite his youth he is one of the main Trojan war leaders . He dies in battle at Achilles ' hands . In a popular addition to the story , originating in the 12th century , Troilus falls in love with Cressida , whose father has defected to the Greeks . Cressida pledges her love to Troilus but she soon switches her affections to the Greek hero Diomedes when sent to her father in a hostage exchange . Chaucer and Shakespeare are among the authors who wrote works telling the story of Troilus and Cressida . Within the medieval tradition , Troilus was regarded as a paragon of the faithful courtly lover and also of the virtuous pagan knight . Once the custom of courtly love had faded , his fate was regarded less sympathetically .
Little attention was paid to the character during the 18th and 19th centuries . However , Troilus has reappeared in 20th and 21st century retellings of the Trojan War by authors who have chosen elements from both the classical and medieval versions of his story .
= = The story in the ancient world = =
For the ancient Greeks , the tale of the Trojan War and the surrounding events appeared in its most definitive form in the Epic Cycle of eight narrative poems from the archaic period in Greece ( 750 BC – 480 BC ) . The story of Troilus is one of a number of incidents that helped provide structure to a narrative that extended over several decades and 77 books from the beginning of the Cypria to the end of the Telegony . The character 's death early in the war and the prophecies surrounding him demonstrated that all Trojan efforts to defend their home would be in vain . His symbolic significance is evidenced by linguistic analysis of his Greek name " Troilos " . It can be interpreted as an elision of the names of Tros and Ilos , the legendary founders of Troy , as a diminutive or pet name " little Tros " or as an elision of Troië ( Troy ) and lyo ( to destroy ) . These multiple possibilities emphasise the link between the fates of Troilus and of the city where he lived . On another level , Troilus ' fate can also be seen as foreshadowing the subsequent deaths of his murderer Achilles , and of his nephew Astyanax and sister Polyxena , who , like Troilus , die at the altar in at least some versions of their stories .
Given this , it is unfortunate that the Cypria — the part of the Epic Cycle that covers the period of the Trojan War of Troilus ' death — does not survive . Indeed , no complete narrative of his story remains from archaic times or the subsequent classical period ( 479 – 323 BC ) . Most of the literary sources from before the Hellenistic age ( 323 – 30 BC ) that even referred to the character are lost or survive only in fragments or summary . The surviving ancient and medieval sources , whether literary or scholarly , contradict each other , and many do not tally with the form of the myth that scholars now believe to have existed in the archaic and classical periods .
Partially compensating for the missing texts are the physical artifacts that remain from the archaic and classical periods . The story of the circumstances around Troilus ' death was a popular theme among pottery painters . ( The Beazley Archive website lists 108 items of Attic pottery alone from the 6th to 4th centuries BC containing images of the character . ) Troilus also features on other works of art and decorated objects from those times . It is a common practice for those writing about the story of Troilus as it existed in ancient times to use both literary sources and artifacts to build up an understanding of what seems to have been the most standard form of the myth and its variants . The brutality of this standard form of the myth is highlighted by commentators such as Alan Sommerstein , an expert on ancient Greek drama , who describes it as " horrific " and " [ p ] erhaps the most vicious of all the actions traditionally attributed to Achilles . "
= = = The standard myth : the beautiful youth murdered = = =
Troilus is an adolescent boy or ephebe , the son of Hecuba , queen of Troy . As he is so beautiful , Troilus is taken to be the son of the god Apollo . However , Hecuba 's husband , King Priam , treats him as his own much @-@ loved child .
A prophecy says that Troy will not fall if Troilus lives into adulthood . So the goddess Athena encourages the Greek warrior Achilles to seek him out early in the Trojan War . The youth is known to take great delight in his horses . Achilles ambushes him and his sister Polyxena when he has ridden with her for water from a well in the Thymbra – an area outside Troy where there is a temple of Apollo .
The Greek is struck by the beauty of both Trojans and is filled with lust . It is the fleeing Troilus whom swift @-@
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footed Achilles catches , dragging him by the hair from his horse . The young prince refuses to yield to Achilles ' sexual attentions and somehow escapes , taking refuge in the nearby temple . But the warrior follows him in , and beheads him at the altar before help can arrive . The murderer then mutilates the boy 's body . The mourning of the Trojans at Troilus ' death is great .
This sacrilege leads to Achilles ’ own death , when Apollo avenges himself by helping Paris strike Achilles with the arrow that pierces his heel .
= = = Ancient literary sources supporting the standard myth = = =
= = = = Homer and the missing texts of the archaic and classical periods = = = =
The earliest surviving literary reference to Troilus is in Homer 's Iliad , which formed one part of the Epic Cycle . It is believed that Troilus ' name was not invented by Homer and that a version of his story was already in existence . Late in the poem , Priam berates his surviving sons , and compares them unfavourably to their dead brothers including Trôïlon hippiocharmên . The interpretation of hippiocharmên is controversial but the root hipp- implies a connection with horses . For the purpose of the version of the myth given above , the word has been taken as meaning " delighting in horses " . Sommerstein believes that Homer wishes to imply in this reference that Troilus was killed in battle , but argues that Priam 's later description of Achilles as andros paidophonoio ( " boy @-@ slaying man " ) indicates that Homer was aware of the story of Troilus as a murdered child ; Sommerstein believes that Homer is playing here on the ambiguity of the root paido- meaning boy in both the sense of a young male and of a son .
Troilus ' death was also described in the Cypria , one of the parts of the Epic Cycle that is no longer extant . The poem covered the events preceding the Trojan War and the first part of the war itself up to the events of the Iliad . Although the Cypria does not survive , most of an ancient summary of the contents , thought to be by Eutychius Proclus , remains . Fragment 1 mentions that Achilles killed Troilus , but provides no more detail . However , Sommerstein takes the verb used to describe the killing ( phoneuei ) as meaning that Achilles murders Troilus .
In Athens , the early tragedians Phrynicus and Sophocles both wrote plays called Troilos and the comic playwright Strattis wrote a parody of the same name . Of the esteemed Nine lyric poets of the archaic and classical periods , Stesichorus may have referred to Troilus ' story in his Iliupersis and Ibycus may have written in detail about the character . With the exception of these authors , no other pre @-@ Hellenistic written source is known to have considered Troilus at any length .
Unfortunately , all that remains of these texts are the smallest fragments or summaries and references to them by other authors . What does survive can be in the form of papyrus fragments , plot summaries by later authors or quotations by other authors . In many cases these are just odd words in lexicons or grammar books with an attribution to the original author . Reconstructions of the texts are necessarily speculative and should be viewed with " wary but sympathetic scepticism " . In Ibycus ' case all that remains is a parchment fragment containing a mere six or seven words of verse accompanied with a few lines of scholia . Troilus is described in the poem as godlike and is killed outside Troy . From the scholia , he is clearly a boy . The scholia also refer to a sister , someone " watching out " and a murder in the sanctuary of Thymbrian Apollo . While acknowledging that these details may have been reports of other later sources , Sommerstein thinks it probable that Ibycus told the full ambush story and is thus the earliest identifiable source for it . Of Phrynicus , one fragment remains considered to refer to Troilus . This speaks of " the light of love glowing on his reddening cheeks " .
Of all these fragmentary pre @-@ Hellenistic sources , the most is known of Sophocles Troilos . Even so , only 54 words have been identified as coming from the play . Fragment 619 refers to Troilus as an andropais , a man @-@ boy . Fragment 621 indicates that Troilus was going to a spring with a companion to fetch water or to water his horses . A scholion to the Iliad states that Sophocles has Troilus ambushed by Achilles while exercising his horses in the Thymbra . Fragment 623 indicates that Achilles mutilated Troilus ' corpse by a method known as maschalismos . This involved preventing the ghost of a murder victim from returning to haunt their killer by cutting off the corpse 's extremities and stringing them under its armpits . Sophocles is thought to have also referred to the maschalismos of Troilus in a fragment taken to be from an earlier play Polyxene .
Sommerstein attempts a reconstruction of the plot of the Troilos , in which the title character is incestuously in love with Polyxena and tries to discourage the interest in marrying her shown by both Achilles and Sarpedon , a Trojan ally and son of Zeus . Sommerstein argues that Troilus is accompanied on his fateful journey to his death , not by Polyxena , but by his tutor , a eunuch Greek slave . Certainly there is a speaking role for a eunuch who reports being castrated by Hecuba and someone reports the loss of their adolescent master . The incestuous love is deduced by Sommerstein from a fragment of Strattis ' parody , assumed to partially quote Sophocles , and from his understanding that the Sophocles play intends to contrast barbarian customs , including incest , with Greek ones . Sommerstein also sees this as solving what he considers the need for an explanation of Achilles ' treatment of Troilus ' corpse , the latter being assumed to have insulted Achilles in the process of warning him off Polyxena . Italian professor of English and expert on Troilus , Piero Boitani , on the other hand , considers Troilus ' rejection of Achilles ' sexual advances towards him as sufficient motive for the mutilation .
= = = = The Alexandra = = = =
The first surviving text with more than the briefest mention of Troilus is a Hellenistic poem dating from no earlier than the 3rd century BC : the Alexandra by the tragedian Lycophron or a namesake of his . The poem consists of the obscure prophetic ravings of Cassandra :
This passage is explained in the Byzantine writer John Tzetzes ' scholia as a reference to Troilus seeking to avoid the unwanted sexual advances of Achilles by taking refuge in his father Apollo 's temple . When he refuses to come out , Achilles goes in and kills him on the altar . Lycophron 's scholiast also says that Apollo started to plan Achilles ' death after the murder . This begins to build up the elements of the version of Troilus ' story given above : he is young , much loved and beautiful ; he has divine ancestry , is beheaded by his rejected Greek lover and , we know from Homer , had something to do with horses . The reference to Troilus as a " lion whelp " hints at his having the potential to be a great hero , but there is no explicit reference to a prophecy linking the possibility of Troilus reaching adulthood and Troy then surviving .
= = = = Other written sources = = = =
No other extended passage about Troilus exists from before the Augustan Age by which time other versions of the character 's story have emerged . The remaining sources compatible with the standard myth are considered below by theme .
Parentage
The Apollodorus responsible for the Library lists Troilus last of Priam and Hecuba 's sons – a detail adopted in the later tradition – but then adds that it is said that the boy was fathered by Apollo . On the other hand , Hyginus includes Troilus in the middle of a list of Priam 's sons without further comment . In the early Christian writings the Clementine Homilies , it is suggested that Apollo was Troilus ' lover rather than his father .
Youthfulness
Horace emphasises Troilus ' youth by calling him inpubes ( " unhairy " , i.e. pre @-@ pubescent or , figuratively , not old enough to bear arms ) . Dio Chrysostom derides Achilles in his Trojan discourse , complaining that all that the supposed hero achieved before Homer was the capture of Troilus who was still a boy .
Prophecies
The First Vatican Mythographer reports a prophecy that Troy will not fall if Troilus reaches the age of twenty and gives that as a reason for Achilles ' ambush . In Plautus , Troilus ' death is given as one of three conditions that must be met before Troy would fall .
Beauty
Ibycus , in seeking to praise his patron , compares him to Troilus , the most beautiful of the Greeks and the Trojans . Dio Chrysostom refers to Troilus as one of many examples of different kinds of beauty . Statius compares a beautiful dead slave missed by his master to Troilus .
Object of pederastic love
Servius , in his scholia to the passage from Virgil discussed below , says that Achilles lures Troilus to him with a gift of doves . Troilus then dies in the Greek 's embrace . Robert Graves interprets this as evidence of the vigour of Achilles ' love @-@ making but Timothy Gantz considers that the " how or why " of Servius ' version of Troilus ' death is unclear . Sommerstein favours Graves 's interpretation saying that murder was not a part of ancient pederastic relations and that nothing in Servius suggests an intentional killing .
Location of ambush and death
A number of reports have come down of Troilus ' death variously mentioning water , exercising horses and the Thymbra , though they do not necessarily build into a coherent whole : the First Vatican Mythographer reports that Troilus was exercising outside Troy when Achilles attacked him ; a commentator on Ibycus says that Troilus was slain by Achilles in the Thymbrian precinct outside Troy ; Eustathius of Thessalonica 's commentary on the Iliad says that Troilus was exercising his horses there ; Apollodorus says that Achilles ambushed Troilus inside the temple of Thymbrian Apollo ; finally , Statius reports that Troilus was speared to death as he fled around Apollo 's walls . Gantz struggles to make sense of what he sees as contradictory material , feeling that Achilles ' running down of Troilus ' horse makes no sense if Troilus was just fleeing to the nearby temple building . He speculates that the ambush at the well and the sacrifice in the temple could be two different versions of the story or , alternatively , that Achilles takes Troilus to the temple to sacrifice him as an insult to Apollo .
Mourning
Trojan and , especially , Troilus ' own family 's mourning at his death seems to have epitomised grief at the loss of a child in classical civilization . Horace , Callimachus and Cicero all refer to Troilus in this way .
= = = Ancient art and artifact sources = = =
Ancient Greek art , as found in pottery and other remains , frequently depicts scenes associated with Troilus ' death : the ambush , the pursuit , the murder itself and the fight over his body . Depictions of Troilus in other contexts are unusual . One such exception , a red @-@ figure vase painting from Apulia c.340BC , shows Troilus as a child with Priam .
In the ambush , Troilus and Polyxena approach a fountain where Achilles lies in wait . This scene was familiar enough in the ancient world for a parody to exist from c.400BC showing a dumpy Troilus leading a mule to the fountain . In most serious depictions of the scene , Troilus rides a horse , normally with a second next to him . He is usually , but not always , portrayed as a beardless youth . He is often shown naked ; otherwise he wears a cloak or tunic . Achilles is always armed and armoured . Occasionally , as on the vase picture at [ 40 ] , or the fresco from the Tomb of the Bulls shown at the head of this article , either Troilus or Polyxena is absent , indicating how the ambush is linked to each of their stories . In the earliest definitely identified version of this scene , ( a Corinthian vase c.580BC ) , Troilus is bearded and Priam is also present . Both these features are unusual . More common is a bird sitting on the fountain ; normally a raven , symbol of Apollo and his prophetic powers and thus a final warning to Troilus of his doom ; sometimes a cock , a common love gift suggesting that Achilles attempted to seduce Troilus . In some versions , for example an Attic amphora in the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston dating from c.530BC ( seen here [ 41 ] ) Troilus has a dog running with him . On one Etruscan vase from the 6th century BC , doves are flying from Achilles to Troilus , suggestive of the love gift in Servius . The fountain itself is conventionally decorated with a lion motif .
The earliest identified version of the pursuit or chase is from the third quarter of the 7th century BC . Next chronologically is the best known version on the François Vase by Kleitias . The number of characters shown on pottery scenes varies with the size and shape of the space available . The François Vase is decorated with several scenes in long narrow strips . This means that the Troilus frieze is heavily populated . In the centre , ( which can be seen at the Perseus Project at [ 42 ] , ) is the fleeing Troilus , riding one horse with the reins of the other in his hand . Below them is the vase — which Polyxena ( partially missing ) , who is ahead of him , has dropped . Achilles is largely missing but it is clear that he is armoured . They are running towards Troy [ 43 ] where Antenor gestures towards Priam . Hector and Polites , brothers of Troilus , emerge from the city walls in the hope of saving Troilus . Behind Achilles [ 44 ] are a number of deities , Athena , Thetis , ( Achilles ' mother , ) Hermes , and Apollo ( just arriving ) . Two Trojans are also present , the woman gesturing to draw the attention of a youth filling his vase . As the deities appear only in pictorial versions of the scene , their role is subject to interpretation . Boitani , sees Athena as urging Achilles on and Thetis as worried by the arrival of Apollo who , as Troilus ' protector , represents a future threat to Achilles . He does not indicate what he thinks Hermes may be talking to Thetis about . The classicist and art historian Professor Thomas H. Carpenter sees Hermes as a neutral observer , Athena and Thetis as urging Achilles on and the arrival of Apollo as the artist 's indication of the god 's future role in Achilles ' death . As Athena is not traditionally a patron of Achilles , Sommerstein sees her presence in this and other portrayals of Troilus ' death as evidence of the early standing of the prophetic link between Troilus ' death and the fall of Troy , Athena being driven , above all , by her desire for the city 's destruction .
The standard elements in the pursuit scene are Troilus , Achilles , Polyxena , the two horses and the fallen vase . On two tripods , an amphora and a cup , Achilles already has Troilus by the hair . A famous vase in the British Museum , which gave the Troilos Painter the name by which he is now known , shows the two Trojans looking back in fear , as the beautiful youth whips his horse on . This vase can be seen at the Perseus Project site [ 45 ] . The water spilling from the shattered vase below Troilus ' horse , symbolises the blood he is about to shed .
The iconography of the eight legs and hooves of the horses can be used to identify Troilus on pottery where his name does not appear ; for example , on a Corinthian vase where Troilus is shooting at his pursuers and on a peaceful scene on a Chalcidian krater where the couples Paris and Helen , Hector and Andromache are labelled , but the youth riding one of a pair of horses is not .
A later Southern Italian interpretation of the story is on vases held respectively at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg . On the krater from c.380 @-@ 70BC at [ 46 ] Troilus can be seen with just one horse trying to defend himself with a throwing spear ; on the hydria from c.325 @-@ 320BC at [ 47 ] , Achilles is pulling down the youth 's horse .
The earliest known depictions of the death or murder of Troilus are on shield bands from the turn of the 7th into the 6th century BC found at Olympia . On these , a warrior with a sword is about to stab a naked youth at an altar . On one , Troilus clings to a tree ( which Boitani takes for the laurel sacred to Apollo ) . A crater contemporary with this shows Achilles at the altar holding the naked Troilus upside down while Hector , Aeneas and an otherwise unknown Trojan Deithynos arrive in the hope of saving the youth . In some depictions Troilus is begging for mercy . On an amphora , Achilles has the struggling Troilus slung over his shoulder as he goes to the altar . Boitani , in his survey of the story of Troilus through the ages , considers it of significance that two artifacts ( a vase and a sarcophagus ) from different periods link Troilus ' and Priam 's death by showing them on the two sides of the same item , as if they were the beginning and end of the story of the fall of Troy . Achilles is the father of Neoptolemus , who slays Priam at the altar during the sack of Troy . Thus the war opens with a father killing a son and closes with a son killing a father .
Some pottery shows Achilles , already having killed Troilus , using his victim 's severed head as a weapon as Hector and his companions arrive too late to save him ; some includes the watching Athena , occasionally with Hermes . At [ 48 ] is one such picture showing Achilles fighting Hector over the altar . Troilus ' body is slumped and the boy 's head is either flying through the air , or stuck to the end of Achilles ' spear . Athena and Hermes look on . Aeneas and Deithynos are behind Hector .
Sometimes details of the closely similar deaths of Troilus and Astyanax are exchanged . [ 49 ] shows one such image where it is unclear which murder is portrayed . The age of the victim is often an indicator of which story is being told and the relative small size here might point towards the death of Astyanax , but it is common to show even Troilus as much smaller than his murderer , ( as is the case with the kylix pictured to the above right ) . Other factors in this case are the presence of Priam ( suggesting Astyanax ) , that of Athena ( suggesting Troilus ) and the fact that the scene is set outside the walls of Troy ( again suggesting Troilus ) .
= = = A variant myth : the boy @-@ soldier overwhelmed = = =
A different version of Troilus ' death appears on a red @-@ figure cup by Oltos . Troilus is on his knees , still in the process of drawing his sword when Achilles ' spear has already stabbed him and Aeneas comes too late to save him . Troilus wears a helmet , but it is pushed up to reveal a beautiful young face . This is the only such depiction of Troilus ' death in early figurative art . However , this version of Troilus as a youth defeated in battle appears also in written sources .
= = = = Virgil and other Latin sources = = = =
This version of the story appears in Virgil 's Aeneid , in a passage describing a series of paintings decorating the walls of a temple of Juno . The painting immediately next to the one depicting Troilus shows the death of Rhesus , another character killed because of prophecies linked to the fall of Troy . Other pictures are similarly calamitous .
In a description whose pathos is heightened by the fact that it is seen through a compatriot 's eyes , Troilus is infelix puer ( " unhappy boy " ) who has met Achilles in " unequal " combat . Troilus ' horses flee while he , still holding their reins , hangs from the chariot , his head and hair trailing behind while the backward @-@ pointing spear scribbles in the dust . ( The First Vatican Mythographer elaborates on this story , explaining that Troilus 's body is dragged right to the walls of Troy . )
In his commentary on the Aeneid , Servius considers this story as a deliberate departure from the " true " story , bowdlerized to make it more suitable for an epic poem . He interprets it as showing Troilus overpowered in a straight fight . Gantz , however , argues that this might be a variation of the ambush story . For him , Troilus is unarmed because he went out not expecting combat and the backward pointing spear was what Troilus was using as a goad in a manner similar to characters elsewhere in the Aeneid . Sommerstein , on the other hand believes that the spear is Achilles ' that has struck Troilus in the back . The youth is alive but mortally wounded as he is being dragged towards Troy .
An issue here is the ambiguity of the word congressus ( " met " ) . It often refers to meeting in a conventional combat but can have reference to other types of meetings too . A similar ambiguity appears in Seneca and in Ausonius ' 19th epitaph , narrated by Troilus himself . The dead prince tells how he has been dragged by his horses after falling in unequal battle with Achilles . A reference in the epitaph comparing Troilus ' death to Hector 's suggests that Troilus dies later than in the traditional narrative , something that , according to Boitani , also happens in Virgil .
= = = = Greek writers in the boy @-@ soldier tradition = = = =
Quintus of Smyrna , in a passage whose atmosphere Boitani describes as sad and elegiac , retains what for Boitani are the two important issues of the ancient story , that Troilus is doomed by Fate and that his failure to continue his line symbolises Troy 's fall . In this case , there is no doubt that Troilus entered battle knowingly , for in the Posthomerica Troilus 's armour is one of the funerary gifts after Achilles ' own death . Quintus repeatedly emphasises Troilus 's youth : he is beardless , virgin of a bride , childlike , beautiful , the most godlike of all Hecuba 's children . Yet he was lured by Fate to war when he knew no fear and was struck down by Achilles ' spear just as a flower or corn that has borne no seed is killed by the gardener .
In the Ephemeridos belli Trojani ( Journal of the Trojan War ) , supposedly written by Dictys the Cretan during the Trojan War itself , Troilus is again a defeated warrior , but this time captured with his brother Lycaon . Achilles vindictively orders that their throats be slit in public , because he is angry that Priam has failed to advance talks over a possible marriage to Polyxena . Dictys ' narrative is free from gods and prophecy but he preserves Troilus ' loss as something to be greatly mourned :
= = The story in the medieval and Renaissance eras = =
In the sources considered so far , Troilus ' only narrative function is his death . The treatment of the character changes in two ways in the literature of the medieval and renaissance periods . First , he becomes an important and active protagonist in the pursuit of the Trojan War itself . Second , he becomes an active heterosexual lover , rather than the passive victim of Achilles ' pederasty . By the time of John Dryden 's neo @-@ classical adaptation of Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida it is the ultimate failure of his love affair that defines the character .
For medieval writers , the two most influential ancient sources on the Trojan War were the purported eye @-@ witness accounts of Dares the Phrygian , and Dictys the Cretan , which both survive in Latin versions . In Western Europe the Trojan side of the war was favoured and therefore Dares was preferred over Dictys . Although Dictys ' account positions Troilus ' death later in the war than was traditional , it conforms to antiquity 's view of him as a minor warrior if one at all . Dares ' De excidio Trojae historia ( History of the Fall of Troy ) introduces the character as a hero who takes part in events beyond the story of his death .
Authors of the 12th and 13th centuries such as Joseph of Exeter and Albert of Stade continued to tell the legend of the Trojan War in Latin in a form that follows Dares ' tale with Troilus remaining one of the most important warriors on the Trojan side . However , it was two of their contemporaries , Benoît de Sainte @-@ Maure in his French verse romance and Guido delle Colonne in his Latin prose history , both also admirers of Dares , who were to define the tale of Troy for the remainder of the medieval period . The details of their narrative of the war were copied , for example , in the Troy Books of Laud and Lydgate and also Raoul Lefevre 's Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye . Lefevre , through Caxton 's 1474 printed translation , was in turn to become the best known retelling of the Troy story in Renaissance England and influenced Shakespeare among others . The story of Troilus as a lover , invented by Benoît and retold by Guido , generated a second line of influence . It was taken up as a tale that could be told in its own right by Boccaccio and then by Chaucer who established a tradition of retelling and elaborating the story in English @-@ language literature , which was to be followed by Henryson and Shakespeare .
= = = The second Hector , wall of Troy = = =
As indicated above , it was through the writings of Dares the Phrygian that the portrayal of Troilus as an important warrior was transmitted to medieval times . However , some authors have argued that the tradition of Troilus as a warrior may be older . The passage from the Iliad described above is read by Boitani as implying that Priam put Troilus on a par with the very best of his warrior sons . The description of him in that passage as hippiocharmên is rendered by some authorities as meaning a warrior charioteer rather than merely someone who delights in horses . The many missing and partial literary sources might include such a hero . Yet only the one ancient vase shows Troilus as a warrior falling in a conventional battle .
= = = = Dares = = = =
In Dares , Troilus is the youngest of Priam 's royal sons , bellicose when peace or truces are suggested and the equal of Hector in bravery , " large and most beautiful ... brave and strong for his age , and eager for glory . " He slaughters many Greeks , wounds Achilles and Menelaus , routs the Myrmidons more than once before his horse falls and traps him and Achilles takes the opportunity to put an end to his life . Memnon rescues the body , something that didn 't happen in many later versions of the tale . Troilus ' death comes near the end of the war not at its beginning . He now outlives Hector and succeeds him as the Trojans ' great leader in battle . Now it is in reaction to Troilus 's death that Hecuba plots Achilles ' murder .
As the tradition of Troilus the warrior advances through time , the weaponry and the form of combat change . Already in Dares he is a mounted warrior , not a charioteer or foot warrior , something anachronistic to epic narrative . In later versions he is a knight with armour appropriate to the time of writing who fights against other knights and dukes . His expected conduct , including his romance , conforms to courtly or other values contemporary to the writing .
= = = = Description in medieval texts = = = =
The medieval texts follow Dares ' structuring of the narrative in describing Troilus after his parents and four royal brothers Hector , Paris , Deiphobus and Helenus .
Joseph of Exeter , in his Daretis Phrygii Ilias De bello Troiano ( The Iliad of Dares the Phrygian on the Trojan War ) , describes the character as follows :
Benoît de Sainte @-@ Maure 's description in Le Roman de Troie ( The Romance of Troy ) is too long to quote in full , but influenced the descriptions that follow . Benoît goes into details of character and facial appearance avoided by other writers . He tells that Troilus was " the fairest of the youths of Troy " with :
Guido delle Colonne 's Historia destructionis Troiae ( History of the Destruction of Troy ) says :
The Laud Troy Book :
The boy who in the ancient texts was never Achilles ' match has now become a young knight , a worthy opponent to the Greeks .
= = = = Knight and war leader = = = =
In the medieval and renaissance tradition , Troilus is one of those who argue most for war against the Greeks in Priam 's council . In several texts , for example the Laud Troy Book , he says that those who disagree with him are better suited to be priests . Guido , and writers who follow him , have Hector , knowing how headstrong his brother can be , counsel Troilus not to be reckless before the first battle .
In the medieval texts , Troilus is a doughty knight throughout the war , taking over , as in Dares , after Hector 's death as the main warrior on the Trojan side . Indeed he is named as a second Hector by Chaucer and Lydgate . These two poets follow Boccaccio in reporting that Troilus kills thousands of Greeks . However , the comparison with Hector can be seen as acknowledging Troilus ' inferiority to his brother through the very need to meention him .
In Joseph , Troilus is greater than Alexander , Hector , Tydeus , Bellona and even Mars , and kills seven Greeks with one blow of his club . He does not strike at opponents ' legs because that would demean his victory . He only fights knights and nobles , and disdains facing the common warriors .
Albert of Stade saw Troilus as so important that he is the title character of his version of the Trojan War . He is " the wall of his homeland , Troy 's protection , the rose of the military .... "
The list of Greek leaders Troilus wounds expands in the various re @-@ tellings of the war from the two in Dares to also include Agamemnon , Diomedes and Menelaus . Guido , in keeping his promise to tell of all Troilus ' valorous deeds , describes many incidents . Troilus is usually victorious but is captured in an early battle by Menestheus before his friends rescue him . This incident reappears in the imitators of Guido , such as Lefevre and the Laud and Lydgate Troy Books .
= = = = Death = = = =
Within the medieval Trojan tradition , Achilles withdraws from fighting in the war because he is to marry Polyxena . Eventually , so many of his followers are killed that he decides to rejoin the battle leading to Troilus ' death and , in turn , to Hecuba , Polyxena and Paris plotting Achilles ' murder .
Albert and Joseph follow Dares in having Achilles behead Troilus as he tries to rise after his horse falls . In Guido and authors he influenced , Achilles specifically seeks out Troilus to avenge a previous encounter where Troilus has wounded him . He therefore instructs the Myrmidons to find Troilus , surround him and cut him off from rescue .
In the Laud Troy Book , this is because Achilles almost killed Troilus in the previous fight but the Trojan was rescued . Achilles wants to make sure that this does not happen again . This second combat is fought as a straight duel between the two with Achilles , the greater warrior , winning .
In Guido , Lefevre and Lydgate Troilus ' killer 's behaviour is very different , shorn of any honour . Achilles waits until his men have killed Troilus ' horse and cut loose his armour . Only then
does Achilles attack and behead him .
In an echo of the Iliad , Achilles drags the corpse behind his horse . Thus , the comparison with the Homeric Hector is heightened and , at the same time , aspects of the classical Troilus 's fate are echoed .
= = = The lover = = =
The last aspect of the character of Troilus to develop in the tradition has become the one for which he is best known . Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde and Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida both focus on Troilus in his role as a lover . This theme is first introduced by Benoît de Sainte @-@ Maure in the Roman de Troie and developed by Guido delle Colonne . Boccaccio 's Il Filostrato is the first book to take the love @-@ story as its main theme . Robert Henryson and John Dryden are other authors who dedicate works to it .
The story of Troilus ' romance developed within the context of the male @-@ centred conventions of courtly love and thus the focus of sympathy was to be Troilus and not his beloved . As different authors recreated the romance , they would interpret it in ways affected both by the perspectives of their own times and their individual preoccupations . The story as it would later develop through the works of Boccaccio , Chaucer and Shakespeare is summarised below .
= = = = The story of Troilus and Cressida = = = =
Troilus used to mock the foolishness of other young men 's love affairs . But one day he sees Cressida in the temple of Athena and falls in love with her . She is a young widow and daughter of the priest Calchas who has defected to the Greek camp .
Embarrassed at having become exactly the sort of person he used to ridicule , Troilus tries to keep his love secret . However , he pines for Cressida and becomes so withdrawn that his friend Pandarus asks why he is unhappy and eventually persuades Troilus to reveal his love .
Pandarus offers to act as a go @-@ between , even though he is Cressida 's relative and should be guarding her honour . Pandarus convinces Cressida to admit that she returns Troilus ' love and , with Pandarus 's help , the two are able to consummate their feelings for each other .
Their happiness together is brought to an end when Calchas persuades Agamemnon to arrange Cressida 's return to him as part of a hostage exchange in which the captive Trojan Antenor is freed . The two lovers are distraught and even think of eloping together but they finally cooperate with the exchange . Despite Cressida 's initial intention to remain faithful to Troilus , the Greek warrior Diomedes wins her heart . When Troilus learns of this , he seeks revenge on Diomedes and the Greeks and dies in battle . Just as Cressida betrayed Troilus , Antenor was later to betray Troy .
= = = = Benoît and Guido = = = =
In the Roman de Troie , the daughter of Calchas whom Troilus loves is called Briseis . Their relationship is first mentioned once the hostage exchange has been agreed :
In Guido , Troilus ' and Diomedes ' love is now called Briseida . His version ( a history ) is more moralistic and less touching , removing the psychological complexity of Benoît 's ( a romance ) and the focus in his retelling of the love triangle is firmly shifted to the betrayal of Troilus by Briseida . Although Briseida and Diomedes are most negatively caricatured by Guido 's moralising , even Troilus is subject to criticism as a " fatuous youth " prone , as in the following , to youthful faults .
Briseis , at least for now , is equally affected by the possibility of separation from her lover . Troilus goes to her room and they spend the night together , trying to comfort each other . Troilus is part of the escort to hand her over the next day . Once she is with the Greeks , Diomedes is immediately struck by her beauty . Although she is not hostile , she cannot accept him as her lover . Meanwhile Calchas tells her to accept for herself that the gods have decreed Troy 's fall and that she is safer now she is with the Greeks .
A battle soon takes place and Diomedes unseats Troilus from his horse . The Greek sends it as a gift to Briseis / Briseida with an explanation that it had belonged to her old lover . In Benoît , Briseis complains at Diomedes ' seeking to woo her by humbling Troilus , but in Guido all that remains of her long speech in Benoît is that she " cannot hold him in hatred who loves me with such purity of heart . "
Diomedes soon does win her heart . In Benoît , it is through his display of love and she gives him her glove as a token . Troilus seeks him out in battle and utterly defeats him . He saves Diomedes ' life , only so that he can bring her a message of Troilus ' contempt . In Guido , Briseida 's change of heart comes after Troilus wounds Diomedes seriously . Briseida tends Diomedes and then decides to take him as her lover , because she does not know if she will ever meet Troilus again .
In later medieval tellings of the war , the episode of Troilus and Briseida / Cressida is acknowledged and often given as a reason for Diomedes and Troilus to seek each other out in battle . The love story also becomes one that is told separately .
= = = = Boccaccio = = = =
The first major work to take the story of Troilus ' failed love as its central theme is Giovanni Boccaccio 's Il Filostrato . The title means " the one struck down by love " . There is an overt purpose to the text . In the proem , Boccaccio himself is Filostrato and addresses his own love who has rejected him .
Boccaccio introduces a number of features of the story that were to be taken up by Chaucer . Most obvious is that Troilus ' love is now called Criseida or Cressida . An innovation in the narrative is the introduction of the go @-@ between Pandarus . Troilus is characterised as a young man who expresses whatever moods he has strongly , weeping when his love is unsuccessful , generous when it is .
Boccaccio fills in the history before the hostage exchange as follows . Troilus mocks the lovelorn glances of other men who put their trust in women before falling victim to love himself when he sees Cressida , here a young widow , in the Palladium , the temple of Athena . Troilus keeps his love secret and is made miserable by it . Pandarus , Troilus ' best friend and Cressida 's cousin in this version of the story , acts as go @-@ between after persuading Troilus to explain his distress . In accordance with the conventions of courtly love , Troilus ' love remains secret from all except Pandarus , until Cassandra eventually divines the reason for Troilus ' subsequent distress .
After the hostage exchange is agreed , Troilus suggests elopement , but Cressida argues that he should not abandon Troy and that she should protect her honour . Instead , she promises to meet him within ten days . Troilus spends much of the intervening time on the city walls , sighing in the direction where Cressida has gone . No horses or sleeves , as used by Guido or Benoît , are involved in Troilus ' learning of Cressida 's change of heart . Instead a dream hints at what has happened , and then the truth is confirmed when a brooch – previously a gift from Troilus to Cressida – is found on Diomedes ' looted clothing . In the mean time , Cressida has kept up the pretence in their correspondence that she still loves Troilus . After Cressida 's betrayal is confirmed , Troilus becomes ever fiercer in battle .
= = = = Chaucer and his successors = = = =
Geoffrey Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde reflects a more humorous world @-@ view than Boccaccio 's poem . Chaucer does not have his own wounded love to display and therefore allows himself an ironic detachment from events and Criseyde is more sympathetically portrayed . In contrast to Boccaccio 's final canto , which returns to the poet 's own situation , Chaucer 's palinode has Troilus looking down laughing from heaven , finally aware of the meaninglessness of earthly emotions . About a third of the lines of the Troilus are adapted from the much shorter Il Filostrato , leaving room for a more detailed and characterised narrative .
Chaucer 's Criseyde is swayed by Diomedes playing on her fear . Pandarus is now her uncle , more worldly @-@ wise and more active in what happens and so Troilus is more passive . This passivity is given comic treatment when Troilus passes out in Criseyde 's bedroom and is lifted into her bed by Pandarus . Troilus ' repeated emotional paralysis is comparable to that of Hamlet who may have been based on him . It can be seen as driven by loyalty both to Criseyde and to his homeland , but has also been interpreted less kindly .
Another difference in Troilus ' characterisation from the Filostrato is that he is no longer misogynistic in the beginning . Instead of mocking lovers because of their putting trust in women , he mocks them because of how love affects them . Troilus ' vision of love is stark : total commitment offers total fulfilment ; any form of failure means total rejection . He is unable to comprehend the subtleties and complexities that underlie Criseyde 's vacillations and Pandarus ' manoeuvrings .
In his storytelling Chaucer links the fates of Troy and Troilus , the mutual downturn in fortune following the exchange of Criseyde for the treacherous Antenor being the most significant parallel . Little has changed in the general sweep of the plot from Boccaccio . Things are just more detailed , with Pandarus , for example , involving Priam 's middle son Deiphobus during his attempts to unite Troilus and Cressida . Another scene that Chaucer adds was to be reworked by Shakespeare . In it , Pandarus seeks to persuade Cressida of Troilus ' virtues over those of Hector , before uncle and niece witness Troilus returning from battle to public acclaim with much damage to his helmet . Chaucer also includes details from the earlier narratives . So , reference is made not just to Boccaccio 's brooch , but to the glove , the captured horse and the battles of the two lovers in
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Benoît and Guido .
Because of the great success of the Troilus , the love story was popular as a free standing tale to be retold by English @-@ language writers throughout the 15th and 16th centuries and into the 17th century . The theme was treated either seriously or in burlesque . For many authors , true Troilus , false Cresseid and pandering Pandarus became ideal types eventually to be referred to together as such in Shakespeare .
During the same period , English retellings of the broader theme of the Trojan War tended to avoid Boccaccio 's and Chaucer 's additions to the story , though their authors , including Caxton , commonly acknowledged Chaucer as a respected predecessor . John Lydgate 's Troy Book is an exception . Pandarus is one of the elements from Chaucer 's poem that Lydgate incorporates , but Guido provides his overall narrative framework . As with other authors , Lydgate 's treatment contrasts Troilus ' steadfastness in all things with Cressida 's fickleness . The events of the war and the love story are interwoven . Troilus ' prowess in battle markedly increases once he becomes aware that Diomedes is beginning to win Cressida 's heart , but it is not long after Diomedes final victory in love when Achilles and his Myrmidon 's treacherously attack and kill Troilus and maltreat his corpse , concluding Lydgate 's treatment of the character as an epic hero , who is the purest of all those who appear in the Troy Book .
Of all the treatments of the story of Troilus and , especially , Cressida in the period between Chaucer and Shakespeare , it is Robert Henryson 's that receives the most attention from modern critics . His poem The Testament of Cresseid is described by the Middle English expert C. David Benson as the " only fifteenth century poem written in Great Britain that begins to rival the moral and artistic complexity of Chaucer 's Troilus " . In the Testament the title @-@ character is abandoned by Diomedes and then afflicted with leprosy so that she becomes unrecognizable to Troilus . He pities the lepers she is with and is generous to her because she reminds him of the idol of her in his mind , but he remains the virtuous pagan knight and does not achieve the redemption that she does . Even so , following Henryson Troilus was seen as a representation of generosity .
= = = = Shakespeare and Dryden = = = =
Another approach to Troilus ' love story in the centuries following Chaucer is to treat Troilus as a fool , something Shakespeare does in allusions to him in plays leading up to Troilus and Cressida . In Shakespeare 's " problem play " there are elements of Troilus the fool . However , this can be excused by his age . He is an almost beardless youth , unable to fully understand the workings of his own emotions , in the middle of an adolescent infatuation , more in love with love and his image of Cressida than the real woman herself . He displays a mixture of idealism about eternally faithful lovers and of realism , condemning Hector 's " vice of mercy " . His concept of love involves both a desire for immediate sexual gratification and a belief in eternal faithfulness . He also displays a mixture of constancy , ( in love and supporting the continuation of war ) and inconsistency ( changing his mind twice in the first scene on whether to go to battle or not ) . More a Hamlet than a Romeo , by the end of the play his illusions of love shattered and Hector dead , Troilus might show signs of maturing , recognising the nature of the world , rejecting Pandarus and focusing on revenge for his brother 's death rather than for a broken heart or a stolen horse . The novelist and academic Joyce Carol Oates , on the other hand , sees Troilus as beginning and ending the play in frenzies – of love and then hatred . For her , Troilus is unable to achieve the equilibrium of a tragic hero despite his learning experiences , because he remains a human @-@ being who belongs to a banal world where love is compared to food and cooking and sublimity cannot be achieved .
Troilus and Cressida 's sources include Chaucer , Lydgate , Caxton and Homer , but there are creations of Shakespeare 's own too and his tone is very different . Shakespeare wrote at a time when the traditions of courtly love were dead and when England was undergoing political and social change . Shakespeare 's treatment of the theme of Troilus ' love is much more cynical than Chaucer 's , and the character of Pandarus is now grotesque . Indeed , all the heroes of the Trojan War are degraded and mocked . Troilus ' actions are subject to the gaze and commentary of both the venal Pandarus and of the cynical Thersites who tells us :
The action is compressed and truncated , beginning in medias res with Pandarus already working for Troilus and praising his virtues to Cressida over those of the other knights they see returning from battle , but comically mistaking him for Deiphobus . The Trojan lovers are together only one night before the hostage exchange takes place . They exchange a glove and a sleeve as love tokens , but the next night Ulysses takes Troilus to Calchas ' tent , significantly near Menelaus ' tent . There they witness Diomedes successfully seducing Cressida after taking Troilus ' sleeve from her . The young Trojan struggles with what his eyes and ears tell him , wishing not to believe it . Having previously considered abandoning the senselessness of war in favour of his role of lover and having then sought to reconcile love and knightly conduct , he is now left with war as his only role .
Both the fights between Troilus and Diomedes from the traditional narrative of Benoît and Guido take place the next day in Shakespeare 's retelling . Diomedes captures Troilus ' horse in the first fight and sends it to Cressida . Then the Trojan triumphs in the second , though Diomedes escapes . But in a deviation from this narrative it is Hector , not Troilus , whom the Myrmidons surround in the climatic battle of the play and whose body is dragged behind Achilles ' horse . Troilus himself is left alive vowing revenge for Hector 's death and rejecting Pandarus . Troilus ' story ends , as it began , in medias res with him and the remaining characters in his love @-@ triangle remaining alive .
Some seventy years after Shakespeare 's Troilus was first presented , John Dryden re @-@ worked it as a tragedy , in his view strengthening Troilus ' character and indeed the whole play , by removing many of the unresolved threads in the plot and ambiguities in Shakespeare 's portrayal of the protagonist as a believable youth rather than a clear @-@ cut and thoroughly sympathetic hero . Dryden described this as " remov [ ing ] that heap of Rubbish , under which many excellent thoughts lay bury 'd . " His Troilus is less passive on stage about the hostage exchange , arguing with Hector over the handing over of Cressida , who remains faithful . Her scene with Diomedes that Troilus witnesses is her attempt " to deceive deceivers " . She throws herself at her warring lovers ' feet to protect Troilus and commits suicide to prove her loyalty . Unable to leave a still living Troilus on the stage , as Shakespeare did , Dryden restores his death at the hands of Achilles and the Myrmidons but only after Troilus has killed Diomedes . According to P. Boitani , Dryden goes to " the opposite extreme of Shakespeare 's ... solv [ ing ] all problems and therefore kill [ ing ] the tragedy " .
= = Modern versions = =
After Dryden 's Shakespeare , Troilus is almost invisible in literature until the 20th century . Keats does refer to Troilus and Cressida in the context of the " sovereign power of love " and Wordsworth translated some of Chaucer but , as a rule , love was portrayed in ways far different from how it is in the Troilus and Cressida story . Boitani sees the two World Wars and the 20th century 's engagement " in the recovery of all sorts of past myths " as contributing to a rekindling of interest in Troilus as a human being destroyed by events beyond his control . Similarly Foakes sees the aftermath of one World War and the threat of a second as key elements for the successful revival of Shakespeare 's Troilus in two productions in the first half of the 20th century , and one of the authors discussed below names Barbara Tuchman 's The March of Folly : From Troy to Vietnam as the trigger for his wish to retell the Trojan war .
Boitani discusses the modern use of the character of Troilus in a chapter entitled Eros and Thanatos . Love and death , the latter either as a tragedy in itself or as an epic symbol of Troy 's own destruction , therefore , are the two core elements of the Troilus myth for the editor of the first book @-@ length survey of it from ancient to modern times . He sees the character as incapable of transformation on a heroic scale in the manner of Ulysses and also blocked from the possibility of development as an archetypal figure of troubled youth by Hamlet . Troilus ' appeal for the 20th and 21st century is his very humanity .
Belief in the medieval tradition of the Trojan War that followed Dictys and Dares survived the Revival of Learning in the Renaissance and the advent of the first English translation of the Iliad in the form of Chapman 's Homer . ( Shakespeare used both Homer and Lefevre as sources for his Troilus . ) However the two supposedly eye @-@ witness accounts were finally discredited by Jacob Perizonius in the early years of the 18th century . With the chief source for his portrayal as one of the most active warriors of the Trojan War undermined , Troilus has become an optional character in modern Trojan fiction , except for those that retell the love story itself . Lindsay Clarke and Phillip Parotti , for example , omit Troilus altogether . Hilary Bailey includes a character of that name in Cassandra : Princess of Troy but little remains of the classical or medieval versions except that he fights Diomedes . However , some of the over sixty re @-@ tellings of the Trojan War since 1916 do feature the character .
= = = Once more a man @-@ boy = = =
One consequence of the reassessment of sources is the reappearance of Troilus in his ancient form of andropais . Troilus takes this form in Giraudoux 's The Trojan War Will Not Take Place , his first successful reappearance in the 20th century . Troilus is a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old boy whom Helen has noticed following her around . After turning down the opportunity to kiss her when she offers and when confronted by Paris , he eventually accepts the kiss at the end of the play just as Troy has committed to war . He is thus a symbol of the whole city 's fatal fascination with Helen .
Troilus , in one of his ancient manifestations as a boy @-@ soldier overwhelmed , reappears both in works Boitani discusses and those he does not . Christa Wolf in her Kassandra features a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Troilus , first to die of all the sons of Priam . The novel 's treatment of the character 's death has features of both medieval and ancient versions . Troilus has just gained his first love , once more called Briseis . It is only after his death that she is to betray him . On the first day of the war , Achilles seeks Troilus out and forces him into battle with the help of the Myrmidons . Troilus tries to fight in the way he has been taught princes should do , but Achilles strikes the boy down and leaps on top of him , before attempting to throttle him . Troilus escapes and runs to the sanctuary of the temple of Apollo where he is helped to take his armour off . Then , in " some of the most powerful and hair @-@ raising " words ever written on Troilus ' death , Wolf describes how Achilles enters the temple , caresses then half @-@ throttles the terrified boy , who lies on the altar , before finally beheading him like a sacrificial victim . After his death , the Trojan council propose that Troilus be officially declared to have been twenty in the hope of avoiding the prophecy about him but Priam , in his grief , refuses as this would insult his dead son further . In " exploring the violent underside of sexuality and the sexual underside of violence " , Wolf revives a theme suggested by the ancient vases where an " erotic aura seems to pervade representations of a fully armed Achilles pursuing or butchering a naked , boyish Troilus " .
Colleen McCullough is another author who incorporates both the medieval Achilles ' seeking Troilus out in battle and the ancient butchery at the altar . Her The Song of Troy includes two characters , Troilos and Ilios , who are Priam 's youngest children – both with prophecies attached and both specifically named for the city 's founders . They are eight and seven respectively when Paris leaves for Greece and somewhere in their late teens when killed . Troilos is made Priam 's heir after Hector 's death , against the boy 's will . Odysseus 's spies learn of the prophecy that Troy will not fall if Troilos comes of age . Achilles therefore seeks him out in the next battle and kills him with a spear @-@ cast to his throat . In a reference to the medieval concept of Troilus as the second Hector , Automedon observes that " with a few more years added , he might have made another Hektor . " Ilios is the last son of Priam to die , killed at the altar in front of his parents by Neoptolemos .
Marion Zimmer Bradley 's The Firebrand features an even younger Troilus , just twelve when he becomes Hector 's charioteer . ( His brother wants to keep a protective eye on him now he is ready for war . ) Troilus helps kill Patroclus . Although he manages to escape the immediate aftermath of Hector 's death , he is wounded . After the Trojans witness Achilles ' treatment of Hector 's body , Troilus insists on rejoining the battle despite his wounds and Hecuba 's attempts to stop him . Achilles kills him with an arrow . The mourning Hecuba comments that he did not want to live because he blamed himself for Hector 's death .
= = = Reinventing the love story = = =
A feature already present in the treatments of the love story by Chaucer , Henryson , Shakespeare and Dryden is the repeated reinvention of its conclusion . Boitani sees this as a continuing struggle by authors to find a satisfying resolution to the love triangle . The major difficulty is the emotional dissatisfaction resulting from how the tale , as originally invented by Benoît , is embedded into the pre @-@ existing narrative of the Trojan War with its demands for the characters to meet their traditional fates . This narrative has Troilus , the sympathetic protagonist of the love story , killed by Achilles , a character totally disconnected from the love triangle , Diomedes survive to return to Greece victorious , and Cressida disappear from consideration as soon as it is known that she has fallen for the Greek . Modern authors continue to invent their own resolutions .
William Walton 's Troilus and Cressida is the best known and most successful of a clutch of 20th @-@ century operas on the subject after the composers of previous eras had ignored the possibility of setting the story . Christopher Hassall 's libretto blends elements of Chaucer and Shakespeare with inventions of its own arising from a wish to tighten and compress the plot , the desire to portray Cressida more sympathetically and the search for a satisfactory ending . Antenor is , as usual , exchanged for Cressida but , in this version of the tale , his capture has taken place while he was on a mission for Troilus . Cressida agrees to marry Diomedes after she has not heard from Troilus . His apparent silence , however , is because his letters to her have been intercepted . Troilus arrives at the Greek camp just before the planned wedding . When faced with her two lovers , Cressida chooses Troilus . He is then killed by Calchas with a knife in the back . Diomedes sends his body back to Priam with Calchas in chains . It is now the Greeks who condemn " false Cressida " and seek to keep her but she commits suicide .
Before Cressida kills herself she sings to Troilus to
This is one of three references in 20th century literature to Troilus on the banks of the River Styx that Boitani has identified . Louis MacNeice 's long poem The Stygian Banks explicitly takes its name from Shakespeare who has Troilus compare himself to " a strange soul upon the Stygian banks " and call upon Pandarus to transport him " to those fields where I may wallow in the lily beds " . In MacNeice 's poem the flowers have become children , a paradoxical use of the traditionally sterile Troilus who
The third reference to the Styx is in Christopher Morley 's The Trojan Horse . A return to the romantic comedy of Chaucer is the solution that Boitani sees to the problem of how the love story can survive Shakespeare 's handling of it . Morley gives us such a treatment in a book that revels in its anachronism . Young Lieutenant ( soon to be Captain ) Troilus lives his life in 1185 BC where he has carefully timetabled everything from praying , to fighting , to examining his own mistakes . He falls for Cressida after seeing her , as ever , in the Temple of Athena where she wears black , as if mourning the defection of her father , the economist Dr Calchas . The flow of the plot follows the traditional story , but the ending is changed once again . Troilus ' discovery of Cressida 's change of heart happens just before Troy falls . ( Morley uses Boccaccio 's version of the story of a brooch , or in this case a pin , attached to a piece of Diomedes ' armour as the evidence that convinces the Trojan . ) Troilus kills Diomedes as he exits the Trojan Horse , stabbing him in the throat where the captured piece of armour should have been . Then Achilles kills Troilus . The book ends with an epilogue . The Trojan and Greek officers exercise together by the River Styx , all enmities forgotten . A new arrival ( Cressida ) sees Troilus and Diomedes and wonders why they seem familiar to her . What Boitani calls " a rather dull , if pleasant , ataraxic eternity " replaces Chaucer 's Christian version of the afterlife .
In Eric Shanower 's graphic novel Age of Bronze , currently still being serialised , Troilus is youthful but not the youngest son of Priam and Hecuba . In the first two collected volumes of this version of the Trojan War , Shanower provides a total of six pages of sources covering the story elements of his work alone . These include most of the fictional works discussed above from Guido and Boccaccio down to Morley and Walton . Shanower begins Troilus ' love story with the youth making fun of Polyxena 's love for Hector and in the process accidentally knocking aside Cressida 's veil . He follows the latter into the temple of Athena to gawp at her . Pandarus is the widow Cressida 's uncle encouraging him . Cressida rejects Troilus ' initial advances not because of wanting to act in a seemly manner , as in Chaucer or Shakespeare , but because she thinks of him as just a boy . However , her uncle persuades her to encourage his affection , in the hope that being close to a son of Priam will protect against the hostility of the Trojans to the family of the traitor Calchas . Troilus ' unrequited love is used as comic relief in an otherwise serious retelling of the Trojan War cycle . The character is portrayed as often indecisive and ineffectual as on the second page of this episode sample at the official site [ 50 ] . It remains to be seen how Shanower will further develop the story .
Troilus is rewarded a rare happy ending in the early Doctor Who story The Myth Makers . The script was written by Donald Cotton who had previously adapted Greek tales for the BBC Third Programme . The general tone is one of high comedy combined with a " genuine atmosphere of doom , danger and chaos " with the BBC website listing A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum as an inspiration together with Chaucer , Shakespeare , Homer and Virgil . Troilus is again an andropais " seventeen next birthday " described as " looking too young for the military garb " . Both " Cressida " and " Diomede " are the assumed names of the Doctor 's companions . Thus Troilus ' jealousy of Diomede , whom he believes also loves Cressida , is down to confusion about the real situation . In the end " Cressida " decides to leave the Doctor for Troilus and saves the latter from the fall of Troy by finding an excuse to get him away from the city . In a reversal of the usual story , he is able to avenge Hector by killing Achilles when they meet outside Troy . ( The story was originally intended to end more conventionally , with " Cressida " , despite her love for him , apparently abandoning him for " Diomede " , but the producers declined to renew co @-@ star Maureen O 'Brien 's contract , requiring that her character Vicki be written out . )
= = Annotated bibliography = =
Andrew , M. ( 1989 ) " The Fall of Troy in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Troilus and Criseyde " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 75 – 93 ) . Focuses on a comparison between how the Gawain poet and Chaucer handle their themes .
Antonelli , R. ( 1989 ) " The Birth of Criseyde : an exemplary triangle ; ' Classical ' Troilus and the question of love at the Anglo @-@ Norman court " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 21 – 48 ) . Examination of Benoît 's and Guido 's treatment of the love triangle .
Benson , C. D. ( 1980 ) The History of Troy in Middle English Literature , Woodbridge : D. S. Brewer . A study examining Guido 's influence on writers on Troy up to Lydgate and Henryson . Troilus is discussed throughout .
Benson , C. D. ( 1989 ) " True Troilus and False Cresseid : the descent from tragedy " in Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 153 – 170 ) . Examination of the Troilus and Cressida story in the minor authors between Chaucer and Shakespeare .
Boitani , P. ( ed . ) ( 1989 ) The European Tragedy of Troilus , Oxford , Clarendon Press ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 812970 @-@ X. This was the first full book to examine the development of Troilus through the ages . The outer chapters are by Boitani reviewing the history of Troilus as a character from ancient to modern times . The middle chapters , looking at the tale through the medieval and renaissance periods , are by other authors with several examining Chaucer and Shakespeare .
Burgess , J. S. ( 2001 ) The Tradition of the Trojan War in Homer and the Epic Cycle , Baltimore , Johns Hopkins University Press ISBN 0 @-@ 8018 @-@ 7890 @-@ X. Examination of the Trojan War in archaic literary and artifact sources . Troilus mentioned in passing .
Carpenter , T. H. ( 1991 ) Art and Myth in Ancient Greece , London , Thames and Hudson . Contains roughly four pages ( 17 – 21 ) of text and , separately , fourteen illustrations ( figs . 20 – 22 , 25 – 35 ) on Troilos in ancient art . ISBN 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 20236 @-@ 2 .
Coghill , N. ( ed . ) ( 1971 : pp. xi – xxvi ) " Introduction " in : Geoffrey Chaucer , Troilus and Criseyde , London : Penguin ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044239 @-@ 1 . Discusses Chaucer , his sources and key themes in the Troilus . The main body of the book is a translation into modern English by Coghill .
Foakes , R. A. ( ed . ) ( 1987 ) Troilus and Cressida ( The New Penguin Shakespeare . ) London : Penguin ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 070741 @-@ 7 . Annotated edition with introduction .
Frazer , R. M. ( trans . ) ( 1966 ) The Trojan War : the Chronicles of Dictys of Crete and Dares the Phrygian . Bloomington : Indiana University Press . English translation of Dictys ' Ephemeridos belli Trojani ( pp. 17 – 130 ) and Dares ' De excidio Trojae historia ( pp. 131 – 68 ) with Introduction ( pp. 3 – 15 ) covering the theme of Troy in medieval literature and endnotes .
Gantz , T. ( 1993 ) Early Greek Myth . Baltimore : Johns Hopklins U. P. A standard sourcebook on Greek myths . Multiple versions available . There are approximately six pages ( 597 – 603 ) plus notes discussing Troilos in Volume 2 of the two volume edition . Page references are to the two volume 1996 Johns Hopkins Paperbacks edition ( ISBN 0 @-@ 8018 @-@ 5362 @-@ 1 ) .
Gordon , R. K. ( 1934 ) The Story of Troilus . London : J. M. Dent . ( Dutton Paperback ed . New York : E. P. Dutton , 1964 . ) This book has been reprinted by various publishers . It contains a translated selection from Le Roman de Troie , a full translation of Il filostrato and the unmodernised texts of Troilus and Criseyde and The Testament of Cresseid . Page references are to the 1995 printing by University of Toronto Press and the Medieval Academy of America ( ISBN 0 @-@ 8020 @-@ 6368 @-@ 3 ) .
Graves , R. ( 1955 ) The Greek Myths . Another standard sourcebook available in many editions . Troilus is discussed in Volume 2 of the two volume version . Page references are to the 1990 Penguin printing of the 1960 revision ( ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 001027 @-@ 0 ) .
Lewis , C. S. ( 1936 ) The Allegory of Love . Oxford : Clarendon Press . Influential work on the literature of courtly love , including Chaucer 's Troilus .
Lombardo , A. ( 1989 ) " Fragments and Scraps : Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida " in Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 199 – 217 ) . Sets the cynical tone of Troilus in the context of changes both in the world and the theatre .
Lyder , T. D. ( 2010 ) " Chaucer 's second Hector : the triumphs of Diomede and the possibility of epic in Troilus and Criseyde . ( Critical essay ) " , Medium Aevum , March 22 , 2010 , Accessed through Highbeam , August 30 , 2012 ( subscription required ) .
March , J. ( 1998 ) Dictionary of Classical Mythology . London : Cassell . ISBN 0 @-@ 304 @-@ 34626 @-@ 8 Illustrated dictionary with Troilus covered in one page . Page references are to 1998 hardback edition .
Natali , G. ( 1989 ) " A Lyrical Version : Boccaccio 's Filostrato " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 49 – 73 ) . An examination of the Filostrato in context .
Novak , M. E ( ed . ) ( 1984 ) The Works of John Dryden : Volume XIII Plays : All for Love ; Oedipus ; Troilus and Cressida . Berkeley : University of California Press ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 05124 @-@ 6 . Volume in complete edition with annotated texts and commentaries .
Oates , J. O. ( 1966 / 7 ) " The Tragedy of Existence : Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida " by Joyce Carol Oates . Originally published as two separate essays , in Philological Quarterly , Spring 1967 , and Shakespeare Quarterly , Spring 1966 . Available online at [ 51 ] ( Checked 17 August 2007 ) .
Palmer , K. ( ed . ) ( 1982 ) Troilus and Cressida . ( The Arden Shakespeare . ) London : Methuen . Edition of the play as part of respected series , with extensive notes , appendices and 93 page introduction . References are to 1997 printing by Thomas Nelson & Sons , London ( ISBN 0 @-@ 17 @-@ 443479 @-@ 0 ) .
Rufini , S. ( 1989 ) " ' To Make that Maxim Good ' : Dryden 's Shakespeare " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 243 – 80 ) . Discussion of Dryden 's remodeling of Troilus .
Sommer , H. O. ( ed . ) ( 1894 ) The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye : written in French by Raoul Lefèvre ; translated and printed by William Caxton ( about A.D. 1474 ) ; the first English printed book , now faithfully reproduced , with a critical introduction , index and glossary and eight pages in photographic facsimile . London : David Nutt . Edition of Caxton translation of Lefevre with introduction of 157 pages . Page references are to AMS Press 1973 reprinting ( ISBN 0 @-@ 404 @-@ 56624 @-@ 3 ) .
Sommerstein , A. H. , Fitzpatrick , D. & Talby , T. ( 2007 ) Sophocles : Selected Fragmentary Plays . Oxford : Aris and Phillips ( ISBN 0 @-@ 85668 @-@ 766 @-@ 9 ) . This is a product of the University of Nottingham 's project on Sophocles ' fragmentary plays . The book contains a 52 @-@ page chapter ( pp. 196 – 247 ) on the Troilos , including the Greek text with translation and commentary of the few words and phrases known to come from the play . The introduction to this chapter includes approximately seven pages on the literary and artistic background on Troilus plus discussion and a putative reconstruction of the plot of the play itself . This , the chapter on the Polyxene , where Troilus is also discussed , and the general introduction to the book are all solely by Sommerstein and therefore he alone is referenced above .
Torti , A. ( 1989 ) " From ' History ' to ' Tragedy ' : The Story of Troilus and Criseyde in Lydgate 's Troy Book and Henryson 's Testament of Cresseid " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : pp. 171 – 97 ) . Examination of the two most important authors considering the love story between Chaucer and Shakespeare .
Windeatt , B. ( 1989 ) " Classical and Medieval Elements in Chaucer 's Troilus " , in : Boitani ( 1989 : p . 111 – 131 )
Woodford , S. ( 1993 ) The Trojan War in Ancient Art . Ithaca : Cornell University Press ISBN 0 @-@ 7156 @-@ 2468 @-@ 7 . Contains approximately four illustrated pages ( 55 – 59 ) on Troilos in ancient art .
= M @-@ 199 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 199 is a state trunkline highway near Albion in the US state of Michigan . The western terminus of the 4 @.@ 030 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 486 km ) road is in Sheridan Township at exit 119 off Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . The eastern terminus is a junction with Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) downtown Albion . The entire road is within Calhoun County and runs through rural farm fields outside of Albion ; in town it is a residential street . The M @-@ 199 designation had previously been applied to a highway in the Upper Peninsula in the 1930s . The current highway was previously part of other highways in the first half of the 20th century before it was transferred to local control around 1960 . It was later transferred back to state control in 1998 and remains unchanged since .
= = Route description = =
As a two @-@ lane roadway , M @-@ 199 starts at exit 119 along I @-@ 94 northwest of Albion in Sheridan Township . The highway runs southward through farm fields along 26 Mile Road before curving to the southwest on Star Commonwealth Road near the campus of the Montcalm School for Boys and Girls , a private boarding school . At the end of this curves , the highway follows 25 ½ Mile Road southward to the intersection with Michigan Avenue . There M @-@ 199 turns easterly along Michigan Avenue and passes south of Montcalm Lake . The trunkline runs parallel to a line of the Norfolk Southern Railway until about the intersection with 26 ½ Mile Road . At the intersection with 27 Mile Road , M @-@ 199 enters the city of Albion , and the street name changes to Austin Avenue . In town , the highway follows a four @-@ lane street through residential neighborhoods . The trunkline passes the northern edge of McAuliffe Park and runs parallel to the Kalamazoo River . At the intersection with Eaton Street , the highway meets BL I @-@ 94 , where M @-@ 199 ends while the business loop continues southeasterly on Austin Avenue at this corner .
M @-@ 199 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that 1 @,@ 185 vehicles per day used the roadway between I @-@ 94 and Michigan Avenue and between 3 @,@ 174 and 4 @,@ 042 vehicles used section along the combined Michigan and Austin avenues . No sections of M @-@ 199 have been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
In the middle of 1933 , an earlier designation of M @-@ 199 was used for a short spur route from US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) into Daggett in Menominee County . This highway was decommissioned in 1939 .
The current M @-@ 199 was once part of M @-@ 17 starting around July 1 , 1919 . When the US Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , the highway was incorporated into US 12 . The Albion area was bypassed by a freeway ( now I @-@ 94 ) at the end of the 1950s , and Michigan Avenue was turned over to local control . The current highway routing was transferred to state control on October 1 , 1998 , and the M @-@ 199 designation was subsequently assigned to the trunkline . The highway has remained unchanged since designation .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Calhoun County .
= Rutland Barrington =
Rutland Barrington ( 15 January 1853 – 31 May 1922 ) was an English singer , actor , comedian , and Edwardian musical comedy star . Best remembered for originating the lyric baritone roles in the Gilbert and Sullivan operas from 1877 to 1896 , his performing career spanned more than four decades . He also wrote at least a dozen works for the stage .
After two years with a comic touring company , Barrington joined Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's opera company and , over the next two decades , created a number of memorable comic opera roles , including Captain Corcoran in H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1878 ) , the Sergeant of Police in The Pirates of Penzance ( 1880 ) , and Pooh Bah in The Mikado ( 1885 ) , among many others . Failing in an 1888 attempt to become a theatrical manager , Barrington refocused his energies on acting and occasional playwriting .
Beginning in 1896 and continuing for ten years , Barrington played in a series of very successful musical comedies under the management of George Edwardes at Daly 's Theatre , specialising in comic portrayals of pompous rulers or other persons of authority . One of the most popular features of his performances was his insertion of topical songs , or verses of songs , into these musical comedies . After leaving Daly 's he continued to appear in musical comedy roles and performed in music hall . He also essayed a few Shakespeare and other dramatic roles and appeared in a few silent films . His career ended in 1918 , after which he suffered a stroke and lived the last few years of his life in poverty .
= = Life and career = =
Barrington was born George Rutland Fleet at Penge , England , the fourth son of John George Fleet ( 1818 – 1902 ) , a wholesale sugar dealer in London . His mother was the former Esther Faithfull ( 1823 – 1908 ) of Headley , Surrey , England . He was educated at Headley rectory and then at the Merchant Taylors ' School in London . His six brothers included Indologist John Faithfull Fleet ( 1847 – 1917 ) , Vice @-@ Admiral Henry Louis Fleet ( 1850 – 1923 ) , The Reverend Ferdinand Francis Fleet ( 1857 – 1940 ) and actor Duncan James Fleet ( 1860 – 1909 ) . He also had two sisters , one named Esther ( one boy and one girl died in infancy ) . Barrington was employed in a bank for eighteen months as a young man , but had no enthusiasm for such work , as he had ambitions to be an actor . Barrington 's father did not want his son to go on the stage and forbade him to do so until he came of age . His aunt , activist and dramatic reader Emily Faithfull , helped him to make his first connections in the theatre . Barrington was a keen football player in the mid @-@ 1870s .
In 1880 , Barrington married Ellen Louisa " Louie " Jane Stainer ( 1851 – 1922 ) , from Woolwich in Kent , the daughter of William Stainer and the former Lucy Mary Wheeler . Barrington and his wife had no children .
= = = Early career ; joining D 'Oyly Carte 's company = = =
Barrington adopted his stage name by 1874 and made his professional debut with Henry Neville 's company at the Olympic Theatre that year , playing the role of Sir George Barclay in Tom Taylor 's Lady Clancarty , and then in The Ticket @-@ of @-@ Leave Man ( by Taylor ) and as LaFleur in The Two Orphans , among others . In July 1875 , Barrington was playing Jules Frantz in Lessons in Harmony at St. George 's Hall , London . A review in The Era reviewed the young actor 's performance : " A good figure and expressive face were known to be among his advantages , but it was , perhaps , not suspected that he was a capital vocalist , a skilled musician , and an actor of remarkable ease and animation . " Later that year , he was hired to appear in the touring company of Mr and Mrs Howard Paul . The company played a hectic schedule of entertainments .
In 1877 , producer Richard D 'Oyly Carte approached Mrs Paul to play the part of Lady Sangazure in the new Gilbert and Sullivan opera that Carte was producing , The Sorcerer . She conditioned her acceptance on her 24 @-@ year @-@ old protege , Barrington , being given a part , and so Barrington was cast in the role of Dr Daly , the vicar . When Barrington auditioned before W. S. Gilbert , the young actor questioned his own suitability for comic opera , but Gilbert , who required that his actors play their sometimes @-@ absurd lines in all earnestness , explained the casting choice : " He 's a staid , solid swine , and that 's what I want . "
In his 1908 autobiography , Barrington repeats a line from a first night review of his performance as Dr Daly in The Sorcerer : " Mr Barrington is wonderful . He always manages to sing one @-@ sixteenth of a tone flat ; it 's so like a vicar . " Barrington went on to say that producer Richard D 'Oyly Carte later came to see him , saying , " ... what 's the matter ? ... some one has just come out of the stalls to tell me you are singing in tune . It will never do . " Barrington said that " This pleased me so much that I have never sung flat since , except , of course , when I wished .... " Several contemporaries did find Barrington 's singing occasionally flat , including Francois Cellier . Many years later , in her memoir , Ellaline Terriss wrote : " ... dear old Rutland scarcely ever did sing in tune – but how grand he was .... He had a beautifully clear diction and a marvellous sense of timing – and was one of the finest singers of the then popular topical songs that our stage ever knew . " Percy Hetherington Fitzgerald wrote of Barrington in his 1899 book , The Savoy Opera , " His peculiar tranquil or impassive style has always exactly suited the characters allotted to him , and it would now be difficult to imagine a Savoy opera without him . However , Barrington 's performance as Dr Daly impressed the critics and audiences , and he won a permanent place in D 'Oyly Carte 's company .
= = = Pinafore to Ruddigore = = =
From 1877 to 1894 , except for a foray into the business of theatrical management in 1888 – 89 , Barrington remained with the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , creating comic lyric baritone roles in all of Gilbert and Sullivan 's new operas with the exception of The Yeomen of the Guard ( 1888 ) . In 1878 , he created the role of Lord Chamberlain in Albery 's and Cellier 's curtain raiser , The Spectre Knight , played the Counsel for the Plaintiff in the revival of Trial by Jury , and created the role of Captain Corcoran in Gilbert and Sullivan 's first smash hit , H.M.S. Pinafore . Barrington was a big man , which led to one of Gilbert 's famous quips in a rehearsal for Pinafore . Gilbert asked Barrington to sit " pensively " on one of the ship 's skylights . Barrington lowered himself into position , and the hastily sewn set piece collapsed under his weight . Gilbert remarked , " No , that 's ex @-@ pensively . "
Barrington also created the role of Pennyfather in Desprez and Cellier 's curtain raiser , After All ! ( 1878 ) . Barrington played Mr. Cox in Carte 's revival of Cox and Box ( 1879 ) and created the role of the Sergeant of Police in The Pirates of Penzance in London ( 1880 ) . Barrington was proud that the Sergeant 's song generally received two encores . Eventually , he asked Gilbert to write an " encore verse " for the song . Gilbert replied that " encore " means " sing it again . " Also around this time , Barrington 's short play entitled Quid Pro Quo , written with Cunningham Bridgeman and composed by Wilfred Bendall , was first produced .
The next role that Barrington created was Archibald Grosvenor in Patience ( 1881 ) . Casting the large Barrington as the " perfect " and " infallible " incarnation of manly beauty mirrored a joke in Gilbert 's earlier A Sensation Novel , in which he cast the large , ungainly Corney Grain , in a similar role . This was followed by the role of Earl Mountararat in Iolanthe ( 1882 ; he also appeared in Margate , Kent in an 1882 Christmas pantomime of Robin Hood written by George Thorne ) , and King Hildebrand in Princess Ida ( 1884 ) . This role was Barrington 's least favourite of the series , and he attributed Ida 's relatively short run , at least in part , to the lack of prominence of this role in the opera . During the run of Princess Ida , a comedy written by Barrington and called Bartonmere Towers was first presented at a matinee .
After Princess Ida closed , Barrington reprised his role of Dr Daly and also played the Learned Judge in the revival of The Sorcerer and Trial ( 1884 — over the years , Barrington frequently played the Judge in D 'Oyly Carte 's and various " benefit " performances of Trial ) . He also played Dr Dozey in Sydney Grundy 's The Silver Shield ( 1885 ) . In 1885 , he created his most famous role , that of Pooh @-@ Bah in The Mikado . The Theatre 's review was typical of the critics ' unanimous praise : " The Pooh @-@ Bah of Mr. Barrington is a masterpiece of pompous stolidity – nothing could possibly be better of its kind – and this popular comedian provided his many admirers with an agreeable surprise by singing every note of the music allotted to him in perfect tune . " In June 1885 , he played together with Eric Lewis ( Grossmith 's understudy ) in an afternoon " musical dialogue , " Mad to Act , with words by Barrington and music by Wilfred Bendall , at the Japanese Village in Knightsbridge .
Next , Barrington created the role of Sir Despard Murgatroyd in Ruddigore and then reprised his original roles in revivals of Pinafore , Pirates and The Mikado in ( 1887 – 88 ) . During rehearsals for Ruddigore , and after discussions with other cast members on the subject , Barrington complained to Gilbert about the guests that Gilbert frequently invited to rehearsals , saying that he didn 't wish to be taught the stage business " before a row of ... strangers . " Gilbert forgave Barrington for the outburst and even discontinued the invitations . However , if anyone sat in the stalls during later rehearsals awaiting their cue , Gilbert would expostulate , " You mustn 't sit here ; Barrington won 't like it . "
The Times said of Barrington 's performances , " His strength lay in his quietness of voice and movement ... in perfect contrast to the restlessness of George Grossmith . No one could be so ridiculously pompous ... he moved with effect . There was a native drollery in his lightly rolling dance , a comic dignity in his rotund and placid , yet twinklingly intelligent face . He always gave the impression of thoroughly enjoying whatever he did .... " In its review of Ruddigore , The Theatre wrote , " Better comic acting than his , or more highly finished , I have never seen and never wish to see . "
= = = Theatrical management experiment and later Savoy roles = = =
In 1888 , Barrington left the D 'Oyly Carte organisation and the Savoy Theatre , missing the chance to create the role of Wilfred in Yeomen , to try his hand at theatrical management , leasing the St. James 's Theatre . The Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News lamented Barrington 's departure , suggesting that he was irreplaceable in the Savoy Operas : " He is the typical embodiment ... of that British Philistinism , the pachydermatous hide of which Mr. Gilbert has so long striven to penetrate by the process of holding up its own image before it . " In March 1888 , Barrington played Chrysos in a benefit performance of Gilbert 's Pygmalion and Galatea , a role that he would reprise at a number of " benefit " performances over the years . Later in the year , at the St. James 's , Barrington produced The Dean 's Daughter by Grundy and F. C. Phillips , also playing the Very Reverend Augustus St. Aubyn , Dean of Southwark . Though the piece was unsuccessful , Barrington 's performance was praised , and it launched several theatrical careers , including Olga Nethersole 's . Gilbert 's Brantinghame Hall ( an abject failure ) , starred Barrington as Mr. Thursby , as well as his younger brother , Duncan Fleet , Julia Neilson and Lewis Waller ( the latter two in their professional stage debuts ) . Its companion piece was A Patron Saint . This experiment in management proved to be a financial disaster for Barrington , and he was bankrupt after only five months .
After Brantinghame Hall closed , he again played Chrysos in a revival of Pygmalion and Galatea at the Lyceum Theatre and played Mr Barnes in his own play , To the Death , at the Olympic Theatre . He then appeared at the Comedy Theatre under Charles Hawtrey in Pickwick ( 1889 ) , a successful one @-@ act musical play by F. C. Burnand and Edward Solomon based on an episode in The Pickwick Papers , which Barrington ended up directing and in which he alternated in the roles of Pickwick and Baker . He then created the role of Lt. Col. Cadbury in a Grundy farce called Merry Margate and next played Tosser in a comic opera by Solomon and George P. Hawtrey called Penelope , in which he co @-@ starred with Dan Leno . He also played a number of other roles in other theatres throughout 1889 until he rejoined D 'Oyly Carte to create the role of Giuseppe in The Gondoliers in December 1889 , remaining for the long run of that last Gilbert and Sullivan hit .
After The Gondoliers closed in 1891 , Gilbert and Sullivan were estranged for a time . Barrington appeared in a few more roles at other theatres , including as Robert Plushly in his own piece , A Swarry Dansong , a duologue with music by Solomon . He then returned to the Savoy to star as Punka , the Rajah of Chutneypore , in Dance , Desprez , and Solomon 's The Nautch Girl . In August 1891 , Barrington and Jessie Bond took a leave of absence from that show to tour a series of " musical duologues " ( written by Barrington and composed by Edward Solomon ) throughout Britain , returning to the Savoy in November . In 1892 , Barrington played the title role of the Reverend William Barlow , in Grundy and Solomon 's The Vicar of Bray and then toured with that show . In September 1892 , he created the role of Rupert Vernon in Grundy and Sullivan 's Haddon Hall , making a critical splash . For example , The Figaro wrote : " Barrington ... kept the audience in shouts of laughter the whole time [ he was ] on the stage . " In 1893 , he created the role of the Proctor in J. M. Barrie , Arthur Conan Doyle , and Ernest Ford 's Jane Annie , which was unsuccessful at the Savoy but ran more successfully on tour . Barrington , a lifelong golf enthusiast , speculated that one reason for the failure of Jane Annie in London was that the game of golf was not yet popular there . Despite the failure of the piece , Barrington was singled out for critical praise . Barrington next created the role of King Paramount I in Gilbert and Sullivan 's Utopia , Limited , opening in October of that year . Barrington 's comedy , Bartonmere Towers , was also produced at a matinee at the Savoy in 1893 , with Barrington playing Sir James Hanbury .
Barrington left the company again when Utopia closed , taking over the role of Dr Montague Brierly in the Hall , Greenbank and Jones musical , A Gaiety Girl ( in 1894 ) produced at Daly 's Theatre by George Edwardes and on tour . Next , he appeared in Gilbert and Carr 's His Excellency ( 1894 – 95 ) creating the role of the Regent . The stage was dominated by a heroic @-@ size statue of him in the role . Barrington also wrote and directed a one @-@ act operetta , A Knight Errant , with music by Alfred Caldicott , which played as a companion piece with His Excellency at the Lyric Theatre . At Toole 's Theatre , he played John Rimple in Thoroughbred , by Ralph R. Lumley , in early 1895 . J. L. Toole had originated the role but took ill and was forced to retire . Barrington also played in some German Reed Entertainments , including a revival of Happy Arcadia at St. George 's Hall in 1895 , starring Fanny Holland , and toured with the German Reeds .
In November 1895 , Barrington returned to the Savoy as Pooh @-@ Bah in another revival of The Mikado . In March 1896 he created the role of Ludwig in Gilbert and Sullivan 's last opera , The Grand Duke . In his 1908 memoir , Barrington wrote of some difficulty in getting along with his co @-@ star , Ilka Pálmay , who was cast in the role of Julia . As usual , the critics were pleased with Barrington , " on whom ... falls the chief burden of the piece , is intensely funny as Ludwig , more especially in the absurd costume of the second act .... " After another revival of The Mikado , Barrington again left the Savoy .
= = = Musical comedy and music hall = = =
Beginning in 1896 , Barrington spent ten very successful years under the management of George Edwardes at Daly 's Theatre , first taking over the role of the Marquis Imari in The Geisha ( 1896 ) , and then creating roles in a number of other Edwardian musical comedy hits , including Marcus Pomponius in A Greek Slave ( 1898 ) , Yen How in San Toy ( 1899 ) , The Rajah of Bhong in A Country Girl ( 1902 ) , and Boobhamba in The Cingalee ( 1904 ) , among others .
In these roles , he had more freedom to add " gags " than Gilbert had given him at the Savoy , and he often wrote topical verses to Adrian Ross 's songs . However , Barrington complained that , in these musical comedies , the plot was nearly eliminated during rehearsals . During this time , Barrington often reprised his role as the Judge at benefit matinees . Also during this period , several of Barrington 's stage works were produced by Arthur Bourchier at the Garrick Theatre , including Barrington 's popular children 's " fairy play " called Water Babies , based on Charles Kingsley 's 1863 book , with music by Frederick Rosse , Albert Fox and Alfred Cellier ( 1902 ) . Barrington directed Water Babies . Another Barrington play , Little Black Sambo and Little White Barbara , with music by Wilfred Bendall , enjoyed 31 matinees at the Garrick in 1904 .
Barrington appeared between 1905 and 1907 in several musical comedies , including The White Chrysanthemum ( 1905 ) , as Admiral Sir Horatio Armitage , K.C.B. ( with Isabel Jay , Louie Pounds and Henry Lytton ) . He also played Barnabas Goodeve in a revival of the farce The Candidate by Justin Huntly McCarthy at Wyndham 's Theatre with Charles Wyndham . He then briefly played his old role in a revival of The Geisha in 1906 , after which he created the role of the Pharaoh of Egypt in the successful comic opera Amasis ( 1906 ) , by Philip Michael Faraday and Frederick Fenn , both in London ( where it ran for over 200 performances ) and on extended tours .
During this period , Barrington performed his own solo music hall sketches at the Coliseum and produced various tours , performing standard topical songs of the day , including the only song that he recorded , " The Moody Mariner " ( 1905 ) . This was based on a story in Many Cargoes by Jacobs , with lyrics by Barrington and music by Walter Slaughter . Other such sketches and songs included " Man the Lifeboat " ( 1907 ) , written by Leedham Bantock ( starring also William Terriss ) " Across the Silent Way " and " The Tramp " by Barrington and Slaughter , and Mummydom ( 1907 ) , which he had written in 1903 with Wilfrid Bendall ( Sullivan 's former secretary ) based on his play of the same name that had been produced some years earlier at Penley 's Theatre . He also wrote a Rip van Winkle sketch for Courtice Pounds and a one @-@ act musical drama , No. 442 , His Escape ( 1907 ) , with music by H. M. Higgs . Barrington became known for writing topical verses on short
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@-@ 29 hangar ) . Most of the hospital complex and many barracks remain , as does a chow hall , chapel , swimming pool and many other World War II @-@ era buildings . In 2009 , a hangar at the base dubbed The Manhattan Project 's Enola Gay Hangar was listed as one of the most endangered historic sites in the United States . A local group , " Historic Wendover Airfield " , is attempting to preserve the former base .
Numerous films and television shows have been filmed using Wendover Field , including The Philadelphia Experiment ( 1984 ) , Con Air ( 1995 ) , Mulholland Falls ( 1996 ) , Independence Day ( 1996 ) , Hulk ( 2003 ) and The Core ( 2003 ) .
= Whaam ! =
Whaam ! is a 1963 diptych painting by the American artist Roy Lichtenstein . It is one of the best @-@ known works of pop art , and among Lichtenstein 's most important paintings . Whaam ! was first exhibited at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New York City in 1963 , and purchased by the Tate Gallery , London , in 1966 . It has been on permanent display at Tate Modern since 2006 .
The left @-@ hand panel shows a fighter plane firing a rocket that , in the right @-@ hand panel , hits a second plane which explodes in flames . Lichtenstein conceived the image from several comic @-@ book panels . He transformed his primary source , a panel from a 1962 war comic book , by presenting it as a diptych while altering the relationship of the graphical and narrative elements . Whaam ! is regarded for the temporal , spatial and psychological integration of its two panels . The painting 's title is integral to the action and impact of the painting , and displayed in large onomatopoeia in the right panel .
Lichtenstein studied as an artist before and after serving in the United States Army during World War II . He practiced anti @-@ aircraft drills during basic training , and he was sent for pilot training but the program was canceled before it started . Among the topics he tackled after the war were romance and war . He depicted aerial combat in several works . Whaam ! is part of a series on war that he worked on between 1962 and 1964 , and along with As I Opened Fire ( 1964 ) is one of his two large war @-@ themed paintings .
= = Background = =
In 1943 Lichtenstein left his study of painting and drawing at The Ohio State University to serve in the U.S. Army , where he remained until January 1946 . After entering training programs for languages , engineering , and piloting , all of which were canceled , he served as an orderly , draftsman and artist in noncombat roles . One of his duties at Camp Shelby was enlarging Bill Mauldin 's Stars and Stripes cartoons . He was sent to Europe with an engineer battalion , but did not see active combat . As a painter , he eventually settled on an abstract @-@ expressionist style with parodist elements . Around 1958 he began to incorporate hidden images of cartoon characters such as Mickey Mouse and Bugs Bunny into his abstract works .
By the late 1950s and early 1960s , the American art world had grown accustomed to and tired of the subjective angst and " hot " look of abstract expressionism . A new generation of artists emerged with a more objective , " cool " approach characterized by the art movements known today as minimalism , hard @-@ edge painting , color field painting , the neo @-@ Dada movement , Fluxus , and pop art , all of which re @-@ defined the avant @-@ garde contemporary art of the time . Pop art and neo @-@ Dada re @-@ introduced and changed the use of imagery by appropriating subject matter from commercial art , consumer goods , art history and mainstream culture . Lichtenstein achieved international recognition during the 1960s as one of the initiators of the pop art movement in America . Regarding his use of imagery MoMA curator Bernice Rose observed that Lichtenstein was interested in " challenging the notion of originality as it prevailed at that time . "
Lichtenstein 's early comics @-@ based works such as Look Mickey focused on popular animated characters . By 1963 he had progressed to more serious , dramatic subject matter , typically focusing on romantic situations or war scenes . Comic books as a genre were held in low esteem at the time . Public antipathy led in 1954 to examination of alleged connections between comic books and youth crime during Senate investigations into juvenile delinquency ; by the end of that decade , comic books were regarded as material of " the lowest commercial and intellectual kind " , according to Mark Thistlethwaite of the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth . Lichtenstein was not a comic @-@ book enthusiast as a youth , but was enticed as an artist by the challenge of creating art based on a subject remote from the typical " artistic image " . Lichtenstein admitted he was " very excited about , and very interested in , the highly emotional content yet detached impersonal handling of love , hate , war , etc . , in these cartoon images . "
Lichtenstein 's romance and war comic @-@ based works took heroic subjects from small source panels and monumentalized them . Whaam ! is comparable in size to the generally large canvases painted at that time by the abstract expressionists . It is one of Lichtenstein 's many works with an aeronautical theme . He said that " the heroes depicted in comic books are fascist types , but I don 't take them seriously in these paintings — maybe there is a point in not taking them seriously , a political point . I use them for purely formal reasons . "
= = History = =
Whaam ! adapts a panel by Irv Novick from the " Star Jockey " story from issue No. 89 of DC Comics ' All @-@ American Men of War ( Feb. 1962 ) . The original forms part of a dream sequence in which fictional World War II P @-@ 51 Mustang pilot Johnny Flying Cloud , " the Navajo ace " , foresees himself flying a jet fighter while shooting down other jet planes . In Lichtenstein 's painting , both the attacking and target planes are replaced by different types of aircraft . Paul Gravett suggests that Lichtenstein substituted the attacking plane with an aircraft from " Wingmate of Doom " illustrated by Jerry Grandenetti in the subsequent issue ( # 90 , April 1962 ) , and that the target plane was borrowed from a Russ Heath drawing in the third panel of page 3 of the " Aces Wild " story in the same issue No. 89 . The painting also omits the speech bubble from the source in which the pilot exclaims " The enemy has become a flaming star ! "
A smaller , single @-@ panel oil painting by Lichtenstein around the same time , Tex ! , has a similar composition , with a plane at the lower left shooting an air @-@ to @-@ air missile at a second plane that is exploding in the upper right , with a word bubble . The same issue of All @-@ American Men of War was the inspiration for at least three other Lichtenstein paintings , Okay Hot @-@ Shot , Okay ! , Brattata and Blam , in addition to Whaam ! and Tex ! The graphite pencil sketch , Jet Pilot was also from that issue . Several of Lichtenstein 's other comics @-@ based works are inspired by stories about Johnny Flying Cloud written by Robert Kanigher and illustrated by Novick , including Okay Hot @-@ Shot , Okay ! , Jet Pilot and Von Karp .
Lichtenstein repeatedly depicted aerial combat between the United States and the Soviet Union . In the early and mid @-@ 1960s , he produced " explosion " sculptures , taking subjects such as the " catastrophic release of energy " from paintings such as Whaam ! and depicting them in freestanding and relief forms . In 1963 , he was parodying a variety of artworks , from advertising and comics and to " high art " modern masterpieces by Cézanne , Mondrian , Picasso and others . At the time , Lichtenstein noted that " the things that I have apparently parodied I actually admire . "
Lichtenstein 's first solo exhibition was held at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New York City , from 10 February to 3 March 1962 . It sold out before its opening . The exhibition included Look Mickey , Engagement Ring , Blam and The Refrigerator . According to the Lichtenstein Foundation website , Whaam ! was part of Lichtenstein 's second solo exhibition at the Leo Castelli Gallery from 28 September to 24 October 1963 , that also included Drowning Girl , Baseball Manager , In the Car , Conversation , and Torpedo ... Los ! Marketing materials for the show included the lithograph artwork , Crak !
The Lichtenstein Foundation website says that Lichtenstein began using his opaque projector technique in 1962 @.@ in 1967 he described his process for producing comics @-@ based art as follows :
I do them as directly as possible . If I am working from a cartoon , photograph or whatever , I draw a small picture — the size that will fit into my opaque projector ... I don 't draw a picture in order to reproduce it — I do it in order to recompose it ... I go all the way from having my drawing almost like the original to making it up altogether .
Whaam ! was purchased by the Tate Gallery in 1966 . In 1969 , Lichtenstein donated his initial graphite @-@ on @-@ paper drawing Drawing for ' Whaam ! ' , describing it as a " pencil scribble " . According to the Tate , Lichtenstein claimed that this drawing represented his " first visualization of Whaam ! and that it was executed just before he started the painting . " Although he had conceived of a unified work of art on a single canvas , he made the sketch on two sheets of paper of equal size — measuring 14 @.@ 9 cm × 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in × 12 @.@ 0 in ) . The painting has been displayed at Tate Modern since 2006 . In 2012 – 13 , both works were included in the largest Lichtenstein retrospective that visited the Art Institute of Chicago , the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C. , the Tate Modern in London and the Centre Pompidou .
= = Description = =
Whaam ! depicts a fighter aircraft in the left panel firing a rocket into an enemy plane in the right panel , which disintegrates in a vivid red @-@ and @-@ yellow explosion . The cartoon style is emphasized by the use of the onomatopoeic lettering " WHAAM ! " in the right panel , and a yellow @-@ boxed caption with black lettering at the top of the left panel . The textual exclamation " WHAAM ! " can be considered the graphic equivalent of a sound effect . This was to become a characteristic of his work — like others of his onomatopoeic paintings that contain exclamations such as Bratatat ! and Varoom !
Whaam ! is one of Lichtenstein 's series of war images , typically combining vibrant colors with an expressive narrative . Whaam ! is very large , measuring 1 @.@ 7 m × 4 @.@ 0 m ( 5 ft 7 in × 13 ft 4 in ) . It is less abstract than As I Opened Fire , another of his war scenes . Lichtenstein employs his usual comic @-@ book style : stereotyped imagery in bright primary colors with black outlines , coupled with imitations of mechanical printer 's Ben @-@ Day dots . The use of these dots , which were invented by Benjamin Day to simulate color variations and shading , are considered Lichtenstein 's " signature method " . Whaam ! departs from Lichtenstein 's earlier diptychs such as Step @-@ on @-@ Can with Leg and Like New , in that the panels are not two variations of the same image .
Although Lichtenstein strove to remain faithful to the source images , he constructed his paintings in a traditional manner , starting with a sketch which he adjusted to improve the composition and then projected on to a canvas to make the finished painting . In the case of Whaam ! , the sketch is on two pieces of paper , and the finished work is painted with Magna acrylic and oil paint on canvas . Although the transformation from a single @-@ panel conception into a diptych painting occurred during the initial sketch , the final work varies from the sketch in several ways . The sketch suggests that the " WHAAM ! " motif would be colored white , although it is yellow in the finished work . Lichtenstein enlarged the main graphical subject of each panel ( the plane on the left and the flames on the right ) , bringing them closer together as a result .
Lichtenstein built up the image with multiple layers of paint . The paint was applied using a scrub brush and handmade metal screen to produce Ben @-@ Day dots via a process that left physical evidence behind . The Ben @-@ Day dots technique enabled Lichtenstein to give his works a mechanically reproduced feel . Lichtenstein said that the work is " supposed to look like a fake , and it achieves that , I think " .
Lichtenstein split the composition into two panels to separate the action from its consequence . The left panel features the attacking plane — placed at a diagonal to create a sense of depth — below the text balloon , which Lichtenstein has relegated to the margin above the plane . In the right panel , the exploding plane — depicted head @-@ on — is outlined by the flames , accompanied by the bold exclamation " WHAAM ! " . Although separate , with one panel containing the missile launch and the other its explosion , representing two distinct events , the two panels are clearly linked spatially and temporally , not least by the horizontal smoke trail of the missile . Lichtenstein commented on this piece in a 10 July 1967 , letter : " I remember being concerned with the idea of doing two almost separate paintings having little hint of compositional connection , and each having slightly separate stylistic character . Of course there is the humorous connection of one panel shooting the other . "
Lichtenstein altered the composition to make the image more compelling , by making the exploding plane more prominent compared to the attacking plane than in the original . The smoke trail of the missile becomes a horizontal line . The flames of the explosion dominate the right panel , but the pilot and the airplane in the left panel are the narrative focus . They exemplify Lichtenstein 's painstaking detailing of physical features such as the aircraft 's cockpit . The other element of the narrative content is a text balloon that contains the following text : " I pressed the fire control ... and ahead of me rockets blazed through the sky ... " This is among the text believed to have been written by All @-@ American Men of War editor Robert Kanigher . The yellow word " WHAAM ! " , altered from the red in the original comic @-@ book panel and white in the pencil sketch , links the yellow of the explosion below it with the textbox to the left and the flames of the missile below the attacking plane .
Lichtenstein 's borrowings from comics mimicked their style while adapting their subject matter . He explained that " Signs and comic strips are interesting as subject matter . There are certain things that are usable , forceful and vital about commercial art . " Rebecca Bengal at PBS wrote that Whaam ! ' s graphic clarity exemplifies the ligne claire style associated with Hergé , a cartoonist whose influence Lichtenstein acknowledged . Lichtenstein was attracted to using a cool , formal style to depict emotive subjects , leaving the viewer to interpret the artist 's intention . He adopted a simplified color scheme and commercial printing @-@ like techniques . The borrowed technique was " representing tonal variations with patterns of colored circles that imitated the half @-@ tone screens of Ben Day dots used in newspaper printing , and surrounding these with black outlines similar to those used to conceal imperfections in cheap newsprint . " Lichtenstein once said of his technique : " I take a cliche and try to organize its forms to make it monumental . "
= = Reception = =
The painting was , for the most part , well received by art critics when first exhibited . A November 1963 Art Magazine review by Donald Judd described Whaam ! as one of the " broad and powerful paintings " of the 1963 exhibition at Castelli 's Gallery . In his review of the exhibition , The New York Times art critic Brian O 'Doherty described Lichtenstein 's technique as " typewriter pointillism ... that laboriously hammers out such moments as a jet shooting down another jet with a big BLAM " . According to O 'Doherty , the result was " certainly not art , [ but ] time may make it so " , depending on whether it could be " rationalized ... and placed in line for the future to assimilate as history , which it shows every sign of doing . " The Tate Gallery in London acquired the work in 1966 , leading to heated argument amongst their trustees and some vocal members of the public . The purchase was made from art dealer Ileana Sonnabend , whose asking price of £ 4 @,@ 665 ( £ 78 @,@ 369 in 2016 currency ) was reduced by negotiation to £ 3 @,@ 940 ( £ 66 @,@ 189 in 2016 currency ) . Some Tate trustees opposed the acquisition , among them sculptor Barbara Hepworth , painter Andrew Forge and the poet and critic Herbert Read . Defending the acquisition , art historian Richard Morphet , then an assistant keeper at the Tate , suggested that the painting addresses several issues and painterly styles at the same time : " history painting , Baroque extravagance , and the quotidian phenomenon of mass @-@ circulation comic strips . " The Times in 1967 described the acquisition as a " very large and spectacular painting " . The Tate 's director , Norman Reid , later said that the work aroused more public interest than any of its acquisitions since World War II .
In 1968 , Whaam ! was included in the Tate 's first solo exhibition of Lichtenstein 's work . The showing attracted 52 @,@ 000 visitors , and was organized with the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam , which later hosted the exhibition from 4 November to 17 December 1967 , before it traveled to three other museums .
= = Analysis and interpretation = =
For José Pierre , Whaam ! represents Lichtenstein 's 1963 expansion " into the ' epic ' vein " . Keith Roberts , in a 1968 Burlington Magazine article , described the explosion as combining " art nouveau elegance with a nervous energy reminiscent of Abstract Expressionism " . Wendy Steiner believes the work is Lichtenstein 's most successful and harmonious comic @-@ based composition . She sees the narrative and graphic elements as complementary : the action and spatial alignment lead the viewer 's eye from left to right so as to emphasize the relationship between the action and its explosive consequence . The ellipses of the text balloon present a progression which culminates with a " WHAAM ! " . The " coincidence of pictorial and verbal order " are clear for the Western viewer with the explanatory text beginning in the upper left and action vector moving from the left foreground to the right background , culminating in a graphical explosion in tandem with a narrative exclamation . Steiner says the striking incongruity of the two panels — the left panel appearing to be " truncated " , while the right depicts a centralized explosion — enhances the work 's narrative power .
Lichtenstein 's technique has been characterized by Ernst A. Busche as " the enlargement and unification of his source material ... on the basis of strict artistic principles " . Extracted from a larger narrative , the resulting stylized image became in some cases a " virtual abstraction " . By recreating their minimalistic graphic techniques , Lichtenstein reinforced the artificial nature of comic strips and advertisements . Lichtenstein 's magnification of his source material made his impersonally drawn motifs seem all the more empty . Busche also says that although a critique of modern industrial America may be read into these images , Lichtenstein " would appear to accept the environment as revealed by his reference material as part of American capitalist industrial culture " .
David McCarthy contrasted Lichtenstein 's " dispassionate , detached and oddly disembodied " presentation of aerial combat with the work of H.C. Westermann , for whom the experience of military service in World War II instilled a need to horrify and shock . In contrast , Lichtenstein registers his " comment on American civilization " by scaling up inches @-@ high comic book images to the oversized dimensions of history painting . Laura Brandon saw an attempt to convey " the trivialization of culture endemic in contemporary American life " by depicting a shocking scene of combat as a banal Cold War act .
Carol Strickland and John Boswell say that by magnifying the comic book panels to an enormous size with dots , " Lichtenstein slapped the viewer in the face with their triviality . " H. H. Arnason noted that Whaam ! presents " limited , flat colors and hard , precise drawing , " which produce " a hard @-@ edge subject painting that documents while it gently parodies the familiar hero images of modern America . " The flat and highly finished style of planned brushstrokes can be seen as pop art 's reaction against the looseness of abstract expressionism . Alastair Sooke says that the work can be interpreted as a symbolic self @-@ portrait in which the pilot in the left panel represents Lichtenstein " vanquishing his competitors in a dramatic art @-@ world dogfight " by firing a missile at the colorful " parody of abstract painting " in the right panel .
According to Ernesto Priego , while the work adapts a comic @-@ book source , the painting is neither a comic nor a comics panel , and " its meaning is solely referential and post hoc . " It directs the attention of its audience to features such as genre and printing methods . Visually and narratively , the original panel was the climactic element of a dynamic page composition . Lichtenstein emphasizes the onomatopoeia while playing down articulated speech by removing the speech balloon . According to Priego , " by stripping the comics panel from its narrative context , Whaam ! is representative in the realm of fine art of the preference of the image @-@ icon over image @-@ narrative " .
Whaam ! is sometimes said to belong to the same anti @-@ war genre as Picasso 's Guernica , a suggestion dismissed by Bradford R. Collins . Instead , Collins views the painting as a revenge fantasy against Lichtenstein 's first wife Isabel , conceived as it was during their bitter divorce battle ( the couple separated in 1961 and divorced in 1965 ) .
= = Legacy = =
Marla F. Prather observed that Whaam ! ' s grand scale and dramatic depiction contributed to its position as a historic work of pop art . With As I Opened Fire , Lichtenstein 's other monumental war painting , Whaam ! is regarded as the culmination of Lichtenstein 's dramatic war @-@ comics works , according to Diane Waldman . It is widely described as either Lichtenstein 's most famous work , or , along with Drowning Girl , as one of his two most famous works . Andrew Edgar and Peter Sedgwick describe it , along with Warhol 's Marilyn Monroe prints , as one of the most famous works of pop art . Gianni Versace once linked the two iconic pop art images via his gown designs . According to Douglas Coupland , the World Book Encyclopedia used pictures of Warhol 's Monroes and Whaam ! to illustrate its Pop art entry .
Comic books were in turn affected by the cultural impact of pop art . By the mid @-@ 1960s , some comic books were displaying a new emphasis on garish colors , emphatic sound effects and stilted dialogue — the elements of comic book style that had come to be regarded as camp — in an attempt to appeal to older , college @-@ age readers who appreciated pop art . Gravett observed that the " simplicity and outdatedness [ of comic books ] were ripe for being mocked " .
Whaam ! was one of the key works exhibited in a major Lichtenstein retrospective in 2012 – 2013 that was designed , according to Li @-@ mei Hoang , to demonstrate " the importance of Lichtenstein 's influence , his engagement with art history and his enduring legacy as an artist " . In his review of the Lichtenstein Retrospective at the Tate Modern , Adrian Searle of The Guardian — who was generally unenthusiastic about Lichtenstein 's work — credited the work 's title with accurately describing its graphic content : " Whaam ! goes the painting , as the rocket hits , and the enemy fighter explodes in a livid , comic @-@ book roar . " Daily Telegraph critic Alastair Smart wrote a disparaging review in which he acknowledged Lichtenstein 's reputation as a leading figure in " Pop Art 's cheeky assault on the swaggering , self @-@ important Abstract Expressionists " , whose works Smart said Whaam ! mimicked by its huge scale . Smart said the work was neither a positive commentary on the fighting American spirit nor a critique , but was notable for marking " Lichtenstein 's incendiary impact on the US art scene " .
Detractors have raised concerns over Lichtenstein 's appropriation , in that he directly references imagery from other sources in Whaam ! and other works of the period . Some have denigrated it as mere copying , to which others have countered that Lichtenstein altered his sources in significant , creative ways . In response to claims of plagiarism , the Roy Lichtenstein Foundation has noted that publishers have never sued for copyright infringement , and that they never raised the issue when Lichtenstein 's comics @-@ derived work first gained attention in the 1960s . Other criticism centers on Lichtenstein 's failure to credit the original artists of his sources ; Ernesto Priego implicates National Periodicals in the case of Whaam ! , as the artists were never credited in the original comic books .
In Alastair Sooke 's 2013 BBC Four documentary that took place in front of Whaam ! at the Tate Modern , British comic book artist Dave Gibbons disputed Sooke 's assertion that Lichtenstein 's painting improved upon Novick 's panel , saying : " This to me looks flat and abstracted , to the point of view that to my eyes it 's confusing . Whereas the original has got a three @-@ dimensional quality to it , it 's got a spontaneity to it , it 's got an excitement to it , and a way of involving the viewer that this one lacks . " Gibbons has parodied Lichtenstein 's derivation of the Novick work .
= Roger Waters =
George Roger Waters ( born 6 September 1943 ) is an English singer , songwriter , multi @-@ instrumentalist , and composer . In 1965 , he co @-@ founded the progressive rock band Pink Floyd with drummer Nick Mason , keyboardist Rick Wright and guitarist , singer , and songwriter Syd Barrett . Waters initially served as the group 's bassist , but following the departure of Barrett in 1968 , he also became their lyricist , conceptual leader and co @-@ lead vocalist . Waters had the 9th widest vocal range on a list of over 150 contemporary Rock & Pop singers , with a total range of B1 @-@ C7 , with the magazine commenting " He 's not a tenor , he 's a mutation . "
Pink Floyd subsequently achieved international success with the concept albums The Dark Side of the Moon , Wish You Were Here , Animals , and The Wall . By the early 1980s , they had become one of the most critically acclaimed and best @-@ selling acts in the history of popular music ; as of 2013 , they have sold more than 250 million albums worldwide , including 75 million units sold in the United States . Amid creative differences within the group , Waters left in 1985 and began a legal dispute with the remaining members over their intended use of the band 's name and material . They settled out of court in 1987 , and nearly eighteen years passed before he performed with them again .
Waters ' solo career has included three studio albums : The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking , Radio K.A.O.S. and Amused to Death . In 1990 , he staged one of the largest and most extravagant rock concerts in history , The Wall – Live in Berlin , with an official attendance of 200 @,@ 000 . As a member of Pink Floyd , he was inducted into the U.S. Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 . That same year he released Ça Ira , an opera in three acts translated from Étienne and Nadine Roda @-@ Gils ' libretto about the French Revolution . Later that year , he reunited with Pink Floyd bandmates Mason , Wright and David Gilmour for the Live 8 global awareness event ; it was the group 's first appearance with Waters since 1981 . He has toured extensively as a solo act since 1999 and played The Dark Side of the Moon in its entirety for his world tour of 2006 – 2008 . In 2010 , he began The Wall Live and in 2011 Gilmour and Mason appeared with him during a performance of the double @-@ album in London . As of 2013 , the tour is the highest @-@ grossing of all time by a solo artist .
= = 1943 – 1964 : Early years = =
George Roger Waters was born on 6 September 1943 , the younger of two boys , to Mary ( née Whyte ; 1913 – 2009 ) and Eric Fletcher Waters ( 1914 – 1944 ) , in Great Bookham , Surrey . His father , the son of a coal miner and Labour Party activist , was a schoolteacher , a devout Christian , and a Communist Party member . In the early years of the Second World War , his father was a conscientious objector who drove an ambulance during the Blitz . He later changed his stance on pacifism and joined the British Army , and as a 2Lt. of the 8th Royal Fusiliers died at Aprilia , between Anzio and Rome in Italy , on 18 February 1944 , when Roger was five months old . On 19 February 2014 , Waters unveiled a monument to his father and other war casualties there , and was made an honorary citizen of Anzio . Following her husband 's death , Mary Waters , also a teacher , moved with her two sons to Cambridge and raised them there . Roger Waters ' earliest memory is of the VJ Day celebrations . Mary Waters died in 2009 , aged 96 .
Waters attended Morley Memorial Junior School in Cambridge and then the Cambridgeshire High School for Boys ( now Hills Road Sixth Form College ) with Syd Barrett , while his future musical partner , David Gilmour , lived nearby on the city 's Mill Road , and attended the Perse School . At 15 , Waters was chairman of the Cambridge Youth Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament ( YCND ) , having designed its publicity poster and participated in its organisation . Though he was a keen sportsman and a highly regarded member of the high school 's cricket and rugby teams , he disliked his educational experience ; according to Waters , " I hated every second of it , apart from games . The regime at school was a very oppressive one ... the same kids who are susceptible to bullying by other kids are also susceptible to bullying by the teachers . " Whereas Waters knew Barrett and Gilmour from his childhood in Cambridge , he met future Pink Floyd founder members Nick Mason and Richard Wright in London at the Regent Street Polytechnic ( later the University of Westminster ) school of architecture . Waters enrolled there in 1962 , after a series of aptitude tests indicated he was well @-@ suited to that field . He had initially considered a career in mechanical engineering .
= = 1965 – 1985 : Pink Floyd = =
= = = Formation and Barrett @-@ led period = = =
By September 1963 , Waters and Mason had lost interest in their studies ; they had moved into the lower flat of Stanhope Gardens , owned by Mike Leonard , a part @-@ time tutor at the Regent Street Polytechnic . Waters , Mason and Wright first played music together in late 1963 , in a band formed by vocalist Keith Noble and bassist Clive Metcalfe . They usually called themselves Sigma 6 , but also used the name the Meggadeaths . Waters played rhythm guitar and Mason played drums , Wright played on any keyboard he could arrange to use , and Noble 's sister Sheilagh provided an occasional vocal accompaniment . In the early years the band performed during private functions and rehearsed in a tearoom in the basement of Regent Street Polytechnic .
When Metcalfe and Noble left to form their own group in September 1963 , the remaining members asked Barrett and guitarist Bob Klose to join . Waters switched to the bass and by January 1964 , the group became known as the Abdabs , or the Screaming Abdabs . During late 1964 , the band used the names Leonard 's Lodgers , Spectrum Five , and eventually , the Tea Set . Sometime during late 1965 , the Tea Set began calling itself the Pink Floyd Sound , later the Pink Floyd Blues Band and by early 1966 , Pink Floyd .
By early 1966 Barrett was Pink Floyd 's front @-@ man , guitarist , and songwriter . He wrote or co @-@ wrote all but one track of their debut LP The Piper at the Gates of Dawn , released in August 1967 . Waters contributed the song " Take Up Thy Stethoscope and Walk " ( his first sole writing credit ) to the album . By late 1967 , Barrett 's deteriorating mental health and increasingly erratic behaviour , rendered him " unable or unwilling " to continue in his capacity as Pink Floyd 's singer @-@ songwriter and lead guitarist . In early March 1968 Pink Floyd met with managers Peter Jenner and Andrew King of Blackhill Enterprises to discuss the band 's future . Barrett agreed to leave Pink Floyd , and the band " agreed to Blackhill 's entitlement in perpetuity " regarding " past activities " . The band 's new manager Steve O 'Rourke made a formal announcement about the departure of Barrett and the arrival of David Gilmour in April 1968 .
= = = Waters @-@ led period = = =
Filling the void left by Barrett 's departure in March 1968 , Waters began to chart Pink Floyd 's artistic direction . He became the principal songwriter , lyricist and co @-@ lead vocalist ( along with Gilmour , and at times , Wright ) , and would remain the band 's dominant creative figure until his departure in 1985 . He wrote the lyrics to the five Pink Floyd albums preceding his own departure , starting with The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) and ending with The Final Cut ( 1983 ) , while exerting progressively more creative control over the band and its music . Every Waters studio album since The Dark Side of the Moon has been a concept album . With lyrics written entirely by Waters , The Dark Side of the Moon was one of the most commercially successful rock albums ever . It spent 736 straight weeks on the Billboard 200 chart — until July 1988 — and sold over 40 million copies worldwide . It was continuing to sell over 8 @,@ 000 units every week as of 2005 . According to Pink Floyd biographer Glen Povey , Dark Side is the world 's second best @-@ selling album , and the United States ' 21st best @-@ selling album of all time .
Waters produced thematic ideas that became the impetus for the Pink Floyd concept albums The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) , Wish You Were Here ( 1975 ) , Animals ( 1977 ) and The Wall ( 1979 ) — written largely by Waters — and The Final Cut ( 1983 ) — written entirely by Waters . He referred or alluded to the cost of war and the loss of his father throughout his work , from " Corporal Clegg " ( A Saucerful of Secrets , 1968 ) and " Free Four " ( Obscured by Clouds , 1972 ) to " Us and Them " from The Dark Side of the Moon , " When the Tigers Broke Free " , first used in the feature film , The Wall ( 1982 ) , later included with " The Fletcher Memorial Home " on The Final Cut , an album dedicated to his father . The theme and composition of The Wall was influenced by his upbringing in an English society depleted of men after the Second World War .
The double album The Wall was written almost entirely by Waters and is largely based on his life story , and having sold over 23 million RIAA certified units in the US as of 2013 , is one of the top three best @-@ selling albums of all time in America , according to RIAA . Pink Floyd hired Bob Ezrin to co @-@ produce the album , and cartoonist Gerald Scarfe to illustrate the album 's sleeve art . The band embarked on The Wall Tour of Los Angeles , New York , London , and Dortmund . The last band performance of The Wall was on 16 June 1981 , at Earls Court London , and this was Pink Floyd 's last appearance with Waters until the band 's brief reunion at 2 July 2005 Live 8 concert in London 's Hyde Park , 24 years later .
In March 1983 , the last Waters – Gilmour – Mason collaboration , The Final Cut , was released . The album was subtitled : " A requiem for the post @-@ war dream by Roger Waters , performed by Pink Floyd " . Waters wrote all the album 's lyrics as well as the music . His lyrics were critical of the Conservative Party government of the day and mention Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher by name . At the time Gilmour did not have any new material , so he asked Waters to delay the recording until he could write some songs , but Waters refused . According to Mason , after power struggles within the band and creative arguments about the album , Gilmour 's name " disappeared " from the production credits , though he retained his pay . Rolling Stone magazine gave the album five stars , with Kurt Loder describing it as " a superlative achievement " and " art rock 's crowning masterpiece " . Loder viewed the work as " essentially a Roger Waters solo album " .
Amidst creative differences within the group , Waters left Pink Floyd in 1985 , and began a legal battle with the remaining band members regarding their continued use of the name and material . In December 1985 , Waters " issued a statement to EMI and CBS invoking the ' Leaving Member ' clause " on his contract . In October 1986 , he initiated High Court proceedings to formally dissolve the Pink Floyd partnership . In his submission to the High Court he called Pink Floyd a " spent force creatively " . Gilmour and Mason opposed the application and announced their intention to continue as Pink Floyd . Waters claims to have been forced to resign much like Wright some years earlier , and he decided to leave Pink Floyd based on legal considerations , stating " ... because , if I hadn 't , the financial repercussions would have wiped me out completely . " In December 1987 , an agreement between Waters and Pink Floyd was reached . According to Mason :
We eventually formalised a settlement with Roger . On Christmas Eve , 1987 , ... David and Roger convened for a summit meeting on the houseboat [ the Astoria ] with Jerome Walton , David 's accountant . Jerome painstakingly typed out the bones of a settlement . Essentially — although there was far more complex detail — the arrangement allowed Roger to be freed from his arrangement with Steve [ O 'Rourke ] , and David and me to continue working under the name Pink Floyd . In the end the court accepted Jerome 's version as the final and binding document and duly stamped it .
Waters was released from his contractual obligation with O 'Rourke , and he retained the copyrights to The Wall concept and the inflatable Animals pig . Pink Floyd released three studio albums without Waters : A Momentary Lapse of Reason ( 1987 ) , The Division Bell ( 1994 ) and The Endless River ( 2014 ) . By 2013 , Pink Floyd had sold over 250 million albums worldwide , including 74 @.@ 5 million RIAA certified units in the US .
= = 1984 – present : solo career = =
= = = 1984 – 1996 = = =
Following the release of The Final Cut , Waters embarked on a solo career that produced three concept albums and a movie soundtrack . In 1984 , he released his first solo album , The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking , a project about a man 's dreams across one night that dealt with Waters ' feelings about monogamy and family life versus " the call of the wild " . In the end the character , Reg , chooses love and matrimony over promiscuity . The album featured guitarist Eric Clapton , jazz saxophonist David Sanborn , and artwork by Gerald Scarfe . Kurt Loder described The Pros And Cons of Hitch Hiking as a " strangely static , faintly hideous record " . Rolling Stone rated the album a " rock bottom " one star . " Years later , Mike DeGagne of AllMusic praised the album for its , " ingenious symbolism " and " brilliant use of stream of consciousness within a subconscious realm " , rating it four out of five stars . Waters began touring in support of the new album , aided by Clapton , a new band , new material , and a selection of Pink Floyd favourites . Waters débuted his tour in Stockholm on 16 June 1984 . Poor ticket sales plagued the tour , and some of the larger venues had to be cancelled . By his own estimate , he lost £ 400 @,@ 000 on the tour . In March 1985 , Waters went to North America to play smaller venues with the Pros and Cons Plus Some Old Pink Floyd Stuff — North America Tour 1985 . The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking has been certified Gold by the RIAA .
In 1986 , Waters contributed songs and a score to the soundtrack of the animated movie When the Wind Blows , based on the Raymond Briggs book of the same name . His backing band featuring Paul Carrack was credited as The Bleeding Heart Band . In 1987 , Waters released Radio K.A.O.S. , a concept album based on a mute man named Billy from an impoverished Welsh mining town who has the ability to physically tune into radio waves in his head . Billy first learns to communicate with a radio DJ , and eventually to control the world 's computers . Angry at the state of the world in which he lives , he simulates a nuclear attack . Waters followed the release with a supporting tour also in 1987 .
In November 1989 , the Berlin Wall fell , and in July 1990 Waters staged one of the largest and most elaborate rock concerts in history , The Wall – Live in Berlin , on the vacant terrain between Potsdamer Platz and the Brandenburg Gate . The show reported an official attendance of 200 @,@ 000 , though some estimates are as much as twice that , with approximately one billion television viewers . Leonard Cheshire asked him to do the concert to raise funds for charity . Waters ' group of musicians included Joni Mitchell , Van Morrison , Cyndi Lauper , Bryan Adams , Scorpions , and Sinéad O 'Connor . Waters also used an East German symphony orchestra and choir , a Soviet marching band , and a pair of helicopters from the US 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron . Designed by Mark Fisher , the Wall was 25 metres tall and 170 metres long and was built across the set . Scarfe 's inflatable puppets were recreated on an enlarged scale , and although many rock icons received invitations to the show , Gilmour , Mason , and Wright , did not . Waters released a concert double album of the performance which has been certified platinum by the RIAA .
In 1990 , Waters hired manager Mark Fenwick and left EMI for a worldwide deal with Columbia . He released his third studio album , Amused to Death , in 1992 . The record is heavily influenced by the events of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and the Gulf War , and a critique of the notion of war becoming the subject of entertainment , particularly on television . The title was derived from the book Amusing Ourselves to Death by Neil Postman . Patrick Leonard , who worked on A Momentary Lapse of Reason , co @-@ produced the album . Jeff Beck played lead guitar on many of the album 's tracks , which were recorded with an impressive cast of musicians at ten different recording studios . It is Waters ' most critically acclaimed solo recording , garnering some comparison to his previous work with Pink Floyd . Waters described the record as , a " stunning piece of work " , ranking the album with Dark Side of the Moon and The Wall as one of the best of his career . The album had one hit , the song " What God Wants , Pt . 1 " , which reached number 35 in the UK in September 1992 and number 5 on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in the US . Amused to Death was certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry . Sales of Amused to Death topped out at around one million and there was no tour in support of the album . Waters would first perform material from it seven years later during his In the Flesh tour . In 1996 , Waters was inducted into the US and UK Rock and Roll Halls of Fame as a member of Pink Floyd .
= = = 1999 – 2004 = = =
In 1999 , after a 12 @-@ year hiatus from touring , and a seven @-@ year absence from the music industry , Waters embarked on the In the Flesh tour , performing both solo and Pink Floyd material . The tour was a financial success in the US and though Waters had booked mostly smaller venues , tickets sold so well that many of the concerts were upgraded to larger ones . The tour eventually stretched across the world and would span three years . A concert film was released on CD and DVD , named In the Flesh – Live . During the tour , he played two new songs " Flickering Flame " and " Each Small Candle " as the final encore to many of the shows . In June 2002 , he completed the tour with a performance in front of 70 @,@ 000 people at the Glastonbury Festival of Performing Arts , playing 15 Pink Floyd songs and five songs from his solo catalogue .
Miramax announced in mid @-@ 2004 that a production of The Wall was to appear on Broadway with Waters playing a prominent role in the creative direction . Reports stated that the musical contained not only the original tracks from The Wall , but also songs from Dark Side of the Moon , Wish You Were Here and other Pink Floyd albums , as well as new material . On the night of 1 May 2004 , recorded extracts from the opera , including its overture , were played on the occasion of the Welcome Europe celebrations in the accession country of Malta . Gert Hof mixed recorded excerpts from the opera into a continuous piece of music which was played as an accompaniment to a large light and fireworks display over Grand Harbour in Valletta . In July 2004 , Waters released two new tracks on the Internet : " To Kill the Child " , inspired by the 2003 invasion of Iraq , and " Leaving Beirut " , an anti @-@ war song " inspired by his travels in the Middle East as a teenager " .
= = = 2005 – present = = =
In July 2005 , Waters reunited with Mason , Wright , and Gilmour for what would be their final performance together at the 2005 Live 8 concert in London 's Hyde Park , Pink Floyd 's only appearance with Waters since their final performance of The Wall at Earls Court London 24 years earlier . They played a 23 @-@ minute set consisting of " Speak to Me / Breathe " / " Breathe ( Reprise ) " , " Money " , " Wish You Were Here " , and " Comfortably Numb " . Waters told the Associated Press that while the experience of playing with Pink Floyd again was positive , the chances of a bona fide reunion would be " slight " considering his and Gilmour 's continuing musical and ideological differences . Though Waters had differing ideas about which songs they should play , he " agreed to roll over for one night only " , Gilmour told the Associated Press , " The rehearsals convinced me it wasn 't something I wanted to be doing a lot of . There have been all sorts of farewell moments in people 's lives and careers which they have then rescinded , but I think I can fairly categorically say that there won 't be a tour or an album again that I take part in . It isn 't to do with animosity or anything like that . It 's just that ... I 've been there , I 've done it . " In November 2005 , Pink Floyd were inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame by Pete Townshend of the Who .
In September 2005 , Waters released Ça Ira ( pronounced [ sa iˈʁa ] , French for " it will be fine " ; Waters added the subtitle , " There is Hope " ) , an opera in three acts translated from the late Étienne Roda @-@ Gil 's French libretto based on the historical subject of the French Revolution . Ça Ira was released as a double CD album , featuring baritone Bryn Terfel , soprano Ying Huang and tenor Paul Groves . Set during the early French Revolution , the original libretto was co @-@ written in French by Roda @-@ Gil and his wife Nadine Delahaye . Waters had begun rewriting the libretto in English in 1989 , and said about the composition : " I 've always been a big fan of Beethoven 's choral music , Berlioz and Borodin ... This is unashamedly romantic and resides in that early 19th @-@ century tradition , because that 's where my tastes lie in classical and choral music . " Waters appeared on television to discuss the opera , but the interviews often focused instead on his relationship with Pink Floyd , something Waters would " take in stride " , a sign Pink Floyd biographer Mark Blake believes to be , " a testament to his mellower old age or twenty years of dedicated psychotherapy " . Ça Ira reached number 5 on the Billboard Classical Music Chart in the United States .
In June 2006 , Waters commenced The Dark Side of the Moon Live tour , a two @-@ year , world @-@ spanning effort that began in Europe in June and North America in September . The first half of the show featured both Pink Floyd songs and Waters ' solo material , while the second half included a complete live performance of the 1973 Pink Floyd album The Dark Side of the Moon , the first time in over three decades that Waters had performed the album . The shows ended with an encore from the third side of The Wall . He utilised elaborate staging by concert lighting designer Marc Brickman complete with laser lights , fog machines , pyrotechnics , psychedelic projections , and inflatable floating puppets ( Spaceman and Pig ) controlled by a " handler " dressed as a butcher , and a full 360 @-@ degree quadraphonic sound system was used . Nick Mason joined Waters for The Dark Side of the Moon set and the encores on select 2006 tour dates . Waters continued touring in January 2007 in Australia and New Zealand , then Asia , Europe , South America , and back to North America in June .
In March 2007 , the Waters song , " Hello ( I Love You ) " was featured in the science fiction film The Last Mimzy . The song plays over the film 's end credits . He released it as a single , on CD and via download , and described it as , " a song that captures the themes of the movie , the clash between humanity 's best and worst instincts , and how a child 's innocence can win the day " . He performed at California 's Coachella Festival in April 2008 and was to be among the headlining artists performing at Live Earth 2008 in Mumbai , India in December 2008 , but that concert was cancelled in light of the 26 November terrorist attacks in Mumbai .
Waters confirmed the possibility of an upcoming solo album which " might be called " Heartland , and has said he has numerous songs written ( some already recorded ) that he intends to release when they are a complete album . In June 2010 , Waters released a cover of " We Shall Overcome " , a protest song rewritten and arranged by Guy Carawan and Pete Seeger . He performed with David Gilmour at the Hoping Foundation Benefit Evening in July 2010 . The four @-@ song set included : " To Know Him Is to Love Him " , which was played in early Pink Floyd sound checks , followed by " Wish You Were Here " , " Comfortably Numb " , and " Another Brick in the Wall ( Part Two ) " .
In September 2010 , Waters commenced The Wall Live tour , an updated version of the original Pink Floyd shows , featuring a complete performance of The Wall . Waters told the Associated Press that The Wall Tour will likely be his last , stating : " I 'm not as young as I used to be . I 'm not like B.B. King , or Muddy Waters . I 'm not a great vocalist or a great instrumentalist or whatever , but I still have the fire in my belly , and I have something to say . I have a swan song in me and I think this will probably be it . " At The O2 Arena in London on 12 May 2011 , Gilmour and Mason once again appeared with Waters and Gilmour performing " Comfortably Numb " , and Gilmour and Mason joining Waters for " Outside the Wall " . For the first half of 2012 , Waters ' tour topped worldwide concert ticket sales having sold more than 1 @.@ 4 million tickets globally . As of 2013 , The Wall Live is the highest @-@ grossing tour of all time by a solo artist . Waters performed at the Concert for Sandy Relief at Madison Square Garden on 12 December 2012 . On 24 July 2015 , Waters headlined the Newport Folk Festival in Newport , Rhode Island . Waters was accompanied by the band My Morning Jacket and two singers from the group Lucius . On 3 May 2016 , Waters was announced as one of the performers at the Desert Trip music festival , due to take place from October 7th through the 9th .
= = Personal life = =
In 1969 , Waters married his childhood sweetheart Judy Trim , a successful potter ; she was featured on the gatefold sleeve of the original release of Ummagumma , but excised from subsequent CD reissues . They had no children together and divorced in 1975 . Trim died in 2001 .
In 1976 , Waters married Lady Carolyne Christie , the niece of the 3rd Marquess of Zetland . His marriage to Christie produced a son , Harry Waters , a musician who has played keyboards with his father 's touring band since 2006 , and a daughter , India Waters , who has worked as a model . Christie and Waters divorced in 1992 .
In 1993 , he married Priscilla Phillips ; they had one son together , Jack Fletcher . Their marriage ended in 2001 .
In 2004 , Waters became engaged to actress and filmmaker Laurie Durning ( born 1963 ) ; the two married on 14 January 2012 and filed for divorce in September 2015 .
Waters is an atheist .
= = Activism = =
After the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and subsequent tsunami disaster , Waters performed " Wish You Were Here " with Eric Clapton during a benefit concert on the American network NBC . He was outspoken against the Hunting Act of 2004 , and performed a concert for , and attended marches supporting , the Countryside Alliance . Waters explained that whether he supported hunting or not , it was important to defend it as a right . He left the UK soon afterwards . He clarified in October 2005 that he had not left the country in protest against the hunting legislation but for family reasons , and that he often returned to the UK .
After leaving Britain , he moved to Long Island in New York with his fiancé Laurie Durning . In June 2007 , Waters became a spokesman for Millennium Promise , a non @-@ profit organisation that helps fight extreme poverty and malaria . He wrote an opinion piece for CNN in support of the topic . In July , he participated in the American leg of the Live Earth concert , an international multi @-@ venue concert aimed at raising awareness about global climate change , featuring the Trenton Youth Choir and his trademarked inflatable pig . Waters told David Fricke why he thinks The Wall is still relevant today :
The loss of a father is the central prop on which [ The Wall ] stands . As the years go by , children lose their fathers again and again , for nothing . You see it now with all these fathers , good men and true , who lost their lives and limbs in Iraq for no reason at all . I 've done " Bring The Boys Back Home " in my encore on recent tours . It feels more relevant and poignant to be singing that song now than it did in 1979 .
In 2012 , Waters led a benefit for United States military veterans called Stand Up for Heroes . He invited a music group of combat wounded veterans called MusiCorps to perform with him . In June 2013 , Waters and numerous other celebrities appeared in a video showing support for Chelsea Manning .
In June 2009 he spoke against the Israeli West Bank barrier and later that year , pledged his support to the Gaza Freedom March . In 2011 he announced that he had joined the Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions ( BDS ) movement against Israel . He has said he is disillusioned with UK foreign policy towards Israel . In October 2010 , after an animated B @-@ 52 bomber had been shown dropping symbols including the Star of David and dollar signs as part of The Wall Live tour , the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) criticised the imagery and claimed it was anti @-@ Semitic . In response , Waters changed the video and wrote an open letter to The Independent where he denied he was anti @-@ Semitic and distinguished criticism of Israel from anti @-@ Jewishness . In March 2013 , during an interview with Electronic Intifada , Waters criticised American media for their coverage of Israel . For many years , Pink Floyd concerts and Waters concerts have used a pig @-@ shaped balloon painted with political and religious symbols flown overhead during shows while he performs in fascist uniform . In July 2013 , the Israeli media complained about the symbolism .
The ADL 's National Director Abraham H. Foxman has accused him of anti @-@ Semitism as has Rabbi Abraham Cooper , associate dean of the Simon Wiesenthal Center . Waters stated that Cooper 's accusation was bigoted . On 2 October 2015 , Waters published an open letter in Salon criticising the band Bon Jovi for performing in Tel Aviv , which led Howard Stern to criticise Waters on his radio show .
= = Equipment and instruments = =
Waters ' primary instrument in Pink Floyd was the electric bass guitar . He briefly played a Höfner bass but replaced it with a Rickenbacker RM @-@ 1999 / 4001S , until 1970 when it was stolen along with the rest of the band 's equipment in New Orleans . He began using Fender Precision Basses in 1968 , originally alongside the Rickenbacker 4001 , and then exclusively after the Rickenbacker was lost in 1970 . First seen at a concert in Hyde Park , London in July 1970 , the black P @-@ Bass was rarely used until April 1972 when it became his main stage guitar and as of 2 October 2010 , the basis for a Fender Artist Signature model . Waters endorses RotoSound Jazz Bass 77 flat @-@ wound strings . Throughout his career he has used Selmer , WEM , Hiwatt and Ashdown amplifiers but has used Ampeg for the last few tours , also employing delay , tremolo , chorus , stereo panning and phaser effects in his bass playing .
Waters experimented with the EMS Synthi A and VCS 3 synthesisers on Pink Floyd pieces such as " On the Run " , " Welcome to the Machine " , and " In the Flesh ? " He played electric and acoustic guitar on Pink Floyd tracks using Fender , Martin , Ovation and Washburn guitars . He played electric guitar on the Pink Floyd song " Sheep " , from Animals , and acoustic guitar on several Pink Floyd recordings , such as " Pigs on the Wing 1 & 2 " , also from Animals , " Southampton Dock " from The Final Cut , and on " Mother " from The Wall . A Binson Echorec 2 echo effect was used on his bass @-@ guitar lead track " One of These Days " . Waters plays trumpet during concert performances of " Outside the Wall " .
= = Discography = =
The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking ( 1984 )
Radio K.A.O.S. ( 1987 )
Amused to Death ( 1992 )
Ça Ira ( 2005 )
= Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria =
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir presumptive to the Austro @-@ Hungarian throne , and his wife Sophie , Duchess of Hohenberg , occurred on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo when they were shot dead by Gavrilo Princip . Princip was one of a group of six assassins ( five Serbs and one Bosniak ) coordinated by Danilo Ilić , a Bosnian Serb and a member of the Black Hand secret society . The political objective of the assassination was to break off Austria @-@ Hungary 's South Slav provinces so they could be combined into a Yugoslavia . The assassins ' motives were consistent with the movement that later became known as Young Bosnia . The assassination led directly to the First World War when Austria @-@ Hungary subsequently issued an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia , which was partially rejected . Austria @-@ Hungary then declared war .
In charge of these Serbian military conspirators was Chief of Serbian Military Intelligence Dragutin Dimitrijević , his right @-@ hand man Major Vojislav Tankosić , and the spy Rade Malobabić . Tankosić armed the assassins with bombs and pistols and trained them . The assassins were given access to the same clandestine network of safe @-@ houses and agents that Malobabić used for the infiltration of weapons and operatives into Austria @-@ Hungary .
The assassins , the key members of the clandestine network , and the key Serbian military conspirators who were still alive were arrested , tried , convicted and punished . Those who were arrested in Bosnia were tried in Sarajevo in October 1914 . The other conspirators were arrested and tried before a Serbian court on the French @-@ controlled Salonika Front in 1916 – 1917 on unrelated false charges ; Serbia executed three of the top military conspirators . Much of what is known about the assassinations comes from these two trials and related records .
= = Background = =
Under the 1878 Treaty of Berlin , Austria @-@ Hungary received the mandate to occupy and administer the Ottoman Vilayet of Bosnia while the Ottoman Empire retained official sovereignty . Under this same treaty , the Great Powers ( Austria @-@ Hungary , Britain , France , Germany , Italy , the Ottoman Empire , and Russian Empire ) gave official recognition to the Principality of Serbia as a fully sovereign state , which four years later transformed into a kingdom under Prince Milan IV Obrenović who thus became King Milan I of Serbia . Serbia 's monarchs , at the time from the royal House of Obrenović that maintained close relations with Austria @-@ Hungary , were content to reign within the borders set by the treaty .
This changed in May 1903 , when Serbian military officers led by Dragutin Dimitrijević stormed the Serbian Royal Palace . After a fierce battle in the dark , the attackers captured General Laza Petrović , head of the Palace Guard , and forced him to reveal the hiding place of King Alexander I Obrenović and his wife Queen Draga . The King and Queen opened the door from their hiding place . The King was shot thirty times ; the Queen eighteen . MacKenzie writes that " the royal corpses were then stripped and brutally sabred . " The attackers threw the corpses of King Alexander and Queen Draga out of a palace window , ending any threat that loyalists would mount a counterattack . " General Petrović was then killed too ( Vojislav Tankosić organized the murders of Queen Draga 's brothers ; Dimitrijević and Tankosić in 1913 – 1914 figure prominently in the plot to assassinate Franz Ferdinand ) . The conspirators installed Peter I of the House of Karađorđević as the new king .
The new dynasty was more nationalist , friendlier to Russia and less friendly to Austria @-@ Hungary . Over the next decade , disputes between Serbia and its neighbors erupted , as Serbia moved to build its power and gradually reclaim its 14th century empire . These conflicts included a customs dispute with Austria @-@ Hungary beginning in 1906 ( commonly referred to as the " Pig War " ) ; the Bosnian crisis of 1908 – 1909 , in which Serbia assumed an attitude of protest over Austria @-@ Hungary 's annexation of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina ( ending in Serbian acquiescence without compensation in March 1909 ) ; and finally the two Balkan Wars of 1912 – 1913 , in which Serbia conquered Macedonia and Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire and drove out Bulgaria .
Serbia 's military successes and Serbian outrage over the Austro @-@ Hungarian annexation of Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina emboldened Serbian nationalists in Serbia and Serbs in Austria @-@ Hungary who chafed under Austro @-@ Hungarian rule and whose nationalist sentiments were stirred by Serb " cultural " organizations . In the five years leading up to 1914 , lone assassins – mostly Serb citizens of Austria @-@ Hungary – made a series of unsuccessful assassination attempts in Croatia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina against Austro @-@ Hungarian officials . The assassins received sporadic support from Serbia .
On 15 June 1910 , Bogdan Žerajić attempted to kill the iron @-@ fisted Governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina , General Marijan Varešanin . Žerajić was a 22 @-@ year @-@ old Orthodox Serb from Nevesinje , Herzegovina , who was a student at the Faculty of Law at the University of Zagreb and made frequent trips to Belgrade . ( General Verešanin went on to crush the last Bosnian peasant uprising in the second half of 1910
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of modern feminism , they were " breathtakingly audacious " during the late eighteenth century : " Wollstonecraft 's final novel made explosively plain what the Rights of Woman had only partially intimated : that women 's entitlements — as citizens , mothers , and sexual beings — are incompatible with a patriarchal marriage system . " However , while The Wrongs of Woman is now read as the progenitor of many feminist texts and the inspiration for many feminist arguments and rhetorical styles ( e.g. , the personal confession ) , Wollstonecraft herself was not part of a feminist movement nor did she ever argue for one . Although The Wrongs of Woman presents " woman " as " wronged " , neither Wollstonecraft nor any other British woman who highlighted the inequalities suffered by women at the time ( such as Mary Hays or Mary Robinson ) ever put forth a collective solution . As part of the Enlightenment , they were dedicated to individualistic solutions .
= = Modern reprints = =
= De Havilland Comet =
The de Havilland DH 106 Comet was the world 's first production commercial jetliner . Developed and manufactured by de Havilland at its Hatfield Aerodrome , Hertfordshire , United Kingdom headquarters , the Comet 1 prototype first flew on 27 July 1949 . It featured an aerodynamically clean design with four de Havilland Ghost turbojet engines buried in the wings , a pressurised fuselage , and large square windows . For the era , it offered a relatively quiet , comfortable passenger cabin and showed signs of being a commercial success at its 1952 debut .
A year after entering commercial service , the Comets began suffering problems , with three of them breaking up during mid @-@ flight in well @-@ publicised accidents . These were later found to be due to catastrophic metal fatigue in the airframes , not well understood at the time . The Comet was withdrawn from service and extensively tested to discover the cause ; the first incident had been incorrectly blamed on adverse weather . Design flaws , including dangerous stresses at the corners of the square windows and installation methods , were ultimately identified . As a result , the Comet was extensively redesigned with oval windows , structural reinforcement , and other changes . Rival manufacturers meanwhile heeded the lessons learned from the Comet while developing their own aircraft .
Although sales never fully recovered , the improved Comet 2 and the prototype Comet 3 culminated in the redesigned Comet 4 series which debuted in 1958 and had a productive career of over 30 years . The Comet was adapted for a variety of military roles such as VIP , medical and passenger transport , as well as surveillance . The most extensive modification resulted in a specialised maritime patrol aircraft variant , the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod . Nimrod remained in service with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) until June 2011 , over 60 years after the Comet 's first flight .
= = Development = =
= = = Origins = = =
On 11 March 1943 , the Cabinet of the United Kingdom formed the Brabazon Committee to determine the UK 's airliner needs after the conclusion of the Second World War . One of its recommendations was for a pressurised , transatlantic mailplane that could carry non @-@ stop , one long ton ( 1 @.@ 0 t ) of payload at a cruising speed of 400 mph ( 640 km / h ) . De Havilland chose to challenge the widely held scepticism of jet engines as too fuel @-@ hungry and unreliable , So committee member Sir Geoffrey de Havilland , head of the de Havilland company , used his personal influence and his company 's expertise to champion the development of a jet propelled aircraft ; and proposed a specification for a pure turbojet @-@ powered design . The committee accepted the proposal , calling it the " Type IV " ( of five designs ) , and awarded a development and production contract to de Havilland under the designation Type 106 in February 1945 . The type and design were to be so advanced that De Havilland had to undertake the design and development of both , the airframe , and the engines . This was because in 1945 no turbojet engine manufacturer in the world was drawing up a design specification for an engine with the thrust and specific fuel consumption , that could power an aircraft at the proposed cruising altitude ( 40 thousand feet ) , speed , and transatlantic range as was called for by the Type 106 . First @-@ phase development of the DH 106 focused on short and intermediate range mailplanes with a small passenger compartment and as few as six seats , before being redefined as a long @-@ range airliner with a capacity of 24 seats . Out of all the Brabazon designs , the DH 106 was seen as the riskiest both in terms of introducing untried design elements and for the financial commitment involved . Nevertheless , the British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC ) found the Type IV 's specifications attractive , and initially proposed a purchase of 25 aircraft ; in December 1945 , when a firm contract was laid out , the order total was revised to 10 .
A design team was formed in 1946 under the leadership of chief designer Ronald Bishop , who had been responsible for the Mosquito fighter @-@ bomber . A number of unorthodox configurations were considered , ranging from canard to tailless designs ; all were subsequently rejected . The Ministry of Supply was , however , interested in the most radical of the proposed designs and ordered two experimental tailless DH 108s to serve as proof of concept aircraft for testing swept @-@ wing configurations in both low @-@ speed and high @-@ speed flight . During flight tests , the DH 108 gained a reputation for being accident @-@ prone and unstable , leading de Havilland and BOAC to gravitate to conventional configurations and , necessarily , designs with less technical risk . The DH 108s were later modified to test the DH 106 's power controls .
In September 1946 , prior to the completion of the DH 108s , BOAC requests necessitated a redesign of the DH 106 from its previous 24 @-@ seat configuration to a larger 36 @-@ seat version . With no time to develop the technology necessary for a proposed tailless configuration , Bishop opted for a more conventional 20 @-@ degree swept @-@ wing design with unswept tail surfaces , married to an enlarged fuselage accommodating 36 passengers in a four @-@ abreast arrangement with a central aisle . Replacing previously specified Halford H.1 Goblin engines , four new , more powerful Rolls @-@ Royce Avons were to be incorporated in pairs buried in the wing roots ; Halford H.2 Ghost engines were eventually applied as an interim solution while the Avons cleared certification . The redesigned aircraft was named the DH 106 Comet in December 1947 . Revised first orders from BOAC and British South American Airways totalled 14 aircraft with delivery projected for 1952 .
= = = Testing and prototypes = = =
As the Comet represented a new category of passenger aircraft , more rigorous testing was a development priority . From 1947 to 1948 , de Havilland conducted an extensive research and development phase , including the use of several stress test rigs at Hatfield for small components and large assemblies alike . Sections of pressurised fuselage were subjected to high @-@ altitude flight conditions via a large decompression chamber on @-@ site , and tested to failure . However , tracing fuselage failure points proved difficult with this method , and de Havilland ultimately switched to conducting structural tests with a water tank that could be safely configured to increase pressures gradually . The entire forward fuselage section was tested for metal fatigue by repeatedly pressurising to 2 @.@ 75 pounds per square inch ( 19 @.@ 0 kPa ) overpressure and depressurising through more than 16 @,@ 000 cycles , equivalent to about 40 @,@ 000 hours of airline service . The windows were also tested under a pressure of 12 psi ( 83 kPa ) , 4 @.@ 75 psi ( 32 @.@ 8 kPa ) above expected pressures at the normal service ceiling of 36 @,@ 000 ft ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . One window frame survived 100 psi ( 690 kPa ) , about 1 @,@ 250 percent over the maximum pressure it was expected to encounter in service .
The first prototype DH 106 Comet ( carrying Class B markings G @-@ 5 @-@ 1 ) was completed in 1949 , and was initially used to conduct ground tests and brief early flights . The prototype 's maiden flight took place on 27 July 1949 out of Hatfield Aerodrome and lasted 31 minutes . At the controls was de Havilland chief test pilot John Cunningham , a famous night @-@ fighter pilot of the Second World War , along with co @-@ pilot Harold " Tubby " Waters , engineers John Wilson ( electrics ) and Frank Reynolds ( hydraulics ) , and flight test observer Tony Fairbrother .
The prototype was registered G @-@ ALVG just before it was publicly displayed at the 1949 Farnborough Airshow prior to the start of flight trials . A year later , the second prototype G @-@ 5 @-@ 2 made its maiden flight . The second prototype was registered G @-@ ALZK in July 1950 and it was used by the BOAC Comet Unit at Hurn from April 1951 to carry out 500 flying hours of crew training and route proving . Australian airline Qantas also sent its own technical experts to observe the performance of the prototypes , seeking to quell internal uncertainty about its prospective Comet purchase . Both prototypes could be externally distinguished from later Comets by the large single @-@ wheeled main landing gear , which was replaced on production models starting with G @-@ ALYP by four @-@ wheeled bogies .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Comet was an all @-@ metal low @-@ wing cantilever monoplane powered by four jet engines ; it had a four @-@ place cockpit occupied by two pilots , a flight engineer , and a navigator . The clean , low @-@ drag design of the aircraft featured many design elements that were fairly uncommon at the time , including a swept @-@ wing leading edge , integral wing fuel tanks , and four @-@ wheel bogie main undercarriage units designed by de Havilland . Two pairs of turbojet engines ( on the Comet 1s , Halford H.2 Ghosts , subsequently known as de Havilland Ghost 50 Mk1s ) were buried into the wings .
The original Comet was approximately the length of the later Boeing 737 @-@ 100 , but carried fewer people in a significantly more spacious environment . BOAC installed 36 reclining " slumberseats " with 45 @-@ inch ( 1 @,@ 100 mm ) centres on its first Comets , allowing for greater leg room in front and behind ; Air France had 11 rows of seats with four seats to a row installed on its Comets . Large picture window views and table seating accommodations for a row of passengers afforded a " feel of comfort and luxury " atypical of transportation of the period . Amenities included a galley that could serve hot and cold food and drinks , a bar , and separate men 's and women 's toilets . Provisions for emergency situations included several life rafts stored in the wings near the engines , and individual life vests were stowed under each seat .
One of the most striking aspects of Comet travel was the quiet , " vibration @-@ free flying " as touted by BOAC . For passengers used to propeller @-@ driven airliners , smooth and quiet jet flight was a novel experience .
= = = Avionics and systems = = =
For ease of training and fleet conversion , de Havilland designed the Comet 's flight deck layout with a degree of similarity to the Lockheed Constellation , an aircraft that was popular at the time with key customers such as BOAC . The cockpit included full dual @-@ controls for the captain and first officer , while a flight engineer controlled various key systems , including fuel , air conditioning , and electrical systems . The navigator occupied a dedicated station with a table across from the flight engineer .
Several of the Comet 's avionics systems were new to civil aviation . One such feature was irreversible powered flight controls , which increased the pilot 's ease of control and the safety of the aircraft by preventing aerodynamic forces from changing the directed positions and placement of the aircraft 's control surfaces . Additionally , a large number of the control surfaces , such as the elevators , were equipped with a complex gearing system as a safeguard against accidentally over @-@ stressing the surfaces or airframe at higher speed ranges .
The Comet had a total of four hydraulic systems , two primaries , one secondary , and a final emergency system for basic functions such as lowering the undercarriage . The undercarriage could also be lowered by a combination of gravity and a hand @-@ pump . Power was syphoned from all four engines for the hydraulics , cabin air conditioning , and the de @-@ icing system ; these systems had operational redundancy in that they could keep working even if only a single engine was active . The majority of hydraulic components were centred in a single avionics bay . A pressurised refuelling system , developed by Flight Refuelling Ltd , allowed the Comet 's fuel tanks to be refuelled at a far greater rate than other methods .
The cockpit was significantly altered for the Comet 4 's introduction , on which an improved layout focusing on the onboard navigational suite was introduced . An EKCO E160 radar unit was installed in the Comet 4 's nose cone , providing search functions as well as ground and cloud mapping capabilities , and a radar interface was built into the Comet 4 cockpit along with redesigned instruments .
Sud @-@ Est 's design bureau , while working on the Sud Aviation Caravelle in 1953 , licensed several design features from de Havilland , building on previous collaborations on earlier licensed designs , including the DH 100 Vampire ; the nose and cockpit layout of the Comet 1 was grafted onto the Caravelle . In 1969 , when the Comet 4 's design was modified by Hawker Siddeley to become the basis for the Nimrod , the cockpit layout was completely redesigned and bore little resemblance to its predecessors except for the control yoke .
= = = Fuselage = = =
Diverse geographic destinations and cabin pressurisation alike on the Comet demanded the use of a high proportion of alloys , plastics , and other materials new to civil aviation across the aircraft in order to meet certification requirements . The Comet 's high cabin pressure and fast operating speeds were unprecedented in commercial aviation , making its fuselage design an experimental process . At its introduction , Comet airframes would be subjected to an intense , high @-@ speed operating schedule which included simultaneous extreme heat from desert airfields and frosty cold from the kerosene @-@ filled fuel tanks .
The Comet 's thin metal skin was composed of advanced new alloys and was both riveted and chemically bonded , which saved weight and reduced the risk of fatigue cracks spreading from the rivets . The chemical bonding process was accomplished using a new adhesive , Redux , which was liberally used in the construction of the wings and the fuselage of the Comet ; it also had the advantage of simplifying the manufacturing process .
When several of the fuselage alloys were discovered to be vulnerable to weakening via metal fatigue , a detailed routine inspection process was introduced . As well as thorough visual inspections of the outer skin , mandatory structural sampling was routinely conducted by both civil and military Comet operators . The need to inspect areas not easily viewable by the naked eye led to the introduction of widespread radiography examination in aviation ; this also had the advantage of detecting cracks and flaws too small to be seen otherwise .
Operationally , the design of the cargo holds led to considerable difficulty for the ground crew , especially baggage handlers at the airports . The cargo hold had its doors located directly underneath the aircraft , so each item of baggage or cargo had to be loaded vertically upwards from the top of the baggage truck , then slid along the hold floor to be stacked inside . The individual pieces of luggage and cargo also had to be retrieved in a similarly slow manner at the arriving airport .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Comet was powered by two pairs of turbojet engines buried in the wings close to the fuselage . Chief designer Bishop chose the Comet 's embedded @-@ engine configuration because it avoided the drag of podded engines and allowed for a smaller fin and rudder , since the hazards of asymmetric thrust were reduced . The engines were outfitted with baffles to reduce noise emissions , and extensive soundproofing was also implemented to improve passenger conditions .
Placing the engines within the wings had the advantage of a reduction in the risk of foreign object damage , which could seriously damage jet engines . The low @-@ mounted engines and good placement of service panels also made aircraft maintenance easier to perform . However , the Comet 's buried engine configuration increased its structural weight and complexity . Armour had to be placed around the engine cells to contain debris from any serious engine failures ; also , placing the engines inside the wing required a more complicated wing structure .
The Comet 1 featured 5 @,@ 050 lbf ( 22 @.@ 5 kN ) de Havilland Ghost 50 Mk1 turbojet engines . Two hydrogen peroxide @-@ powered de Havilland Sprite booster rockets were originally intended to be installed to boost takeoff under hot and high altitude conditions from airports such as Khartoum and Nairobi . These were tested on 30 flights , but the Ghosts alone were considered powerful enough and some airlines concluded that rocket motors were impractical . Sprite fittings were retained on production aircraft . Comet 1s subsequently received more powerful 5 @,@ 700 lbf ( 25 kN ) Ghost DGT3 series engines .
From the Comet 2 onwards , the Ghost engines were replaced by the newer and more powerful 7 @,@ 000 lbf ( 31 kN ) Rolls @-@ Royce Avon AJ.65 engines . To achieve optimum efficiency with the new powerplants , the air intakes were enlarged to increase mass air flow . Upgraded Avon engines were introduced on the Comet 3 , and the Avon @-@ powered Comet 4 was highly praised for its takeoff performance from high altitude locations such as Mexico City .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Introduction = = =
The earliest production aircraft , registered G @-@ ALYP ( " Yoke Peter " ) , first flew on 9 January 1951 and was subsequently lent to BOAC for development flying by its Comet Unit . On 22 January 1952 , the fifth production aircraft , registered G @-@ ALYS , received the first Certificate of Airworthiness awarded to a Comet , six months ahead of schedule . On 2 May 1952 , as part of BOAC 's route @-@ proving trials , G @-@ ALYP took off on the world 's first jetliner flight with fare @-@ paying passengers and inaugurated scheduled service from London to Johannesburg . The final Comet from BOAC 's initial order , registered G @-@ ALYZ , began flying in September 1952 and carried cargo along South American routes while simulating passenger schedules .
The Comet was a hit with passengers including Queen Elizabeth , the Queen Mother and Princess Margaret , who were guests on a special flight on 30 June 1953 hosted by Sir Geoffrey and Lady de Havilland , and thus became the first members of the British Royal Family to fly by jet . Flights on the Comet were about 50 percent faster than on advanced piston @-@ engined aircraft such as the Douglas DC @-@ 6 ( 490 mph for the Comet compared to the DC @-@ 6 's 315 mph ) , and a faster rate of climb further cut flight times . In August 1953 BOAC scheduled nine @-@ stop London to Tokyo flights by Comet for 36 hours , compared to 86 hours and 35 minutes on their Argonaut piston airliner . ( Pan Am 's DC @-@ 6B was scheduled for 46 hours 45 minutes . ) The five @-@ stop flight from London to Johannesburg was scheduled for 21 hr 20 min .
In their first year Comets carried 30 @,@ 000 passengers . As the aircraft could be profitable with a load factor as low as 43 percent , commercial success was expected . The Ghost engines allowed the Comet to fly above weather competitors had to fly through . They ran smoothly and were less noisy than piston engines , had low maintenance costs , and were fuel @-@ efficient above 30 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . In summer 1953 eight BOAC Comets left London each week : three to Johannesburg , two to Tokyo , two to Singapore and one to Colombo .
In 1953 the Comet appeared to have achieved success for de Havilland . In addition to the sales to BOAC , two French airlines , Union Aéromaritime de Transport and Air France , each acquired three Comet 1As , an upgraded variant with greater fuel capacity , for flights to West Africa and the Middle East . A slightly longer version of the Comet 1 with more powerful engines , the Comet 2 , was being developed , and orders were placed by Air India , British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines , Japan Air Lines , Linea Aeropostal Venezolana , and Panair do Brasil . American carriers Capital Airlines , National Airlines , and Pan Am placed orders for the planned Comet 3 , an even larger , longer @-@ range version for transatlantic operations . Qantas was interested in the Comet 1 but concluded that a version with more range and better takeoff performance was needed for the London to Canberra route .
= = = Early hull losses = = =
On 26 October 1952 , the Comet suffered its first hull loss when a BOAC flight departing Rome 's Ciampino airport failed to become airborne and ran into rough ground at the end of the runway . Two passengers sustained minor injuries , and the aircraft , G @-@ ALYZ , was a total loss . On 3 March 1953 , a new Canadian Pacific Airlines Comet 1A , registered CF @-@ CUN and named Empress of Hawaii , failed to become airborne while attempting a night takeoff from Karachi , Pakistan , on a delivery flight to Australia . The aircraft plunged into a dry drainage canal and collided with an embankment , killing all five crew and six passengers on board . The accident was the first fatal jetliner crash , as well as the Comet 's first accident to result in fatalities . In response , Canadian Pacific cancelled its remaining order for a second Comet 1A and never operated the type in commercial service .
Both early accidents were originally attributed to pilot error , as over @-@ rotation had led to a loss of lift from the leading edge of the aircraft 's wings . It was later determined that the Comet 's wing profile experienced a loss of lift at a high angle of attack , and its engine inlets also suffered a lack of pressure recovery in the same conditions . As a result , de Havilland re @-@ profiled the wings ' leading edge with a pronounced " droop " , and wing fences were added to control spanwise flow . A fictionalised investigation into the Comet 's takeoff accidents was the subject of the 1959 novel Cone of Silence by Arthur David Beaty , a former BOAC captain . Cone of Silence was made into a film in 1960 , and Beaty also recounted the story of the Comet 's takeoff accidents in a chapter of his 1984 non @-@ fiction work , Strange Encounters : Mysteries of the Air .
The Comet 's second fatal accident occurred on 2 May 1953 , when BOAC Flight 783 , a Comet 1 , registered G @-@ ALYV , crashed in a severe thundersquall six minutes after taking off from Calcutta @-@ Dum Dum ( now Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport ) , India , killing all 43 on board . Witnesses observed the wingless Comet on fire plunging into the village of Jagalgori , leading investigators to suspect structural failure .
= = = = India Court of Inquiry = = = =
After the loss of G @-@ ALYV , the Central Government of India convened a court of inquiry to examine the cause of the accident . Professor Natesan Srinivasan joined the inquiry as the main technical expert . A large portion of the aircraft was recovered and reassembled at Farnborough , during which the break @-@ up was found to have begun with a left elevator spar failure in the stabilizer . The inquiry concluded that the aircraft had encountered extreme negative G forces during takeoff ; severe turbulence generated by adverse weather was determined to have induced down @-@ loading , leading to the loss of the wings . Examination of the cockpit controls suggested that the pilot may have inadvertently over @-@ stressed the aircraft when pulling out of a steep dive by over @-@ manipulation of the fully powered flight controls . Investigators did not consider metal fatigue as a contributory cause .
The inquiry 's recommendations revolved around the enforcement of stricter speed limits during turbulence , and two significant design changes also resulted : all Comets were equipped with weather radar and the " Q feel " system was introduced , which ensured that control column forces ( invariably called stick forces ) would be proportional to control loads . This artificial feel was the first of its kind to be introduced in any aircraft . The Comet 1 and 1A had been criticised for a lack of " feel " in their controls , and investigators suggested that this might have contributed to the pilot 's alleged over @-@ stressing of the aircraft ; Comet chief test pilot John Cunningham contended , however , that the jetliner flew smoothly and was highly responsive in a manner consistent with other de Havilland aircraft .
= = = Comet disasters of 1954 = = =
Rome 's Ciampino airport , the site of the first Comet hull loss , was the origin of more disastrous Comet flights just over a year later . On 10 January 1954 , 20 minutes after taking off from Ciampino , the first production Comet , G @-@ ALYP , broke up in mid @-@ air while operating BOAC Flight 781 and crashed into the Mediterranean off the Italian island of Elba with the loss of all 35 on board . With no witnesses to the disaster and only partial radio transmissions as incomplete evidence , no obvious reason for the crash could be deduced . Engineers at de Havilland immediately recommended 60 modifications aimed at any possible design flaw while the Abell Committee met to determine potential causes of the crash . BOAC also voluntarily grounded its Comet fleet pending investigation into the causes of the accident .
= = = = Abell Committee Court of Inquiry = = = =
Media attention centred on sabotage , while other speculation ranged from clear @-@ air turbulence to an explosion of vapour in an empty fuel tank . The Abell Committee focused on six potential aerodynamic and mechanical causes : control flutter ( which had led to the loss of DH 108 prototypes ) , structural failure due to high loads or metal fatigue of the wing structure , failure of the powered flight controls , failure of the window panels leading to explosive decompression , or fire and other engine problems . The committee concluded that fire was the most likely cause of the problem , and a number of changes were made to the aircraft to protect the engines and wings from damage that might lead to another fire .
During the investigation , the Royal Navy conducted recovery operations . The first pieces of wreckage were discovered on 12 February 1954 and the search continued until September 1954 , by which time 70 percent by weight of the main structure , 80 percent of the power section , and 50 percent of the aircraft 's systems and equipment had been recovered . The forensic reconstruction effort had just begun when the Abell Committee reported its findings . No apparent fault in the aircraft was found , and the British government decided against opening a further public inquiry into the accident . The prestigious nature of the Comet project , particularly for the British aerospace industry , and the financial impact of the aircraft 's grounding on BOAC 's operations , both served to pressure the inquiry to end without further investigation . Comet flights resumed on 23 March 1954 .
On 8 April 1954 , Comet G @-@ ALYY ( " Yoke Yoke " ) , on charter to South African Airways , was on a leg from Rome to Cairo ( of a longer route , SA Flight 201 from London to Johannesburg ) , when it crashed in the Mediterranean near Naples with the loss of all 21 passengers and crew on board . The Comet fleet was immediately grounded once again and a large investigation board was formed under the direction of the Royal Aircraft Establishment ( RAE ) . Prime Minister Winston Churchill tasked the Royal Navy with helping to locate and retrieve the wreckage so that the cause of the accident could be determined . The Comet 's Certificate of Airworthiness was revoked and Comet 1 line production was suspended at the Hatfield factory while the BOAC fleet was permanently grounded , cocooned and stored .
= = = = Cohen Committee Court of Inquiry = = = =
On 19 October 1954 , the Cohen Committee was established to examine the causes of the Comet crashes . Chaired by Lord Cohen , the committee tasked an investigation team led by Sir Arnold Hall , Director of the RAE at Farnborough , to perform a more detailed investigation . Hall 's team began considering fatigue as the most likely cause of both accidents , and initiated further research into measurable strain on the aircraft 's skin . With the recovery of large sections of G @-@ ALYP from the Elba crash and BOAC 's donation of an identical airframe , G @-@ ALYU , for further examination , an extensive " water torture " test eventually provided conclusive results . This time , the entire fuselage was tested in a dedicated water tank that was built specifically at Farnborough to accommodate its full length . Stress around the window corners was found to be much higher than expected and stresses on the skin were generally more than previously expected or tested . This was due to stress concentration , a consequence of the windows ' square shape , which generated levels of stress two or three times greater than across the rest of the fuselage .
In water tank testing , engineers subjected G @-@ ALYU to repeated re @-@ pressurisation and over @-@ pressurisation , and on 24 June 1954 , after 3 @,@ 057 flight cycles ( 1 @,@ 221 actual and 1 @,@ 836 simulated ) , G @-@ ALYU burst open . Hall , Geoffrey de Havilland and Bishop were immediately called to the scene , where the water tank was drained to reveal that the fuselage had ripped open at a corner of the forward left escape hatch cutout . A further test reproduced the same results . Based on these findings , Comet 1 structural failures could be expected at anywhere from 1 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 cycles . Before the Elba accident , G @-@ ALYP had made 1 @,@ 290 pressurised flights , while G @-@ ALYY had made 900 pressurised flights before crashing . Dr P.B. Walker , Head of the Structures Department at the RAE , said he was not surprised by this , noting that the difference was about three to one , and previous experience with metal fatigue suggested a total range of nine to one between experiment and outcome in the field could result in failure .
The RAE also reconstructed about two @-@ thirds of G @-@ ALYP at Farnborough and found fatigue crack growth from a rivet hole at the low @-@ drag fibreglass forward aperture around the Automatic Direction Finder , which had caused a catastrophic break @-@ up of the aircraft in high altitude flight . The punch rivet construction technique employed in the Comet 's design had exacerbated its structural fatigue problems ; the aircraft 's windows had been engineered to be glued and riveted , but had been punch riveted only . Unlike drill riveting , the imperfect nature of the hole created by punch riveting could cause fatigue cracks to start developing around the rivet . Principal investigator Hall accepted the RAE 's conclusion of design and construction flaws as the likely explanation for G @-@ ALYU 's structural failure after 3 @,@ 060 pressurisation cycles . The Cohen inquiry closed on 24 November 1954 , and although the inquiry had " found that the basic design of the Comet was sound " , de Havilland nonetheless began a refit programme to strengthen the fuselage and wing structure , employing thicker gauge skin and replacing all square windows and panels with rounded versions .
= = = Resumption of service = = =
With the discovery of the structural problems of the early series , all remaining Comets were withdrawn from service , while de Havilland launched a major effort to build a new version that would be both larger and stronger . All outstanding orders for the Comet 2 were cancelled by airline customers . The square windows of the Comet 1 were replaced by the oval versions used on the Comet 2 , which first flew in 1953 , and the skin sheeting was thickened slightly . Remaining Comet 1s and 1As were either scrapped or modified with oval windows and rip @-@ stop doublers .
All production Comet 2s were also modified to alleviate the fatigue problems ( most of these served with the RAF as the Comet C2 ) , while a programme to produce a Comet 2 with more powerful Avons was delayed . The prototype Comet 3 first flew in July 1954 , and was tested in a non @-@ pressurised state pending completion of the Cohen inquiry . Comet commercial flights would not resume until 1958 .
Development flying and route proving with the Comet 3 allowed accelerated certification of what was destined to be the most successful variant of the type , the Comet 4 . All airline customers for the Comet 3 subsequently cancelled their orders and switched to the Comet 4 , which was based on the Comet 3 but with improved fuel capacity . BOAC ordered 19 Comet 4s in March 1955 , while American operator Capital Airlines ordered 14 Comets in July 1956 . Capital 's order included 10 Comet 4As , a variant modified for short @-@ range operations with a stretched fuselage and short wings , lacking the pinion ( outboard wing ) fuel tanks of the Comet 4 . However , because of financial problems and a subsequent takeover by United Airlines , Capital would never operate the Comet .
The Comet 4 first flew on 27 April 1958 and received its Certificate of Airworthiness on 24 September 1958 ; the first was delivered to BOAC the next day . The base price of a new Comet 4 was around £ 1 @,@ 140 @,@ 000 , equivalent to £ 24 @,@ 020 @,@ 000 in today 's pounds . The Comet 4 enabled BOAC to inaugurate the first regular jet @-@ powered transatlantic services on 4 October 1958 between London and New York ( albeit still requiring a fuel stop at Gander International Airport , Newfoundland , on westward North Atlantic crossings ) . While BOAC gained publicity as the first to provide transatlantic jet service , by the end of the month rival Pan American World Airways was flying the Boeing 707 on the same route , and in 1960 the Douglas DC @-@ 8 as well . The American jets were larger , faster , longer @-@ ranged , and more cost @-@ effective than the Comet . After analysing route structures for the Comet , BOAC reluctantly cast about for a successor , and in 1956 entered into an agreement with Boeing to purchase the 707 .
The Comet 4 was ordered by two other airlines : Aerolíneas Argentinas took delivery of six Comet 4s from 1959 to 1960 , using them between Buenos Aires and Santiago , New York and Europe , while East African Airways received three new Comet 4s from 1960 to 1962 and operated them to the United Kingdom and to Kenya , Tanzania , and Uganda . The Comet 4A ordered by Capital Airlines was instead built for BEA as the Comet 4B with a further fuselage stretch of 38 in ( 97 cm ) and seating for 99 passengers . The first Comet 4B flew on 27 June 1959 and BEA began Tel Aviv to London @-@ Heathrow services on 1 April 1960 . Olympic Airways was the only other customer to order the type . The last Comet 4 variant , the Comet 4C , first flew on 31 October 1959 and entered service with Mexicana in 1960 . The Comet 4C had the Comet 4B 's longer fuselage and the longer wings and extra fuel tanks of the original Comet 4 , which gave it a longer range than the 4B . Ordered by Kuwait Airways , Middle East Airlines , Misrair ( later United Arab Airlines ) , and Sudan Airways , it was the most popular Comet variant .
= = = Later service = = =
In 1959 BOAC began shifting its Comets from transatlantic routes and released the Comet to associate companies , making the Comet 4 's ascendancy as a premier airliner brief . Besides the 707 and DC @-@ 8 , the introduction of the Vickers VC10 allowed competing aircraft to assume the high @-@ speed , long @-@ range passenger service role pioneered by the Comet . In 1960 , as part of a government @-@ backed consolidation of the British aerospace industry , de Havilland itself was acquired by Hawker Siddeley , within which it became a wholly owned division .
In the 1960s orders declined , with a total of 76 Comet 4s being delivered from 1958 to 1964 . In November 1965 BOAC retired its Comet 4s from revenue service , while other operators continued commercial passenger flights with the Comet until 1981 . Dan @-@ Air played a significant role in the fleet 's later history and , at one time , owned all 49 remaining airworthy civil Comets . On 14 March 1997 a Comet 4C serial XS235 and named Canopus , which had been acquired by the British Ministry of Technology and used for radio , radar and avionics trials , made the last documented production Comet flight .
= = Legacy = =
The Comet is widely regarded jointly as an adventurous step forward and a supreme tragedy ; nevertheless , the aircraft 's legacy does include numerous advances in aircraft design and in accident investigations . The inquiries into the accidents that plagued the Comet 1 were perhaps some of the most extensive and revolutionary that have ever taken place , establishing precedents in accident investigation ; many of the deep @-@ sea salvage and aircraft reconstruction techniques employed have remained in use within the aviation industry . In spite of the Comet being subjected to what was then the most rigorous testing of any contemporary airliner , pressurisation and the dynamic stresses involved were not thoroughly understood at the time of the aircraft 's development , nor was the concept of metal fatigue . While these lessons could be implemented on the drawing board for future aircraft , corrections could only be retroactively applied to the Comet .
According to de Havilland 's chief test pilot John Cunningham , who had flown the prototype 's first flight , representatives from American manufacturers such as Boeing and Douglas privately disclosed that if de Havilland had not experienced the Comet 's pressurisation problems first , it would have happened to them . Cunningham likened the Comet to the later Concorde , and added that he had assumed that the aircraft would change aviation , which it subsequently did . Aviation author Bill Withuhn concluded that the Comet had pushed " ' the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art ' beyond its limits . "
Aeronautical engineering firms were quick to respond to the Comet 's commercial advantages and technical flaws alike ; other aircraft manufacturers learned from , and profited by , the hard @-@ earned lessons embodied by de Havilland 's Comet . While the Comet 's buried engines were used on some other early jet airliners , such as the Tupolev Tu @-@ 104 , later aircraft , such as the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC @-@ 8 , would differ by employing podded engines held on pylons beneath the wings . Boeing stated that podded engines were selected for their passenger airliners because buried engines carried a higher risk of catastrophic wing failure in the event of engine fire . In response to the Comet tragedies , manufacturers also developed various means of pressurisation testing , often going so far as to explore rapid depressurisation ; subsequent fuselage skins were of a greater thickness than the skin of the Comet .
= = Variants = =
= = = Comet 1 = = =
The square @-@ windowed Comet 1 was the first model produced , a total of 12 aircraft in service and test . Following closely the design features of the two prototypes , the only noticeable change was the adoption of four @-@ wheel bogie main undercarriage units , replacing the single main wheels . Four Ghost 50 Mk 1 engines were fitted ( later replaced by more powerful Ghost DGT3 series engines ) . The span was 115 ft ( 35 @.@ 05 m ) , and overall length 93 ft ( 28 @.@ 35 m ) ; the maximum takeoff weight was over 105 @,@ 000 lb ( 47 @.@ 628 kg ) and over 40 passengers could be carried .
An updated Comet 1A was offered with higher @-@ allowed weight , greater fuel capacity , and water @-@ methanol injection ; 10 were produced . In the wake of the 1954 disasters , all Comet 1s and 1As were brought back to Hatfield , first placed in a protective cocoon and retained for testing . All were substantially damaged in stress testing or were scrapped entirely .
Comet 1X : Two RCAF Comet 1As were rebuilt with heavier @-@ gauge skins to a Comet 2 standard for the fuselage , and renamed Comet 1X .
Comet 1XB : Four Comet 1As were upgraded to a 1XB standard with a reinforced fuselage structure and oval windows . Both 1X series were limited in number of pressurisation cycles .
The DH 111 Comet Bomber , a nuclear bomb carrying variant developed to Air Ministry specification B35 / 46 , was submitted to the Air Ministry on 27 May 1948 . It had been originally proposed in 1948 as the " PR Comet " , a high @-@ altitude photo reconnaissance adaptation of the Comet 1 . The Ghost DGT3 @-@ powered airframe featured a narrowed fuselage , a bulbous nose with H2S Mk IX radar , and a four @-@ crewmember pressurised cockpit under a large bubble canopy . Fuel tanks carrying 2 @,@ 400 imperial gallons ( 11 @,@ 000 L ) were added to attain a range of 3 @,@ 350 miles ( 5 @,@ 390 km ) . The proposed DH 111 received a negative evaluation from the Royal Aircraft Establishment over serious concerns regarding weapons storage ; this along with the redundant capability offered by the RAF 's proposed V bomber trio led de Havilland to abandon the project on 22 October 1948 .
= = = Comet 2 = = =
The Comet 2 had a slightly larger wing , higher fuel capacity and more powerful Rolls @-@ Royce Avon engines , which all improved the aircraft 's range and performance ; its fuselage was 3 ft 1 in ( 0 @.@ 94 m ) longer than the Comet 1 's . Design changes had been made to make the aircraft more suitable for transatlantic operations . Following the Comet 1 disasters , these models were rebuilt with heavier gauge skin and rounded windows , and the Avon engines featuring larger air intakes and outward @-@ curving jet tailpipes . A total of 12 of the 44 @-@ seat Comet 2s were ordered by BOAC for the South Atlantic route . The first production aircraft ( G @-@ AMXA ) flew on 27 August 1953 . Although these aircraft performed well on test flights on the South Atlantic , their range was still not suitable for the North Atlantic . All but four Comet 2s were allocated to the RAF with deliveries beginning in 1955 . Modifications to the interiors allowed the Comet 2s to be used in a number of different roles . For VIP transport , the seating and accommodations were altered while provisions for carrying medical equipment including iron lungs were incorporated . Specialised ELINT and electronic surveillance capability was later added to some airframes .
Comet 2X : Limited to a single Comet Mk 1 powered by four Rolls @-@ Royce Avon 502 turbojet engines and used as a development aircraft for the Comet 2 .
Comet 2E : Two Comet 2 airliners were fitted with Avon 504s in the inner nacelles and Avon 524s in the outer ones . These aircraft were used by BOAC for proving flights during 1957 – 1958 .
Comet T2 : The first two of 10 Comet 2s for the RAF were fitted out as crew trainers , with the first aircraft ( XK669 ) flying for the first time on 9 December 1955 .
Comet C2 : Eight Comet 2s originally destined for the civil market were completed for the RAF and assigned to No. 216 Squadron .
Comet 2R : Three Comet 2s were modified for use in radar and electronic systems development , initially assigned to No. 90 Group ( later Signals Command ) for the RAF . In service with No. 192 and No. 51 Squadrons , the 2R series was equipped to monitor Warsaw Pact signal traffic and operated in this role from 1958 .
= = = Comet 3 = = =
The Comet 3 , which flew for the first time on 19 July 1954 , was a Comet 2 lengthened by 15 ft 5 in ( 4 @.@ 70 m ) and powered by Avon M502 engines developing 10 @,@ 000 lbf ( 44 kN ) . The variant added wing pinion tanks , and offered greater capacity and range . The Comet 3 was destined to remain a development series since it did not incorporate the fuselage @-@ strengthening modifications of the later series aircraft , and was not able to be fully pressurised . Only two Comet 3s began construction with G @-@ ANLO , the only airworthy Comet 3 , demonstrated at the Farnborough SBAC Show in September 1954 . The other Comet 3 airframe was not completed to production standard and was used primarily for ground @-@ based structural and technology testing during development of the similarly sized Comet 4 . Nine additional Comet 3 airframes were not completed and their construction was abandoned at Hatfield . In BOAC colours , G @-@ ANLO was flown by John Cunningham in a marathon round @-@ the @-@ world promotional tour in December 1955 . As a flying testbed , it was later modified with Avon RA29 engines fitted , as well as replacing the original long @-@ span wings with reduced span wings as the Comet 3B and demonstrated in British European Airways ( BEA ) livery at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1958 . Assigned in 1961 to the Blind Landing Experimental Unit ( BLEU ) at RAE Bedford , the final testbed role played by G – ANLO was in automatic landing system experiments . When retired in 1973 , the airframe was used for foam arrester trials before the fuselage was salvaged at BAE Woodford , to serve as the mock @-@ up for the Nimrod .
= = = Comet 4 = = =
The Comet 4 was a further improvement on the stretched Comet 3 with even greater fuel capacity . The design had progressed significantly from the original Comet 1 , growing by 18 ft 6 in ( 5 @.@ 64 m ) and typically seating 74 to 81 passengers compared to the Comet 1 's 36 to 44 ( 119 passengers could be accommodated in a special charter seating package in the later 4C series ) . The Comet 4 was considered the definitive series , having a longer range , higher cruising speed and higher maximum takeoff weight . These improvements were possible largely because of Avon engines with twice the thrust of the Comet 1 's Ghosts . Deliveries to BOAC began on 30 September 1958 with two 48 @-@ seat aircraft , which were used to initiate the first scheduled transatlantic services .
Comet 4B : Originally developed for Capital Airlines as the 4A , the 4B featured greater capacity through a 2m longer fuselage , and a shorter wingspan ; 18 were produced .
Comet 4C : This variant featured the Comet 4 's wings and the 4B 's longer fuselage ; 23 were produced .
The last two Comet 4C fuselages were used to build prototypes of the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft . A Comet 4C ( SA @-@ R @-@ 7 ) was ordered by Saudi Arabian Airlines with eventual disposition to the Saudi Royal Flight for the exclusive use of King Saud bin Abdul Aziz . Extensively modified at the factory , the aircraft included a VIP front cabin , a bed , special toilets with gold fittings and was distinguished by a green , gold and white colour scheme with polished wings and lower fuselage that was commissioned from aviation artist John Stroud . Following its first flight , the special order Comet 4C was described as " the world 's first executive jet . "
= = = Comet 5 proposal = = =
The Comet 5 was proposed as an improvement over previous models , including a wider fuselage with five @-@ abreast seating , a wing with greater sweep and podded Rolls @-@ Royce Conway engines . Without support from the Ministry of Transport , the proposal languished as a hypothetical aircraft and was never realised .
= = = Hawker Siddeley Nimrod = = =
The last two Comet 4C aircraft produced were modified as prototypes ( XV148 & XV147 ) to meet a British requirement for a maritime patrol aircraft for the Royal Air Force ; initially named " Maritime Comet " , the design was designated Type HS 801 . This variant became the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod and production aircraft were built at the Hawker Siddeley factory at Woodford Aerodrome . Entering service in 1969 , five Nimrod variants were produced . The final Nimrod aircraft were retired in June 2011 .
= = Operators = =
The original operators of the early Comet 1 and the Comet 1A were BOAC , Union Aéromaritime de Transport , and Air France . All early Comets were withdrawn from service for accident inquiries , during which orders from British Commonwealth Pacific Airlines , Japan Air Lines , Linea Aeropostal Venezolana , National Airlines , Pan American World Airways , and Panair do Brasil were cancelled . When the redesigned Comet 4 entered service , it was flown by customers BOAC , Aerolíneas Argentinas , and East African Airways , while the Comet 4B variant was operated by customers BEA and Olympic Airways , and the Comet 4C model was flown by customers Kuwait Airways , Mexicana , Middle East Airlines , Misrair Airlines , and Sudan Airways .
Other operators used the Comet either through leasing arrangements or through second @-@ hand acquisitions . BOAC 's Comet 4s were leased out to Air Ceylon , Air India , AREA Ecuador , Central African Airways , and Qantas Empire Airways ; after 1965 they were sold to AREA Ecuador , Dan @-@ Air , Mexicana , Malaysian Airways , and the Ministry of Defence . BEA 's Comet 4Bs were chartered by Cyprus Airways , Malta Airways , and Transportes Aéreos Portugueses . Channel Airways obtained five Comet 4Bs from BEA in 1970 for inclusive tour charters . Dan @-@ Air bought all of the surviving flyable Comet 4s from the late 1960s into the 1970s ; some were for spares reclamation but most were operated on the carrier 's inclusive tour charters ; a total of 48 Comets of all marks were acquired by the airline .
In military service , the United Kingdom 's Royal Air Force was the largest operator , with the 51 Squadron ( 1958 – 1975 ; Comet C2 , 2R ) , 192 Squadron ( 1957 – 1958 ; Comet C2 , 2R ) , 216 Squadron ( 1956 – 1975 ; Comet C2 and C4 ) , and the Royal Aircraft Establishment using the aircraft . The Royal Canadian Air Force also operated Comet 1As ( later retrofitted to 1XB ) through its 412 Squadron from 1953 to 1963 .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
The Comet was involved in 26 hull @-@ loss accidents , including 13 fatal crashes which resulted in 426 fatalities . Pilot error was blamed for the type 's first fatal accident , which occurred during takeoff at Karachi , Pakistan on 3 March 1953 and involved a Canadian Pacific Airlines Comet 1A . Three fatal Comet 1 crashes due to structural problems , specifically BOAC Flight 783 / 057 on 2 May 1953 , BOAC Flight 781 on 10 January 1954 , and South African Airways Flight 201 on 8 April 1954 , led to the grounding of the entire Comet fleet . After design modifications were implemented , Comet services resumed in 1958 .
Pilot error resulting in controlled flight into terrain was blamed for five fatal Comet 4 accidents : an Aerolíneas Argentinas crash near Asunción , Paraguay on 27 August 1959 , Aerolíneas Argentinas Flight 322 at Campinas near São Paulo , Brazil on 23 November 1961 , United Arab Airlines Flight 869 in Thailand 's Khao Yai mountains on 19 July 1962 , a Saudi Arabian Government crash in the Italian Alps on 20 March 1963 , and United Arab Airlines Flight 844 in Tripoli , Libya on 2 January 1971 . The Dan @-@ Air de Havilland Comet crash in Spain 's Montseny range on 3 July 1970 was attributed to navigational errors by air traffic control and pilots . Other fatal Comet 4 accidents include a British European Airways crash in Ankara , Turkey following instrument failure on 21 December 1961 , United Arab Airlines Flight 869 during inclement weather near Bombay , India on 28 July 1963 , and the terrorist bombing of Cyprus Airways Flight 284 off the Turkish coast on 12 October 1967 .
Nine Comets , including Comet 1s operated by BOAC and Union Aeromaritime de Transport and Comet 4s flown by Aerolíneas Argentinas , Dan @-@ Air , Malaysian Airlines , and United Arab Airlines , were irreparably damaged during takeoff or landing accidents that were survived by all on board . A hangar fire damaged a No. 192 Squadron RAF Comet 2R beyond repair on 13 September 1957 , and three Middle East Airlines Comet 4Cs were destroyed by Israeli troops at Beirut , Lebanon on 28 December 1968 .
= = Aircraft on display = =
Since retirement , three early @-@ generation Comet airframes have survived in museum collections . The only complete remaining Comet 1 , a Comet 1XB with the registration G @-@ APAS , is displayed at the RAF Museum Cosford . While painted in BOAC colours , it never flew for the airline , having been first delivered to Air France and then to the Ministry of Supply after conversion to 1XB standard ; this aircraft also served with the RAF as XM823 . The sole surviving Comet fuselage with the original square @-@ shaped windows , part of a Comet 1A registered F @-@ BGNX , has undergone restoration and is on display at the de Havilland Aircraft Museum in Hertfordshire , England . A Comet C2 Sagittarius with serial XK699 , later maintenance serial 7971M , has been on display at the gate of RAF Lyneham in Wiltshire , England since 1987 . In 2012 , with the planned closure of RAF Lyneham , the aircraft was slated to be dismantled and shipped to the RAF Museum Cosford where it will be re @-@ assembled for display .
Seven complete Comet 4s are housed in museum collections . The Imperial War Museum Duxford has a Comet 4 ( G @-@ APDB ) , originally in Dan @-@ Air colours as part of its Flight Line Display , and later in BOAC livery at its AirSpace building . A Comet 4B ( G @-@ APYD ) is stored in a facility at the Science Museum at Wroughton in Wiltshire , England . Comet 4Cs are exhibited at the Flugausstellung Leo Junior at Hermeskeil , Germany ( G @-@ BDIW ) , the Museum of Flight near Seattle , Washington ( N888WA ) , the National Museum of Flight near Edinburgh , Scotland ( G @-@ BDIX ) , and the Parque Zoológico Irapuato in Guanajuato , Mexico ( N777WA ) .
The last Comet to fly , Comet 4C Canopus ( XS235 ) , is kept in running condition at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome , where fast taxi runs are regularly conducted . Since the 2000s , various parties have proposed restoring Canopus , which is maintained by a staff of volunteers , to airworthy , fully flight @-@ capable condition . The Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome also displays a related Hawker Siddeley Nimrod MR2 aircraft .
= = Specifications = =
Sources : Jane 's All The World 's Aircraft 1965 – 66 , De Havilland Aircraft since 1909 , and Flight International .
= = Popular culture = =
= Hurricane ! ( American Dad ! ) =
" Hurricane ! " is the second episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series American Dad ! , an episode produced for season 7 . It aired on Fox in the United States on October 2 , 2011 . The episode plot mainly revolves around the Smith family , who prepare for evacuation in response to an oncoming hurricane . Reluctant to leave his home , Stan encourages his family to ride out the storm in their house with him . The hurricane sends a flood to the city of Langley Falls , which puts the entire family in danger .
" Hurricane ! " is the final part of the Night of the Hurricane block with Family Guy and The Cleveland Show . Kevin Reilly , the president of the entertainment division of Fox Broadcasting Company , introduced the idea of a crossover to Seth MacFarlane , the creator of all three shows . The episode was first announced at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International . The episode plot is loosely modeled to that of the disaster film The Poseidon Adventure . Originally scheduled to air on May 1 , 2011 , as the season finale for the seventh season , " Hurricane ! " was postponed due to the tornado outbreak that occurred from April 25 – 28 . Other factors even included the March 11 , 2011 Japanese tsunami .
The episode was well received by television critics , who praised its humor and cultural references . It was viewed by 5 @.@ 72 million viewers upon its initial airing , while also receiving a 2 @.@ 6 / 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . " Hurricane ! " was written by Erik Sommers , and directed by Tim Parsons . It featured the guest voices of Mike Barker , Lisa Edelstein , Jeff Fischer , Mike Henry , Matt McKenna , Kevin Michael Richardson , and Kristen Schaal .
= = Plot = =
When a hurricane arrives at Langley Falls , the Smiths prepare to evacuate their home with their neighbor Buckle in his amphibious raft . Stan , however , recommends that the family stay home during the storm , believing it is the best way for everyone to be safe . Hayley and Jeff also wish to stay to help the animals that have been left behind in the zoo . Francine disagrees with Stan 's notion , Steve and Roger supporting her , as she points out Stan 's history with making terrible decisions during crisis situations . But before the debate can be resolved , the seawall breaks and the ocean floods down the street , removing Buckle and his raft out of its path and trapping the Smiths in their home nevertheless . The neighborhood is now flooded , and the house is drifting along the floodwater 's current . In an attempt to save the family from floating into any potential dangerous areas , Stan anchors the home ; however the anchoring system also acts as a hinge and rotates the house upside @-@ down , partially submerging it underwater .
The family becomes increasingly frightened and distrustful of him , especially when his latest advice leads Hayley to be attacked by a shark . With the shark loose in the house , the family fights for survival . Stan loses hope and admits Francine 's suggestions are better than his own , until Klaus gives him an encouragement speech which inspires him to prove himself reliable in a crisis once more . Stan obtains a bear from the zoo to battle the shark , which only further aggravates the situation when the two animals work together to kill the family . Refusing to accept Francine 's pleas to just get help , Stan instead throws a javelin that hits his wife in her shoulder instead of the bear . Buckle enters the house with a tranquilizer gun and sedates the two predators before also shooting Stan , who later tells Buckle that he made the right call . Despite the whole ordeal , Stan is no longer convinced that he should stay out of a future crisis .
After the storm clears , Stan looks out to scope the damage done by the storm , only to find himself in a stand @-@ off with Cleveland Brown and Peter Griffin , whose houses have ended up on both sides of the Smiths ' house , since the same hurricane hit their respective towns earlier . When Francine comes out the front door , Stan accidentally shoots her , which Peter claims to be " classic American Dad ! " due to its unpredictability .
= = Production = =
The episode was first announced in July 2010 by series creator Seth MacFarlane at the Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California . Kevin Reilly , the entertainment president of the Fox Broadcasting Company , originally pitched the idea for the crossover , which was inspired by theme nights of comedy shows from the 1980s . MacFarlane described the crossover event to be an " enormous challenge " and a " substantial undertaking " ; he chose to do one central story line so that each writing staff would not have to write stories for unfamiliar characters . He was also willing to do another crossover event if this one received successful ratings .
Much of the episode plot in " Hurricane ! " was modeled after the action adventure disaster film , The Poseidon Adventure . In his interview on the plot of the final part of the crossover episode , Mike Barker , a producer for American Dad , stated that " [ they ] end up flooding the house and turning it upside down . " He continued : " Ultimately , the house drifts and ends up in the same neighborhood as the Griffin and Brown homes . " The actual crossing over of the event occurs at the end of this episode when Stan gets involved in a stand off with Cleveland Brown of The Cleveland Show and Peter Griffin of Family Guy .
In April 2011 , executives of the Fox Broadcasting Company officially announced that " Hurricane ! " would air on May 1 as part of the Night of the Hurricane crossover , along with The Cleveland Show episode " The Hurricane ! " and Family Guy episode " Seahorse Seashell Party " . However , on April 29 , it was announced that the crossover event would be removed from the schedule , in response to a series of tornadoes that killed nearly 300 people in the Southern United States . The crossover was subsequently replaced by repeats of " I Am the Walrus " from American Dad ! , " Brian Writes a Bestseller " from Family Guy , and " Ain 't Nothin ' But Mutton Bustin ' " from The Cleveland Show . MacFarlane later agreed with the decisions after being consulted with the executives of Fox , and a spokeswoman for the company later announced that the episode would air the succeeding season .
" Hurricane ! " was directed by Tim Parsons , in his first directing credit of the season . This episode marked the first time Parsons has directed an American Dad ! episode since the seventh season episode " I Am the Walrus " . It was written by Erik Sommers , which also served as his first writing credit for the season . Sommers ' last production credit was the sixth season episode " You Debt Your Life " . In addition to the regular cast , voice actor Mike Henry , actress Lisa Edelstein and voice actress Kristen Schaal guest starred in the episode as Cleveland Brown , Sharri Rothberg , and Roger 's One Night Stand respectively . Recurring voice actors Jeff Fischer , Mike Barker , Matt McKenna , and Kevin Michael Richardson reprised their roles of Jeff Fischer , Terry Bates , Buckle , and Principal Brian Lewis respectively . In addition to his American Dad ! roles of Stan , Roger , and Greg Corbin , MacFarlane reprised his Family Guy role of Peter Griffin , while Henry guest starred as his role of Cleveland Brown . This episode marked the first time Henry made a guest appearance on American Dad since the season four episode " Stan 's Night Out " . Edelstein and McKenna reprised their roles of Shari and Buckle , having last done so in the season seven episode " Best Little Horror House in Langley Falls " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Hurricane ! " first aired in the United States on October 2 , 2011 as part of the animation television night on Fox . It was preceded by episodes of The Simpsons , and its sister shows The Cleveland Show and Family Guy . It was viewed by 5 @.@ 71 million viewers upon its initial airing , despite simultaneously airing with Desperate Housewives on ABC , Amazing Race on CBS , and a match between the Baltimore Ravens and the New York Jets on NBC . Total viewership for the episode was the third highest of the animation television block on Fox , having moderately higher ratings than that of The Cleveland Show but lower ratings than that of The Simpsons and Family Guy . " Hurricane ! " garnered a 2 @.@ 6 / 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . Total viewership and ratings were slightly down from the previous episode , " Hot Water " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 83 million viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 0 / 7 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Television reviews = = =
Critics generally praised the episode , with many deeming " Hurricane ! " as the best part of the crossover . Terron Moore of Ology praised the episode , giving it an 8 @.@ 5 out of ten rating . Points of acclaim went to the humor of the episode , to which Moore opined that it " was packed with a lot of funny lines , a lot of ridiculous Stan antics [ ... ] , and a pretty funny arc involving Roger and his girlfriend " .
Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club was polarized with the episode . Although she stated that the episode was not bad , Kaiser stated that it " didn 't quite work " . Kaiser went on to give the episode a ' B- ' grade , scoring higher than the Family Guy episode " Seahorse Seashell Party " , but lower than The Simpsons episode " Bart Stops to Smell the Roosevelts " . Another writer felt that the interactions between Stan and Francine were inferior to previous episodes of the series and wrote , " It breaks away from Francine and Stan 's fun relationship and veers into the more conventional cartoon relationship , where the husband is a buffoon and the wife has to keep him check . "
= Juliusz Słowacki =
Juliusz Słowacki ( Polish pronunciation : [ ˈjuljuʂ swɔˈvat ͡ ski ] ; 4 September 1809 – 3 April 1849 ) was a Polish Romantic poet . He is considered one of the " Three Bards " of Polish literature — a major figure in the Polish Romantic period , and the father of modern Polish drama . His works often feature elements of Slavic pagan traditions , Polish history , mysticism and orientalism . His style includes the employment of neologisms and irony . His primary genre was the drama , but he also wrote lyric poetry . His most popular works include the dramas Kordian and Balladyna and the poems Beniowski and Testament mój .
Słowacki spent his youth in the " Stolen Lands " , in Kremenets ( Polish : Krzemieniec ; now in Ukraine ) and Vilnius ( Polish : Wilno , in Lithuania ) . He briefly worked for the government of the Kingdom of Poland . During the November 1830 Uprising , he was a courier for the Polish revolutionary government . When the uprising ended in defeat , he found himself abroad and thereafter , like many compatriots , lived the life of an émigré . He settled briefly in Paris , France , and later in Geneva , Switzerland . He also traveled through Italy , Greece and the Middle East . Eventually he returned to Paris , where he spent the last decade of his life . He briefly returned to Poland when another uprising broke out during the Spring of Nations ( 1848 ) .
= = Life = =
= = = Youth = = =
= = = Emigration = = =
Like many of his countrymen , Słowacki decided to stay in France as a political refugee . In 1832 he published his first collections of poems and his first two dramas ( Mindowe and Maria Stuart ) . He also met Mickiewicz again ; reportedly , Mickiewicz approached his younger colleague and shook his hand . However , Słowacki 's poems , written in the 1820s , were unpopular among his Polish compatriots , as they failed to capture the sentiment of a people living under foreign occupation . Słowacki was angered by Mickiewicz , who not only stole the limelight with his Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego ( Books of the
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to focus on overcoming widespread hunger in the country . The situation was complicated externally , provoked by Turkish and Azeri Muslim riots . In 1920 the situation in the country became worse , with apparent rapprochement between Soviet Russia and Kemal 's Turkey . When the Turkish @-@ Armenian war started in autumn 1920 , Armenia was isolated and abandoned by Western allies . The newly formed League of Nations did not provide any help . Soviet Russia intensified its pressure on Armenia . Losing the war , Armenia signed the Treaty of Alexandropol on December 2 , 1920 , which resulted in the recognition of large territorial losses to Turkey . The Armenia military @-@ revolutionary committee formed in Soviet Azerbaijan . Despite their tight grip on power , the ARF ceded power to the Communist Red Army troops invading from the north , which culminated with a Soviet takeover . The ARF was banned , its leaders exiled , and many of its members dispersed to other parts of the world .
= = Exile = =
After the communists took over the short @-@ lived First Republic of Armenia and ARF leaders were exiled , the Dashnaks moved their base of operations to where the Armenian diaspora had settled . With the large influx of Armenian refugees in the Levant , the ARF established a strong political structure in Lebanon and to a lesser extent , Syria . From 1921 to 1990 , the Dashnaktsutiun established political structures in more than 200 states including the USA , where another large influx of Armenians settled .
With political and geographic division came religious division . One part of the Armenian Church claimed it wanted to be separate from the head , whose seat was in Echmiadzin , Armenian SSR . Some Armenians in the US thought Moscow tried to use the Armenian Church to promote Communists ' ideas outside the country . The Armenian Church thus separated into two branches , Echmiadzin and Cilician , and started to operate separately . In the US , Echmiadzin branch churches of the Armenian Apostolic Church would not admit members of the ARF . This was one of the reasons why the ARF discouraged people from attending these churches and brought the representatives from a different wing of the church , the Armenian Catholicate of Cilicia , from Lebanon to the US . In 1933 , members of ARF were convicted in the assassination of Armenian archbishop Levon Tourian in New York City . Prior to his murder , the archbishop had been accused of being exclusively pro @-@ Soviet by the ARF . However , the ARF itself was legally exonerated from any direct complicity in the assassination .
During World War II , some Berlin @-@ based ARF members saw an opportunity to remove Soviet control from Armenia by supporting the Nazis . The Armenian Legion , composed largely of former Soviet Red Army POWs , was led by Drastamat Kanayan . It participated in the occupation of the Crimean Peninsula but was later based in the Netherlands and France a result of Adolf Hitler 's distrust of their loyalty .
During the 1950s , tensions arose between the ARF and Armenian SSR . The death of Catholicos Garegin of the Holy See of Cilicia prompted a struggle for succession . The National Ecclesiastic Assembly , which was largely influenced by the ARF , elected Zareh of Aleppo . This decision was rejected by the Echmiadzin @-@ based Catholicos of All Armenians , the anti @-@ ARF coalition , and Soviet Armenian authorities . Zareh extended his administrative authority over a large part of the Armenian diaspora , furthering the rift that had already been created by his election . This event split the large Armenian community of Lebanon , creating sporadic clashes between the supporters of Zareh and those who opposed his election .
Religious conflict was part of a greater conflict that raged between the two " camps " of the Armenian diaspora . The ARF still resented the fact that they were ousted from Armenia after the Red Army took control , and the ARF leaders supported the creation of a " Free , Independent , and United Armenia " , free from both Soviet and Turkish hegemony . The Social Democrat Hunchakian Party and Ramgavar Party , the main rivals of the ARF , supported the newly established Soviet rule in Armenia .
= = = Lebanon = = =
From 1923 to 1958 , conflicts erupted among Armenian political parties struggling to dominate and organize the diaspora . In 1926 , a struggle between committees of the ARF and Hunchakian parties for control of the newly established shanty @-@ town of Bourj Hammoud in Lebanon led to the assassination of ARF member Vahan Vartabedian . As retaliation for the murder , Hunchakian members Mihran Aghazarian and S. Dekhrouhi were assassinated in 1929 and 1931 respectively . In 1956 , when Bishop Zareh was consecrated Catholicos of Cilicia , the Catholicos of Echmiadzin refused to recognize his authority . This controversy polarized the Armenian community of Lebanon . As a result , in the context of the Lebanese civil strife of 1958 , an armed conflict erupted between supporters ( the ARF ) and opponents ( Hunchakians , Ramgavars ) of Zareh .
Prior to the Lebanese Civil War of 1975 – 90 , the party was closely allied to the Phalangist Party of Pierre Gemayel and generally ran joint tickets with the Phalangists , especially in Beirut constituencies with large Armenian populations . The refusal of the ARF , along with most Armenian groups , to play an active role in the civil war , however , soured relations between the two parties , and the Lebanese Forces ( a militia dominated by Phalangists and commanded by Bachir Gemayel , Pierre Gemayel 's son ) , responded by attacking the Armenian quarters of many Lebanese towns , including Bourj Hammoud . Many Armenians affiliated with the ARF took up arms voluntarily to defend their quarters . In the midst of the Lebanese civil war , a shadowy guerrilla organization called Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide emerged and carried out a string of assassinations from 1975 to 1983 . The guerrilla organization has sometimes been linked to the Dashnaks .
Ethnic Armenians are allocated six seats in Lebanon 's 128 @-@ member National Assembly . The Lebanese branch of the ARF has usually controlled a majority of the Armenian vote and won most of the ethnic Armenian seats in the National Assembly . A major change occurred in the parliamentary election of 2000 . With a rift between ARF and the Mustaqbal ( Future ) party of Rafik Hariri and the ARF was left with only one parliamentary seat , its worst result in many decades . The ARF called for a boycott of the 2005 Beirut elections . Relations soured further when on August 5 , 2007 by @-@ election in the Metn district , which includes the predominantly Armenian area of Bourj Hammoud , ARF decided to support Camille Khoury , the candidate backed by opposition leader Michel Aoun 's Free Patriotic Movement against Phalangist leader Amine Gemayel and subsequently won the seat . In the 2009 Lebanese general elections , the ARF won 2 seats in parliament which it holds presently . In June 2011 , a new Lebanese government was formed where ARF party members were appointed to two ministerial positions , including Ministry of Industry , as part of the March 8 alliance .
The ARF Lebanon branch is headquartered in Bourj Hammoud in the Shaghzoian Centre , along with the ARF Lebanon Central Committee 's Aztag Daily newspaper and " Voice Of Van " 24 @-@ hour radio station .
= = Independent Armenia = =
The ARF has always maintained its ideological commitment to " a Free , Independent , and United Armenia " . The term United Armenia refers to the borders of Armenia recognized by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and outlined in the Treaty of Sèvres . After Armenia fell under Soviet control in 1920 , the ARF within the Armenian diaspora opposed Soviet rule over Armenia and rallied in support of Armenian independence . It contributed to organizing a social and cultural framework aimed at preserving the Armenian identity . However , because of tight communist control , the ARF could not operate in the Armenian SSR and the political party remained banned until 1991 .
When independence was achieved in 1991 , the ARF soon became one of the major and most active political parties , rivaled mainly by the Pan @-@ Armenian National Movement . Subsequently , on December 28 , 1994 , President Levon Ter @-@ Petrosyan in a famous television speech banned the ARF , which was the nation 's leading opposition party , along with Yerkir , the country 's largest daily newspaper . Ter @-@ Petrosyan introduced evidence that supposedly detailed a plot hatched by the ARF to engage in terrorism against his administration , endanger Armenia 's national security and overthrow the government . Throughout the evening , government security forces arrested leading ARF figures , and police seized computers , fax machines , files and printing equipment from ARF offices . In addition to Yerkir , government forces also closed several literary , women 's , cultural , and youth publications . Thirty @-@ one men , who would later be known as the " Dro Group " ( named after the Dro Committee , the group that was allegedly behind the plot ) , were arrested .
Gerard Libaridyan , an historian and close adviser of Ter @-@ Petrosyan , collected and presented the evidence against the defendants . He later stated in an interview that he was unsure if the evidence was true , inviting the notion that the party was banned because of its increasing chances of winning seats in the July 1995 parliamentary elections . Several months after the elections , most of the men were found not guilty with the exception of several defendants charged for engaging in corrupt business practices . The ban on the party was lifted , however , less than a week after Ter @-@ Petrosyan fell from power in February 1998 and was replaced by Robert Kocharyan , who was backed by the Dashnaks .
However , two members ARF : Arsen Artsruni and Armenak Mnjoyan still arrested so far .
In 2007 , the ARF was not part of but had a cooperation agreement in place with the governing coalition , which consisted of two parties in the government coalition , the Republican Party and Prosperous Armenia Party . The Country of Law party was also a member of the governing coalition until it pulled out in May 2006 . With 16 of the 131 seats in the National Assembly of Armenia , the Armenian Revolutionary Federation is the major socialist party in Armenia and the third @-@ largest party in parliament .
In addition to its parliamentary seats , the following governmental ministries were also headed by ARF members : Ministry of Agriculture , Davit Lokian ; Ministry of Education and Science , Levon Mkrtchian ; Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs , Aghvan Vardanian ; Ministry of Healthcare , Norair Davidian . On July 13 , 2007 , the ARF History Museum was inaugurated in Yerevan , displaying the history of the party and of its notable members .
In 2007 , the ARF announced that it would nominate its own candidate to run for president of Armenia in the February 2008 presidential election . In an innovation on November 24 – 25 , 2007 , the ARF conducted a non @-@ binding Armenia @-@ wide primary election . They invited the public to vote to advise the party which of two candidates , Vahan Hovhannisyan and Armen Rustamyan , they should formally nominate for president of Armenia in the subsequent official election . What characterized it as a primary instead of a standard opinion poll was that the public knew of the primary in advance , all eligible voters were invited , and the voting was by secret ballot . Nearly 300 @,@ 000 people voted in makeshift tents and mobile ballot boxes . Vahan Hovhannisyan received the most votes and was subsequently nominated for the presidential election by the ARF Supreme Council in a secret ballot . In the presidential election , Hovhannisyan placed fourth with 6 @.@ 2 % of the vote . In 2008 , ARF re @-@ joined the ruling political coalition in Armenia and supported strong police actions during the 2008 Armenian presidential election protests that led to ten deaths .
Due to the signature of the so @-@ called Zurich Protocols the ARF left the coalition and became an opposition party once again in 2009 , but relations with other factions in the Armenian opposition have remained frosty . In 2012 parliamentary election the ARF won 5 seats losing 11 parliamentary seats from 2007 .
ARF then reentered Sargsyan 's cabinet in February 2016 , obtaining three ministerial posts : Ministry of Economy , Local Government and Education ; also as a result of what was defined as a " long @-@ term political cooperation " agreement with the Republican Party , ARF also got to appoint the regional governors of Aragatsotn and Shirak Provinces .
= = = Electoral record = = =
In the 2000s , the party usually garnered some 10 to 15 of the vote in national elections . In a 2007 confidential telegram Anthony Godfrey , U.S. Embassy in Armenia chargé d 'affaires , wrote that the party " has had a historically loyal following of 10 to 12 percent of the population , but probably has little chance to expand from that base . "
= = Nagorno @-@ Karabakh = =
After the Soviet Union expanded into the South Caucasus , it established the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Autonomous Oblast ( NKAO ) within the Azerbaijan SSR in 1923 . In the final years of the Soviet Union , the Armenian Revolutionary Federation established a branch in Nagorno @-@ Karabakh . In January 1991 , the Dashnaktsutiun won the parliamentary election and governed as the ruling party during the entirety of the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh war . The Dashnaks actively supported the independence of Nagorno @-@ Karabakh ( or Artsakh as Armenians call it ) . It aided the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh Defense Army by sending armed volunteers to the front lines and supplying the army with weapons , food , medicine and moral support . After deciding not to run in the second parliamentary elections , the Armenian Revolutionary Federation ran in the 1999 elections and won 9 of the 33 seats in the National Assembly of Nagorno Karabakh . At the June 2005 elections , the Dashnaktsutiun was part of an electoral alliance with Movement 88 that won 3 out of 33 seats .
= = Ideology and goals = =
The principal founders of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation were nationalist , socialists , and Marxist elements were omnipresent in the introductory section of the party 's first program written by Rosdom , entitled " General Theory " . The ARF first set down its ideological and political goals during the Hamidian regime . It denounced the Ottoman regime and the unbearable conditions of life for its Armenians and advocated changing the regime in power and securing more rights through revolution and armed struggle . The ARF had and still has socialism within its political philosophy . Its program expresses the entire , multifaceted make @-@ up of the Armenian revolutionary movement , including its national @-@ liberation , political , and social @-@ economic aspects .
Despite subsequent modifications , the above @-@ mentioned principles and tendencies continue to characterize the ideological world of the Dashnaktsutiun , and its approach toward issues has remained unchanged . In recent decades , the Armenian Revolutionary Federation reasserted itself ideologically and reformulated the section of its program called " General Theory " , adapting it to current concepts of socialism , democracy and rights of self @-@ determination . The party has long supported a parliamentary republican political system and campaigned for a " yes " vote in the 2015 constitutional referendum .
Its goals are :
Creation of a free , independent , and united Armenia . The borders of United Armenia shall include all territories designated as Armenia by the Treaty of Sèvres as well as the regions of Artsakh , Javakhk , and Nakhichevan ( See map ) .
International condemnation of the Genocide committed by the Ottoman Empire against the Armenians , return of the lands which are occupied , and just reparations to the Armenian nation
The gathering of worldwide expatriate Armenians on the lands of United Armenia .
Strengthening Armenia 's statehood , institutionalization of democracy and the rule of law , securing the people 's economic well being , and establishment of social justice , and a democratic and socialistic independent republic in Armenia
The ARF is often accused of having a present strategy that does not differ from the one used during the time of the Ottoman Empire . Its tactics are viewed as still being aimed at convincing Western governments and diplomatic circles to sponsor the party 's demands .
In 1907 , the Dashnaktsutiun joined the Second International until its dissolution during World War I. It later joined the reformed Socialist International and remained a full member until 1960 , when it decided to pull out of the organization . In 1996 , it was re @-@ accepted as an observer member , and in 1999 the Dashnaks earned full membership in the international organization . The party was also a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1923 and 1940 .
A member of the ARF is called Dashnaktsakan ( in Eastern Armenian ) or Tashnagtsagan ( in Western Armenian ) . Other than calling each other by name , members formally address one another as Comrade ( Ընկեր or Unger for boys and men , Ընկերուհի or Ungerouhi for girls and women ) .
= = Affiliate organizations = =
The ARF is considered the foremost organization in the Armenian diaspora , having established numerous Armenian schools , community centers , Scouting and athletic groups , relief societies , youth groups , camps , and other organs throughout the world .
The ARF also works as an umbrella organ for the Armenian Relief Society , the Homenetmen Armenian General Athletic Union , the Hamazkayin Cultural Foundation , and many other community organizations . It operates the Armenian Youth Federation , which encourages the youth of the diaspora to join the political cause of the ARF and the Armenian people .
The ARF Shant Student Association and the ARF Armen Karo Student Association are organizations of college and university students on various campuses and are the only ARF organizations whose membership is exclusively from this group .
= = = US and Canada = = =
Armenian National Committee of America , an @-@ ARF affiliate organization , is the strongest Armenian lobby organization in the United States . Its sister organization Armenian National Committee of Canada , operated in Canada .
= = = Other countries = = =
Argentina , Australia , Bulgaria , Canada , Cyprus , Egypt , England , France , Georgia , Germany , Greece , Iran , Israel , Russia , Switzerland , Syria , Uruguay subsequently have played a significant role in the campaign for the recognition of the Armenian Genocide in their respective countries .
= = Media = =
ARF and its affiliate organizations worldwide publish 11 newspapers : 4 daily and 7 weekly . Also , there are two TV channels , including one online . Two radio stations are aired everyday , including one online .
Periodicals
Television
Radio
= Mark Giordano =
Mark Giordano ( born October 3 , 1983 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who currently serves as captain of the Calgary Flames of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . An undrafted player , Giordano signed with the Flames as a free agent in 2004 after playing two seasons of major junior hockey with Owen Sound Attack of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . Since making his debut in 2006 , Giordano has played his entire NHL career with the Flames but left the team for one season , 2007 – 08 , to play for Dynamo Moscow of the Russian Super League .
Praised for his leadership and offensive skills , Giordano is the Flames ' top defenceman and was named to play his first NHL All @-@ Star Game in 2015 . The Flames have also honoured him for his charitable contributions ; he was named recipient of the J. R. " Bud " McCaig Award in 2012 . Internationally , Giordano played with Team Canada at the 2010 IIHF World Championship and was a member of the 2007 Spengler Cup winning team .
= = Early life = =
Mark Giordano was born in Toronto , Ontario on October 3 , 1983 . His father , Paul , is a real estate agent and his mother , Anna , a hairdresser . Giordano has an older sister , Michelle , and had another older sister , Mia , who was killed in a car accident when he was 14 . He taps his helmet twice with his stick at the end of the national anthems before each game as a quiet tribute to his sister , whose death had a lasting impact on Giordano and his family and brought them closer together .
As a youth , Giordano played both hockey and baseball , but focused on hockey as the demands of both sports on his time increased . Giordano played his minor hockey in North York and attended Chaminade College School .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Giordano played one season of Junior A hockey with the Brampton Capitals of the Ontario Junior Hockey League in 2001 – 02 where he scored 24 goals in the playoffs to help lead the Capitals to the Ontario provincial championship . He then moved up to major junior , playing two seasons with the Owen Sound Attack of the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) . He was the top scoring defenceman on the team for both years . As a 19 @-@ year @-@ old rookie , Giordano recorded 48 points for Owen Sound in 2002 – 03 and , as one of the top first @-@ year players in the league , was named to the OHL First All @-@ Rookie Team .
Despite his offensive success in junior , Giordano went unselected at the NHL Entry Draft . He accepted an invitation to attend the Phoenix Coyotes ' training camp where , according to then @-@ Owen Sound General Manager Mike Futa , Giordano impressed team officials but believed that he would be best served by playing a second season in the OHL . Giordano finished the 2003 – 04 season with 49 points .
After graduating from junior hockey , Giordano enrolled at York University and planned to study at its school of business when he received a late invitation from the Calgary Flames to attend their summer camp . Former Flames coach Jim Playfair recalled that Giordano stood out among the group of invitees and said that his skill and skating ability set him apart : " Darryl ( Sutter ) met with three or four of those kids and gave them all the same contracts : Three years in the American League , and if it works out for you , you 've got a career . Gio took it and ran with it . " The Flames signed him to a contract following the camp .
= = = Professional = = =
The Flames assigned Giordano to their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Lowell Lock Monsters , for the 2004 – 05 season where he scored 6 goals and added 10 assists in 66 games . He remained in the AHL for much of the 2005 – 06 season , transferring to Calgary 's new affiliate , the Omaha Ak @-@ Sar @-@ Ben Knights . Giordano led the Knights in scoring , recording 16 goals and 58 points in 73 games . Additionally , he was second among defencemen in the AHL in goal scoring and fourth in points . The Flames recalled him to Calgary at mid @-@ season , and he made his NHL debut on January 30 , 2006 , against the St. Louis Blues . Giordano appeared in seven games with the Flames , and recorded his first NHL point with an assist on April 8 , 2006 , against the Vancouver Canucks . In the 2006 – 07 season , Giordano played only five games in Omaha as he spent the majority of the campaign in Calgary . In 48 games with the Flames , he recorded 7 goals and 15 points . Giordano scored his first two NHL goals on October 14 , 2006 , against the Toronto Maple Leafs .
Unable to come to terms on a new contract with the Flames prior to the 2007 – 08 season , Giordano left the NHL to sign with HC Dynamo Moscow of the Russian Super League . According to Playfair , Giordano did not sign in Russia over money . Instead , he left due to the fact that he felt he had proven what he could do in the AHL and , lacking a guarantee that he would be in the NHL , sought a higher calibre league in which to play . He scored 4 goals and 13 points in 50 games with Dynamo , and played with the winning Canadian team at the 2007 Spengler Cup . The Canadian national team named him an alternate at the 2008 IIHF World Championship in case of injury to a roster player , however he never appeared in a game . Though he feared his decision to leave for Russia would damage his relationship with the Flames , Giordano and the team came to terms on a three @-@ year contract that brought him back to Calgary for the 2008 – 09 NHL season .
Giordano appeared in 58 games for the Flames and scored 19 points before a shoulder injury ended his season . He required surgery to repair the damage suffered in a game against the Minnesota Wild . He recovered in time to begin the 2009 – 10 season , but several new additions to Calgary 's defensive corps left him concerned about his position with the team . Instead , he solidified his place on the roster with a career year ; Giordano set personal highs in goals ( 11 ) , points ( 30 ) and was + 17 for the Flames . The Hockey News named him one of the most underrated players in the league , and he was invited to join Team Canada at the 2010 IIHF World Championship . Giordano led the team 's defencemen with three goals in the tournament and added an assist in seven games .
Despite having the option to become an unrestricted free agent following the 2010 – 11 season , Giordano opted to remain in Calgary and signed a five @-@ year , $ 20 million contract extension with the Flames on October 29 , 2010 . He led the team 's defencemen in scoring and set another career high with 43 points in 82 games . Giordano missed several weeks of the 2011 – 12 season after suffering a torn hamstring . The injury caused Giordano , who was named an alternate captain prior to the season 's start , to miss 21 games . He finished with 27 points in 61 games , then scored 15 points in 47 games in the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season .
Giordano was named the 19th captain in Flames history on September 20 , 2013 , as he succeeded Jarome Iginla , who was traded late in the 2012 – 13 season . Giordano was praised by his teammates and coaches staff for both his long tenure with the franchise and for his playing style : Giordano played in all situations for the Flames , was one of the hardest workers on the team and was willing to sacrifice himself to block a shot or defend his teammates . Head coach Bob Hartley praised Giordano 's influence on his teammates as the rebuilding Flames team established an identity as a squad which was noted across the league for its work ethic .
A blocked shot injured Giordano early in the 2013 – 14 season as he suffered a broken ankle in late October . He missed 18 games due to the injury , during which the Flames gained only five wins . He still recorded career highs of 13 goals and 47 points . Though he was not named to the team , Giordano 's growing reputation placed him on Team Canada 's short list for the 2014 Winter Olympics , and he received a first place vote ( finishing 10th overall ) in voting for the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the league 's top defenceman .
A surge in offensive production from Giordano and fellow defencemen T. J. Brodie and Dennis Wideman resulted in the Flames being one of the NHL 's biggest surprises early in the 2014 – 15 season . Predicted to finish near the bottom of the standings before the season , the Flames instead began December with one of the best records in the league , in large part due to the play of Giordano , who led all NHL defencemen with 25 points , four better than Brodie . His plus @-@ minus of + 14 ranked him second in the league . The NHL recognized Giordano 's early season play by naming him its First Star of the month of November . He was subsequently named as the Flames ' representative at the 60th National Hockey League All @-@ Star Game . Giordano played his 500th career game on February 2 , 2015 , in a victory over the Winnipeg Jets . He set a personal best by scoring his 48th point of the season in a 3 – 1 win over the New Jersey Devils on February 25 , but also suffered an injury in the game . The Flames announced one week later that he required surgery for a completely torn biceps tendon ; the estimated recovery time of four to five months meant that his season was over .
= = Personal life = =
Giordano and his wife are spokespeople for Habitat for Humanity . They launched a program called " 5 @-@ for @-@ 5 " in January 2011 that aimed to build five homes for the organization , one in the Calgary area and four in Africa and Asia . Giordano donated $ 25 @,@ 000 of the $ 130 @,@ 000 cost himself , and his contribution was matched by the Flames charitable foundation . The team honoured him for his work with Habitat for Humanity and the Flames Foundation for Life by naming him the recipient of the J. R. " Bud " McCaig Award in 2012 . Prior to the 2014 – 15 season , Giordano and his wife launched another initiative , known as the " Team Giordano Project " , where they and the Flames ' charitable arm donated funding to three Calgary schools to supply new gym equipment and computers , as well as to visit the schools and offer mentorship to the students .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Te Quiero ( Ricardo Arjona song ) =
" Te Quiero " is a latin pop song by Guatemalan recording artist Ricardo Arjona , released on 5 July 2012 as the third single from his thirteenth studio album , Independiente ( 2011 ) . The song was written by Arjona , who produced it with longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stage name Los Gringos . Additional recording work was handled by Peter Wallace , Matt Rollings , Carlos " Cabral " Junior and Isaías García .
The song became Arjona 's fifth single to reach number one on the US Billboard Top Latin Songs , his ninth to do so on the Latin Pop Songs chart and third on Latin Tropical Airplay . It also charted at No.10 on the Billboard Mexican Airplay chart . An accompanying music video for " Te Quiero " was released in June 2012 . It was directed by Gabriel Blanco and filmed during Arjona 's concert shows at the Vélez Sarsfield Stadium in Buenos Aires , Argentina , as part of his Metamorfosis World Tour , and marks the first time Arjona releases a music video recorded from his live performances while on tour .
= = Background = =
Independiente is the first album Arjona released as an independent artist , and through his own record label , Metamorfosis , a company he created to refocus his career . Presided by Arjona and some friends , Metamorfosis is based in Miami and Mexico City , and also includes the photographer and director Ricardo Calderón , Universal Music México 's executive Humberto Calderon and BMG 's Miriam Sommerz . Although the album is marketed with the new label , distribution was handled by Warner Music . Arjona commented many times , that he considered the way he decided to go independent raised more compromise than freedom , saying that " Inside the word ' Independent ' , even when it sounds like extreme freedom , there 's a big amount of compromise and the responsibility of being able to administrate , in the best way possible , such independence . "
Independiente was composed and written within one year , and marks the fourth time Arjona had collaborated with Tommy Torres , who had helped writing , composing , producing and providing backing vocals . The other three albums in which the two artists had worked together are Quién Dijo Ayer , in which Torres helped producing the singles " Quién " and " Quiero " , and offering additional work on the new versions of Arjona 's hits ; 5to Piso , and Adentro , respectively . Also , in the album , Arjona returned to his classic and trademark sound , which Torres has helped crafting it since six years now , after the drastic change he made in Poquita Ropa . On that album , the artist made use of the fewest instruments possible , simplifying his sound , and introducing what he called a " stripped @-@ down acoustic effort " of his music .
Weeks before the release of Independiente , Arjona issued a letter in which he talked about his past relations with recording companies . In the letter , he revealed that he entered in his first record label as an exchange , commenting that " a producer , friend of mine , told them [ the record label ] that if they don 't sign me they won 't sign two artists he had [ at that time ] " , and that he received the " minimum royalty percentage " out from his most successful albums . Billboard notes that although other groups have decided to launch independently their works after having a contract with major record labels , Arjona is by far the most important artist in the Latin pop to follow this trend .
= = Composition = =
" Te Quiero " is a latin pop song written and produced by Arjona , alongside longtime collaborators Dan Warner and Lee Levin under their stagename Los Gringos . Roger Hudson provided additional background vocals for the song , and Matt Rollings , Peter Wallace , Carlos " Cabral " Junior and Isaías García served as recording engineers , along with Warner and Levin . " Te Quiero " was mixed by David Thoener in The Blue Grotto at Nashville , Tennessee and mastered by Tom Coyne in Sterling Sound at New York City .
The song 's composition is heavily based on drums and guitars , along with additional Hammond B @-@ 3 , bass and percussion elements . David Jeffries from Allmusic , on his review of Independiente , stated that the song " builds into a full @-@ band rave @-@ up during its choruses . " A live version of " Te Quiero " was made and used on the music video for the song , and was included on the single release .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Te Quiero " was released on 20 June 2012 . The clip was filmed during Arjona 's concert shows at the Vélez Sarsfield Stadium in Buenos Aires , Argentina , as part of his Metamorfosis World Tour . The video was directed by Gabriel Blanco and was produced by Tamir Lotan . This is the first time Arjona releases a music video recorded from his live performances while on tour . The clip starts showing behind the scenes shots of Arjona , his team and his fans while the song begins to play . Then , it shows the singer on stage singing the song in front of the public at the Velez Stadium , interpolated with shots from people during the performance singing the song . The live version of the song used on the clip was included on the single release of the song . As of 14 August 2012 , the video has reached 2 @.@ 1 million views on YouTube .
= = = Live performances = = =
" Te Quiero " was in the set list for a televised program in 2011 . The special included guest singers such as Gaby Moreno , Ricky Muñoz ( from Mexican band Intocable ) and Paquita la del Barrio . Broadcast by Televisa , the program was made to showcast the new fourteen songs included on Independiente . Ricky Muñoz commented that he was " happy to do things for Ricardo [ Arjona ] " and elaborated that they met each other " some time ago " and that it was " a very special situation . " The show was later broadcast on 5 November 2011 by Canal de las Estrellas .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Te Quiero " – 4 : 38
" Te Quiero " ( Live ) – 4 : 56
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from Independiente liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Superman : Ultimate Flight =
Superman : Ultimate Flight is a steel flying roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard . Themed to the popular comic book character , Superman : Ultimate Flight has been installed at three Six Flags theme parks around the United States : Six Flags Over Georgia , Six Flags Great Adventure and Six Flags Great America . Superman : Ultimate Flight simulates flying by positioning its passengers parallel to the track , supported by harnesses and facing the ground through most of the ride . In the station , riders board the train sitting down . After the train is locked and checked , the trains are raised into the flying position . After the ride , the seats are lowered back into the sitting position for the next round of riders .
= = History = =
The first flying roller coaster , in which passengers ride parallel with the track , was launched in 1997 at Granada Studios Tour as Skytrak Total . Shortly after , Bolliger & Mabillard began designing their own flying roller coaster . In January 2002 , both Alton Towers in the United Kingdom and Six Flags Over Georgia in the United States announced their intentions to build Bolliger & Mabillard " Flying Coasters " . On March 16 , 2002 , Alton Towers opened the first installation , Air . Less than a month later , Superman : Ultimate Flight opened at Six Flags Over Georgia , in Austell , Georgia .
Six Flags ordered two more versions of the attraction for the 2003 season for Six Flags Great Adventure in Jackson Township , New Jersey , and Six Flags Great America in Gurnee , Illinois . Six Flags Great Adventure 's version of the ride officially opened to the public on April 17 , 2003 . In preparation for the ride 's installation at Six Flags Great America , the park removed Shockwave , an Arrow Dynamics roller coaster that was located on part of the park 's parking lot . Grading works also had to take place to convert the parking lot into something more suitable for Superman : Ultimate Flight . The ride at Six Flags Great America opened on May 3 , 2003 .
In 2006 , a clone of the Superman : Ultimate Flight installations opened as Crystal Wing at the Happy Valley amusement park in Beijing , China .
= = Characteristics = =
Whilst all three Superman : Ultimate Flight roller coasters are the same model , there are some differences between them . All three feature a top height of 106 feet ( 32 m ) and a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) first drop . They all reach a top speed of 51 miles per hour ( 82 km / h ) and feature two inversions . Superman : Ultimate Flight 's signature element is its 78 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 24 m ) pretzel loop ; it was the first roller coaster in the world to feature one . A single cycle of the ride takes nearly 3 minutes to complete .
The original version at Six Flags Over Georgia features a dual @-@ platform loading station , permitting three trains to operate simultaneously . Each train has seven cars , with each car carrying four riders side @-@ by @-@ side in a single row . The other two versions use a more standard single @-@ platform loading station . While this allows a maximum of only two trains to operate at a time , each train compensates by having one additional row for a total of eight rows per train .
The length of the ride also varies between the locations . Both the Georgia and New Jersey installations feature a track length of 2 @,@ 759 feet ( 841 m ) , while the Illinois version features a track length of 2 @,@ 798 feet ( 853 m ) . The ride reaches its maximum speed of 51 miles per hour ( 82 km / h ) at the bottom of the 78 foot tall ( 24m ) pretzel loop , not on the first drop because the ride dives slightly below ground level .
The New Jersey and Illinois versions were also built on what used to be sections of parking lot . Georgia 's version was built on hilly terrain , and hence there is a short tunnel when the track enters the 270 degree helix leading into the heartline roll . All three roller coasters were manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio .
As its name suggests , Superman : Ultimate Flight is themed after DC Comics ' Superman character . The track of all three rides is red , with yellow rails and blue supports . The rides ' queues are contained within each ride 's footprint and contain various elements of Superman theming . The installations at Six Flags Great America and Six Flag Great Adventure have dedicated gift shops near the ride 's exit that sell a variety of DC Comics merchandise .
= = Experience = =
= = = Station and loading = = =
Once in the station , riders of Superman : Ultimate Flight board a train sitting down , in a similar style to inverted roller coasters . Riders are restrained through a padded over @-@ the @-@ shoulder harness and a lap bar . At the ankles , two flaps hold the legs in position and close as the harness is locked in place . After the train is fully locked and checked , the trains are raised into the flying position and depart the station .
= = = Ride layout = = =
Superman : Ultimate Flight begins as the train turns to the right and begins to climb the 106 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 32 m ) chain lift hill . After cresting the top of the lift hill , the train drops 100 feet ( 30m ) to the right at 51 miles per hour ( 82 km / h ) and prepares to enter the pretzel loop . In a pretzel loop , a train swoops up to a height of 78 feet ( 24 m ) before diving toward the ground , looping back under the starting point . At the bottom of the loop , riders face upward and experience strong , positive g forces . To complete the pretzel loop , the train climbs back to the top of the element , parallel to where it started . After exiting the element , the train then enters a 270 @-@ degree turn to the left , dropping back through the middle of the pretzel loop .
Next , the train passes through two consecutive horseshoe turns , first to the right and then to the left . As the name suggests , Horseshoe turns are highly banked horseshoe @-@ shaped turns which feature track entering from roughly the same direction as where it exits . As the train exits the second horseshoe , it swoops down and begins a 270 @-@ degree helix to the right , which leads into the ride 's second inversion , an inline twist . The inline twist sees riders perform a full rotation around the track , starting from a position where they are facing downward . After completing the twist , the train reaches the brake run and a final right @-@ hand turn that leads back into the station .
= = Reception = =
Superman : Ultimate Flight was generally well received . Arthur Levine from About.com rated the ride four out of five stars , describing the flying sensation as wonderful . He also praised Six Flags for the choice of theme , saying , " the Superman theme is ideally suited for the flying concept and adds a nice touch " . Alex Bove of Ultimate Rollercoaster also reviewed the ride favorably : " From its comfortable restraints , silky ride and delightful pacing to its avian aesthetics , Superman : Ultimate Flight demonstrates B & M 's unmatched attention to detail and their genuine desire to create enjoyable rides that surprise us over and over again " . Jeremy Thompson of Roller Coaster Philosophy compared the ride unfavorably to Batman : The Ride , which also appears at all three parks : " Batman is gritty and intense and based on quick variations in the layout , while Superman is graceful and slower paced , based on creating a singular flight sensation , and quite honestly it 's all a tad boring " . However , he added that the " flying position does transform the ride experience into something relatively different from the rest " .
In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Superman : Ultimate Flight was ranked in the top 50 steel roller coasters numerous times since its opening . It peaked at position 35 in 2004 , before dropping off the poll in 2007 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Superman : Ultimate Flight was ranked as three separate entries from 2002 through to 2010 . The entries were grouped from 2012 onward . The ride 's ranking in the polls is shown in the table below .
= The Wounded Montenegrin =
The Wounded Montenegrin ( Serbian Latin : Ranjeni Crnogorac ) is the title of four nearly identical compositions by the artist Paja Jovanović depicting a wounded youth surrounded by peasants in traditional clothing , likely during the Montenegrin – Ottoman War of 1876 – 78 .
The first rendering garnered praise from critics , and won the first @-@ place prize at the Academy of Fine Arts ' annual art exhibition in Vienna in 1882 . Given its success , Jovanović was granted an Austro @-@ Hungarian government scholarship and entered into a contract with the French Gallery in London to produce a series of paintings on Balkan life . Art historians consider The Wounded Montenegrin one of Jovanović 's best Orientalist works . Jovanović went on to complete three further versions of the composition in the ensuing decades , three of which are oil paintings . The first is currently on display at the Matica Srpska gallery in Novi Sad , the second and third are in private collections , and the fourth is housed at the Museum of Yugoslav History in Belgrade .
= = Description = =
The original oil painting measures 114 by 189 centimetres ( 45 in × 74 in ) . It shows a muscular , wounded youth surrounded by ten peasants in a humble , single @-@ room dwelling . The peasants wear hand @-@ sewn shirts , rough leggings and leather shoes . They stand over a dirt floor , and in the background , a collection of eating utensils hang precariously from a makeshift shelf . The youth is cradled in the arms of a crouching , shaved @-@ headed warrior . The two are surrounded by a pair of heavily armed men on either side of them . Nearby , a light @-@ haired girl quietly grieves . To the right of these figures stands a grief @-@ stricken old man , himself surrounded by a number of figures in folk attire . To the far right , two figures can be seen standing inauspiciously in the shadows . The artist 's signature , rendered as Joanowits P. , can be found at the bottom right .
Jovanović composed a total of four versions of The Wounded Montenegrin , three oil paintings and one sketch . What distinguishes the first rendering from subsequent versions is its size ( it is the largest by far ) , detailed precision , and the artist 's removal of the two figures seen lingering in the shadows in the original . The second version , an oil painting , measures 100 by 152 centimetres ( 39 in × 60 in ) . The artist 's signature , P. Ivanovitch , can be seen at the bottom right . The third rendition is a sketch measuring 23 by 35 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 in × 13 @.@ 8 in ) , with the artist 's signature , Pa . Jo . , at the bottom right . The fourth version , another oil painting , measures 70 by 103 centimetres ( 28 in × 41 in ) . The artist 's signature , Paul Ivanovitch , can be seen at the bottom right .
Jovanović did not assign titles to his works , as he felt that if a painting was well composed viewers would be able to deduce the title themselves . Thus , the majority of the artist 's works are referred to by a number of different titles . The Wounded Montenegrin also appears under the titles The Wounded Herzegovinian ( Ranjeni Hercegovac ) , The Wounded Bosnian ( Ranjeni Bosanac ) , Sad Encounter ( Žalosni susret ) , Sad Farewell ( Žalosni rastanak ) and Unsuccessful Banditry ( Neuspelo razbojništvo ) .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Paja Jovanović ( 1859 – 1957 ) was one of the most prominent Serbian realist painters of the late 19th century . During his early career , he came to be identified with Orientalist painting , depicting scenes from the Balkans , which were then under the control of the Ottoman Empire . Between 1877 and 1882 , he attended the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna , where he came under the mentorship of painting instructors Christian Griepenkerl and Leopold Müller . Griepenkerl taught the young Jovanović the underlying structural principles of Renaissance and Baroque art , thus helping him better understand spatial problems and the arrangement of large numbers of figures , both moving and static . Müller encouraged Jovanović to take a naturalist approach to painting , recording only what he could see and relying as little as possible on his imagination . It was in this context that Müller instructed Jovanović to make direct studies of Balkan life during his visits home , purposely steering him towards Orientalist painting .
Orientalist works , vignettes of " exotic life " in the Middle East , North Africa and the Balkans , were quite popular with Central and Western European art collectors in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . At the time of The Wounded Montenegrin 's composition , events in the Balkans had been making headline news in European capitals for decades . The Montenegrins had fought and lost the 1861 – 62 Montenegrin – Ottoman War . This was followed by about a decade of peace , but in 1872 , the Ottomans massacred more than 20 Montenegrins . The Herzegovina Uprising of 1875 prompted Montenegro and Serbia to declare war on the Ottoman Empire , sparking the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875 – 78 . The wars ended in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878 , but occasional cross @-@ border skirmishing continued until the early 1880s . Although Jovanović never specified , it is likely the painting is set during the 1876 – 78 Montenegrin – Ottoman War .
= = = Provenance = = =
Jovanović composed the first , and most famous , version of the The Wounded Montenegrin in 1882 while studying at the Vienna Academy . It was sold to a merchant named Schwartz in Vienna later that year . Within several months , Schwartz sold the painting to a Budapest casino for 1 @,@ 000 florins . After World War II , it came into the possession of the Yugoslav embassy in Budapest , which gifted it to the Matica Srpska gallery in 1971 , where it is on permanent display . It is catalogued under inventory code ГМС Y / 3912 .
The second version of The Wounded Montenegrin was composed in 1891 . It was initially owned by Arthur Toot & Sons , a London art dealer , before coming into the possession of the Salon . Afterwards , it entered into a private collection , and remained in private ownership until 1989 , when it was auctioned off at Sotheby 's . Between 1989 and 1997 , it was housed at a museum in Rome , but sold again thereafter . It is currently in a private collection .
The third version , composed after 1900 , is part of a private collection . The fourth , painted in the 1920s , was in a private collection until World War II . After the war , it was confiscated by the communists . Following the death of Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito , it was put on display at Tito 's mausoleum , the House of Flowers . It is currently on display at the Museum of Yugoslav History , and catalogued under the inventory code 59 R.
= = Analysis = =
In line with Müller 's advice , Jovanović avoided creating a sentimental work and focused instead on depicting characters and situations he observed during his time in the Balkans . This differentiates the painting from other Orientalist paintings of the day , which were based on travel accounts rather than first @-@ hand experience . The art historian Lilien Filipovitch @-@ Robinson notes that the grouping of the figures and their interactions with one another are reminiscent of images of the lamentation over the body of Christ . The right half of the scene recedes into shadow while the brightly illuminated left , where the principal figures are located , appears to expand towards the viewer . Jovanović thus directs the viewer 's eye from left to right , foreground to background , through the circular pattern of the groupings as well as the diagonal lines of the peasants ' swords . In line with Müller 's teachings regarding light and colour , Jovanović adds touches of bright red to give warmth and movement to the scene , making it appear as though it is unfolding before the viewer . The brushwork is varied , ranging from the smooth broad strokes that define the solidity of the walls to quick short ones that make it appear like the figures are in motion .
Filipovitch @-@ Robinson praises Jovanović 's " skillful handling " of linear and aerial perspective . She notes that the work is devoid of the " studio @-@ contrived quality " of other Orientalist paintings , and argues that Jovanović 's main goal was not to depict a particular historical event but rather to remind his audience of the Balkan peoples ' ongoing struggle against the Ottoman Turks and provide a human face to those engaged in that struggle .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The painting was first shown in public in 1882 , at the Vienna Academy 's annual student exhibition , which exhibited works produced during the 1881 – 82 academic year . It was well received by art critics and Jovan
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ović 's peers , who judged it to be the exhibition 's finest work and bestowed him the first @-@ place prize . Jovanović also received an Austro @-@ Hungarian government scholarship . The exact amount accorded to the artist is disputed . Petar Petrović , the curator of the National Museum of Serbia , writes that the scholarship amounted to 300 florins . Art historians Radmila Antić and Nikola Kusovac state the scholarship amounted to 1 @,@ 000 florins . Jovanović 's triumph at the student exhibition and the subsequent scholarship gave him the means to travel over the summer holidays , during which he came up with a number of ideas for future paintings , such as The Fencing Lesson ( Mačevanje ) . Winning the Vienna Academy prize established him as a respected painter of Orientalist works and set the stage for further recognition and success . In 1883 , Jovanović entered into a contract with Ernest Gambart 's French Gallery in London to produce a series of paintings on Balkan life . This contract assured him life @-@ long financial security .
Art historians consider The Wounded Montenegrin one of Jovanović 's best Orientalist works . Petrović calls it the " crowning achievement " of the artist 's studies under Müller . Jovanović went on to paint a number of other Orientalist pieces , notably The Snake Charmer ( 1887 ) .
= = = Endnotes = = =
= Walter de Beauchamp ( nobleman ) =
Walter de Beauchamp ( sometimes Walter I of Beauchamp , Walter of Beauchamp , Walter I de Beauchamp , or Walter de Bellocampo ; died between 1130 and 1133 ) was a medieval nobleman and Sheriff of Worcestershire . Married to the daughter of one of his predecessors as sheriff . Nothing is known for sure of his background before he appears as a witness to royal charters between 1108 and 1111 . Beauchamp also inherited offices in the royal household from his father @-@ in @-@ law , and also appears to have been a royal forester . He and another nobleman divided some of the lands of his father @-@ in @-@ law , but disagreements about the division lasted until the 12th century between the two families . He died between 1130 and 1133 , and one of his descendants later became Earl of Warwick .
= = Background and family = =
Beauchamp is sometimes known as Walter de Beauchamp of Elmley , to distinguish him from the members of the Beauchamp family of Bedford . He married the daughter of Urse d 'Abetot , who is usually named Emeline , although her name is not given in contemporary records . Urse d 'Abetot was the Sheriff of Worcestershire from around 1069 to around 1108 . Beauchamp may have been a tenant of his father @-@ in @-@ law prior to his marriage . Nothing is known for sure of Beauchamp 's background , and he first witnessed a royal charter sometime between 1108 and 1111 . Some documents suggest that his father may have been named Peveral de Beauchamp and that he had a brother named William Peveral de Beauchamp , but the only identifiable Peveral is younger than Walter .
= = Sheriff = =
In the 1110s , Beauchamp became Sheriff of Worcestershire , holding the office until 1130 . Some sources state he received the office in 1114 , and others place the acquisition of the office between December 1113 and April 1116 . Beauchamp inherited most of d 'Abetot 's lands and the hereditary office of Sheriff of Worcestershire when Roger d 'Abetot , Urse 's son , forfeited his lands and offices after being exiled by Henry I for murder . King Henry I of England granted Beauchamp the right to hunt wolves and foxes in the royal forests of Worcestershire . Along with the right to hunt in the royal forests came a grant of the right to keep pheasants on his own lands , and the right to fine anyone hunting the birds without his permission .
Beauchamp probably held the office of royal forester for Worcestershire as well as sheriff . The evidence for this is that after Beauchamp 's death , his son William was granted the revenues from the royal forests of Worcestershire at the same rate as his father had held them ; this strongly implies that the elder held the office of forester . The historian Judith Green felt that Walter de Beauchamp might possibly have held the office of constable , which had been held by his father @-@ in @-@ law , although the historian C. Warren Hollister felt that Beauchamp definitely did hold the office . He also a held the royal office of dispenser , an office which later became known as a butler . He acquired this because his wife inherited the office from her father . The date when he acquired the office is unknown . While a member of the royal household , Beauchamp witnessed a number of royal charters , mainly when the king was in England .
Beauchamp and the Bishop of Worcester had a dispute over the lands that Beauchamp inherited from d 'Abetot . The dispute caused the two sides to agree to the creation of the Worcester Survey , a land survey undertaken in Worcestershire sometime between 1108 and 1118 that shows changes in land ownership after the Domesday Book .
D 'Abetot 's widow Adeliza granted her dower lands in the county of Worcestershire to Beauchamp , which was confirmed by King Henry sometime between 1123 and 1129 , although the document cannot be dated more precisely than that . In 1130 , at Michaelmas , Henry allowed Beauchamp to not pay geld on his lands in Berkshire , and he is mentioned in the 1130 Pipe Roll as still living .
= = Death and legacy = =
Sometime between 1130 and 1133 , Beauchamp died and his son William de Beauchamp took over his lands . Stephen de Beauchamp , a tenant on the Beauchamp lands and a friend of Robert of Gloucester , was likely a younger son of Walter 's . The historian David Crouch says that another son was Walter , who is recorded as William 's brother and was a follower of Waleran , Count of Meulan . Beauchamp was the ancestor of the Beauchamp family of Elmley in Worcestershire , a member of which , William de Beauchamp , became Earl of Warwick .
The lands and offices of Urse 's brother Robert were divided between Beauchamp and Robert Marmion . Marmion and Beauchamp disagreed about the division of the lands , leading to a long dispute between the two families that was only settled in the late 12th century . Some sources state that another daughter of Urse d 'Abetot married Robert Marmion , which was the reason for the division of the lands and offices between the two men . Other sources are less sure , accepting this as one possibility among several for the divided inheritance between the Marmion and Beauchamp families . Because there are no contemporary sources showing that Urse had any children besides his son and the daughter who married Beauchamp , another possibility is that Urse 's brother Robert had a daughter who married Marmion , and that Urse managed to acquire part of her inheritance on the strength of his friendship with King William II of England .
= British Alpine Hannibal Expedition =
The British Alpine Hannibal Expedition was an experimental archeology event that took place in 1959 . British engineer John Hoyte led an expedition that tried to reenact aspects of Hannibal 's legendary crossing of the Alps during the Second Punic War in 218 BCE . The group successfully took the female Asian elephant Jumbo , provided by a zoo in Turin , from France over the Col du Mont Cenis into Italy .
= = Background = =
After the Carthaginian defeat in the First Punic War of 264 – 241 BCE , Hamilcar Barca secured an extensive territory in the Iberian peninsula for Carthage . At the beginning of the Second Punic War in 218 BCE , his son Hannibal took an army of perhaps 50 @,@ 000 men and 37 war elephants from Hispania ( modern @-@ day Spain ) to Italy , where he led a 15 year campaign against Rome . Hannibal avoided the coastal route , and took his army over the Alps . His march has been described by ancient historians Polybius and Livy . The exact route , however , has been subject of long but inconclusive scholarly discourse . In his 1955 book Alps and elephants : Hannibal 's march , Gavin de Beer lists 12 possible candidates from 30 different books .
= = The expedition = =
In 1955 , The Times published a debate about the route Hannibal might have taken over the Alps . This debate came to the attention of John Hoyte , then an engineering student at Cambridge University . Hoyte had an interest in both history and mountain climbing , and spent the summer of 1956 with friends hiking the Alps and comparing possible routes to the ancient descriptions . The group came to the conclusion that the Col de Clapier was the most likely pass , an opinion still supported by some modern historians .
A few years later , a friend suggested to test this theory with an actual elephant . Hoyte wrote letters to the British consuls in Lyon , France , Geneva , Switzerland , and Turin , enquiring about the possibility of obtaining an elephant for the experiment , but without a serious expectation of success . However , the Turin Zoo had just acquired a female Asian elephant , Jumbo , who was trained as a circus animal . The owner of the zoo volunteered Jumbo and became the first sponsor of the expedition . Hoyte put together a team of 8 people , including Richard Jolly as the expedition secretary and Colonel John Hickman , Lecturer ( later Reader ) in Veterinary Surgery at the University of Cambridge Veterinary School , who had gained experience with elephants during World War II in Burma . The group obtained insurance for Jumbo from Lloyd 's of London and further sponsorship from Life magazine , which later published a 7 page photo report .
The expedition started in late July 1959 in Montmelian , France . It followed the valley of the Arc river and then ascended towards the Col de Clapier . However , the route up to the pass had become narrowed and dangerous due to rockfall . The group retracted down into the valley and crossed the Col du Mont Cenis , another pass suggested for Hannibal 's route by none less than French emperor Napoleon . After 10 days of travel , the expedition successfully " invaded " Susa in Italy .
The members of the expedition originally planned to call the 5 @,@ 700 pound ( 2 @.@ 6 t ) elephant Hannibella , however , the animal could not be made to respond to the new name and thus remained Jumbo . Jumbo was 11 years old and equipped with leather boots and knee pads for the most treacherous passages . A specially made coat was provided to keep her warm . Despite a diet consisting of 150 pounds ( 68 kg ) of hay , 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) of apples , 40 pounds ( 18 kg ) of bread , 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) of carrots , and a vitamin B supplement per day , she lost an estimated 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) during the first 4 days of the trip , and nearly 500 pounds ( 230 kg ) in total . On arrival in Italy , she consumed cake and a Magnum bottle of Chianti .
In 1960 , Hoyte published a report on the expedition as Trunk Road for Hannibal : With an Elephant Over the Alps . Expedition member Cynthia Pilkington published the book " Elephant Over the Alps " in 1961 , telling the story of the expedition .
= Sayf al @-@ Dawla =
Ali ibn Abu 'l @-@ Hayja ' Abdallah ibn Hamdan ibn al @-@ Harith Sayf al @-@ Dawla al @-@ Taghlibi ( Arabic : سيف الدولة أبو الحسن ابن حمدان ) , more commonly known simply by his laqab ( honorific epithet ) of Sayf al @-@ Dawla ( " Sword of the Dynasty " ) , was the founder of the Emirate of Aleppo , encompassing most of northern Syria and parts of western Jazira , and the brother of al @-@ Hasan ibn Abdallah ibn Hamdan ( better known as Nasir al @-@ Dawla ) .
The most prominent member of the Hamdanid dynasty , Sayf al @-@ Dawla originally served under his elder brother in the latter 's attempts to establish his control over the weak Abbasid government in Baghdad during the early 940s CE . After the failure of these endeavours , the ambitious Sayf al @-@ Dawla turned towards Syria , where he confronted the ambitions of the Ikhshidids of Egypt to control the province . After two wars with them , his authority over northern Syria , centred at Aleppo , and the western Jazira , centred at Mayyafariqin , was recognized by the Ikhshidids and the Caliph . A series of tribal rebellions plagued his realm until 955 , but he was successful in overcoming them and maintaining the allegiance of the most important Arab tribes . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's court at Aleppo became the centre of a vibrant cultural life , and the literary cycle he gathered around him , including the great al @-@ Mutanabbi , helped ensure his fame for posterity .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla was widely celebrated for his role in the Arab – Byzantine Wars , facing a resurgent Byzantine Empire that in the early 10th century had begun to reconquer Muslim territories . In this struggle against a much superior enemy , he launched raids deep into Byzantine territory and managed to score a few successes , and generally held the upper hand until 955 . After that , the new Byzantine commander , Nikephoros Phokas , and his lieutenants spearheaded an offensive that broke Hamdanid power . The Byzantines annexed Cilicia , and even occupied Aleppo itself briefly in 962 . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's final years were marked by military defeats , his own growing disability as a result of disease , and a decline in his authority that led to revolts by some of his closest lieutenants . He died in early 967 , leaving a much weakened realm , which by 969 had lost Antioch and the Syrian littoral to the Byzantines and become a Byzantine tributary .
= = Life = =
= = = Origin and family = = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla was born Ali ibn Abdallah , the second son of Abdallah Abu 'l @-@ Hayja ibn Hamdan ( died 929 ) , son of Hamdan ibn Hamdun ibn al @-@ Harith , who gave his name to the Hamdanid dynasty . The Hamdanids were a branch of the Banu Taghlib , an Arab tribe resident in the area of the Jazira ( Upper Mesopotamia ) since pre @-@ Islamic times . The Taghlibs had traditionally controlled Mosul and its region until the late 9th century , when the Abbasid government tried to impose firmer control over the province . Hamdan ibn Hamdun was one of the most determined Taghlibi leaders in opposing this move . Notably , in his effort to fend off the Abbasids , he secured the alliance of the Kurds living in the mountains north of Mosul , a fact which would be of considerable importance in his family 's later fortunes . Family members intermarried with Kurds , who were also prominent in the Hamdanid military .
Hamdan was defeated in 895 and imprisoned with his relatives , but his son Husayn ibn Hamdan managed to secure the family 's future . He raised troops for the Caliph among the Taghlib in exchange for tax remissions , and established a commanding influence in the Jazira by acting as a mediator between the Abbasid authorities and the Arab and Kurdish population . It was this strong local base which allowed the family to survive its often strained relationship with the central Abbasid government in Baghdad during the early 10th century . Husayn was a successful general , distinguishing himself against the Kharijites and the Tulunids , but was disgraced after supporting the failed usurpation of Ibn al @-@ Mu 'tazz in 908 . His younger brother Ibrahim was governor of Diyar Rabi 'a ( the province around Nasibin ) in 919 and after his death in the next year he was succeeded by another brother , Dawud . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's father Abdallah served as emir ( governor ) of Mosul in 905 / 6 – 913 / 4 , was repeatedly disgraced and rehabilitated , until re @-@ assuming control of Mosul in 925 / 6 . Enjoying firm relations with the powerful Mu 'nis al @-@ Muzaffar , he later played a leading role in the short @-@ lived usurpation of al @-@ Qahir against al @-@ Muqtadir in 929 , and was killed during its suppression .
Despite the coup 's failure and his death , Abdallah had been able to consolidate his control over Mosul , becoming the virtual founder of a Hamdanid @-@ ruled emirate there . During his long absences in Baghdad in his final years , Abdallah relegated authority over Mosul to his eldest son , al @-@ Hasan , the future Nasir al @-@ Dawla . After Abdallah 's death , Hasan 's position in Mosul was challenged by his uncles , and it was not until 935 that he was able to secure confirmation by Baghdad of his control over Mosul and the entire Jazira up to the Byzantine frontier .
= = = Early career under al @-@ Hasan Nasir al @-@ Dawla = = =
The young Ali ibn Abdallah began his career under his brother . In 936 , Hasan invited his younger brother to his service , promising him the governorship of Diyar Bakr ( the region around Amida ) in exchange for his help against Ali ibn Ja 'far , the rebellious governor of Mayyafariqin . Ali ibn Abdallah was successful in preventing Ibn Ja 'far from receiving the assistance of his Armenian allies , and also secured control over the northern parts of the neighbouring province of Diyar Mudar after subduing the Qaysi tribes of the region around Saruj . From this position , he also launched expeditions to aid the Muslim emirates of the Byzantine frontier zone ( the Thughur ) against the advancing Byzantines , and intervened in Armenia to reverse growing Byzantine influence ( see below ) .
In the meantime , Hasan became involved in the intrigues of the Abbasid court . Since the murder of Caliph al @-@ Muqtadir in 932 , the Abbasid government had all but collapsed , and in 936 the powerful governor of Wasit , Muhammad ibn Ra 'iq , assumed the title of amir al @-@ umara ( " commander of commanders " ) and with it de facto control of the Abbasid government . The Caliph al @-@ Radi was reduced to a figurehead role , while the extensive old civil bureaucracy was drastically reduced both in size and power . Ibn Ra 'iq 's position was anything but secure , however , and soon a convoluted struggle for control of the office of [ amir al @-@ umara , and the Caliphate with it , broke out among the various local rulers and the Turkish military chiefs , which ended in 946 with the victory of the Buyids .
Hasan initially supported Ibn Ra 'iq , but in 942 he had him assassinated and secured for himself the post of amir al @-@ umara , receiving the honorific laqab of Nasir al @-@ Dawla ( " Defender of the Dynasty " ) . The Baridis , a local family of Basra , who also desired control over the Caliph , continued to resist , and Nasir al @-@ Dawla now sent Ali against them . After scoring a victory over Abu 'l Husayn al @-@ Baridi at al @-@ Mada 'in , Ali was named governor of Wasit and awarded the laqab of Sayf al @-@ Dawla ( " Sword of the Dynasty " ) , by which he became famous . This double award to the Hamdanid brothers marked the first time that a laqab incorporating the prestigious element al @-@ Dawla was granted to anyone other than the wazir , the Caliphate 's chief minister .
The Hamdanids ' success proved short @-@ lived , however . They were politically isolated , and found little support among the Caliphate 's most powerful vassals , the Samanids of Transoxiana and the Ikhshidids of Egypt . Consequently , when in 943 a mutiny over pay issues broke out among their troops ( mostly composed of Turks , Daylamites , Qarmatians and only a few Arabs ) , under the leadership of the Turk Tuzun , they were forced to quit Baghdad . Caliph al @-@ Muttaqi appointed Tuzun as amir al @-@ umara , but soon quarrelled with him and fled north to seek Hamdanid protection . Tuzun , however , defeated Nasir al @-@ Dawla and Sayf al @-@ Dawla in the field , and in 944 an agreement was concluded which allowed the Hamdanids to keep the Jazira and even gave them nominal authority over northern Syria ( which at the time was not under Hamdanid control ) , in exchange for a large tribute . Henceforth , Nasir al @-@ Dawla would be tributary to Baghdad . However , his continued attempts to control Baghdad led to a clash with the Buyids . Eventually , in 958 / 9 Nasir al @-@ Dawla would be forced to seek refuge in the court of his brother , before Sayf al @-@ Dawla could negotiate his return to Mosul with the Buyid emir Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla .
= = = Establishment of the Emirate of Aleppo = = =
Northern Syria had been under the control of the Ikhshidids since 935 / 6 , until Ibn Ra 'iq detached it from Egyptian control in 939 / 40 . In 942 , when Nasir al @-@ Dawla replaced the assassinated Ibn Ra 'iq , he attempted to impose his own control over the region , and particularly Ibn Ra 'iq 's own province of Diyar Mudar . Hamdanid troops took control of the Balikh River valley , but the local magnates were still inclined towards the Ikhshidids , and Hamdanid authority was tenuous . The Ikhshidids did not intervene directly , but supported ' Adl al @-@ Bakjami , the governor of Rahba . Al @-@ Bakjami captured Nasibin , where Sayf al @-@ Dawla had left his treasures , but was finally defeated and captured by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's cousin Abu Abdallah al @-@ Husayn ibn Sa 'id ibn Hamdan , and executed at Baghdad in May 943 . Husayn then proceeded to occupy the entire province , from Diyar Mudar to the Thughur . Al @-@ Raqqah was taken by storm , but Aleppo surrendered without a fight in February 944 . Al @-@ Muttaqi now sent messages to al @-@ Ikhshid , asking for his support against the various warlords who wanted to control him . The Hamdanids confined the Caliph at Raqqah , but in summer 944 al @-@ Ikhshid arrived in Syria . Husayn abandoned Aleppo to the Egyptian , who then visited the exiled Caliph at Raqqah . Al @-@ Muttaqi confirmed Ikhshidid control over Syria , but after the Caliph refused to relocate himself to Egypt , the Egyptian ruler refused to commit himself to further aid for the Caliph against his enemies . The Ikhshid returned to Egypt , while al @-@ Muttaqi , powerless and dejected , went back to Baghdad , only to be blinded and deposed by Tuzun .
It was in this context that Sayf al @-@ Dawla turned his attention to Syria . The previous years had seen a series of personal humiliations , with defeats in the field by Tuzun followed by his failure to persuade al @-@ Muttaqi to nominate him as amir al @-@ umara . It was during the latter attempt that he also had one of his rivals , Muhammad ibn Inal al @-@ Turjuman , assassinated . As Thierry Bianquis writes , following the failure of his brother 's designs in Iraq , Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's turn to Syria was " born of resentment when , having returned to Nasibin , he found himself under @-@ employed and badly paid " . Nasir al @-@ Dawla seems to have encouraged his brother to turn to Syria after Husayn 's failure there , writing to Sayf al @-@ Dawla that " Syria lies before you , there is no one in this land who can prevent you from taking it " . With money and troops provided by his brother , Sayf al @-@ Dawla invaded northern Syria in the wake of the Ikhshid 's departure . He gained the support of the local Banu Kilab tribe , to which the Ikhshid @-@ appointed governor of Aleppo belonged , and entered the city unopposed in October 944 .
= = = = Conflict with the Ikhshidids = = = =
The Ikhshidids reacted , and sent an army north under Abu al @-@ Misk Kafur to confront Sayf al @-@ Dawla , who was besieging Homs . In the ensuing battle , the Hamdanid scored a crushing victory . Homs then opened its gates , and Sayf al @-@ Dawla set his sights on Damascus . Sayf al @-@ Dawla briefly occupied the city in early 945 , but was forced to abandon it in the face of the citizens ' hostility . In April 945 the Ikhshid himself led an army into Syria , although at the same time he also offered terms to Sayf al @-@ Dawla , proposing to accept Hamdanid control over northern Syria and the Thughur . Sayf al @-@ Dawla rejected the Ikhshid 's proposals , but was defeated in battle in May / June and forced to retreat to Raqqah . The Egyptian army proceeded to raid the environs of Aleppo . Nevertheless , in October the two sides came to an agreement , broadly on the lines of the earlier Ikhshidid proposal : the Egyptian ruler acknowledged Hamdanid control over northern Syria , and even consented to sending an annual tribute in exchange for Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's renunciation of all claims on Damascus . The pact was sealed by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's marriage to a niece of the Ikhshid , and Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's new domain received the — purely formal — sanction by the Caliph , who also re @-@ affirmed his laqab , soon thereafter .
The truce with the Ikhshidids lasted until the death of the Ikhshid , in July 946 at Damascus . Sayf al @-@ Dawla immediately marched south , took Damascus , and then proceeded to Palestine . There he was confronted once again by Kafur , who defeated the Hamdanid prince in a battle fought in December . Sayf al @-@ Dawla then retreated to Damascus , and from there to Homs . There he gathered his forces , including large Arab tribal contingents , and in spring of 947 , he attempted to recover Damascus . He was again defeated in battle , however , and in its aftermath the Ikhshidids even occupied Aleppo in July . Kafur , the Ikhshidid army 's leader , did not press his advantage , but instead began negotiations . For the Ikhshidids , the maintenance of Aleppo was less important than southern Syria with Damascus , which was Egypt 's eastern bulwark . As long as their control over this region was not threatened , the Egyptians were more than willing to allow the existence of a Hamdanid state in the north . Furthermore , the Ikhshidids realized that they would have difficulty in asserting and maintaining control over northern Syria and Cilicia , which were traditionally oriented more towards the Jazira and Iraq . Not only would Egypt , threatened by this time by the Fatimids in the east , be spared the cost of maintaining a large army in these distant lands , but the Hamdanid emirate would also fulfil the useful role of a buffer state against incursions both from Iraq and also from Byzantium . The agreement of 945 was reiterated , with the difference that the Ikhshidids ceased paying tribute for Damascus . The frontier thus established , between Jaziran @-@ influenced northern Syria and the Egyptian @-@ controlled southern part of the country , was to last until the Mamluks seized the entire country in 1260 .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla , who returned to Aleppo in autumn , was now master of an extensive realm : the north Syrian provinces ( jund Hims , jund Qinnasrin and the jund al- ' Awasim ) in a line running south of Homs to the coast near Tartus , and most of Diyar Bakr and Diyar Mudar in the western Jazira . He also exercised a — mostly nominal — suzerainty over the towns of the Byzantine frontier in Cilicia . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's domain was a " Syro @-@ Mesopotamian state " , in the expression of the Orientalist Marius Canard , and extensive enough to require two capitals : alongside Aleppo , which became Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's main residence , Mayyafariqin was selected as the capital for the Jaziran provinces . The latter were held ostensibly in charge of his elder brother Nasir al @-@ Dawla , but in reality , the size and political importance of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's emirate allowed him to effectively throw off the tutelage of Nasir al @-@ Dawla . Although Sayf al @-@ Dawla continued to show his elder brother due deference , henceforth , their positions would be reversed .
= = = = Arab tribal revolts = = = =
Aside from his confrontation with the Ikhshidids , Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's consolidation over his realm was challenged by the need to maintain good relations with the restive native Arab tribes . Northern Syria at this time was controlled by a number of Arab tribes , who had been resident in the area since the Umayyad period , and in many cases even before that . The region around Homs was settled by the Banu Kalb and the Banu Tayyi , while the north , a broad stripe of land from the Orontes until beyond the Euphrates was controlled by the still largely nomadic Qaysi tribes of Uqayl , Numayr , Ka 'b and Kushayr , as well as the aforementioned Banu Kilab around Aleppo . Further south , the originally Yemeni Tanukh were settled around Maarat al @-@ Numaan , while the coasts were settled by the Bahra ' and Kurds .
In his relations with them , Sayf al @-@ Dawla befitted from the fact that he was an ethnic Arab , unlike most of the contemporary rulers in the Islamic Middle East , who were Turkish or Iranian warlords who had risen from the ranks of the military slaves ( ghilman ) . This helped him win support among the Arab tribes , and the bedouins played a prominent role in his administration . However , in accordance with the usual late Abbasid practice familiar to Sayf al @-@ Dawla and common across the Muslim states of the Middle East , the Hamdanid state was heavily reliant on and increasingly dominated by its non @-@ Arab , mostly Turkish , ghilman . This is most evident in the composition of his army , which , alongside Arab tribal cavalry , made heavy use of Daylamites as infantry and Turks as horse archers .
After winning recognition by the Ikhshidids , Sayf al @-@ Dawla began a series of campaigns of consolidation . His main target was to establish firm control over the Syrian littoral , as well as the routes connecting it to the interior . The operations there included a difficult siege of the fortress of Barzuya in 947 – 948 , which was held by a Kurdish brigand leader , who from there controlled the lower Orontes valley . In central Syria , a Qarmatian @-@ inspired revolt of the Kalb and Tayyi erupted in late 949 , led by a certain Ibn Hirrat al @-@ Ramad . The rebels enjoyed initial success , even capturing the Hamdanid governor of Homs , but they were quickly crushed . In the north , the attempts of the Hamdanid administrators to keep the bedouin from interfering with the more settled Arab communities resulted in regular outbreaks of rebellion between 950 and 954 , which had to be suppressed by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's army .
Finally , in 955 a major rebellion broke out which involved all tribes , both bedouin and sedentary , including the Hamdanids ' close allies , the Kilab . Sayf al @-@ Dawla was able to resolve the situation quickly , initiating a ruthless campaign of swift repression that included driving the tribes into the desert to die or capitulate , coupled with diplomacy that played on the divisions among the tribesmen . Thus the Kilab were offered peace and a return to their favoured status , and were given additional lands at the expense of the Kalb , who were evicted from their homes along with the Tayyi and fled south to settle in the plains north of Damascus and the Golan Heights , respectively . At the same time , the Numayr were also expelled and encouraged to resettle in the Jazira around Harran .
The suppression of the great tribal revolt marked , in the words of Islamic scholar Hugh N. Kennedy , " the high point of Sayf al @-@ Dawla ’ s success and power " . For a short time , during that year , his suzerainty was also acknowledged in parts of Azerbaijan around Salmas , where the Kurd Daysam established brief control until evicted and finally captured by Marzuban ibn Muhammad .
= = = Wars with the Byzantines = = =
Through his assumption of control over the Syrian and Jaziran borderlands ( the Thughur ) with Byzantium in 945 / 946 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla emerged as the chief Arab prince facing the Byzantine Empire , and warfare with the Byzantines became his main preoccupation . Indeed , much of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's reputation stems from his unceasing , though ultimately unsuccessful war with the Empire .
By the early 10th century , the Byzantines had gained the upper hand over their eastern Muslim neighbours . The onset of decline in the Abbasid Caliphate after 861 ( the " Anarchy at Samarra " ) was followed by the Battle of Lalakaon in 863 , which had broken the power of the border emirate of Malatya and marked the beginning the gradual Byzantine encroachment on the Arab borderlands . Although the emirate of Tarsus in Cilicia remained strong and Malatya continued to resist Byzantine attacks , over the next half @-@ century the Byzantines managed to overwhelm the Paulician allies of Malatya and advance to the Upper Euphrates , occupying the mountains north of the city . Finally , after 927 , peace on their Balkan frontier enabled the Byzantines , under John Kourkouas , to turn their forces east and begin a series of campaigns that culminated in the fall and annexation of Malatya in 934 , an event which sent shock @-@ waves among the other Muslim emirates . Arsamosata followed in 940 , and Qaliqala ( Byzantine Theodosiopolis , modern Erzurum ) in 949 .
The Byzantine advance evoked a great emotional response in the Muslim world , with volunteers , both soldiers and civilians , flocking to participate in the jihad against the Empire . Sayf al @-@ Dawla was also affected by this atmosphere , and became deeply impregnated with the spirit of jihad . The rise of the Hamdanid brothers to power in the frontier provinces and the Jazira is therefore to be regarded against the backdrop of the Byzantine threat , as well as the manifest inability of the Abbasid government to stem the Byzantine offensive . In Hugh Kennedy 's words , " compared with the inaction or indifference of other Muslim rulers , it is not surprising that Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's popular reputation remained high ; he was the one man who attempted to defend the Faith , the essential hero of the time " .
= = = = Early campaigns = = = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla entered the fray against the Byzantines in 936 , when he led an expedition to the aid of Samosata , at the time besieged by the Byzantines . A revolt in his rear forced him to abandon the campaign , and he only managed to send a few supplies to the town , which fell soon after . In 938 , he raided the region around Malatya and captured the Byzantine fort of Charpete . Some Arab sources report a major victory over Kourkouas himself , but the Byzantine advance does not seem to have been affected . His most important campaign in these early years was in 939 – 940 , when he invaded southwestern Armenia and secured a pledge of allegiance and the surrender of a few fortresses from the local princes — the Muslim Kaysites of Manzikert and the Christian Bagratids of Taron and Gagik Artsruni of Vaspurakan — who had begun defecting to Byzantium , before turning west and raiding Byzantine territory up to Koloneia . This expedition temporarily broke the Byzantine leaguer around Qaliqala , but Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's preoccupation with his brother 's wars in Iraq over the next years meant that it was not followed up . This was a major missed chance ; as the historian Mark Whittow comments , a more sustained policy could have made use of the Armenian princes ' distrust of Byzantine expansionism , to form a network of clients and contain the Byzantines . Instead , the latter were given a free hand , which allowed them to press on and capture Qaliqala , cementing their dominance over the region .
= = = = Failures and victories , 945 – 955 = = = =
After establishing himself at Aleppo in 944 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla resumed warfare against Byzantium in 945 / 946 . From this time until the time of his death , he was the Byzantines ' chief antagonist in the East — by the end of his life Sayf al @-@ Dawla was said to have fought against them in over forty battles . Nevertheless , despite his frequent and destructive raids against the Byzantine frontier provinces and into Asia Minor , and his victories in the field , his mode of warfare was essentially defensive , and he never seriously attempted to challenge Byzantine control of the crucial mountain passes or conclude alliances with other local rulers in an effort to roll back the Byzantine conquests . Compared to Byzantium , Sayf al @-@ Dawla was the ruler of a minor principality , and could not match the means and numbers available to the resurgent Empire : the contemporary Arab sources report — with obvious , but nonetheless indicative , exaggeration — that Byzantine armies numbered up to 200 @,@ 000 , while Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's largest force numbered some 30 @,@ 000 . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's origin in the Jazira also affected his strategic outlook in that , contrary to most Syria @-@ based polities in history , he neglected constructing a fleet or paying any attention at all to the Mediterranean .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's raid of winter 945 / 946 was of limited scale , and was followed by a prisoner exchange . Warfare on the frontiers then died down for a couple of years , and recommenced only in 948 . Despite scoring a victory over a Byzantine invasion in 948 , he was unable to prevent the sack of Hadath , one of the main Muslim strongholds in the Euphrates Thughur , by Leo Phokas , one of the sons of the Byzantine Domestic of the Schools ( commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) Bardas Phokas . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's expeditions in the next two years were also failures . In 949 he raided into the theme of Lykandos but was driven back , and the Byzantines proceeded to sack Marash , defeat a Tarsian army and raid as far as Antioch . In the next year , Sayf al @-@ Dawla led a large force into Byzantine territory , ravaging the themes of Lykandos and Charsianon , but on his return he was ambushed by Leo Phokas in a mountain pass . In what became known as the ghazwat al @-@ musiba , the " dreadful expedition " , Sayf al @-@ Dawla lost 8 @,@ 000 men and barely escaped himself .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla nevertheless rejected offers of peace from the Byzantines , and launched another raid against Lykandos and Malatya , persisting until the onset of winter forced him to retire . In the next year , he concentrated his attention on rebuilding the fortresses of Cilicia and northern Syria , including Marash and Hadath . Bardas Phokas launched an expedition to obstruct these works , but was defeated . Bardas launched another campaign in 953 , but despite having a considerably larger force at his disposal , he was heavily defeated near Marash in a battle celebrated by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's panegyrists . The Byzantine commander even lost his youngest son , Constantine , to Hamdanid captivity . Another expedition led by Bardas in the next year was also defeated , allowing Sayf al @-@ Dawla to complete the re @-@ fortification of Samosata and Hadath . The latter successfully withstood yet another Byzantine attack in 955 .
= = = = Byzantine ascendancy , 956 – 962 = = = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's victories brought about the replacement of Bardas by his eldest son , Nikephoros Phokas . Blessed with capable subordinates like his brother Leo and his nephew John Tzimiskes , Nikephoros would bring about a reversal of fortunes in Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's struggle with the Byzantines . The young general also benefited from the culmination of military reforms that created a more professional army .
In spring 956 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla pre @-@ empted Tzimiskes from a planned assault on Amida , and invaded Byzantine territory first . Tzimiskes then seized a pass in Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's rear , and attacked him during his return . The hard @-@ fought battle , fought amidst torrential rainfall , resulted in a Muslim victory as Tzimiskes lost 4 @,@ 000 men . At the same time , however , Leo Phokas invaded Syria and defeated and captured Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's cousin Abu 'l- ' Asa 'ir , whom he had left behind in his stead . Later in the year , Sayf al @-@ Dawla was obliged to go to Tarsus to help repel a raid by the Byzantine Cibyrrhaeot fleet . In 957 , Nikephoros took and razed Hadath , but Sayf al @-@ Dawla was unable to react as he discovered a conspiracy by some of his officers to surrender him to the Byzantines in exchange for money . Sayf al @-@ Dawla executed 180 of his ghilman and mutilated over 200 others in retaliation . In the next spring , Tzimiskes invaded the Jazira , captured Dara , and scored a victory at Amida over an army of 10 @,@ 000 led by one of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's favourite lieutenants , the Circassian Nadja . Together with the parakoimomenos Basil Lekapenos , he then stormed Samosata , and even inflicted a heavy defeat on a relief army under Sayf al @-@ Dawla himself . The Byzantines exploited Hamdanid weakness , and in 959 Leo Phokas led a raid as far as Cyrrhus , sacking several forts on their way .
In 960 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla tried to use the absence of Nikephoros Phokas with much of his army on his Cretan expedition , to re @-@ establish his position . At the head of a large army , he invaded Byzantine territory and sacked the fortress of Charsianon . On his return , however , his army was attacked and almost annihilated in an ambush by Leo Phokas and his troops . Once again , Sayf al @-@ Dawla managed to escape , but his military power was broken . The local governors now began to make terms with the Byzantines on their own , and the Hamdanid 's authority was increasingly questioned even in his own capital . Sayf al @-@ Dawla now needed time , but as soon as Nikephoros Phokas returned victorious from Crete in summer 961 , he began preparations for his next campaign in the east . The Byzantines launched their attack in the winter months , catching the Arabs off guard . They captured Anazarbus in Cilicia , and followed a deliberate policy of devastation and massacre to drive the Muslim population away . After Nikephoros repaired to Byzantine territory to celebrate Easter , Sayf al @-@ Dawla entered Cilicia and claimed direct control over the province . He began to rebuild Anazarbus , but the work was left incomplete when Nikephoros recommenced his offensive in autumn , forcing Sayf al @-@ Dawla to depart the region . The Byzantines , with an army reportedly 70 @,@ 000 strong , proceeded to take Marash , Sisium , Duluk and Manbij , thereby securing the western passes over the Anti @-@ Taurus Mountains . Sayf al @-@ Dawla sent his army north under Nadja to meet the Byzantines , but Nikephoros ignored them . Instead , the Byzantine general led his troops south and in mid @-@ December , they suddenly appeared before Aleppo . After defeating an improvised army before the city walls , the Byzantines stormed the city and plundered it , except for the citadel , which continued to hold out . The Byzantines departed , taking some 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants , mostly young men , with them as captives . Returning to his ruined and half @-@ deserted capital , Sayf al @-@ Dawla repopulated it with refugees from Qinnasrin .
= = = Illness , rebellions and death = = =
In 963 , the Byzantines remained quiet as Nikephoros was scheming to ascend the imperial throne , but Sayf al @-@ Dawla was troubled by the onset of hemiplegia as well as worsening intestinal and urinary disorders , which henceforth confined him to a litter . The disease limited Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's ability to intervene personally in the affairs of his state ; he soon abandoned Aleppo to the charge of his chamberlain , Qarquya , and spent most of his final years in Mayyafariqin , leaving his senior ghilman to carry the burden of warfare against the Byzantines and the various rebellions that sprung up in his domains . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's physical decline , coupled with his military failures , especially the capture of Aleppo in 962 , meant that his authority became increasingly shaky among his subordinates , for whom military success was the prerequisite for political legitimacy .
Thus , in 961 , the emir of Tarsus , Ibn az @-@ Zayyat , unsuccessfully tried to turn over his province to the Abbasids . In 963 , his nephew , the governor of Harran , Hibat Allah , rebelled after killing Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's trusted Christian secretary in favour of his father , Nasir al @-@ Dawla . Nadja was sent to subdue the rebellion , forcing Hibat Allah to flee to his father 's court , but then Nadja himself rebelled and attacked Mayyafariqin , defended by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's wife , with the intention of turning it over to the Buyids . He failed , and retreated to Armenia , where he managed to take over a few fortresses around Lake Van . In autumn 964 he again attempted to take Mayyafariqin , but was obliged to abandon it to subdue a revolt in his new Armenian domains . Sayf al @-@ Dawla himself travelled to Armenia to meet his former lieutenant . Nadja re @-@ submitted to his authority without resistance , but was murdered in winter 965 at Mayyafariqin , probably at the behest of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's wife .
Nevertheless , despite his illness and the spreading famine in his domains , in 963 Sayf al @-@ Dawla launched three raids into Asia Minor . One of them even reached as far as Iconium , but Tzimiskes , named Nikephoros ' successor as Domestic of the East , responded by launching an invasion of Cilicia in winter . He destroyed an Arab army at the " Field of Blood " near Adana , and unsuccessfully besieged Mopsuestia before lack of supplies forced him to return home . In autumn 964 , Nikephoros , now emperor , again campaigned in the East , and met little resistance . Mopsuestia was besieged but held out , until the famine that plagued the province forced the Byzantines to withdraw . Nikephoros however returned in the next year and stormed the city and deported its inhabitants . On 16 August 965 , Tarsus was surrendered by its inhabitants , who secured safe passage to Antioch . Cilicia became Byzantine province , and Nikephoros proceeded to re @-@ Christianize it .
The year 965 also saw two further large @-@ scale rebellions within Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's domains . The first was led by a former governor of the coast , the ex @-@ Qarmatian Marwan al- ' Uqayli , which grew to threatening dimensions : the rebels captured Homs , defeated an army sent against them and advanced up to Aleppo , but Al- ' Uqayli was wounded in the battle for the city and died shortly after . In autumn , a more serious revolt broke out in Antioch , led by the former governor of Tarsus , Rashiq ibn Abdallah al @-@ Nasimi . The rebellion was obviously motivated by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's inability to stop the Byzantine advance . After raising an army in the town , Rashiq led it to besiege Aleppo , which was defended by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's ghilman , Qarguya and Bishara . Three months into the siege , the rebels had taken possession of part of the lower town , when Rashiq was killed . He was succeeded by a Daylamite named Dizbar . Dizbar defeated Qarquya and took Aleppo , but then departed the town to take control over the rest of northern Syria . In the same year , Sayf al @-@ Dawla was also heavily affected by the death of two of his sons , Abu 'l @-@ Maqarim and Abu 'l @-@ Baraqat .
In early 966 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla asked for and received a short truce and an exchange of prisoners with the Byzantines , which was held at Samosata . He ransomed many Muslim captives at great cost , only to see them go over to Dizbar 's forces . Sayf al @-@ Dawla resolved to confront the rebel : carried on his litter , he returned to Aleppo , and on the next day defeated the rebel 's army , helped by the defection of the Banu Kilab from Dizbar 's army . The surviving rebels were ruthlessly punished . However , Sayf al @-@ Dawla was still unable to confront Nikephoros when he resumed his advance . The Hamdanid ruler fled to the safety of the fortress of Shayzar while the Byzantines raided the Jazira , before turning on northern Syria , where they launched attacks on Manbij , Aleppo and even Antioch , whose newly appointed governor , Taki al @-@ Din Muhammad ibn Musa , went over to them with the city 's treasury . In early February 967 , Sayf al @-@ Dawla returned to Aleppo , where he died a few days later ( although a source claims that he died at Mayyafariqin ) . His body was embalmed and buried at a mausoleum in Mayyafariqin beside his mother and sister . A brick made of dust collected from his armour after his campaigns was reportedly placed under his head . He was succeeded by his only surviving son ( by his cousin Sakhinah ) , the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old Abu 'l @-@ Ma 'ali Sharif , better known as Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla . Sa 'd al @-@ Dawlas 's reign was marked by internal turmoil , and it was not until 977 that he was able to secure control of his own capital . By this time , the rump emirate was almost powerless and became a bone of contention between the Byzantines and the new power of the Middle East , the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt .
= = Cultural activity and legacy = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla surrounded himself with prominent intellectual figures , most notably the great poets al @-@ Mutanabbi and Abu Firas , the preacher Ibn Nubata , the grammarian Ibn Jinni , and the noted philosopher al @-@ Farabi . Al @-@ Mutanabbi 's time at the court of Sayf al @-@ Dawla was arguably the pinnacle of his career as poet . During his nine years at Aleppo , al @-@ Mutanabbi wrote 22 major panegyrics to Sayf al @-@ Dawla , which , according to the Arabist Margaret Larkin , " demonstrated a measure of real affection mixed with the conventional praise of premodern Arabic poetry . " The celebrated historian and poet , Abu al @-@ Faraj al @-@ Isfahani , was also part of the Hamdanid court , and dedicated his major encyclopedia of poetry and songs , Kitab al @-@ Aghani , to Sayf al @-@ Dawla . Abu Firas was Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's cousin and had been raised at his court , while Sayf al @-@ Dawla had married his sister Sakhinah and appointed him governor of Manbij and Harran . Abi Firas accompanied Sayf al @-@ Dawla on his wars against the Byzantines and was taken prisoner twice . It was during his second captivity in 962 – 966 that he wrote his famous Rumiyyat ( " Roman " , i.e. Byzantine ) poems . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's patronage of poets had a useful political dividend too : it was part of a court poet 's duty to his patron to celebrate him in his work , and poetry helped spread the influence of Sayf al @-@ Dawla and his court far across the Muslim world . If Sayf al @-@ Dawla paid special favour to poets , his court contained scholars versed in religious studies , history , philosophy and astronomy as well , so that , as S. Humphreys comments , " in his time Aleppo could certainly have held its own with any court in Renaissance Italy " .
Sayf al @-@ Dawla was also unusual for 10th @-@ century Syria in his espousal of Twelver Shi 'a Islam in a hitherto solidly Sunni country . During his reign , the founder of the Alawite sect , al @-@ Khasibi , benefited from Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's patronage . Al @-@ Khasibi turned Aleppo into the stable centre of his new sect , and sent preachers from there as far as Persia and Egypt with his teachings . His main theological work , Kitab al @-@ Hidaya al @-@ Kubra , was dedicated to his Hamdanid patron . Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's active promotion of Shi 'ism began a process whereby Syria came to host a large Shi 'a population by the 12th century .
In addition , Sayf al @-@ Dawla played a crucial role in the history of the two cities he chose as his capitals , Aleppo and Mayyafariqin . His choice raised them from obscurity to the status of major urban centres ; Sayf al @-@ Dawla lavished attention on them , endowing them with new buildings , as well as taking care of their fortification . Aleppo especially benefited from Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's patronage : of special note is the great palace of Halba outside Aleppo , as well as the gardens and aqueduct which he built there . Aleppo 's rise to the chief city in northern Syria dates from his reign .
= = Political legacy = =
Sayf al @-@ Dawla has remained to this day one of the best @-@ known medieval Arab leaders . His bravery and leadership of the war against the Byzantines , despite the heavy odds against him , his literary activities and patronage of poets which lent his court an unmatched cultural brilliance , the calamities which struck him towards his end — defeat , illness and betrayal — have made him , in the words of Th . Bianquis , " from his time until the present day " , the personification of the " Arab chivalrous ideal in its most tragic aspect " .
Nevertheless , the picture presented by his contemporaries on the impact of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's policies is less favourable : the 10th @-@ century chronicler Ibn Hawqal , who travelled the Hamdanid domains , paints a dismal picture of economic oppression and exploitation of the common people , linked with the Hamdanid practice of expropriating extensive estates in the most fertile areas and practising a monoculture of cereals destined to feed the growing population of Baghdad . This was coupled with heavy taxation — Sayf al @-@ Dawla and Nasir al @-@ Dawla are said to have become the wealthiest princes in the Muslim world — which allowed them to maintain their lavish courts , but at a heavy price to their subjects ' long @-@ term prosperity . According to Hugh Kennedy " even the capital of Aleppo seems to have been more prosperous under the following Mirdasid dynasty than under the Hamdanids " , while Bianquis claims that Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's wars and economic policies both contributed to a permanent alteration in the landscape of the regions they ruled : " by destroying orchards and peri @-@ urban market gardens , by enfeebling the once vibrant polyculture and by depopulating the sedentarised steppe terrain of the frontiers , the Hamdanids contributed to the erosion of the deforested land and to the seizure by semi @-@ nomadic tribes of the agricultural lands of these regions in the 11th century " .
His military record was also , in the end , one of failure : the Byzantine advance continued after his death , culminating in the fall of Antioch in 969 . Aleppo was transformed into a vassal state tributary to Byzantium , and for the next fifty years it would become the bone of contention between the Byzantines and a new Muslim power , the Egypt @-@ based Fatimid Caliphate . The Hamdanids ' military defeat was in the end inevitable , given the disparity of strength and resources with the Empire . This weakness was compounded by the failure of Nasir al @-@ Dawla to support his brother in his wars against Byzantium , by the Hamdanids ' preoccupation with internal revolts , and the feebleness of their authority over much of their domains . As the historian Mark Whittow comments , Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's martial reputation often masks the reality that his power was " a paper tiger , short of money , short of soldiers and with little real base in the territories he controlled " .
= Italian battleship Leonardo da Vinci =
Leonardo da Vinci was one of three Conte di Cavour @-@ class dreadnoughts built for the Regia Marina ( Italian Royal Navy ) in the early 1910s . Completed just before the beginning of World War I , the ship saw no action and was sunk by a magazine explosion in 1916 with the loss of 248 officers and enlisted men . The Italians blamed Austro @-@ Hungarian saboteurs for her loss , but it may have been accidental . Leonardo da Vinci was refloated in 1919 and plans were made to repair her . Budgetary constraints did not permit this and her hulk was sold for scrap in 1923 .
= = Description = =
Leonardo da Vinci was 168 @.@ 9 meters ( 554 ft 2 in ) long at the waterline , and 176 meters ( 577 ft 5 in ) overall . The ship had a beam of 28 meters ( 91 ft 10 in ) , and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 meters ( 30 ft 6 in ) . She displaced 23 @,@ 088 long tons ( 23 @,@ 458 t ) at normal load , and 25 @,@ 086 long tons ( 25 @,@ 489 t ) at deep load . The Conte di Cavour @-@ class dreadnoughts had a complete double bottom and their hull was subdivided by 23 longitudinal and transverse bulkheads . They had a crew of 31 officers and 969 enlisted men .
The ship 's machinery consisted of four Parsons steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam for the turbines was provided by 20 Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers , eight of which burned oil and twelve of which burned both fuel oil and coal . Designed to reach a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) from 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) , Leonardo da Vinci failed to reach this goal on her sea trials , despite generally exceeding the rated power of her turbines . The ship only made a maximum speed of 21 @.@ 6 knots ( 40 @.@ 0 km / h ; 24 @.@ 9 mph ) using 32 @,@ 800 shp ( 24 @,@ 500 kW ) . The ship could store a maximum of 1 @,@ 450 long tons ( 1 @,@ 470 t ) of coal and 850 long tons ( 860 t ) of oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) , and 1 @,@ 000 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ; 1 @,@ 200 mi ) at 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Leonardo da Vinci 's main armament consisted of thirteen 46 @-@ caliber 305 @-@ millimeter guns , in five gun turrets . The turrets were arranged all on the centerline , with a twin @-@ gun turret superfiring over a triple @-@ gun turret in fore and aft pairs , and a third triple turret amidships . These were designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from bow to stern . The turrets had an elevation capability of − 5 / + 20 degrees and the ship could carry 100 rounds for each gun , although 70 was the normal load . Sources disagree regarding these guns ' performance , but naval historian Giorgio Giorgerini claims that they fired 452 @-@ kilogram ( 996 lb ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) projectiles at the rate of one round per minute and that they had a muzzle velocity of 840 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) which gave a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 26 @,@ 000 yd ) .
The secondary armament consisted of eighteen 50 @-@ caliber 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull . These guns could depress to − 10 degrees and had a maximum elevation of + 15 degrees ; they had a rate of fire of six shots per minute . They could fire a 22 @.@ 1 @-@ kilogram ( 49 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile with a muzzle velocity of 850 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 12 @,@ 000 yards ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) . The ship carried a total of 3 @,@ 600 rounds for them . For defense against torpedo boats , Leonardo da Vinci carried fourteen 50 @-@ caliber 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns ; thirteen of these could be mounted on the turret tops , but they could be mounted in 30 different positions , including some on the forecastle and upper decks . These guns had the same range of elevation as the secondary guns , although their rate of fire was higher at 10 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 @-@ kilogram ( 13 lb ) AP projectile with a muzzle velocity of 815 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 670 ft / s ) to a maximum distance of 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . The ships were also fitted with three submerged 45 @-@ centimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside and the third in the stern .
= = = Armor = = =
The Conte di Cavour @-@ class ships had a complete waterline armor belt that was 2 @.@ 8 meters ( 9 ft 2 in ) high ; 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 ft 3 in ) of this was below the waterline and 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 3 ft 11 in ) above . It had a maximum thickness of 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) amidships , reducing to 130 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) towards the stern and 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow . The lower edge of this belt was a uniform 170 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) in thickness . Above the main belt was a strake of armor 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick that extended 2 @.@ 3 meters ( 7 ft 7 in ) up to the lower edge of the main deck . Above this strake was a thinner one , 130 millimeters thick , that extended 138 meters ( 452 ft 9 in ) from the bow to ' X ' turret . The upper strake of armor protected the casemates and was 110 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick . The ships had two armored decks : the main deck was 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) thick in two layers on the flat that increased to 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) on the slopes that connected it to the main belt . The second deck was 30 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , also in two layers . Fore and aft transverse bulkheads connected the armored belt to the decks .
The frontal armor of the gun turrets was 280 millimeters ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness with 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) sides , and an 85 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) roof and rear . Their barbettes also had 230 @-@ mill
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Dexter 's relationship to be " the central arc of the season " , according to Hall . Smits was the only actor who was considered for the role of Miguel . Smits was not initially interested in joining the cast , but after Phillips explained Miguel 's dark side to him , Smits accepted the job offer because it was an opportunity to play a character dissimilar to any he had played before . He said , " They promised upfront that this was really going to challenge me , that it would be stuff that I haven 't done before , and they 've really given me a shot . They 've delivered the goods . " In regard to Dexter 's abandonment of Harry 's Code , Hall said that " That need to rebel is a real engine for what unfolds this season . " Smits was hired to appear in ten of the season 's twelve episodes . When asked at the beginning of the second season whether there was any possibility of Dexter killing an innocent person , show runner Daniel Cerone said that by not doing so , they were " protecting the character " . He thought that it was " very important for the show that he does kill people who deserve it " . Phillips said that " We don 't want him knowingly killing somebody who doesn 't deserve it out of impulse or something , but we have explored the notion of his having killed someone without properly vetting that person and perhaps making a mistake . "
Production was scheduled to commence in late May , but was delayed until early June . A small crew flew to Miami with Hall and , according to producer Sara Colleton , filmed " a lot of pieces — not just Dexter walking in and out of his door or car , but also scenes that we know we 'll need and can use " , before returning to the show 's permanent sets at Sunset Gower Studios in Los Angeles .
= = Reception = =
" Our Father " brought in 1 @.@ 22 million viewers , a 20 percent improvement on both the second season 's premiere and finale , and Showtime 's highest @-@ rated drama season premiere since 2004 when Nielsen Media Research began compiling their ratings for premium networks . In the United Kingdom , the episode was the ninth most @-@ watched program in its timeslot with 194 @,@ 000 viewers and an audience share of 1 @.@ 2 percent , a significant decline from " It 's Alive ! " , the second season premiere .
" Our Father " received mixed reviews from critics ; some thought that it was dull , though Smits ' performance received widespread critical acclaim . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said that he was " frustrated " by the episode despite not finding any faults with it , writing , " I can 't help thinking that I 've seen as much of Dexter Morgan 's world as I need to . " Matt Fowler , writing for IGN , thought that the revelation of Rita 's pregnancy was " an interesting development , but not necessarily something that instantly catapults me to the edge of my seat " but that Smits as Miguel could improve " even [ a ] great [ show ] like Dexter " . The Australian 's Stephen Romei felt that , with the beginning of the third season , " Dexter has gone from an eight to a six " on a scale of one to ten , saying that the show " has lost its edge " with the hypocrisy of Dexter being a supposed sociopath despite holding several relationships . Los Angeles Times critic Claire Zulkey was " not sure yet whether [ the third season 's changes are ] good " . Ray Ellis of Blogcritics felt that " the series has settled into a state of complacency " and could not " escape the feeling I 've seen this before " . On the other hand , the San Francisco Chronicle 's Tim Goodman wrote that " the whiff of normalcy for Dexter " gives viewers " a magnificent tease " and likened the fast @-@ moving plot to " the urgency of brilliance " . TV Squad critic Debra McDuffee was " pleasantly surprised by Smits " and said that , thus far , " season three is a good one " . TV Guide 's Paula Paige , who was " thrilled " to see Smits join the cast , said , " What the Dexter season three opener lacked in explosive excitement , it certainly made up for in Jimmy Smits . " Daniel Fienberg , writing for Zap2it , said that the combination of Hall and Smits was " as good as TV acting gets " and that , in comparison to the second season 's opening , " the show 's creative team appears to have done it again " .
= Breakout ( Miley Cyrus song ) =
" Breakout " is a pop song by American recording artist Miley Cyrus . It was released to Radio Disney as promotion for Cyrus ' second album of the same name . It was originally recorded by American pop singer Katy Perry as a demo track for her debut album One of the Boys but due to not being included in the album , the song was passed on to Cyrus . " Breakout " is a dance @-@ pop whose instrumentation includes keyboard , guitar , and drums while lyrics discuss growing up and being carefree .
Contemporary critics received " Breakout " very well , appreciating its lyrical content . Digital downloads began immediately after the Breakout 's release on July 22 , 2008 , and led to commercial success in Australia , Canada , and the United States ; its highest international peak was at number forty @-@ five on the Canadian Hot 100 . Cyrus performed the song in several venues ; her first , in the 2008 Disney Channel Games was used as a promotional music video and on her first world tour , the Wonder World Tour , it was the opening number .
= = Development = =
" Breakout " was written by Ted Bruner , Trey Vittetoe and Gina Schock of the Go @-@ Go 's . It was first recorded by American pop singer Katy Perry , recording the track as a demo for her debut album One of the Boys , though it was never fully executed for the album and was passed to Cyrus , on whose version Perry sings backing vocals , soon after a leaked version of Katy Perry on the Internet . Perry discussed her role with Bliss magazine : " My vocals are actually on Breakout . I thought , ' Yes , I 'm singing on a Miley single ' . " Cyrus said naming the album Breakout was influenced by the song as it was " one of [ her ] favorite songs " on the album ; this was because the song is feminine but has appeals to different age groups : " Moms , dads , sisters , brothers can , you know , relate to it . And it 's basically because you just want to go out and have fun with your friends and sometimes , you know , go out dancing and let loose once in a while . "
= = Composition = =
" Breakout " is a dance @-@ pop song with a strong use of pop rock elements , lasting three minutes and twenty @-@ six seconds . Written in the key of E major , it follows the chord progression G5 — Dsus — Csus2 — Dsus , beginning with a fast beat , composed of chiming electric guitar and drums and later progressing to " the snares skip and the keyboards shimmer " . In the view of Chris William of Entertainment Weekly , " Breakout " ' s lyrics are " a harangue against life 's cruelest inequities " , drawing attention to the opening verse , " Every week 's the same / Stuck in school 's so lame / My parents say that I 'm lazy / Getting up at 8 a.m. ' s crazy / Tired of bein ' told what to do / So unfair , so uncool , " though adding that the song was a sign that the " little girl isn 't growing up " . However , Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times said the song was indeed about growing up fast , referencing the lines " It feels so good to let go " and " Wish it would never end " and Jodi Rosen of Rolling Stone also believed " she 's venting the frustrations of a teen who 's too grown @-@ up to submit to her parents , teachers or anyone else " with the lines " tired of bein ' told what to do " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Breakout " received positive responses from contemporary critics , with Chris William , writing for Entertainment Weekly stating that Gina Schock left influences from The Go @-@ Go 's ' 1982 hit single " Vacation " with " just the right amount of maturing " . Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times called the song " a slightly tougher , more guitar @-@ based sound than last year 's Meet Miley Cyrus " , while Bill Lamb of About.com said the song was one of the " top tracks on Breakout " and Heather Phares of Allmusic said the song 's " school girl rebellion " was " designed to present the feisty , carefree Miley " .
According to Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe , " Breakout " is " pure pop realm with the Go @-@ Go 's @-@ style fizz " and Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone called the song " a more self @-@ possessed [ ... ] sophisticated pop record under her own name " . Ash Dosanjh of Yahoo ! Music said , " You can forgive Cyrus 's lack of poetic profundity because this is a dancefloor smash complete with ecstatic beats pummelling throughout . " Along with " 7 Things " , Robert Christgau called the song " one of the best of Breakout " . Ben Ratliff wrote for The New York Times that " Breakout " " appeals to both age groups " , adding , " it ’ s a girls @-@ only call to fun , but it hints at a decadent , school @-@ free future . " However , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine described " Breakout " as a " noxious Avril Lavigne knockoff — an anti @-@ education screed filled with declarations " .
= = Chart performance = =
As it was not released as a single , " Breakout " received exclusive airplay on Radio Disney , thus its chart appearances consisted mainly of digital downloads . On the week ending August 9 , 2008 , " Breakout " debuted and peaked at number fifty @-@ six in the Billboard Hot 100 where it spent seven consecutive weeks . In the same week , " Breakout " was placed at number twenty @-@ seven on Hot Digital Songs and entered the Canadian Hot 100 at number forty @-@ five , where it peaked , spending three consecutive weeks on that chart . " Breakout " also debuted and peaked at number ninety @-@ four in the Australian Singles Chart .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus premiered " Breakout " at the opening of the 2008 Disney Channel Games , held on May 4 , 2008 at Walt Disney World in Orlando , Florida , as part of Disney Channel 's summer @-@ season activities . During performance , a recording of which was aired as a promotional music video on the Disney Channel , Cyrus was dressed in a short , sequined black dress with a red tee shirt and black leggings underneath . On May 17 , she performed the song at the 2008 Zootopia and , on July 25 , in New York City , at the Rockefeller Center , which was broadcast by The Today Show . On June 7 , 2009 , Cyrus performed the song at twentieth annual A Time for Heroes Celebrity Carnival , an outdoor carnival supporting the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation .
" Breakout " was on the set list of Cyrus 's 2009 Wonder World Tour , her first world tour . Cyrus performed the song as the opening number at each venue while wearing a black leather tank top and hot pants and a white fur vest . The performances began with Cyrus trapped in a huge , crystal @-@ like ice dome which emerged from the bottom of the stage . As she breaks out of the cocoon , Cyrus begins to sing " Breakout " , gradually switching from slow to upbeat tempo and , towards the end of the performances , she and the backup dancers perform on movable scaffolding . Melinda M. Thompson of The Oregonian reported that , in the September 14 concert in Portland , Oregon , at the Rose Garden Arena , drew a large response , bringing " screaming teens to their feet as she hit the stage ready to party " . Lael Loewenstein of Variety stated that the performance in the September 22 concert in Los Angeles , California , at the Staples Center , touched " on the theme of self @-@ reinvention " , a theme which Loewenstein thought was to " announce her image reboot " . She later performed the song at the Rock in Rio concerts in Lisbon , Portugal and Madrid , Spain .
= = Charts = =
= Bank Street ( football ground ) =
Bank Street , known for a time as Bank Lane , was a multi @-@ purpose stadium in Clayton , Manchester , England . It was mostly used for football matches and was the second home ground of Manchester United Football Club ( then known as Newton Heath Football Club ) , after North Road , which they left in 1893 . The stadium had a capacity of around 50 @,@ 000 , but the club moved to Old Trafford in 1910 because club owner John Henry Davies believed he could not sufficiently expand the ground .
The stadium was in poor repair towards the end of its life and , shortly after the club moved out to Old Trafford , the main stand at Bank Street blew down in a storm . The site is now occupied by the car park of the Manchester Velodrome , with a plaque on a house wall on Bank Street indicating the presence of the former ground . The site is close to the City of Manchester Stadium , the home of Manchester City Football Club .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Also known as Bank Lane , the ground was located on Bank Street in the Manchester suburb of Clayton , opposite the junction with Ravensbury Street and between the railway line and the Albion Chemical works . Known locally as the Bradford and Clayton athletic ground , it was owned by the Bradford and Clayton Athletic Company . After Newton Heath F.C. ( who became Manchester United in 1902 ) were evicted from their old ground at North Road by the Manchester Deans and Canons , who believed it to be inappropriate for the club to charge an entry fee to the ground , secretary A. H. Albut procured the use of the Bank Street ground in June 1893 . The site was let to the club for eight months of the year , with pre @-@ season training permitted on occasional nights in the summer . The ground was without stands , but , by the start of the 1893 – 94 season , two stands had been built ; one spanning the full length of the pitch on one side and the other behind the goal at the " Bradford end " . At the opposite end , the " Clayton end " , the ground had been " built up , thousands thus being provided for " .
Newton Heath 's first Football League match at Bank Street was played against Burnley on 1 September 1893 , when 10 @,@ 000 people saw Alf Farman score a hat @-@ trick , Newton Heath 's only goals in a 3 – 2 win . The remaining stands were completed for the following league game against Nottingham Forest three weeks later . However , Newton Heath did not fare well in their first season at the new ground and were unable to retain their First Division status at the end of the season , finishing bottom of the 16 @-@ team division . At the time , the condition of the Bank Street pitch was well documented . On one occasion during the 1894 – 95 season , Walsall Town Swifts turned up at the ground and were greeted by what they regarded as a " toxic waste dump " . After lodging an official complaint about the pitch to the referee , they were finally persuaded to take to the field , only to be beaten 14 – 0 ( unofficially , the biggest win in the history of Manchester United ) . However , the Football League ruled in favour of Walsall and the match was ordered to be replayed , though the result was not much better for the visitors the second time round , this time losing 9 – 0 .
= = = Expansion = = =
In October 1895 , before the visit of Manchester City to Bank Street , the club purchased a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stand from Broughton Rangers Rugby League Club , and put up another stand on the " reserved side " ( as distinct from the " popular side " ) . However , weather restricted the attendance for the Manchester City match to just 12 @,@ 000 . Improvements to the ground were restricted by the running track that encompassed the pitch , which , by the request of the Bradford and Clayton Athletic Company , could not be removed . However , the ground came into the possession of the club 's former president , Mr W. Crompton , in 1898 , allowing them to make whatever improvements to it they desired . One report in the Manchester Courier predicted the addition of a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) tall stand on the side adjacent to Bank Street itself , with a refreshment stand underneath , while the opposite stand would be moved back 6 yards ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and raised up on brickwork by around 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) , with the space underneath to be used as changing rooms for the players and referee and various rooms for the club committee .
These improvements would cost a lot of money , however , and this , in combination with the players ' ever @-@ increasing wages , sent the club into a period of financial turmoil . The club was presented with a winding up order in January 1902 , and Bank Street was on the brink of being repossessed until they were saved at the eleventh hour by a wealthy local brewer , John Henry Davies . He and four other men , among them club captain Harry Stafford , invested a total of £ 2 @,@ 000 in the club , now renamed Manchester United F.C. , and Davies himself paid £ 500 for the erection of a new 1 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stand at Bank Street . Within four years , the stadium had cover on all four sides , as well as the ability to hold approximately 50 @,@ 000 spectators , some of whom could watch from the viewing gallery atop the Main Stand . The stadium was even deemed worthy enough to host a match between Football League and Scottish Football League representative sides in April 1904 , hosting 25 @,@ 000 spectators as the Football League side won 2 – 1 .
Around the turn of the 20th century , Newton Heath pulled off a significant coup by persuading the Manchester Evening News to set up an office at Bank Street . In response to Manchester City 's relationship with the Manchester Evening Chronicle , the Heathens ' believed that their partnership with the Evening News would cultivate interest in the club , while the newspaper would benefit from increased coverage of football .
= = = Departure and destruction = = =
Following Manchester United 's first league title in 1908 and the FA Cup a year later , it was decided that Bank Street was too restrictive for Davies ' ambition and the club would have to move to a new stadium five miles away in Old Trafford . Bank Street was sold to the Manchester Corporation for £ 5 @,@ 500 and leased back to the club on a monthly basis until the new stadium was complete . Bank Street played host to just 5 @,@ 000 spectators for its final game on 22 January 1910 ; a 5 – 0 home win over Tottenham Hotspur . Manchester United 's move away from Bank Street seemed to have come at the perfect time , as , only a few days after the Tottenham match , one of the stands was blown down in a storm . The roof of the grandstand was blown across the road , landing on the houses opposite , and the stand was left in tatters . The Tottenham match was meant to have been played at Old Trafford , but building problems at the new ground had caused the fixture to revert to Bank Street . Despite the destruction of the Bank Street End stand , the club 's reserve team continued to use the ground for matches until the expiry of the lease on 1 January 1912 . The remaining timber at the site was then sold to Keyley Bros. for £ 275 . The site had various industrial uses for the next 80 years , until it was cleared for inclusion in the new Manchester Velodrome in the early 1990s . The actual site occupied by the stadium now serves as the Velodrome car park , while a red plaque attached to a house opposite marks the site as part of United 's history .
= Juan Larrea ( politician ) =
Juan Larrea ( June 24 , 1782 in Catalonia , Spain – June 20 , 1847 in Buenos Aires ) was a Spanish businessman and politician in Buenos Aires during the early nineteenth century . He headed a military unit during the second British invasion of the Río de la Plata , and worked at the Buenos Aires Cabildo . He took part in the ill @-@ fated Mutiny of Álzaga . Larrea and Domingo Matheu were the only two Spanish @-@ born members of the Primera Junta , the first national government of Argentina .
He supported the secretary Mariano Moreno within the Junta , and was moved to the distant city of San Juan when the Morenists were removed from government . He returned as a deputy for Córdoba in the Assembly of Year XIII constituent assembly , promoting many resolutions . Together with Carlos María de Alvear , he organized the strategy for the downfall of the royalist stronghold in Montevideo , a threat to Buenos Aires during the Argentine War of Independence . Despite the victory , he faced political conflicts with admiral William Brown and an economic crisis , and was exiled from the country .
He moved to Bordeaux , France , but returned to Buenos Aires when his exile was lifted by the Oblivion law . He served as consul for a time , but his business declined and he committed suicide on June 20 , 1847 . He was the last surviving member of the Primera Junta .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and Viceroyalty = = =
Juan Larrea was born on June 24 , 1782 , in the city of Mataró , Catalonia . His father was Martín Ramón de Larrea , who was in charge of customs operations in Mataró , and his mother was Tomasa Espeso . He studied mathematics and navigation , and focused his education towards a career in commerce . His father died in 1793 , so Larrea became the patriarch of the family . They moved to Buenos Aires , where he established a warehouse for wines , leather , and sugar . He traded with Peru , Upper Peru , Paraguay , Chile and colonial Brazil . By 1806 he was a well respected businessman , and a syndic of the Royal Consulate . He promoted the role of deputies from Buenos Aires at the Madrid court , to better the representation of the Brazilian viceroyalty and reduce the privileges of peninsular merchants .
Buenos Aires and other nearby cities faced the British invasions of the Río de la Plata in 1806 and 1807 . In the absence of reinforcements from Spain , viceroy Santiago de Liniers arranged that everyone in Buenos Aires capable of bearing arms should join the resistance against the second invasion . Larrea established the Legion of Catalan Volunteers with Jaime Nadal y Guarda , Jaime Lavallol and José Olaguer Reynals . Larrea was appointed captain of this military unit . The defense was successful , and the British were driven away from the viceroyalty .
Larrea 's business prospered , and in 1808 the Buenos Aires Cabildo appointed him to oversee a naval patrol to suppress shipments of contraband . This gave him an opportunity to put his nautical skills to use . He also participated in the secret meetings of patriots who promoted political change , and joined the 1809 Mutiny of Álzaga , which attempted to depose viceroy Liniers and replace him with a Junta . The mutiny failed , but the patriots continued to plot , and in 1810 the May Revolution succeeded in deposing the new viceroy . Larrea did not take part in the discussions at the open cabildo , but was appointed as member of the Primera Junta .
= = = Primera Junta = = =
Larrea 's prestige as an influential businessman promoted his appointment as member of the Primera Junta . However , as with the other members , the precise reasons for his inclusion are unclear . The Junta 's membership has been considered a balance between Carlotists and Alzaguists . Larrea resigned his wages from his position as Junta member , and organized the resources for the upcoming war of independence . Together with Manuel de Sarratea he drafted a new code regulating business in Argentina , and he also secured the exile of former viceroy Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros by bribing the captain of the ship carrying him , the Dart , to avoid any landfall until reaching the Canary Islands on the far side of the Atlantic . He supported the execution of Liniers after the defeat of his counter @-@ revolution , and supported the secretary Mariano Moreno against the president Cornelio Saavedra . Larrea voted for the incorporation of deputies from other cities into the Junta , although he had previously indicated his opposition to the proposal . It was intended by Saavedra that this change would reduce Moreno 's influence within the Junta .
The proposal prevailed , and the Primera Junta became the Junta Grande by incorporating the new deputies . The resignation and death of Mariano Moreno did not reduce the conflicts between Morenists and Saavedrists . A rebellion on behalf of Saavedrism ensued , on 5 and 6 April 1811 , aiming at the resignation of all remaining Morenists , including Larrea . Larrea was accused of joining factions and risking public security , and was deposed . Taken prisoner , he was moved to the nearby city of Luján , and then to the distant San Juan .
= = = Return to politics = = =
Larrea resumed business activities in San Juan , avoiding politics until 1812 . The Revolution of October 8 , 1812 returned the Morenists to power , and so Larrea could return to Buenos Aires . He returned as a deputy for Córdoba to the Assembly of Year XIII constituent assembly .
In the assembly , Larrea promoted a customs law which taxed most imports , but made exceptions for machines , scientific tools , books , weapons and military supplies . He organized a local mint , and the supply of the Army of the North . The presidency of the assembly rotated , and Larrea presided from April 30 to June 1 , 1813 . During this time the Assembly outlawed torture and repealed all noble titles , and also chose the official Argentine National Anthem .
Larrea served briefly in the Second Triumvirate , replacing José Julián Pérez as finance minister , until the Assembly replaced the Triumvirate with the Supreme Director , an office placing the powers of head of state in the hands of one person . Gervasio Antonio de Posadas was chosen as the first Supreme Director . Posadas was concerned about Montevideo , a nearby city which had been under royalist control since the beginning of the war , and a constant threat to Buenos Aires . Carlos María de Alvear complemented the existing siege of Montevideo with a naval blockade , in which Larrea 's expertise was instrumental . Alvear developed the military strategy , and Larrea took care of the financial aspects . Larrea drafted a report of the nature , costs and strength of the proposed navy , and the captains and sailors that were required , and planned to negotiate with the American William White . Larrea also appointed the Irish admiral William Brown to lead the attack . The royalist forces in Montevideo were finally defeated in June , 1814 .
Larrea did not get on well with Brown , who blamed him for disagrements and supply shortages , and even for discontent among the sailors . Buenos Aires did not have a naval tradition , and therefore most of the people involved in the naval campaign were foreigners . As a result , their commitment to the war was often limited . After the capture of Montevideo , Larrea instructed Brown to report directly to the minister of war , and not correspond with himself . Nevertheless , the disagreements continued . Due to the economic crisis caused by the war , Larrea sold the captured ships , decommissioned the navy and sold off the government 's own ships , but the sailors complained that they had not received their wages , their reward for the military victory nor their percentage of the sale of the captured ships . Larrea and White were blamed for this . Larrea resigned by the end of the year , after signing an order for the creation of an infantry and a cavalry regiment for the Army of the Andes . Larrea blamed White for the unresolved dispute over the sailors ' wages , declaring that he had arranged that White would organize the payment of the wages . Alvear resigned in 1815 after the mutiny of Álvarez Thomas , and all the members of his administration were put on trial . Larrea was accused of abuse of power , administrative fraud and stealing from the national treasury . All his properties were confiscated , and he was exiled .
= = = Exile and return = = =
After his exile , Larrea moved to Bordeaux in France , and did business with some of his old associates . He continued correspondence with Bernardino Rivadavia , and in 1818 he moved to Montevideo , under Brazilian control at that time , and strengthened his contacts in Buenos Aires from there . He was finally able to return to Buenos Aires in 1822 due to the oblivion law .
Once he returned to Buenos Aires , Larrea avoided political activities and concentrated on business activities . He established a mailing service between Buenos Aires and Le Havre ( France ) , but the venture failed . He then worked in animal husbandry , both in Buenos Aires and in Montevideo . He was appointed consul of the United Provinces by governor Manuel Dorrego , and moved back to Bordeaux to strengthen commerce with France .
He resigned as consul in 1830 , shortly after the first appointment of Juan Manuel de Rosas as governor , and returned to private business once more . His business began to fail , and he lived at various times in Montevideo , Colonia del Sacramento and Bordeaux , before returning again to Buenos Aires . He committed suicide on June 20 , 1847 . He was the last surviving member of the Primera Junta .
= Transformers : Fall of Cybertron =
Transformers : Fall of Cybertron is a third @-@ person shooter video game developed by High Moon Studios and published by Activision . It is the sequel to the 2010 video game Transformers : War for Cybertron , and directly follows the events of that game as the Autobots struggle to defeat their Decepticon foes in a war for their home planet of Cybertron . The game was released on August 21 , 2012 , in North America and on August 24 , 2012 , in Europe for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 .
The game tells the story of the Transformers , fictional robotic life forms , and the final days of conflict on their home planet of Cybertron . An origins subplot for the Dinobots is also told , reimagined from the Transformers : Generation 1 continuity . Other subplots also tell an adapted story for several characters . Some of the voice cast from the 1984 series The Transformers return to reprise their roles , including Peter Cullen as Autobot leader Optimus Prime and Gregg Berger as Grimlock . Other actors return to reprise their roles from Transformers : War for Cybertron .
Fall of Cybertron received generally favorable reviews from critics . The Microsoft Windows and Xbox 360 versions have an aggregate Metacritic score of 79 / 100 , while the PlayStation 3 version holds a score of 77 / 100 . Critics generally felt that the game was true to the Transformers franchise and provided good fan service , but some thought that the story pace slowed at times . Gameplay was mostly praised , but some reviewers cited the removal of War for Cybertron 's cooperative campaign as a low point . Graphics and audio also received broadly positive comments , though some reviewers noticed frame rate issues with the PlayStation 3 version . A tie in titled Transformers : Rise of the Dark Spark , which is partially set between War for Cybertron and Fall of Cybertron was released June 24 , 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Transformers : Fall of Cybertron , like its predecessor Transformers : War for Cybertron , is a third @-@ person shooter . Players can control each transformer in both its robot and alternate forms . Instead of a traditional health system , the game features a system similar to the Halo series of video games . The player character has both a regenerating shield and health , the latter of which can be replenished by a health pack . The weapon selection in Fall of Cybertron is expanded , with new weapons that can take on very significant upgrades , including one that allows a weapon to fire up to 75 % faster . These are purchased through Teletran 1 kiosks found throughout the game .
Every character has been given their own unique ability . For example , Jazz can fire a grappling hook to reach high or distant places , Optimus Prime can command the massive Metroplex , and the Combaticons have the ability to combine into the Decepticon Bruticus . Segments in which players control Bruticus are designed to accommodate its larger size . Scale is maintained so the character towers over enemies . The Autobot Grimlock , who transforms into a dinosaur , is controlled differently than other characters . Carrying only a sword and shield , Grimlock cannot transform at will , instead accumulating rage as he battles opponents . When he gains enough rage , Grimlock is able to transform and inflict massive damage . The online cooperative campaign play featured in the first game has been removed in favor of levels that utilize each character 's specific abilities .
The survival mode Escalation from War for Cybertron returns . In this mode players must defend against increasingly difficult waves of enemies . As gameplay progresses , new sections of the level open , which give players access to upgraded weapons and abilities . Franchise characters are used in Escalation , while players can customize one of four character classes — Scientist , Infiltrator , Destroyer , and Titan — in competitive multiplayer . Autobot and Decepticon Transformers can be customized with parts earned through a ranking system or purchased through the game 's marketplace . Several parts from famous Transformers can be used , such as heads , torsos , legs , and arms . Hundreds of pieces and color options are available . Players can also buy and upgrade their gear .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Transformers : Fall of Cybertron is a direct continuation of Transformers : War for Cybertron . Giant robotic life forms known as Transformers are at civil war . Two factions , the Autobots and the Decepticons , vie for control of their home world , Cybertron . The events of the previous game have left the planet unable to sustain life , and the Autobots , desperate to ensure the continued existence of the Transformer race , seek to flee the planet . The Decepticons , still bent on domination , will stop at nothing to ensure that the Autobots either submit to the Decepticons or are eliminated . Fall of Cybertron depicts the final battle between the two robot factions , which results in the desolation of their home world , forcing the Autobots to seek refuge in our galaxy , the Milky Way . The developer , High Moon Studios , hoped to show a darker tone than the original game . Game Informer 's Matt Miller stated that the game " changes and improves upon so many of the fundamental ideas that the developer considers the game a natural successor rather than a true sequel . "
= = = Characters = = =
^ a Not a playable character ^ b Downloadable content , playable only in multiplayer ^ c Alternate skin available ( preorder / downloadable content ) ^ d Slag was renamed Slug in the game due to Slag being a derogatory term in some cultures ^ e Playable in escalation
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins on the Ark , the spacecraft the Autobots use to flee their dying homeworld of Cybertron . On their journey , the Decepticons attack . Optimus Prime engages Megatron directly on the outer surface of the Ark . Bumblebee scrambles to his aid and finds Optimus just as Megatron is about to deliver a fatal blow . He dives in front of the shot , taking the hit for Optimus . The game then flashes back to six days earlier .
The Autobots defend the docked Ark from Decepticon forces . Optimus realizes they have broken through Grimlock 's post after unsuccessfully trying to contact him . Optimus leaves to help Ironhide and his forces defend the Ark . Jazz and Cliffjumper are sent to investigate , and while eliminating enemy tanks , Optimus 's turret suddenly deactivates . As he leaves to repair it the room transforms around him , leading him to a brightly lit chamber where he activates the city @-@ sized Transformer Metroplex . The titan disables two Decepticon cannons but is shot point @-@ blank by a third . Starscream and the Combaticons capture Optimus soon after and bring him before Megatron . As Megatron prepares to execute Optimus , Metroplex arrives and pummels him into the ground . Having lost Megatron , Starscream claims leadership of the Decepticons and orders a retreat .
Meanwhile , Jazz and Cliffjumper arrive at the Sea of Rust to locate Grimlock and his Lightning Strike Coalition Force . They find an enormous tower in a lake of energon firing a bright beam into Cybertron 's orbit . They find Shockwave at the scene and discover it is a Space Bridge . Shockwave escapes the ensuing confrontation , and Cliffjumper becomes trapped , leaving Jazz to fight off the incoming Insecticons . Cliffjumper overloads the tower , and he and Jazz are saved from the Tower 's explosion by Sideswipe . They report back to Optimus .
Shortly after the Autobots salvage energon from the tower , Starscream and his Combaticons arrive to reclaim it . Onslaught , the Decepticon team 's leader , briefs them on a plan to ambush the Autobot transport carrying the energon . Combaticons Vortex , Blast Off and Brawl destroy the supports of a bridge the transport must cross . Meanwhile , Swindle engages Autobot ground forces and destroys the wheel struts underneath the transport . The transport transforms into flight mode and the Autobots engage the Decepticon team . Starscream orders the Combaticons to abort the mission , but they defy him and combine to form Bruticus , who brings the transport down , inadvertently losing half the energon in the crash . Starscream arrives at the crash site and arrests the Combaticons for insubordination .
Elsewhere , Soundwave assembles a newer , more powerful chassis for Megatron . He awakens , frees the Combaticons , stops Starscream 's coronation as King of the Decepticons and reclaims leadership of the Decepticons . He then leads a full @-@ scale assault on the Autobot stronghold of Iacon , where the massive Decepticon Trypticon 's remains are kept . Megatron invades the facility and takes Trypticon 's power core , the heart of a transformer . He informs Trypticon that he is not being rescued as he " failed " him , but he congratulates him for destroying Iacon City and few more Autobots . Trypticon is then transformed into the Nemesis , the Decepticon flagship .
Starscream , having been humiliated at the hands of Megatron , infiltrates Shockwave 's base , where he finds Grimlock being held prisoner . He offers Grimlock freedom in exchange for his fealty , but Grimlock escapes by throwing Starscream into the restraint controls . He reunites with his teammates Swoop , Slug , and Snarl and defeats the defending Insecticons . Grimlock learns from Shockwave that their processors were tampered with , leaving Grimlock with a speech impairment . By way of his Space Bridge , Shockwave also found a new planet inhabited by large creatures ; these were used to inspire all of their new alternate forms . Grimlock was further modified , and now cannot transform on command , but must be in a state of rage to do so . Grimlock recalls a name that Sharpshot gave them , the Dinobots , and claims it as their new team name . Grimlock then notices another Space Bridge tower that Shockwave has constructed nearby . Grimlock fights his way to Shockwave , knocking him from the tower and destroying it . The crumbling tower falls , and the portal in Cybertron 's orbit begins to decay .
Before the launch , Metroplex sacrifices himself by transferring all of his energon to the Ark . Optimus then calls for the launch of the Ark to try and escape through the portal before it closes , but Decepticons arrive in the Nemesis to stop them . Soundwave leads the first wave of troops onto the ship through giant cables and destroys the Ark 's automated defense system . Jetfire is then launched into space to disengage the cables . Bruticus launches from the Nemesis and destroys the Ark 's fuel line before being blasted off the ship into empty space by Jazz and Jetfire . Nearby , Megatron and Optimus engage in battle . Before a winner can be declared , Optimus and Megatron are pulled off of the hull of the Ark and into the portal with both ships . The portal finally closes , leaving their home planet alone and quiet .
= = Development = =
During an investor conference in November 2010 Hasbro confirmed that a sequel to the 2010 game Transformers : War for Cybertron would be developed . Transformers : Fall of Cybertron was officially announced on October 6 , 2011 , in an article posted on the gaming magazine Game Informer 's website . In the article , Game Informer noted that their November issue would contain an exclusive feature on the upcoming game and the cover would include concept art . 1UP.com 's Chris Pereira wrote that fans would be excited to hear another original Transformers game from High Moon Studios was being developed , since the game based on the film Transformers : Dark of the Moon did not meet critical expectations . Henry Gilbert of Games Radar was also pleased to see an original game being developed and said " we 're glad [ ... ] developer High Moon Studios is back to what it does best : crafting new / old adventures for the Autobots and Decepticons " . High Moon Studios originally announced that they would not be releasing Fall of Cybertron on the Microsoft Windows platform but changed their plans . The Windows version was completed by Mercenary Technologies , while High Moon Studios handled the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 releases . The game is powered by Epic Games ' Unreal Engine 3 and utilizes the Havok physics engine .
= = = Design = = =
Some characters who previously appeared in War for Cybertron feature updated appearances and transformation schemes , or moving parts that animate regardless of player action , similar to breathing . The character Optimus Prime was redesigned for a " more warrior @-@ type feel " , with more bulk added to his body mass . The weaponry in Fall of Cybertron was also modified and enhanced ; the designers of the game put out a call to everyone in the studio for new weapon ideas . Matt Tieger of High Moon explained that in addition to new designs , each weapon could be upgraded , continuing , " We really made a conscious choice to make every upgrade a significant improvement , so one upgrade might increase your firing speed by 75 % . We could have made the system so that there were a lot of upgrades that each improved your guns a little bit , but we wanted to make each upgrade feel like this giant thing . That way when players buy it they ’ re really going to feel the difference . "
= = = Audio = = =
At E3 2012 veteran Transformers voice actors Peter Cullen and Fred Tatasciore were confirmed to reprise their respective roles of Optimus Prime and Megatron . Tatasciore also voices Ratchet and the city @-@ sized Transformer Metroplex . Gregg Berger voices Grimlock from The Transformers for the first time in twenty @-@ five years . Other cast members include : Sam Riegel as Starscream ; Keith Szarabajka as Ironhide ; Nolan North as Cliffjumper , Bruticus and Brawl ; Steven Blum as Shockwave , Swindle and Sharpshot ; Isaac C. Singleton Jr. as Soundwave ; and Troy Baker as Jazz , Jetfire , and Kickback . Jim Ward provides the voice for Perceptor , David Boat voices Vortex , Travis Willingham performs as Sideswipe , Slug and Onslaught , Jamieson Price voices Warpath , and Keith Silverstein portrays Blast @-@ Off and Rumble .
The game features Stan Bush 's song " The Touch " , originally featured in the 1986 film The Transformers : The Movie . The rerecorded 2007 version was used during promotional trailers for preorder items , while the game 's end credits utilize both it and a remixed version of the song . The remixed version , called the " Power Mix " , was based on the melancholy " Sam 's Theme " version of the song , which was created for possible inclusion in the live @-@ action film Revenge of the Fallen . The credits begin with the " Power Mix " version , and segue into the 2007 version . Bush later released the " Power Mix " on iTunes the following September .
= = Marketing and release = =
The first official cinematic trailer for the video game was shown at the 2011 Spike TV Video Game Awards on December 10 , 2011 and featured the song " The Humbling River " by Puscifer . A second cinematic trailer , dubbed " Our World " , was released in March 2012 . Gameplay was shown during the 2012 Botcon convention . On July 5 , 2012 , the UK release date for the game was brought forward one week to August 24 , 2012 . A trailer featuring an in @-@ game look at the city @-@ sized Transformer Metroplex was released with the announcement . The song featured was an Everlove cover of the Siouxsie and the Banshees song " Cities in Dust " . The launch trailer was released on August 17 , 2012 , and featured the theme " The Last Kingdom " by Alessio Nanni and Daniel Lessner . The game was released in North America on August 21 , 2012 , and Europe on August 24 .
A toy line based on the game was manufactured by Hasbro under the Transformers : Generations banner . Bruticus , a character formed by combining five Decepticons , is part of the line . Other figures include Optimus Prime , Jazz , and Shockwave . It was announced the toy line would be released August 21 , 2012 , in North America , a week earlier than originally planned .
In North America , Amazon.com and video game retailer GameStop offered preorder codes for downloadable content . GameStop offered a G1 Retro Pack that unlocks a The Transformers Generation 1 themed Optimus Prime skin , a Generation 1 inspired Megatron rifle based the character 's alternate mode , and a Shockwave Blast Cannon . Amazon offered a Generation 2 Bruticus skin . In the United Kingdom , Play.com also offered preorder codes . The codes unlocked the Dinobot Swoop for use in the competitive multiplayer .
Multiple downloadable content packs were released . The Multiplayer Havoc Pack launched on the game 's release date of August 21 , 2012 , and contains five characters for use in multiplayer : Perceptor , Ultra Magnus , Blast Off , Wheeljack , and Zeta Prime . It also unlocks the associated customization pieces related to these characters . The Dinobots , excluding Sludge , make up the DLC Dinobot Destructor Pack , released on September 11 . The Insecticons , G1 Optimus , Megatron , Hound , and G2 Bruticus were released as DLC for single and multiplayer in the Massive Fury Pack on September 25 . Players can also purchase specific customization pieces for their multiplayer characters via microtransactions , allowing players to access content they would otherwise have to play to unlock .
= = Reception = =
Fall of Cybertron has received generally positive reviews . The PlayStation 3 version received an aggregate score of 77 / 100 at Metacritic , while the Xbox 360 and Windows versions both hold scores of 79 / 100 . GameRankings reports similar scores ; the Xbox 360 version has an aggregate score of 81 @.@ 40 % , the PlayStation 3 a score of 76 @.@ 48 % , and the Windows version a score of 79 @.@ 17 % Jeff Gerstmann of Giant Bomb gave the game a 60 % approval , the lowest score reported .
Alec Meer of Eurogamer praised the developer 's focus on staying true to the Transformers source material : " Fall of Cybertron is a love @-@ letter to a fictional universe created in 1984 that has ... continued to this day . " Matt Miller of Game Informer agreed , calling the narrative " tightly crafted " . G4TV 's Matt Keil lauded the story , character development and voice acting . He called the game " a cinematic shooter that stands on the strength of its design and gameplay " . GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd stated that while the game 's levels focused on flight are enjoyable and that some levels give players a sense of power , the campaign mode was " too often more exciting to watch than to play " . Corey Cohen of Official Xbox Magazine gave high marks for the variety of characters players control during the campaign . He noted that each felt unique from the others , but thought that the game could have utilized the gargantuan transformer Metroplex more . Miller cited that the variety of playable Transformers and their unique abilities kept the game interesting , adding that the control scheme suited each unique character well .
In a more critical review , Giant Bomb 's Jeff Gerstmann felt that the game had uneven pacing and gameplay . " The highs in Transformers : Fall of Cybertron are very high [ ... ] but it doesn 't go far enough in that direction to stand out " he stated . Gerstmann disliked the frame rate drops during heavy action sequences . IGN 's Matt Cabral also noted this , but dismissed these moments as " occasional hiccups " . Cabral gave high marks for visual presentation , including the transformations each character used to change forms . Both Cabral and Keil criticized the lack of cooperative campaign gameplay , a feature available in the game 's predecessor , as a low point of Fall of Cybertron .
According to the NPD Group , the game sold well during the month of its release , placing seventh in sales despite only being available during the last ten days . Fall of Cybertron sold 105 @,@ 000 copies during its North America debut according to Game Informer .
= = Sequel Tie @-@ In = =
A video game titled Transformers : Rise of the Dark Spark was developed by Edge of Reality and published by Activision . It takes place between the events of War for Cybertron and Fall of Cybertron . It is also a crossover to the fourth live @-@ action film Transformers : Age of Extinction , and is therefore a tie @-@ in to the film . It features characters from both timelines .
= Chen Liting =
Chen Liting ( Chinese : 陈鲤庭 ; pinyin : Chén Lǐtíng ; 20 October 1910 – 27 August 2013 ) was a Chinese playwright , drama and film director , screenwriter , and film theorist . He was one of the most prominent film directors and screenwriters in pre @-@ Communist China , together with Shi Dongshan , Cai Chusheng , and Zheng Junli . His most famous film was Women Side by Side ( 1949 ) .
Chen was abandoned as an infant , and then lost his both foster parents during early childhood . Before becoming a film director , Chen worked mainly in drama . His patriotic play Put Down Your Whip was highly influential and performed countless times during the Japanese invasion of China . During the war he also made a famous staging of the play Qu Yuan , and wrote one of the first Chinese books on film theory .
After the early 1950s , Chen 's attempts at filmmaking were repeatedly thwarted by the PRC government for political reasons . He worked as general manager of Tianma Film Studio before being imprisoned during the Cultural Revolution . After his rehabilitation at the end of the period , he spent three years on the historical film Da Feng Ge , but retired after that film was also cancelled due to politics .
= = Early life = =
Born in Shanghai in 1910 , Chen Liting was abandoned as an infant and adopted by foster parents . However , he lost his adoptive father at the age of four , and three years later his adoptive mother also died . Chen was brought up by his uncle , the brother of his adoptive father . He attended a boarding school in Jiangyin at the age of 12 , and in 1924 entered Chengzhong Middle School in Shanghai .
As a high school student at Chengzhong , Chen was influenced by the post @-@ May Fourth surge of modern drama . In 1928 , he entered Daxia University ( a predecessor of East China Normal University ) in Shanghai , where he translated , directed , and acted in The Rising of the Moon , a play by the Irish dramatist Lady Gregory . It was the first Chinese production of the play .
= = Put Down Your Whip = =
After university , Chen worked as a primary school teacher in rural Nanhui County outside of Shanghai . In late 1931 , he wrote the patriotic play Put Down Your Whip ( also translated as Lay Down Your Whip ) , inspired by Meiniang , an earlier play by Tian Han . It became extremely influential and was staged countless times throughout China during the Anti @-@ Japanese War . The play was staged both by amateur performers as well as famous actors . The actress Wang Ying even performed an English version of the play in the White House for President Roosevelt and his wife . The future Madame Mao , then known as Li Yunhe , was also among its many performers . The play has been described in Chinese media as a " spiritual atomic bomb " against the Japanese invaders . It also inspired famous paintings by artists Xu Beihong and Situ Qiao .
= = Sino @-@ Japanese War = =
Chen returned to Shanghai in 1932 , where he wrote film reviews and translated Soviet books on filmmaking into Chinese . After the Japanese invaded China in 1937 , Chen joined the resistance movement , serving as the leader of the fourth brigade of the Shanghai Salvation Drama Troupe , which performed numerous
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umea , or Hina , who , like all Hawaiian gods and goddesses , descended from the supreme beings , Papa , or Earth Mother , and Wakea , or Sky Father . According to the myth , Pele originally lived on Kauai , when her older sister Nāmaka , the Goddess of the Sea , attacked her for seducing her husband . Pele fled southeast to the island of Oahu . When forced by Nāmaka to flee again , Pele moved southeast to Maui and finally to Hawaii , where she still lives in the Halemaumau Crater at the summit of Kīlauea . There she was safe , because the slopes of the volcano are so high that even Nāmaka 's mighty waves could not reach her . Pele 's mythical flight , which alludes to an eternal struggle between volcanic islands and ocean waves , is consistent with geologic evidence about the ages of the islands decreasing to the southeast .
= = = Modern studies = = =
Three of the earliest recorded observers of the volcanoes were the Scottish scientists Archibald Menzies in 1794 , James Macrae in 1825 , and David Douglas in 1834 . Just reaching the summits proved daunting : Menzies took three attempts to ascend Mauna Loa , and Douglas died on the slopes of Mauna Kea . The United States Exploring Expedition spent several months studying the islands in 1840 – 1841 . American geologist James Dwight Dana was on that expedition , as was Lieutenant Charles Wilkes , who spent most of the time leading a team of hundreds that hauled a pendulum to the summit of Mauna Loa to measure gravity . Dana stayed with missionary Titus Coan , who would provide decades of first @-@ hand observations . Dana published a short paper in 1852 .
Dana remained interested in the origin of the Hawaiian Islands , and directed a more in @-@ depth study in 1880 and 1881 . He confirmed that the islands ' age increased with their distance from the southeastern @-@ most island by observing differences in their degree of erosion . He also suggested that many other island chains in the Pacific showed a similar general increase in age from southeast to northwest . Dana concluded that the Hawaiian chain consisted of two volcanic strands , located along distinct but parallel curving pathways . He coined the terms " Loa " and " Kea " for the two prominent trends . The Kea trend includes the volcanoes of Kīlauea , Mauna Kea , Kohala , Haleakalā , and West Maui . The Loa trend includes Lōiʻhi , Mauna Loa , Hualālai , Kahoʻolawe , Lānaʻi , and West Molokaʻi . Dana proposed that the alignment of the Hawaiian Islands reflected localized volcanic activity along a major fissure zone . Dana 's " great fissure " theory served as the working hypothesis for subsequent studies until the mid @-@ 20th century .
Dana 's work was followed up by geologist C. E. Dutton 's 1884 expedition , who refined and expanded Dana 's ideas . Most notably , Dutton established that the island of Hawaii actually harbored five volcanoes , whereas Dana counted three . This is because Dana had originally regarded Kīlauea as a flank vent of Mauna Loa , and Kohala as part of Mauna Kea . Dutton also refined others of Dana 's observations , and is credited with the naming of ' a 'ā and pāhoehoe @-@ type lavas , although Dana had noted a distinction . Stimulated by Dutton 's expedition , Dana returned in 1887 , and published many accounts of his expedition in the American Journal of Science . In 1890 he published the most detailed manuscript of its day , and remained the definitive guide to Hawaiian volcanism for decades . 1909 saw the publication of two large volumes which extensively quoted from earlier works now out of circulation .
In 1912 geologist Thomas Jaggar founded the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory . The facility was taken over in 1919 by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and in 1924 by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) , which marked the start of continuous volcano observation on Hawaii island . The next century was a period of thorough investigation , marked by contributions from many top scientists . The first complete evolutionary model was first formulated in 1946 , by USGS geologist and hydrologist Harold T. Stearns . Since that time , advances have enabled the study of previously limited areas of observation ( e.g. improved rock dating methods and submarine volcanic stages ) .
In the 1970s , the Hawaiian seafloor was mapped using ship @-@ based sonar . Computed SYNBAPS ( Synthetic Bathymetric Profiling System ) data filled holes between the ship @-@ based sonar bathymetric measurements . From 1994 to 1998 the Japan Agency for Marine @-@ Earth Science and Technology ( JAMSTEC ) mapped Hawaii in detail and studied its ocean floor , making it one of the world 's best @-@ studied marine features . The JAMSTEC project , a collaboration with USGS and other agencies , utilized manned submersibles , remotely operated underwater vehicles , dredge samples , and core samples . The Simrad EM300 multibeam side @-@ scanning sonar system collected bathymetry and backscatter data .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Position = = =
The Hawaii hotspot has been imaged through seismic tomography , and is estimated to be 500 – 600 km ( 310 – 370 mi ) wide . Recent diffraction tomography and high @-@ resolution local tomography indicate a lower @-@ mantle mantle plume , and a pond of plume material is evidenced by a large low @-@ velocity zone in the upper mantle . These low seismic velocity zones often indicate hotter and more buoyant mantle material . A narrow low @-@ velocity column extending downward from 670 to 1 @,@ 500 km ( 420 to 930 mi ) under Hawaii connects with a large low @-@ velocity zone at 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) on the boundary between the core and mantle north of Hawaiʻi , showing that the plume is tilted to a certain degree , deflected toward the south by mantle flow . Uranium decay @-@ series disequilibria data has shown that the actively flowing region of the melt zone is 220 ± 40 km ( 137 ± 25 mi ) km wide at its base and 280 ± 40 km ( 174 ± 25 mi ) at the upper mantle upwelling , consistent with tomographic measurements .
= = = Temperature = = =
Indirect studies found that the magma chamber is located about 90 – 100 kilometers ( 56 – 62 mi ) underground , which matches the estimated depth of the Cretaceous Period rock in the oceanic lithosphere ; this may indicate that the lithosphere acts as a lid on melting by arresting the magma 's ascent . The lava 's original temperature was found in two ways , by testing garnet 's melting point in lava and by adjusting the lava for olivine deterioration . Both USGS tests seem to confirm the temperature at about 1 @,@ 500 ° C ( 2 @,@ 730 ° F ) ; in comparison , the estimated temperature for mid @-@ ocean ridge basalt is about 1 @,@ 325 ° C ( 2 @,@ 417 ° F ) .
The surface heat flow anomaly around the Hawaiian Swell is only of the order of 10 mW / m2 , far less than the continental United States range of 25 to 150 mW / m2 . This is unexpected for the classic model of a hot , buoyant plume in the mantle . However , it has been shown that other plumes display highly variable surface heat fluxes and that this variability may be due to variable hydrothermal fluid flow in the Earth 's crust above the hotspots . This fluid flow advectively removes heat from the crust , and the measured conductive heat flow is therefore lower than the true total surface heat flux . The low heat across the Hawaiian Swell indicates that it is not supported by a buoyant crust or upper lithosphere , but is rather propped up by the upwelling hot ( and therefore less @-@ dense ) mantle plume that causes the surface to rise through a mechanism known as " dynamic topography " .
= = = Movement = = =
Hawaiian volcanoes drift northwest from the hotspot at a rate of about 5 – 10 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) a year . The hotspot has migrated south by about 800 kilometers ( 497 mi ) relative to the Emperor chain . Paleomagnetic studies support this conclusion based on changes in Earth 's magnetic field , a picture of which was engrained in the rocks at the time of their solidification , showing that these seamounts formed at higher latitudes than present @-@ day Hawaii . Prior to the bend , the hotspot migrated an estimated 7 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) per year ; the rate of movement changed at the time of the bend to about 9 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) per year . The Ocean Drilling Program provided most of the current knowledge about the drift . The 2001 expedition drilled six seamounts and tested the samples to determine their original latitude , and thus the characteristics and speed of the hotspot 's drift pattern in total .
Each successive volcano spends less time actively attached to the plume . The large difference between the youngest and oldest lavas between Emperor and Hawaiian volcanoes indicates that the hotspot 's velocity is increasing . For example , Kohala , the oldest volcano on Hawaii island , is one million years old and last erupted 120 @,@ 000 years ago , a period of just under 900 @,@ 000 years ; whereas one of the oldest , Detroit Seamount , experienced 18 million or more years of volcanic activity .
The oldest volcano in the chain , Meiji Seamount , perched on the edge of the Aleutian Trench , formed 85 million years ago . At its current velocity , the seamount will be destroyed within a few million years , as the Pacific Plate slides under the Eurasian Plate . It is unknown whether the seamount chain has been subducting under the Eurasian Plate , and whether the hotspot is older than Meiji Seamount , as any older seamounts have since been destroyed by the plate margin . It is also possible that a collision near the Aleutian Trench had changed the velocity of the Pacific Plate , explaining the hotspot chain 's bend ; the relationship between these features is still being investigated .
= = = Magma = = =
The composition of the volcanoes ' magma has changed significantly according to analysis of the strontium – niobium – palladium elemental ratios . The Emperor Seamounts were active for at least 46 million years , with the oldest lava dated to the Cretaceous Period , followed by another 39 million years of activity along the Hawaiian segment of the chain , totaling 85 million years . Data demonstrate vertical variability in the amount of strontium present in both the alkalic ( early stages ) and tholeitic ( later stages ) lavas . The systematic increase slows drastically at the time of the bend .
Almost all magma created by the hotspot is igneous basalt ; the volcanoes are constructed almost entirely of this or the similar in composition but coarser @-@ grained gabbro and diabase . Other igneous rocks such as nephelinite are present in small quantities ; these occur often on the older volcanoes , most prominently Detroit Seamount . Most eruptions are runny because basaltic magma is less viscous than magmas characteristic of more explosive eruptions such as the andesitic magmas that produce spectacular and dangerous eruptions around Pacific Basin margins . Volcanoes fall into several eruptive categories . Hawaiian volcanoes are called " Hawaiian @-@ type " . Hawaiian lava spills out of craters and forms long streams of glowing molten rock , flowing down the slope , covering acres of land and replacing ocean with new land .
= = = Eruption frequency and scale = = =
There is significant evidence that lava flow rates have been increasing . Over the last six million years they have been far higher than ever before , at over 0 @.@ 095 km3 ( 0 @.@ 023 cu mi ) per year . The average for the last million years is even higher , at about 0 @.@ 21 km3 ( 0 @.@ 050 cu mi ) . In comparison , the average production rate at a mid @-@ ocean ridge is about 0 @.@ 02 km3 ( 0 @.@ 0048 cu mi ) for every 1 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 621 mi ) of ridge . The rate along the Emperor seamount chain averaged about 0 @.@ 01 cubic kilometers ( 0 @.@ 0024 cu mi ) per year . The rate was almost zero for the initial five million or so years in the hotspot 's life . The average lava production rate along the Hawaiian chain has been greater , at 0 @.@ 017 km3 ( 0 @.@ 0041 cu mi ) per year . In total , the hotspot has produced an estimated 750 @,@ 000 cubic kilometers ( 180 @,@ 000 cu mi ) of lava , enough to cover California with a layer about 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 1 mi ) thick .
The distance between individual volcanoes has shrunk . Although volcanoes have been drifting north faster and spending less time active , the far greater modern eruptive volume of the hotspot has generated more closely spaced volcanoes , and many of them overlap , forming such superstructures as Hawaiʻi island and the ancient Maui Nui . Meanwhile , many of the volcanoes in the Emperor seamounts are separated by 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) or even as much as 200 kilometers ( 124 mi ) .
= = = Topography and geoid = = =
A detailed topographic analysis of the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain reveals the hotspot as the center of a topographic high , and that elevation falls with distance from the hotspot . The most rapid decrease in elevation and the highest ratio between the topography and geoid height are over the southeastern part of the chain , falling with distance from the hotspot , particularly at the intersection of the Molokai and Murray fracture zones . The most likely explanation is that the region between the two zones is more susceptible to reheating than most of the chain . Another possible explanation is that the hotspot strength swells and subsides over time .
In 1953 , Robert S. Dietz and his colleagues first identified the swell behavior . It was suggested that the cause was mantle upwelling . Later work pointed to tectonic uplift , caused by reheating within the lower lithosphere . However , normal seismic activity beneath the swell , as well as lack of detected heat flow , caused scientists to suggest dynamic topography as the cause , in which the motion of the hot and buoyant mantle plume supports the high surface topography around the islands . Understanding the Hawaiian swell has important implications for hotspot study , island formation , and inner Earth .
= = Volcanoes = =
Over its 85 million year history , the Hawaii hotspot has created at least 129 volcanoes , more than 123 of which are extinct volcanoes , seamounts , and atolls , four of which are active volcanoes , and two of which are dormant volcanoes . They can be organized into three general categories : the Hawaiian archipelago , which comprises most of the U.S. state of Hawaii and is the location of all modern volcanic activity ; the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands , which consist of coral atolls , extinct islands , and atoll islands ; and the Emperor Seamounts , all of which have since eroded and subsided to the sea and become seamounts and guyots ( flat @-@ topped seamounts ) .
= = = Volcanic characteristics = = =
Hawaiian volcanoes are characterized by frequent rift eruptions , their large size ( thousands of cubic kilometers in volume ) , and their rough , decentralized shape . Rift zones are a prominent feature on these volcanoes , and account for their seemingly random volcanic structure . The tallest mountain in the Hawaii chain , Mauna Kea , rises 4 @,@ 205 meters ( 13 @,@ 796 ft ) above mean sea level . Measured from its base on the seafloor , it is the world 's tallest mountain , at 10 @,@ 203 meters ( 33 @,@ 474 ft ) ; Mount Everest rises 8 @,@ 848 meters ( 29 @,@ 029 ft ) above sea level . Hawaii is surrounded by a myriad of seamounts ; however , they were found to be unconnected to the hotspot and its volcanism . Kīlauea has erupted continuously since 1983 through Puʻu ʻŌʻō , a minor volcanic cone , which has become an attraction for volcanologists and tourists alike .
= = = Landslides = = =
The Hawaiian islands are carpeted by a large number of landslides sourced from volcanic collapse . Bathymetric mapping has revealed at least 70 large landslides on the island flanks over 20 km ( 12 mi ) in length , and the longest are 200 km ( 120 mi ) long and over 5 @,@ 000 km3 ( 1 @,@ 200 cu mi ) in volume . These debris flows can be sorted into two broad categories : slumps , mass movement over slopes which slowly flatten their originators , and more catastrophic debris avalanches , which fragment volcanic slopes and scatter volcanic debris past their slopes . These slides have caused massive tsunamis and earthquakes , fractured volcanic massifs , and scattered debris hundreds of miles away from their source .
Slumps tend to be deeply rooted in their originators , moving rock up to 10 km ( 6 mi ) deep inside the volcano . Forced forward by the mass of newly ejected volcanic material , slumps may creep forward slowly , or surge forward in spasms that have caused the largest of Hawaii 's historical earthquakes , in 1868 and 1975 . Debris avalanches , meanwhile , are thinner and longer , and are defined by volcanic amphitheaters at their head and hummocky terrain at their base . Rapidly moving avalanches carried 10 km ( 6 mi ) blocks tens of kilometers away , disturbing the local water column and causing a tsunami . Evidence of these events exists in the form of marine deposits high on the slopes of many Hawaiian volcanoes , and has marred the slopes of several Emperor seamounts , such as Daikakuji Guyot and Detroit Seamount .
= = = Evolution and construction = = =
Hawaiian volcanoes follow a well @-@ established life cycle of growth and erosion . After a new volcano forms , its lava output gradually increases . Height and activity both peak when the volcano is around 500 @,@ 000 years old and then rapidly decline . Eventually it goes dormant , and eventually extinct . Erosion then weathers the volcano until it again becomes a seamount .
This life cycle consists of several stages . The first stage is the submarine preshield stage , currently represented solely by Lōʻihi Seamount . During this stage , the volcano builds height through increasingly frequent eruptions . The sea 's pressure prevents explosive eruptions . The cold water quickly solidifies the lava , producing the pillow lava that is typical of underwater volcanic activity .
As the seamount slowly grows , it goes through the shield stages . It forms many mature features , such as a caldera , while submerged . The summit eventually breaches the surface , and the lava and ocean water " battle " for control as the volcano enters the explosive subphase . This stage of development is exemplified by explosive steam vents . This stage produces mostly volcanic ash , a result of the waves dampening the lava . This conflict between lava and sea influences Hawaiian mythology .
The volcano enters the subaerial subphase once it is tall enough to escape the water . Now the volcano puts on 95 % of its above @-@ water height over roughly 500 @,@ 000 years . Thereafter eruptions become much less explosive . The lava released in this stage often includes both pāhoehoe and ʻaʻā , and the currently active Hawaiian volcanoes , Mauna Loa and Kīlauea , are in this phase . Hawaiian lava is often runny , blocky , slow , and relatively easy to predict ; the USGS tracks where it is most likely to run , and maintains a tourist site for viewing the lava .
After the subaerial phase the volcano enters a series of postshield stages involving subsidence and erosion , becoming an atoll and eventually a seamount . Once the Pacific Plate moves it out of the 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) tropics , the reef mostly dies away , and the extinct volcano becomes one of an estimated 10 @,@ 000 barren seamounts worldwide . Every Emperor seamount is a dead volcano .
= The Rapes of Graff =
" The Rapes of Graff " is the sixteenth episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the thirty @-@ eighth episode overall . Written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , the episode premiered on UPN on March 29 , 2006 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , while visiting Hearst College , Veronica runs into her old boyfriend , Troy ( Aaron Ashmore ) . He is subsequently charged with the brutal date rape of a student named Stacy ( Alia Shawkat ) . Meanwhile , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) deals with the aftermath of breaking up with Hannah ( Jessy Schram ) .
" The Rapes of Graff " features several notable guest appearances . Michael Cera and Alia Shawkat , two of the stars on Arrested Development , appear as two college students . Veronica Mars was previously referenced on that show , and the pair were scheduled for a guest appearance soon after Arrested Development was cancelled . In addition , Aaron Ashmore returns as Troy Vandegraff , a character who had not been seen since the fifth episode , " You Think You Know Somebody " . The episode received 2 @.@ 15 million viewers and was critically acclaimed , with praise focusing on the guest stars and the episode 's case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week .
= = Synopsis = =
In class , Veronica and the whole class are asked to participate in Woody Goodman 's ( Steve Guttenberg ) essay contest . Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) invites Veronica to visit Hearst College . Logan abruptly breaks up with Hannah without giving an explanation , leaving her heartbroken . A student named Dean ( Michael Cera ) conducts Veronica and Wallace 's tour of Hearst , and the pair suddenly run into Troy . Veronica mocks Troy to his face , but he insists that he has changed his ways . At a party , one of the students hits on Veronica . The student gets more aggressive with Veronica , and when Troy begins to defend her , the student punches him . Later that night , Veronica sees Troy making out with Stacy ( Alia Shawkat ) . When Veronica is sleeping , Troy calls her unexpectedly , pleading for help , and Veronica visits him at the police station , where he has been charged in the date @-@ rape of Stacy . Meanwhile , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) comes to the aid of Cliff ( Daran Norris ) , from whom a briefcase of money was stolen .
Veronica recognizes " Daphne " , the perpetrator in Cliff 's case , as Madison Sinclair ( Amanda Noret ) . In order to prove his innocence to Veronica , Troy says that he left his name and number in Stacy 's room , arguing that a rapist would not have done such a thing . Veronica checks Stacy 's room and finds Troy 's name half @-@ erased . Stacy receives a box of someone else 's hair outside her door , and Veronica deduces that there have probably been other victims of the rapist , so she goes looking for someone who bought a wig recently , finding no one . Dean informs Veronica that the fraternity has a contest about how many girls they have had sex with , and the recruit with the lowest number of " points " is punished by being forced to shave his head . Veronica tracks down Stacy 's rape to someone named " Ice Man . " She barges into the fraternity 's basement , where she is stopped by two members .
Both fraternity members deny any involvement . Veronica finds another rape victim , and they both tell Stacy that Troy could not have been the rapist because he was on the other side of the country when the first girl was raped . Veronica discovers that the losing fraternity member sent the hair to Stacy , which was his own , because she made him lose the " contest . " Logan tells Hannah the truth about why they broke up , and it turns out that he only asked her out so that her father would drop the charges in the murder of Felix Toombs . Nevertheless , they reconcile , and Logan and Hannah are about to have sex before Dr. Griffith ( Rick Peters ) enters and takes her away . Wallace gets admitted into Hearst , and Hannah has been sent away to boarding school . Veronica learns that the Fitzpatricks could have framed Terrence Cook ( Jeffrey Sams ) for the bus crash .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Enbom and directed by Michael Fields , marking Enbom 's eighth writing credit and Fields 's fourth writing credit for the show . The episode 's title is a spoonerism of the title of the novel The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck . Phil Klemmer , another of the series ' writers , thought of the episode 's title . Both writers knew that this episode 's serial rapist case would later be used in the third season . The writers planned for one of Veronica 's classmates to be dating Don Lamb before they decided on Madison . The episode features guest appearances by Michael Cera and Alia Shawkat , then best known for their roles on Arrested Development as George Michael Bluth and Maeby Fünke , respectively . Their two characters had briefly mentioned the show in a season three episode titled " Family Ties " . The show had previously been alluded to on Arrested Development when some of George Michael 's dialogue is redacted and replaced by a subtitle that reads , " reference to off @-@ network high school private eye drama censored by Fox . " Series creator and executive producer Rob Thomas recalled contacting them soon after the show was cancelled and learning that Cera was a fan of the show :
Honestly , the day I heard they were shutting down production on that show , I called our casting director and said , ' Book them for " Veronica Mars " as soon as possible . ' I didn 't talk to Alia , but I talked to Michael and it turned out he 's a ' Veronica Mars ' fan and is excited to be doing it . So I 'm thrilled about that .
Both Cera and Shawkat requested that their roles not be similar to their characters on Arrested Development . Thomas reported their guest appearances to Chicago Tribune roughly two months before the episode aired . Cera was originally slated to return in season 3 , but due to scheduling conflicts , the role of Moe Flater was created instead .
The episode also features the return of Aaron Ashmore as Troy Vandegraff , a character who had not been seen since " You Think You Know Somebody " , an early season 1 episode . Ashmore enjoyed his reappearance on the show , stating in an interview that " It was kinda nice coming back and being the good guy and not the bad guy for once . " After the episode aired , Ashmore stated that " I think Veronica Mars is a great show , so if they wanted me to , I would love to [ bring back the character ] . I love the show , and I love the character of Troy , too . " However , the character would not return to the show after " The Rapes of Graff " . " The Rapes of Graff " also includes the final appearance of recurring character Hannah Griffith ( Jessy Schram ) , who appeared in a total of four episodes on the show .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " The Rapes of Graff " received 2 @.@ 15 million viewers , marking a decrease from the previous episode , " The Quick and the Wed " and tying for 113th of 124 in the weekly rankings with a rerun of Charmed .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Rapes of Graff " was critically acclaimed . Price Peterson of TV.com gave a positive review . Although he expressed confusion over the lack of closure , he praised other aspects of the episode . " My pervasive need for justice left me feeling pretty disappointed when we never found out who the utterly repulsive villain had been behind these sex crimes ... Other than the lack of closure , though , this was a solid , well @-@ written episode and it was nice seeing the ( supposed ) redemption of Troy . Television reviewer Alan Sepinwall was very positive towards the episode , praising it as a return to form for the series . " Now that 's more like it , Veronica Mars . A good self @-@ contained mystery , a suggestion that the show could do okay once Veronica leaves high school , a gratuitously awesome " Arrested Development " double @-@ cameo , the biggest spotlight yet for wisecracking Cliff , and a fine showcase for Jason Dohring , who 's becoming so good that Veronica may need to investigate a case of show @-@ stealing . " He went on to laud the supporting characters ' performances , especially the subplot involving Cliff and Sheriff Lamb : " Cliff and Lamb are my favorite non @-@ Keith adult characters , so any subplot that has one busting on the other gets the Sepinwall seal of approval . "
Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A " . Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club gave a glowing review , stating that " I have to say , this is one of the most dense and interesting episodes of Veronica Mars yet , on a number of different levels . " He went on to praise the return of Troy , the various subplots , and the episode 's ambiguous conclusion . The reviewer summed up by saying , " With all that going on , it could have been easy for this episode to fall apart somewhere ... " The Rapes of Graff " really managed to do everything it was trying to do quite well . It may have been missing something special to put it in the absolute top tier of Veronica Mars episodes , but it 's still a marvelous episode for pulling all those different strands together . Anais Bordages of BuzzFeed ranked the episode 27th of 64 episodes of Veronica Mars , but nevertheless gave a positive review , calling it " awesome " . She elaborated , " The banter is excellent , our main character shoots down every sexist on campus , and Michael Cera has a cameo . Even better : The other part of the episode revolves around Cliff ’ s sexual misfortunes . " On a similar list , TV Line ranked the episode 16th .
= Sticky bomb =
The Grenade , Hand , Anti @-@ Tank No. 74 , commonly known as the S.T. Grenade or sticky bomb , was a British hand grenade designed and produced during the Second World War . The grenade was one of a number of anti @-@ tank weapons developed for use by the British Army and Home Guard as an ad hoc solution to a lack of sufficient anti @-@ tank guns in the aftermath of the Dunkirk evacuation . Designed by a team from MIR ( c ) including Major Millis Jefferis and Stuart Macrae , the grenade consisted of a glass sphere containing an explosive made of nitroglycerin and additives ( this added stability to the mix , as well as giving it its squash @-@ head @-@ like effect ) covered in a powerful adhesive , and surrounded by a sheet @-@ metal casing . When the user pulled a pin on the handle of the grenade , the casing would fall away and expose the sphere ; another pin would activate the firing mechanism , and the user would then attempt to attach the grenade to an enemy tank or other vehicle , ideally with enough force to break the glass ball . After it was attached , releasing the lever on the handle would activate a five @-@ second fuse , which would then detonate the nitroglycerin .
The grenade had several faults with its design . In tests , it failed to adhere to dusty or muddy tanks and , if the user was not careful after freeing the grenade from its casing , it could easily stick to his uniform . The Ordnance Board of the War Department did not approve the grenade for use by the British Army , but personal intervention by the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , led to the grenade going into production . Between 1940 and 1943 , approximately 2 @.@ 5 million were produced . It was primarily issued to the Home Guard , but was also used by British and Commonwealth forces in North Africa , accounting for six German tanks ; used by Allied Forces on the Anzio Beachhead , including the First Special Service Force ; as well as by Australian Army units during the New Guinea campaign . The French Resistance were also issued a quantity of the grenades .
= = Development = =
Since at least 1938 , Jefferis had been toying with the idea of a demolition or anti @-@ tank weapon that would be ideal for irregular warfare . It would work by having an explosive charge deform so that it has a substantial area of intimate contact with the surface of the target . Then , when detonated , the effect of the explosion would be focused on a small area and would rupture an armoured plate much thicker than would otherwise be the case . Sappers call such a device a " poultice " or " squash head " charge . Jefferis enlisted Drs Bauer and Schulman of the Colloid Science Department of Cambridge University , they had experimented with lengths of bicycle inner tube filled with plasticine to represent the explosive . These were fitted with wooden handles and dipped in rubber solution to make them sticky . In experiments , these prototypes proved difficult to aim and only by chance did any stick to the metal bins used to represent tanks .
With the end of the Battle of France and the evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force from the port of Dunkirk between 26 May and 4 June 1940 , a German invasion of Great Britain seemed likely . However , the British Army was not well equipped to defend the country in such an event ; in the weeks after the Dunkirk evacuation it could only field twenty @-@ seven divisions . The Army was particularly short of anti @-@ tank guns , 840 of which had been left behind in France and only 167 were available in Britain ; ammunition was so scarce for the remaining guns that regulations forbade even a single round being used for training purposes .
Under the circumstances , Jefferis considered that his idea might have more general application for the British Army and the Home Guard . Jefferis was in charge of a department known as MIR ( c ) , which had been created to develop and deliver weapons for use by guerilla and resistance groups in Occupied Europe . MIR ( c ) was now charged with the development of the Sticky Bomb .
The problem of designing a sticky bomb had been delegated to the enthusiastic genius of Robert Stuart Macrae . Clearly , some sort of flexible bag was required to contain an explosive gel so that it did not matter how the bomb landed on the target . However , a flexible bag is hard to throw and trials had not been at all satisfactory .
Discussions of the problem in Macrae 's office were overheard by Gordon Norwood , a master printer who Macrae had recruited from his former magazine publishing employer , but he was not directly working on the weapon . Norwood suggested that what was needed was a frangible container and to the annoyance of the War Office store keeper he obtained a 150 W light bulb with which to demonstrate his point : a spherical glass flask inside a sock of woven wool is rigid when thrown , but on contact the glass breaks and the bomb deforms to the required shape . Experiments with glass flasks filled with cold porridge confirmed that this was the way to go . The grenade needed a delay for the thrower to get clear , so the woollen sock was covered in a sticky substance ensuring that the bomb stayed in place for a few seconds before detonating . Having covered the bomb in glue , a non @-@ sticky handle was required ; in the handle , a delay fuse ignited by releasing a sprung lever so that a five second time delay starts as the grenade leaves the thrower 's hand ( just like the levers found on a conventional Mills bomb type hand grenade ) .
Meanwhile , finding a suitable adhesive was a significant problem . After unsuccessful experiments with a variety of candidates , somebody suggested birdlime – a viscous sticky compound used since ancient times to trap birds by spreading it on tree branches and waiting for birds to get stuck . Birdlime performed better than anything previously tested , but it was still not good enough . Macrae 's tin of birdlime was labelled with a large letter ' K ' and an indication that tin came from Stockport but with no more clues as to the manufacturer . Macrae got on a train to Stockport and there found a helpful taxi driver who took him to Kay Brothers Ltd . The company 's Chief Chemist was soon working on the problem of a suitable adhesive and within a matter of weeks the problem was solved to Macrae 's satisfaction .
The filling for the bomb was developed by ICI . It was nitroglycerin @-@ based with a variety of additives to make it more stable and viscous . The glass flask containing the main charge held about 1 1 ⁄ 2 pounds ( 680 g ) of this explosive that was described as having the consistency of Vaseline .
The adhesive surface was protected by a light metal case which was released by pulling a safety pin : the case fell away as two hemispheres connected by a sprung hinge . The inside of the case was fitted with a number of rubber spikes that kept it clear of the glued surface of the grenade . Early models also had a strip of adhesive tape round the neck of the casing .
Development continued , but there were problems with service regulations that were not written with such an unconventional weapon in mind . The sticky bomb was inevitably rather fragile and even a specially designed box could not fully meet the army 's demanding requirements for withstanding rough handling without damage . It seemed there were problems at every turn . The Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , who was concerned with the state of the country 's anti @-@ tank defences , learnt about the grenade and urged its development . The Ordnance Board of the War Office did not approve the grenade to be used by the Army . However , Churchill ordered further tests to be conducted in July , and after personally viewing a demonstration of the grenade ordered that it immediately be put into production . His memo of October 1940 simply read " Sticky bomb . Make one million " . A couple of days later , Anthony Eden , then Secretary of State for War , added a scribbled note to a cabinet minute that recorded the order to go ahead with the bomb :
Anti @-@ Tank ( & indeed anti @-@ enemy generally ) bombs for Home Defence are vitally urgent and should be available in very large quantities . I don 't mind where they come from as long as we get them , home or abroad . [ emphasis as in original ]
In spite of top level pressure , the arguments rumbled on . Trials were disappointing , it was not possible to get the bomb to adhere to any surface that was wet or covered with even the thinnest film of dried mud " a customary condition of tanks " as Major @-@ General Ismay , on 27 June , could not resist pointing out .
Churchill was not amused :
General Ismay , I understand that the trials were not entirely successful and the bomb failed to stick on tanks which were covered in dust and mud . No doubt some more sticky mixture can be devised and Major Jefferis should persevere . Any chortling by officials who have been slothful in pushing this bomb , over the fact that at present it has not succeeded will be viewed with great disfavour by me .
Macrae , Ismay and Churchill all saw fit to record these arguments over the technical issue of stickiness . As Eden had pointed out , there was a lot at stake . The British infantry and Home Guard had little with which to put up a fight against tanks and to any who had witnessed trials of Molotov Cocktails and SIP grenades it was evident that they could do little to a modern tank other than to provide a blinding pall of smoke . What was needed was a hand weapon to deliver a coup de grâce by punching through the armoured plate . The sticky bomb could do the job and little else was available .
In his memoirs , Ismay recalled that he never solved the puzzle of how to convey his very genuine concerns of the time to the right people . A thrown sticky bomb simply would not reliably stick to a vertical surface . However , the bomb would stick if it was thrown onto the top of a tank where the plates were more or less horizontal – and thinner – but this reduced the throwing range to twenty yards at the most – getting that close would only be possible in an ambush or in street fighting .
Churchill considered any obstruction , however well @-@ meaning , as singularly lacking in imagination . In the event of invasion , he foresaw a desperate fight to the last and after the war , he wrote about how he envisaged the use of the sticky bomb : " We had the picture in mind that devoted soldiers or civilians would run close up to the tank and even thrust the bomb upon it , though its explosion cost them their lives . There were undoubtedly many who would have done it [ Italics added for emphasis ] . " He also later recorded how he intended to use the slogan : " You can always take one with you . "
Arguments rumbled on and there were endless delays . Early versions of the sticky bomb were prone to leaks as well as breakage in transport . There were understandable concerns over the explosive charge : pure nitroglycerin is notoriously susceptible to the slightest knock , but the mixture developed by ICI proved to be very safe even if it should get into the hinges of the storage boxes . By December 1940 , fewer than 66 @,@ 000 had been produced and the rate of production was disappointing at five to ten thousand per week . Further , it was suggested that the original order of one million be reduced to 200 @,@ 000 . Minor improvements to the design were made , of which the most significant was to replace the glass flask with plastic . Finally , after passing all the required tests , the sticky bomb – now the No 74 Grenade Mk II – was accepted by the Ordnance Board ; it was put into full @-@ scale production and it became a service issue .
On 14 May 1941 , Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Ian Jacob reflected :
The most extraordinary feature of the whole business , however , was the fact that the Secretary of State for War , in a Minute addressed to the Prime Minister on 25 November 1940 , said that the Director of Artillery and the Ordnance Board had only just been able to obtain from ICI the details of the explosive contained in the bomb . Seeing that the bomb was demonstrated in June 1940 , this statement can hardly hold water . The War Office seems to be to blame in that , up to the end of April , 1941 , no sticky bombs had been issued to any unit , nor had any dummies been provided for training . In view of our acute shortage of anti @-@ tank weapons , the whole story is discreditable .
Between 1940 and 1943 approximately 2 @.@ 5 million were produced .
= = Design = =
The Grenade , Hand , Anti @-@ Tank No. 74 consisted of a glass sphere in which was contained approximately 1 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 57 kg ) of semi @-@ liquid nitroglycerin devised by ICI . The sphere was covered in stockinette which was coated with a liberal amount of birdlime , an extremely adhesive substance from which the nickname ' sticky bomb ' was derived . A casing made out of thin sheet @-@ metal , and formed of two halves , was then placed around the sphere and held in place by a wooden handle , inside which was a five @-@ second fuse . The handle also contained two pins and a lever ; the first pin was pulled out to make the casing fall away , and the second to activate the firing mechanism in the grenade . This primed the grenade , with the lever being held down to ensure the fuse was not triggered ; then the user would run up to the tank and stick the grenade to its hull , using as much force as possible to break the sphere and spread the nitroglycerin onto the hull in a thick paste . Another alternative was for the user to throw it at the tank from a distance . Either way , the lever would be released and the fuse activated , and the grenade would then detonate .
The grenade did possess several problems with its design . Users were urged to actually run up to the tank and place it by hand , rather than throw it , thus the adhesive could very easily stick to their uniform in the process ; the user would then be placed in the unenviable situation of attempting to pry the grenade loose whilst still holding onto the lever . It was also discovered that as time passed the nitroglycerin began to deteriorate and become unstable , which made it even more difficult to use . As the grenade was a short @-@ range weapon , users were trained to hide in a trench or other place of concealment until the tank went past them , and then to stick the grenade to the rear of the tank , where its armour was thinnest . Users were relatively safe from a few yards away , as long as they were not in line with the handle when it detonated . The Mark II design used a plastic casing instead of glass , and a detonator instead of a cap .
= = Operational use = =
According to a War Office training pamphlet dated 29 August 1940 , the sticky bomb should be regarded as a portable demolition device which can be " quickly and easily applied " . It was reckoned to be effective against armour of up to one inch ( 25 mm ) thickness and was suitable for use against " baby " tanks , armoured cars and the vulnerable points on medium and heavy tanks . The safest and easiest application was simply to drop it from an upstairs window ; otherwise , it could be used in an ambush of mobile tanks moving along a narrow road or in an attack on tanks parked up for the night . The sticky bomb could be either thrown or slapped in place by hand , in the latter case , the advice was to use sufficient force to break the glass thereby creating a greater area of contact resulting in a more effective explosion . Finally , there was also the option of placing the bomb first and then pulling out the pin at a safe distance by means of a length of string .
Macrae credits the Australian army with developing the technique of slapping a sticky bomb directly onto a tank instead of throwing it from a relatively safe distance . Since the bomb used a blast effect , it was safe to do this and walk away provided only that the bomb 's handle was pointing away from the bomber – the handle would be shot away from the explosion " like a bullet . " Macrae gives no date for the development of this tactic . Macrae confirmed that placing the bomb rather than throwing it gives better adhesion and allows thicker plates to be penetrated .
The potential of the sticky bomb for physical humour has frequently proved too tempting to be neglected , a good example being David Niven 's novel Go Slowly , Come Back Quickly . The unfortunate officer Stanni , while attempting to demolish a smelly privy , loses his dignity and a large section of trouser fabric to such an incident . The sticky bomb also featured in the British television comedy series Dad 's Army . In the episode Fallen Idol Lance @-@ Corporal Jack Jones sticks his grenade to an improvised target and retires as instructed but keeps a hold of the grenade which is now primed and stuck to an old dustbin lid .
However , the dangers inherent in the weapon were real enough , if the bomb became inadvertently stuck in mid @-@ throw , it could easily be pulled from a soldier 's hand triggering the firing mechanism and putting him in mortal danger . There were tragic accidents during training .
By July 1941 , 215 @,@ 000 sticky bombs had been produced . Of these , nearly 90 @,@ 000 had been sent abroad to North and South Africa , the Middle East and to Greece where it did useful service . The remainder were stored at Ordnance Depots or distributed to army and Home Guard units . There were many calls for the total production to be cut back and it is not clear how many were manufactured by the end of the war , but it was probably not much more than 250 @,@ 000 .
The grenade was first issued in 1940 to Home Guard units , who appeared to have taken a liking to it despite its flaws . Although the Ordnance Board had not approved the grenade to be used by Regular Army units , a quantity were provided for training purposes . However , a number of sticky bombs did find their way to British and Commonwealth units participating in the campaign in North Africa , and were used as anti @-@ tank weapons . During the Afrika Korps advance towards the town of Thala in February 1943 , they accounted for six German tanks . They were also issued to units of the Australian Army , who used them during the Battle of Wau and the Battle of Milne Bay . They were used by various allied units on the Anzio Beachhead , namely the First Special Service Force , who obtained them from the British . A large number were also supplied to the French Resistance .
= = Recognition = =
In 1947 , the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors considered claims from Macrae and from the managing director of Kay Brothers . Macrae 's legal representative was Edward Terrell – himself a wartime inventor . At the time the crown opposed granting an award ; when Macrae was asked what elements of the sticky bomb he claimed to have invented , he replied " I am claiming no invention ; I merely claim the development of the bomb , which was my job . " However , in 1951 , the commission recommended that Macrae should receive an ex @-@ gratia payment of £ 500 [ about £ 14 @,@ 200 in 2016 ] and Norwood received £ 250 [ £ 7 @,@ 100 ] for his contribution .
= = Users = =
Users of the grenade included :
Australia
Free French Forces
United Kingdom
= Hurricane Jeanne ( 1980 ) =
Hurricane Jeanne was a moderate hurricane that formed and dissipated in the Gulf of Mexico without making landfall . The tenth tropical cyclone and eighth hurricane of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season , Jeanne developed over the southern Caribbean on November 7 . It moved swiftly northward , and it intensified to a tropical storm on November 9 . It entered the southern Gulf of Mexico on November 10 . Jeanne turned to the west on November 11 , and it rapidly intensified to its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . It weakened on November 12 , and its forward motion slowed ; the cyclone weakened further to a tropical storm because of dry air intrusion , and it executed a clockwise loop on November 15 . It dissipated on November 16 .
At the time , Jeanne was one of three November hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico ; it was the first tropical cyclone to attain hurricane strength in the Gulf of Mexico during November . The late season storm surprised maritime interests , and two barges broke free from towing vessels . Indirectly , the hurricane produced heavy precipitation that peaked at 23 @.@ 28 inches ( 591 mm ) in Key West . Minor beach erosion occurred along the Texas coast , where tides were two to four feet above normal ; coastal flooding affected the state , which was heavily impacted by tropical cyclones in August and September . Jeanne caused no deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
On the late afternoon of November 7 , an area of disturbed weather organized to a tropical depression 60 miles ( 100 km ) east of Atlántico Norte , Nicaragua . Its origins were traced to a tropical wave that originated over western Africa on October 26 . Atmospheric conditions resembled an early fall pattern , and a large ridge was situated over the Gulf of Mexico and Southwestern United States . The depression moved northward into the Caribbean Sea , and the environment supported further development . On November 9 , the depression strengthened to a 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) tropical storm and was given the name Jeanne . Later , an Air Force reconnaissance aircraft reported a strengthening system ; maximum sustained winds increased to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , and a minimum pressure of 999 mbar was measured . The tropical cyclone moved northward into the southern Gulf of Mexico on November 10 . Jeanne 's northward movement was blocked by the ridge , and the cyclone slowly turned to the west . On November 11 , Jeanne quickly intensified to a minimal hurricane ; later , it attained its peak intensity of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) .
On November 12 , Jeanne weakened to a Category 1 hurricane . It entered the western Gulf of Mexico , and its forward motion diminished as the ridge moved east . Later , Jeanne diminished to a 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) tropical storm . A developing trough remained west of Jeanne , and the cyclone was embedded in a weak pressure gradient . Although Jeanne briefly re @-@ intensified to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , an advancing frontal boundary brought dry air over the western Gulf of Mexico . Jeanne weakened to a depression on November 14 . It executed a clockwise loop , and it merged with the frontal boundary on November 16 .
= = Preparations = =
Some residents on Dauphin Island voluntarily evacuated , spurred by memories of 1979 's Hurricane Frederic and Jeanne 's northward motion . 3 @,@ 000 workers evacuated their oil rigs because of Jeanne 's high waves . The National Hurricane Center advised small watercraft to remain in ports from Brownsville to Tarpon Springs . Forecasters expected tides of 2 feet above normal in Louisiana , which increased to 4 feet above normal along coastal Texas . In Terrebonne and Lafourche parishes , schools were closed because of uncertainties regarding Jeanne 's path . The hurricane center also expected Jeanne to make landfall in southwestern Louisiana , although the hurricane eventually stayed offshore ; thousands of residents moved inland , while Civil Defense officials remained alert . Forecasters expected locally heavy rainfall , although they suggested it would remain below 8 inches ( 203 mm ) .
= = Impact = =
The combination of a large high pressure system and Jeanne produced rough seas over the northern Gulf of Mexico ; wave heights reached 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 60 m ) . On November 11 , a ship reported sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , although this reading was discarded and attributed to intense squalls . In Key West , the storm 's outer fringes produced a record @-@ breaking 24 @-@ hour rainfall total of 23 @.@ 28 inches ( 591 mm ) ; 13 @.@ 58 inches ( 345 mm ) fell within six hours . It remains the record 24 @-@ hour November rainfall total for the city as of 2012 . The previous record was set in 1954 . The heavy precipitation was attributed to a mesoscale feature ; an inflow band intersected with an adjacent stationary front , which also contributed to the deluge . Schools and most businesses were closed , while flights were grounded at Key West International Airport ; authorities urged residents to stay home . Telephone and power services were cut to some areas of the city .
Elsewhere , several ships were caught off guard by the late arrival of Jeanne . The cyclone entered the Gulf of Mexico , and two barges broke loose from towing vessels via strong winds and high waves . One barge was an oil rig tender that contained 16 people ; it was carried several hundred miles across the central Gulf of Mexico . All crew members survived , and there were no maritime deaths related to the hurricane . Jeanne produced a prolonged period of rough surf and heavy swells along the Texas coast . Tides reached 2 to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 20 m ) above normal . The hurricane caused coastal flooding ; the worst flooding occurred near Galveston .
Jeanne was one of only four tropical cyclones in the 20th century to attain hurricane status in the Gulf of Mexico without making landfall ; the others were Laurie of 1969 , Henri of 1979 , and Alberto of 19
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= Shikishima @-@ class battleship =
The Shikishima class ( 敷島型戦艦 , Shikishima @-@ gata senkan ) was a two @-@ ship class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy in the late 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , they were designed and built in the UK . The ships participated in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 , including the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war . Hatsuse sank after striking two mines off Port Arthur in May 1904 . Shikishima fought in the Battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima and was lightly damaged in the latter action , although shells prematurely exploded in the barrels of her main guns in each battle . The ship was reclassified as a coast defence ship in 1921 and served as a training ship for the rest of her career . She was disarmed and hulked in 1923 and finally broken up for scrap in 1948 .
= = Design and description = =
Combat experience in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War convinced the Imperial Japanese Navy of weaknesses in the Jeune Ecole naval philosophy , and Japan embarked on a program to modernize and expand its fleet . As with the earlier Fuji @-@ class battleships , Japan lacked the technology and capability to construct its own battleships , and turned again to the United Kingdom . They were ordered as part of the Ten Year Naval Expansion Programme and paid for from the £ 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 indemnity paid by China after losing the Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 1895 .
The design of the Shikishima class was a modified and improved version of the Majestic @-@ class battleships of the Royal Navy . They had the same armament and similar machinery as the Fuji class which was intended to allow them to work together as a homogenous group . The Shikishima @-@ class ships had an overall length of 412 feet ( 125 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 75 @.@ 5 – 76 @.@ 75 feet ( 23 @.@ 0 – 23 @.@ 4 m ) , and a normal draught of 26 @.@ 25 – 26 @.@ 5 feet ( 8 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 1 m ) . They displaced 14 @,@ 850 – 15 @,@ 000 long tons ( 15 @,@ 090 – 15 @,@ 240 t ) at normal load . The hull had a double bottom and was subdivided into 261 watertight compartments . The crew numbered about 741 officers and enlisted men , although this increased to 849 when serving as a flagship .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were powered by two Humphrys Tennant vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller , using steam generated by 25 Belleville boilers . The engines were rated at 14 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 800 kW ) , using forced draught , and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) although they proved to be faster during their sea trials . Shikishima reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 027 knots ( 35 @.@ 238 km / h ; 21 @.@ 896 mph ) using 14 @,@ 667 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 937 kW ) . The ships carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 643 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 617 long tons ) of coal which allowed them to steam for 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main battery of the Shikishima class consisted of the same four Elswick Ordnance Company 40 @-@ calibre twelve @-@ inch guns as used in the Fuji class . They were mounted in twin @-@ gun barbettes fore and aft of the superstructure that had armoured hoods to protect the guns and were usually called gun turrets . The hydraulically powered mountings could be loaded at all angles of traverse while the guns were loaded at a fixed angle of + 13 @.@ 5 ° . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 400 ft / s ( 730 m / s ) .
Secondary armament of the Shikishima class consisted of fourteen 40 @-@ calibre Type 41 six @-@ inch quick @-@ firing guns mounted in casemates . Eight of these guns were positioned on the main deck on the side of the ship 's hull and the other six guns were placed in the superstructure . They fired 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ( 700 m / s ) . Protection against torpedo boat attacks was provided by twenty QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns and four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . The 12 @-@ pounders fired 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) , 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 359 ft / s ( 719 m / s ) . The ships were also equipped with four submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , two on each broadside .
= = = Armour = = =
The waterline main belt of the Shikishima @-@ class vessels consisted of Harvey armour 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , 3 feet 7 inches ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) of which was above the waterline at normal load , and had a maximum thickness of 9 inches ( 229 mm ) for the middle 220 feet ( 67 m ) of the ship . It was only 4 inches ( 102 mm ) inches thick at the ends of the ship and was surmounted by a six @-@ inch strake of armor that ran between the barbettes for 220 feet . The barbettes were 14 inches ( 356 mm ) thick , but reduced to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) at the level of the lower deck . The armour of the barbette hoods had a maximum thickness of 10 inches ( 254 mm ) while their roofs were three inches thick . Diagonal bulkheads 12 – 14 inches ( 305 – 356 mm ) thick connected the barbettes to the side armor , but the bulkheads were only six inches thick at the lower deck level . The casemates protecting the secondary armament were also six inches thick . The flat portion of the deck armour was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick and four inches thick where it sloped down to the bottom of the armour belt . This significantly improved the ships ' protection as any shell that penetrated their vertical armour also had to penetrate the sloping deck before it could reach the machinery compartments or magazines . Outside the central armoured citadel , the sloped deck had a thickness of 2 inches ( 51 mm ) . The forward conning tower was protected by 14 inches of armour , but the aft conning tower only had three inches of armour .
= = Ships = =
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Hatsuse and Shikishima were assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet . They participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the Russian ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a bad idea as the Japanese 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted very little damage on the Russian ships who concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Hatsuse was hit twice during the battle , 10 men being killed and 17 wounded , but Shikishima was only hit once with 17 men wounded .
Both ships participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out two battleships of the Pacific Squadron . When the Russians spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division , they turned back for Port Arthur and the battleship Petropavlovsk struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night . It sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded . Emboldened by his success , Tōgō resumed long @-@ range bombardment missions , which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields .
On 14 May 1904 , Hatsuse , Shikishima , and the battleship Yashima , the protected cruiser Kasagi , and the dispatch boat Tatsuta put to sea to relieve the Japanese blockading force off Port Arthur . On the following morning , the squadron encountered a newly laid Russian minefield . Hatsuse struck one mine that disabled her steering and Yashima struck another when moving to assist Hatsuse . Hatsuse struck another mine while drifting about a half @-@ hour later that detonated one of her magazines and the ship sank in a little over a minute . The catastrophe claimed 496 crewmen although the escorting ships were able to rescue 336 men .
Shikishima was not hit during the Battle of the Yellow Sea in August 1904 , although a shell exploded prematurely in one of her 12 @-@ inch guns , disabling it . During the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 , she was hit nine times ; the most serious of which penetrated beneath a six @-@ inch gun , killing or wounding the entire gun crew . Again the ship had another 12 @-@ inch shell prematurely detonate in one of the forward guns , wrecking it completely . Shikishima was reclassified as a first @-@ class coast defence ship in September 1921 , and was used for training duties in various capacities until disarmed and reclassified as a transport in 1923 . Her hulk continued to be used as a training ship until she was scrapped in 1948 .
= 522666 =
" ' 522666 " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on November 22 , 1996 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by David Nutter . " 522666 " featured guest appearances by Sam Anderson , Hiro Kanagawa and Joe Chrest .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is approached by the FBI when a series of bombs are detonated in Washington , DC . Black 's investigation soon reveals that the culprit seeks to be seen as a hero , setting off explosions in order to rescue people from the scenes ; leaving Black to track down the fame @-@ hungry bomber before more people are killed .
" 522666 " was one of many collaborations between Nutter , Morgan and Wong , with the three having worked together on several television series previously . The episode opens with a reference to existentialist philosopher Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , and featured Henriksen performing all of his own stunts .
= = Plot = =
Outside a bar in Washington DC , Raymond Dees ( Joe Chrest ) calls 911 on a payphone . He says nothing , simply typing the numbers 522666 on the phone 's keypad . Later , he watches the bar from a parking garage nearby , masturbating as the bomb he has left inside detonates .
Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) watches the aftermath of the explosion on the news , knowing that the group will ask for his assistance with the case . Dees is among the rescuers seen on the broadcast . Black travels to DC and meets up with fellow group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) . The two join the FBI task force investigating the bombing , led by special agents Pierson ( Sam Anderson ) and Takahashi ( Hiro Kanagawa ) . Watts and Black quickly dismiss several false claims of responsibility by terrorist groups . Black listens to the 911 call left by Dees , deducing that the numbers dialled spell the word kaboom on a telephone keypad .
Black and the FBI investigate the crime scene ; Black not only realises the bomber 's proficiency with explosives , but is able to work out that he viewed the bombing from the parking garage . In a bin in the garage , they find a tissue covered in Dees ' semen . Black informs the FBI that the bomber is smart enough to be able to tap into their phonecalls , and volunteers to bait him into eavesdropping on his mobile phone . Black 's deduction is correct , and as he attempts to stall Dees on the phone while the FBI trace the call , he realises from Dees ' language that the bomber is seeking to become famous through his actions . Dees informs the FBI that he has planned another bombing for the next morning .
The FBI task force rush to locate the bomb , tracing the phonecall to a small section of the city that might house it . Scanning the area , Black notices another parking garage opposite an office block , and attempts to have the building evacuated . However , Dees has planted a second bomb which detonates fifteen minutes early , while Black is inside the building . However , he is pulled to safety by a stranger , who is interviewed on the news following the explosion — Raymond Dees .
Black comes to in a hospital bed , tended to by his wife Catherine Black ( Megan Gallagher ) . She explains to him what has happened , and turns on the evening news to show him the interview with his rescuer . However , watching Dees speak , Black quickly realises he is the bomber . The FBI locate Dees ' home , but his electronic surveillance had alerted him long before , and he has escaped before they even arrive . However , as Black sits in his car , he receives a call from Dees , who has booby @-@ trapped the car . The FBI are able to monitor this call with Dees ' equipment . Dees tells Black that they will both soon be famous , letting Black know that he has a remote detonator for the car 's explosives . Before he can use it , he is killed by a police marksman .
When Black 's car is searched , it is clear it was never rigged with anything — Dees had planned the whole thing , knowing that he would be killed . As news reports spread concerning the bomber 's identity and his death at the hands of the police , Black sees that Dees has achieved the fame he longed for .
= = Production = =
" 522666 " was directed by David Nutter , who had directed both " Pilot " and " Gehenna " previously , and would also direct " Loin Like a Hunting Flame " later in the season . Writers James Wong and Glen Morgan had previously written " Dead Letters " , and would go on to write an additional thirteen episodes during the first and second seasons of the series . Nutter , Morgan and Wong had all previously collaborated on both Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , and the Morgan and Wong @-@ created series Space : Above and Beyond .
Guest star Hiro Kanagawa , who portrays FBI special agent Takahashi , has appeared several times in Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files , in the second and fourth seasons ; as well as in The X @-@ Files ' spin @-@ off series The Lone Gunmen . Kanagawa would also make several more appearances on Millennium , acting in unrelated roles in the episodes " The Time Is Now " , " Human Essence " , and " Bardo Thodol " . The episode also featured a guest appearance by William MacDonald as FBI Agent Nolan ; MacDonald would later reappear in the third season episode " Through a Glass Darkly " .
Lance Henriksen performed all his own stunts in this episode , having been introduced to acting by a stuntman friend of his . The episode opens with a quote from French existentialist philosopher and writer Jean @-@ Paul Sartre — " I am responsible for everything ... except my very responsibility " , which was taken from the 1943 treatise Being and Nothingness . Sarte 's writing echoes the motivations of the character of Raymond Dees , with author N. E. Genge noting that both believed that " just because the individual was incapable of changing destiny alone was no reason for him to stop trying " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" 522666 " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on November 22 , 1996 , and earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 6 , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode a B- , finding that the episode 's ' cat and mouse ' chase between Black and Dees was " well constructed " and " exciting " , and drawing comparisons between the episode and the film Seven . However , he felt that the ending was poor , and that Megan Gallagher 's portrayal of Catherine Black let the episode down . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 out of 5 , finding that the focus on technological investigative techniques was " decidedly dull " , and that although the episode 's premise was initially " interesting " , it grew " derivative after a while " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , note that the episode 's premise is the first in the series " to play it entirely straight " , avoiding Black 's paranormal abilities . Shearman and Pearson rated the episode four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , describing it as not only " a chilling study of one man 's madness , but an indictment upon the modern obsession with celebrity " . This interpretation has also been echoed by Mark Pizzato , in his work Inner Theatres of Good and Evil . Pizzato claims that the episode " reflects the media 's melodramatic fetishizing of villains and heroes , showing the bomber not only as a vulgar onanist , but also as Frank 's savior and a martyr to the mass audience " .
= Mark Vlasic =
Mark Richard Vlasic ( born October 25 , 1963 ) is a former American football quarterback who played in the National Football League ( NFL ) for six seasons . During this time , he played for the San Diego Chargers , Kansas City Chiefs and Tampa Bay Buccaneers . Over the course of his career , he played in 15 games , completed 75 of 142 passes for 762 yards , threw four touchdowns and five interceptions , and finished his career with a passer rating of 63 @.@ 2 .
A graduate of Center High School and the University of Iowa , Vlasic was selected 88th in the 1987 NFL Draft by the San Diego Chargers . He was a backup for Dan Fouts during his first season , then started two games the following year . After not seeing playing time in 1989 , Vlasic started the season opener in 1990 , his last year with San Diego . He played for two seasons with Kansas City and one with Tampa Bay , but was released in 1994 , having not had actual playing time since 1991 .
= = High school and college = =
Vlasic was born in Rochester , Pennsylvania . He attended high school at Center High School in Center Township , Pennsylvania , and was a standout in football and basketball during his time there . He was the starting quarterback for Center in his junior year , throwing for 777 yards in the first eight games of the season . In his junior year of basketball , Vlasic was a starter , in one game scoring 23 points and 11 rebounds with a bad back . He continued to play football and basketball during his senior year , with performances that included a 36 @-@ point effort against Las Vegas Western High School , making 18 of 20 shots . As a result of his high school career , Vlasic was inducted into the Beaver County Sports Hall of Fame in 1999 .
After graduating from high school , Vlasic played college football at the University of Iowa . For four years , he served as a backup to Chuck Long , now a member of the College Football Hall of Fame . During his junior year , as the backup quarterback , he also served as the holder for field goal kicks . After placekicker Rob Houghtlin won a 12 @-@ 10 game against the University of Michigan thanks to a last second field goal , a mob tore down the goalpost , which injured four fans including Vlasic , who was at the bottom of a pile of fans .
The following season Vlasic , now a fifth @-@ year senior , became the starter , as Long graduated . Although he was taking over for the Heisman Trophy runner @-@ up , his strong arm was complimented , albeit backhandedly , by coach Hayden Fry , who said , " He 's got a stronger arm than Long , and he proves it every day by overthrowing his receivers . " In Vlasic 's first game as starter , he threw for 288 yards in a 43 @-@ 7 win against Iowa State University , a game that made Hayden Fry the most victorious coach in Iowa football history . After two more victories , Vlasic went down with a separated shoulder , returning to the lineup after freshmen Dan McGwire and Tom Poholsky took over the starting role . In a late October game against Northwestern , Vlasic threw a 93 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Quinn Early , the longest in Iowa history , in a 27 @-@ 20 victory against Northwestern University . Despite his injury causing him to serve as a backup most of the season , he was given the start for the 1986 Holiday Bowl against San Diego State University . In the Holiday Bowl , Vlasic completed 15 of 28 passes 222 yards and ran for a touchdown as Iowa won , 39 @-@ 38 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Diego Chargers = = =
Vlasic was selected by the San Diego Chargers in the 4th round of the 1987 NFL Draft . Chargers coach Al Saunders chose Vlasic because he wanted to find a young quarterback to observe and succeed Dan Fouts . He signed with the team in late July , and spent the preseason competing with Rick Neuheisel , Tom Flick , and others for the backup quarterback job . While he performed well in the preseason , the Chargers were looking to have him sit out a year so he could learn the ins @-@ and @-@ outs or pro football . After Flick was cut and Mark Herrmann named the primary backup , Vlasic beat out Neuheisel for the final quarterback spot on the Chargers ' roster , though Neuheisel would rejoin the team later that season due to the strike . Despite making the roster , Vlasic spent most of the season after the players ' strike on the team 's inactive list . However , when Fouts was scratched from a December game against the Denver Broncos due to a shoulder injury , Vlasic was called up to be Herrman 's backup . He made his professional debut on December 27 , 1987 , playing the final 5 : 29 of the game . He completed three of six passes for eight yards , was sacked , and threw an interception in the Chargers ' 24 @-@ 0 loss against Denver .
Before the 1988 San Diego Chargers season began , Dan Fouts chose to retire from the game after 15 seasons , leaving Vlasic as the main backup to starter Mark Herrmann , and as a result the Chargers began trying to trade for an experienced quarterback . The Chargers also signed Mark Malone and Babe Laufenberg to compete for the starting job , and traded Herrmann to the Indianapolis Colts . After months of training and the 1988 preseason , Vlasic began the season as the third string quarterback behind Malone and Laufenberg , who won the starting job . In November , after Laufenberg was injured , the Chargers decided to make Vlasic the starter instead of Malone due to the latter 's ineffectiveness , as well as a six game losing streak . He made his season debut against the Atlanta Falcons on November 13 , and threw for 190 yards in a 10 – 7 victory . As a result of his performance , coach Al Saunders said that Vlasic would have the starting job for the rest of the season . Vlasic 's second start came against the Los Angeles Rams where he threw for 80 yards and a touchdown . However , he suffered torn ligaments in his left knee late in the third quarter , and was lost for the season . He finished the season with 25 of 52 passes completed and a passer rating of 54 @.@ 2 .
Vlasic spent the 1989 off @-@ season recovering form his injury , while the Chargers added another quarterback to the roster upon drafting Billy Joe Tolliver . After working out with the team during the preseason , he started the season on the Physically Unable to Perform list . With the Chargers having a reliable starter in Jim McMahon , who had been signed to the team , Vlasic was kept on the list for the season . In 1990 , McMahon was released and John Friesz was drafted out of the University of Idaho , leaving Vlasic to compete with Friesz and David Archer for the backup quarterback job . As the preseason began for the 1990 San Diego Chargers season , the team released Archer , and the plan was for Friesz to split backup quarterback duties during the preseason . After an impressive preseason by Vlasic and only a pedestrian one by Tolliver , Chargers coach Dan Henning named Vlasic as the starting quarterback against the Dallas Cowboys in the season opener , citing that he was " steadier " than Tolliver . After losing the game 17 – 14 , the switch was made back to Tolliver as the starting quarterback , and was eventually named starter for the rest of the season . Despite this , Vlasic remained optimistic , saying , " I feel confident in my ability , and I always have . I know I can get the job done whatever the situation . I have to believe that . " Over the course of the 1990 season , Vlasic played in six games , completing 19 of 40 passes for 168 yards , one touchdown , two interceptions , and a passer rating of 46 @.@ 7 .
At the end of the season , coach Henning said that Tolliver was to be the starter heading into next season , and that the team would not protect Vlasic under Plan B free agency , meaning he could sign with any interested team . As a result , he began to meet with other teams that were looking for a quarterback , including the Cowboys and Green Bay Packers .
= = = Kansas City Chiefs = = =
After meeting with the Cowboys and Kansas City Chiefs , it was reported that Vlasic signed a two @-@ year deal with the Chiefs in March , with Vlasic 's agent confirming but Chiefs general manager Carl Peterson denying it . The Cowboys stated that they would not enter a bidding war , and the signing was confirmed shortly afterward . Vlasic spent the 1991 preseason competing with Steve Pelluer and Mike Elkins for the backup quarterback job . By the end of the preseason , both Pelluer and Elkins were cut , leaving Vlasic as the backup behind Steve DeBerg . He spent most of the season backing up DeBerg and getting occasional action . His most significant day as a backup came on November 17 against the Denver Broncos . Vlasic relieved DeBerg , who had thrown four interceptions , and completed nine of 14 passes for 91 yards and a touchdown in a 24 – 20 loss . The highlight of Vlasic 's season was a matchup on December 8 against his old team , the Chargers . After replacing DeBerg in the second half with the Chiefs down by 14 points , Vlasic completed 12 of 18 passes for 150 yards and a touchdown as the Chiefs beat the Chargers in overtime , 20 – 17 , and giving the Chiefs a playoff berth in the process . As a result of this performance , Vlasic was given the start for next week 's game against the San Francisco 49ers . However , he sprained his knee in the second quarter , and did not play the final regular season game . Vlasic missed the wild card playoff game against the Oakland Raiders , but was available for the divisional playoff series against the Buffalo Bills . After DeBerg left in the second quarter due to injury , Vlasic entered the game in what was his only playoff appearance . He completed nine of 20 passes for 124 yards and threw four interceptions in a 37 – 14 blowout that marked the end of the Chiefs ' playoff run . Vlasic 's stats for 1991 were 28 completions in 44 attempts , 316 yards , two touchdowns , and a passer rating of 100 @.@ 2 .
As the 1992 Kansas City Chiefs season began , the team 's first big move was the signing of quarterback Dave Krieg to compete with DeBerg and Vlasic . A couple weeks after Krieg 's signing , DeBerg signed with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , leaving Vlasic as the primary backup to Krieg . The Chiefs went into training camp and went through the preseason with Krieg , Vlasic , and rookie draft pick Matt Blundin . Krieg ended up playing every snap of the season , leaving both Vlasic without a year 's worth of playing time as his contract expired . The trading of Joe Montana to the Chiefs put a definitive end to Vlasic 's time in Kansas City .
= = = Tampa Bay Buccaneers = = =
On April 30 , 1992 Vlasic signed a two @-@ year contract with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , reuniting himself with former teammate Steve DeBerg . Vlasic began the preseason competing the third string quarterback job behind Mike Pawlawski while DeBerg and Craig Erickson competed for the starting job . At the end of preseason , however , Vlasic was among the final group cut by the Buccaneers . When DeBerg was cut from the team in early November , Vlasic was re @-@ signed to the team in his place . He remained on the roster for the 1994 preseason , but his only preseason pass was intercepted and returned for a touchdown , and he was waived shortly afterward . This marked the end of Vlasic 's professional football career .
= = Personal life = =
Before his inaugural season of pro football , Vlasic , a finance major at Iowa , got a real estate license in case pro football did not work out . Vlasic is currently a Senior Wealth Advisor with Mariner Wealth Advisors in Leawood KS .
He has a wife , Amy , two daughters , Erica and Vanessa , a son , Ethan , and a dog Lola .
= Marguerite LeHand =
Marguerite Alice " Missy " LeHand ( September 13 , 1898 – July 31 , 1944 ) was private secretary to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ( FDR ) for 21 years . According to Roosevelt biographer Doris Kearns Goodwin , during FDR 's presidency , LeHand became " the most celebrated private secretary in the country " .
Born into a poor Irish @-@ American family in New York , LeHand attended secretarial school , took a series of clerical jobs , and eventually began to work for the Democratic Party 's New York office . There she came to the attention of FDR 's wife Eleanor during his 1920 vice presidential candidacy and was hired as FDR 's personal secretary . After FDR was partially paralyzed by polio , LeHand became his daily companion , to the extent of adopting his favorite hobbies , games , and drinks . She remained his secretary when he became Governor of New York in 1929 and when he became president in 1933 , serving until a 1941 stroke left her unable to speak . She moved to her sister 's home in Boston and died in 1944 .
The exact nature of LeHand 's relationship with FDR is debated by historians . It is generally accepted that their relationship contained a romantic element , though scholars remain divided on whether the pair had a sexual relationship . LeHand was engaged to U.S. Ambassador William Bullitt in 1933 , but never married , later asking a friend , " How could anyone ever come up to FDR ? "
= = Early life = =
LeHand was born in Potsdam , New York , to Daniel J. and Mary J. ( née Graffin ) LeHand , who were the children of Irish immigrants . When Marguerite was young , her father , a gardener with a drinking problem , deserted the family . She had a sister , Anna , and two brothers , Daniel and Bernard . The family later moved to Somerville , Massachusetts . As a child , LeHand was struck by rheumatic fever , and Eleanor Roosevelt later stated that the disease had left her delicate and barred from strenuous exercise . She graduated from Somerville High School in 1917 and then attended secretarial school . Although she never attended college , in 1937 Rosary College recognized her professional achievements with an honorary Doctor of Laws .
After holding a variety of clerical positions in the Boston area and passing the Civil Service exam , she moved to Washington , DC to serve as a clerk during the First World War . At the recommendation of Charles McCarthy , Roosevelt 's assistant at the Navy Department , she became a secretary with the Democratic Party 's New York headquarters . In 1920 , when Franklin Roosevelt was running for Vice President on a ticket with James M. Cox against Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge , LeHand 's work on the campaign and her clear personal devotion to FDR caught the eye of the Roosevelts . In early 1921 , FDR hired her as his personal secretary and gave her the initial job of cleaning up his correspondence . Roosevelt biographer Jean Edward Smith described the young LeHand as " five feet , seven inches tall ... warm and attractive , with ink @-@ blue eyes , black hair already turning gray , and an engaging throaty voice . She was also modest , well mannered , exceptionally capable , and thoroughly organized . "
= = Secretary to Roosevelt = =
LeHand quickly became a key part of Roosevelt 's staff , managing his correspondence and appointment calendar . She was nicknamed " Missy " by Roosevelt 's sons and soon became popularly known by this name . In turn , she nicknamed her boss " F.D. " , a name only she was allowed to use . In the summer of 1921 , Roosevelt was struck by polio during a vacation to Campobello Island , leaving him paralyzed below the waist ; LeHand then became his inseparable companion . She once described her early work with FDR thus :
The first thing for a private secretary to do is to study her employer . After I went to work for Mr. Roosevelt , for months I read carefully all the letters he dictated ... I learned what letters he wanted to see and which ones it was not necessary to show him ... I came to know exactly how Mr. Roosevelt would answer some of his letters , how he would couch his thoughts . When he discovered that I had learned these things it took a load off his shoulders , for instead of having to dictate the answers to many letters he could just say yes or no and I knew what to say and how to say it .
Each winter in the mid @-@ 1920s , FDR would spend four months on his houseboat , Larocco , off the Florida coast . LeHand lived with him and acted as his hostess . She also accompanied him to the spa town of Warm Springs , Georgia , overseeing and encouraging his physical therapy . In early 1927 , FDR sold the Larocco , leaving LeHand distraught by the disruption of their life together ; she had a nervous breakdown , and was briefly hospitalized and placed under suicide watch . She recovered and returned to work in November .
LeHand opposed FDR 's proposed plan to run for Governor of New York in 1928 , telling him , " Don 't you dare " . When he ultimately decided to run , she suffered another illness that Goodwin describes as " probably a second nervous breakdown " . By the time he was elected and assumed office , however , she was well enough to resume work and moved into the second floor of the Governor 's Mansion in Albany , continuing on as his secretary . With Eleanor often away working in New York City during this time , LeHand was FDR 's day @-@ to @-@ day companion . During her long tenure as FDR 's secretary , LeHand came to share many of his likes and dislikes . She enthusiastically learned to play poker , and would spend hours working with him on his stamp collection . She adopted even his figures of speech and favorite drinks .
Roosevelt was elected President of the United States in 1932 , assuming the office in 1933 . There was little doubt that LeHand would follow him to the White House . As her obituary in the New York Times said , " when her employer was elected to the Presidency , it had become an established fact that neither other offers of employment or proposals of marriage could entice the prematurely gray and handsome young woman from the career she had chosen . " During Roosevelt 's tenure as president , LeHand became a federal employee . Until the 1941 stroke that incapacitated her , she lived on the third floor of the White House and continued to manage Roosevelt 's daily business . She also presided as the White House hostess during Eleanor 's absences . In August 1933 , Newsweek ran a profile of her describing her as FDR 's " Super @-@ Secretary " , making her nationally famous .
= = Relationship with Roosevelt = =
The question of whether LeHand and Roosevelt 's relationship contained a sexual component was widely discussed among their contemporaries and continues to be debated by historians . Hazel Rowley argues that " there is no doubt that Franklin 's relationship with Missy was romantic " , but notes the possibility that the relationship could not have been consummated due to FDR 's disability . Goodwin states that " beneath the complexity , it is absolutely clear that Franklin was the love of Missy 's life , and that he adored her and depended on her for affection and support as well as work " . Doug Wead wrote in his work on the parents of presidents , The Raising of a President ,
Some Roosevelt historians insist that their relationship was never consummated . Eleanor and the children accepted the relationship , which speaks for its innocence . Sara [ Roosevelt ] spoke favorably of Missy 's family and upbringing . Years later , only Elliott , of all the children , would declare that it had not been as benign as historians like to believe .
In 1973 , FDR 's son Elliott published An Untold Story : The Roosevelts of Hyde Park , in which he recalled seeing LeHand in his father 's lap and alleged that she " shared a familiar life in all its aspects with father " . His eldest brother Jimmy disagreed , arguing that FDR 's illness had made sexual function too difficult for him to have a physical affair . " I suppose you could say they came to love one another " , he wrote , " but it was not a physical love . "
Despite the closeness of LeHand and Franklin 's relationship , Eleanor and LeHand remained on good terms . Eleanor Roosevelt biographer Blanche Wiesen Cook describes the First Lady as treating LeHand warmly , " as an elder daughter or , in the manner of Asian matriarchs , as the junior wife " . The two women went shopping together , and Eleanor took a solicitous interest in LeHand 's smoking and general health . Eleanor also accompanied LeHand to her mother 's funeral in Potsdam in 1932 . Elliott later stated that he believed " Missy alleviated Mother 's guilt " , allowing her to travel without worrying that Franklin would lack for companionship . In one of her later books , Eleanor wrote that she occasionally failed to " meet the need of someone whom I dearly love " , stating , " You must learn to allow someone else to meet the need , without bitterness or envy , and accept it . " Cook reads these passages as veiled references to LeHand 's role in Franklin 's life , and Eleanor 's acceptance of that role .
= = = Other relationships = = =
LeHand had a brief romance with Eleanor 's bodyguard ( and rumored love ) Earl Miller in 1931 . Miller later told biographer Joseph Lash that he had begun the affair out of respect for Eleanor , feeling that she was hurt by LeHand 's relationship with Franklin . LeHand quickly became attached to Miller , but broke off the affair after discovering that he was also seeing another White House worker .
In 1933 , LeHand became engaged to the diplomat William Christian Bullitt , Jr . , then the U.S. ambassador to Russia . FDR 's son James later described this as " the one real romance " of her life . However , the engagement ended after LeHand visited him in Moscow and reportedly discovered him having an affair . Later in life , a friend asked LeHand if she regretted not having married , to which LeHand replied , " Absolutely not ... How could anyone ever come up to FDR ? "
FDR aide and confidant Harry Hopkins briefly courted LeHand in 1939 , following the death of his second wife , Barbara . Goodwin states while the pair were close , and their friendship sparked Washington gossip , but nothing appears to have come of it : " Missy had probably cut it short , as she had cut short every other relationship in her life that might subordinate her great love for FDR . "
= = Illness , death , and memorials = =
In June 1941 , LeHand , who had suffered rheumatic fever as a child and was somewhat frail , collapsed at a White House dinner party and two weeks later suffered a major stroke that left her partially paralyzed with little speech function . A factor that may have led to her illness was stress stemming from fears that the exiled Princess Märtha of Sweden , a Washington @-@ area resident during World War II , had replaced her as FDR 's favorite companion , occupying the seat next to him that had long been LeHand 's in automobile rides . FDR paid LeHand 's medical bills and made provisions in his will for her care . During the 1941 Christmas season , LeHand , now an invalid , attempted suicide . In early 1942 , she spent some weeks in her old room at the White House , but quickly deteriorated due to her frustrations at not being able to help . After an incident in which she tried to set herself on fire , it was agreed that LeHand would return to her sister 's home in Somerville , Massachusetts , and she departed from Washington on May 16 , 1942 .
FDR rewrote his will to leave half of the income from his estate ( which was eventually probated at more than $ 3 million ) for LeHand 's care , and half to Eleanor . The will stated that upon LeHand 's death the income would go to Eleanor , with the principal eventually divided equally among his children . As LeHand died before FDR , her half reverted to Eleanor .
An assistant of LeHand 's , Grace Tully , took over as Roosevelt 's secretary , but was never a companion for Roosevelt in the same way as LeHand had been . During LeHand 's brief return to the White House after her stroke , to help her feel included , Tully brought letters and State Department correspondence for her to read .
When LeHand died on July 31 , 1944 , the president issued a statement :
Memories of more than a score of years of devoted service enhance the sense of personal loss which Miss LeHand 's passing brings . Faithful and painstaking , with charm of manner inspired by tact and kindness of heart , she was utterly selfless in her devotion to duty . Hers was a quiet efficiency , which made her a real genius in getting things done . Her memory will ever be held in affectionate remembrance and appreciation , not only by all the members of our family but by the wide circle of those whose duties brought them into contact with her .
Eleanor Roosevelt attended LeHand 's funeral in Cambridge , Massachusetts , over which Bishop ( later Cardinal ) Richard Cushing presided . Other mourners included Associate Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter and former ambassador Joseph P. Kennedy . In her will , LeHand left the furniture in her White House apartment to Grace Tully and the First Couple .
= = = SS Marguerite LeHand = = =
In March 1945 , the United States Maritime Commission christened an 18 @,@ 000 ton C3 cargo vessel , the SS Marguerite LeHand , in Pascagoula , Mississippi . As LeHand was leaving on her maiden voyage , she struck the U.S. Coast Guard lighthouse tender Magnolia amidships , sinking it and killing one Coast Guardsman .
= = = Representations in television and film = = =
LeHand was a character in the 1958 Broadway play Sunrise at Campobello and its 1960 film adaptation , in which she was played by Jean Hagen . The productions portray FDR 's initial struggles with polio after his 1921 diagnosis , and his decision to continue his political career .
Priscilla Pointer played the role of LeHand in the 1977 ABC television production Eleanor and Franklin : The White House Years . In the 2012 movie Hyde Park on Hudson , which portrays the visit of British monarchs George VI and Queen Consort Elizabeth to FDR 's estate at Hyde Park , LeHand is played by Elizabeth Marvel .
LeHand 's work and friendship with Franklin Roosevelt is chronicled in the 2014 documentary film The Roosevelts , directed by Ken Burns .
= Maria Kanellis =
Maria Louise Kanellis @-@ Bennett ( born February 25 , 1982 ) is an American professional wrestler , valet , actress and singer currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) under the ring name Maria ( Kanellis @-@ Bennett ) . She is best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , and Ring of Honor ( ROH ) as the valet of her real @-@ life husband Michael Bennett .
Kanellis 's career began as a contestant on the reality show Outback Jack in 2004 . In the same year , she placed fifth in the Raw Diva Search , but was later hired by WWE as a backstage interviewer . Kanellis began competing in the ring as a wrestler in 2005 . She also posed for the April 2008 cover of Playboy magazine , which was incorporated into a storyline on Raw . She released her debut album Sevin Sins on April 13 , 2010 on iTunes .
= = Early life = =
Kanellis was born in Ottawa , Illinois . She has two younger siblings ; a brother and sister named Bill and Janny , respectively . Kanellis grew up with an interest in playing sports , particularly volleyball , basketball , and softball . She graduated from Ottawa Township High School in 2000 , before spending some time as a student at Northern Illinois University . Before her career in wrestling began , Kanellis regularly competed in beauty pageants .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Diva Search and debut ( 2004 @-@ 2005 ) = = = =
She competed in the Raw Diva Search in 2004 , deciding to enter the contest after seeing an advertisement while watching Raw . Even though she only placed fifth in the contest , she was hired by the company . She stood out in the contest by giving fellow contestant Carmella DeCesare the finger after being eliminated from the contest . Maria began making appearances in Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , WWE 's then @-@ developmental territory , under head trainer Paul Heyman . She contributed booking ideas , and her work at OVW earned her a spot on the Raw brand roster . Maria was brought on to Raw as a ditzy backstage interviewer and the host of WWE KissCam in November 2004 . Her gimmick involved her asking wrong questions , irritating and amusing WWE Superstars and Divas this gimmik would last until 2008 .
In 2005 , Maria began a more physical role , and was defeated in her first official match on the January 10 , 2005 episode of Raw by Christy Hemme in a Lingerie Pillow Fight . She also competed in a Fulfill Your Fantasy Diva Battle Royal at Taboo Tuesday for the WWE Women 's Championship , but was the first to be eliminated , courtesy of Trish Stratus and Mickie James . In another physical moment , Stratus slapped Maria so hard that one of her fillings legitimately fell out . On November 14 , Maria competed in a non @-@ title Diva Battle Royal at the Eddie Guerrero tribute Raw show . Maria stood by herself for most of the match , only getting involved when she saw the opportunity to eliminate a competitor , and ultimately eliminated both Jillian Hall and Victoria . She was one of the last three women left in the match , but was eliminated by both Melina and Trish Stratus .
On the November 28 episode of Raw , Maria interviewed then @-@ Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff , and asked him whether or not he thought he was going to be fired . He then booked her in a match with Kurt Angle out of spite , and Maria was laid out with the Angle Slam . As a result , one week later , Maria testified in the trial against Bischoff , who was being fired because of his controversial actions as General Manager . As Mick Foley questioned her , she answered , " Last week Bischoff abused his power in a way that was both malicious and capricious , and it 's this rash of discourse that ultimately led to a locker room of disdain and mutiny , and it should be grounds for his immediate dismissal . "
= = = = Various feuds ( 2006 – 2007 ) = = = =
In early 2006 , Maria defeated Victoria in a match . Afterwards , she was attacked and stripped of her clothes by Vince 's Devils ( Victoria , Torrie Wilson , and Candice Michelle ) , but she was saved by Ashley Massaro . During a commercial break that night , Vince McMahon announced a Gauntlet Bra & Panties Match for New Year 's Revolution between all five girls . At the event , Maria was the first to enter the Gauntlet match and eliminated Michelle and Wilson before being eliminated by Victoria . The match was ultimately won by Massaro . On April 10 , episode of Raw , Maria received a shot at the WWE Women 's Championship , but was defeated by the defending champion Mickie James .
Maria teamed with John Cena to take on Edge and Lita in the main event on the February 6 episode of Raw . Maria scored the victory after a spear meant for Cena hit Lita . One month later , Maria lost a singles match to Lita . After the match , Edge was preparing to spear Maria , but Mick Foley ran in to help her . On October 16 , Maria won a Fatal Four @-@ Way Bra and Panties match against Victoria , Candice Michelle , and Torrie Wilson to advance to the semi @-@ finals in a Women 's Championship Tournament . Maria , however , lost in the semi @-@ finals of the tournament to Lita .
On the January 1 , 2007 episode of Raw , Maria attempted to interview Kevin Federline , but was instead slapped by Melina and called a " bitch " . This led to a match between the two later that night , which Melina won . At New Year 's Revolution , Maria and Candice Michelle ran to the ring during the Women 's Championship match between Victoria and Mickie James to stop Melina from interfering , helping James retain the championship . For two consecutive weeks afterward , Maria had two tag team partners , Mickie James and Jeff Hardy , respectively , to take on Melina and a partner . She lost the match with James , but won the other with Hardy .
= = = = Relationship with Santino Marella ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
Maria began an on @-@ screen romance with Santino Marella in June 2007 . She also resumed competing in the ring occasionally , often jobbing , or losing quickly , in short matches . On the November 5 episode of Raw , Marella was confronted by the returning Stone Cold Steve Austin for criticizing his movie , The Condemned . As a part of the storyline , the argument ended as Marella received a Stone Cold Stunner from Austin , who then went backstage , only to return with a Budweiser beer truck to hose down Marella and Maria with beer .
After former Playboy cover @-@ girl Ashley Massaro 's return in early 2008 , Kanellis engaged in backstage segments where Massaro suggested Maria should be on the cover of Playboy , including at the Royal Rumble , to the disdain of Marella . As a part of the storyline , Maria defeated Beth Phoenix on February 18 , to " earn the right " to be on the cover of the magazine . During her Playboy cover unveiling , Maria 's cover was plastered over with images of Marella . After Marella offered an ultimatum of posing for the magazine or staying with him as a couple , she stated , " No man and no one is going to make this decision for me " and broke up with her on @-@ screen boyfriend . Maria , along with Ashley , ( who had replaced an injured Candice Michelle ) were defeated by Phoenix and Melina at WrestleMania XXIV in a Playboy BunnyMania Lumberjill match . After the match , Maria passionately kissed the Master of Ceremonies , Snoop Dogg .
= = = = SmackDown ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = =
As part of the 2008 WWE Supplemental Draft , Maria was drafted to the SmackDown brand . She made her debut on the August 1 episode of SmackDown by defeating Victoria . On the October 17 episode of SmackDown ! , Maria won a " Las Vegas Dice on a Pole " match to become the number one contender for the WWE Divas Championship , but lost a subsequent match for the title against then @-@ champion Michelle McCool .
Maria participated in the Raw Divas vs. Smackdown Divas match at Survivor Series , where she eliminated Jillian Hall , but her team ultimately lost the match . On the December 5 episode of SmackDown ! , Maria got an upset victory over the Divas Champion Michelle McCool , but she was defeated by Maryse in a number one contender 's match for the title two weeks later . At the Armageddon pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 14 , Maria teamed up with Kelly Kelly , Mickie James and McCool defeating Maryse , Jillian Hall , Victoria and Natalya in an Eight @-@ Diva Santa 's Little Helper tag team match . On the December 26 episode of SmackDown ! , she served as a special guest referee in the Divas Championship match between Maryse and McCool , where Maryse became the new champion . After the match , McCool turned heel and attacked Maria , injuring her shoulder . Maria returned and attacked McCool during a match , on the January 21 , 2009 , episode of SmackDown . On the February 10 episode of SmackDown , she defeated McCool following interference from Eve Torres . Over the next several weeks , Maria competed in various tag @-@ team matches against McCool , with Maria winning three out of four matches . She also competed at WrestleMania XXV for the " Miss WrestleMania " crown , but was eliminated by Victoria . Throughout June , Maria served as the special guest referee in Diva matches .
Maria made her in @-@ ring return on the July 3 episode of SmackDown , teaming with Melina to defeat LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla . Soon after , she entered into an on @-@ screen relationship with Dolph Ziggler , despite her being a fan favorite and him being a villainous character . At Night of Champions , Maria accompanied Ziggler to his match with Rey Mysterio for Intercontinental Championship . In the following weeks , Melina implied that Ziggler was cheating on Maria , which Maria did not believe . Maria and Ziggler later broke up on the October 10 episode of SmackDown in a backstage segment , after she cost him his match with John Morrison .
Maria then took a brief hiatus from the ring to film the Celebrity Apprentice , but returned on the December 4 episode of SmackDown by helping Mickie James fend off an attack by LayCool . She made her in @-@ ring return the following week , teaming up with James to defeat LayCool . On December 14 , Maria won the Slammy Award for Diva of the Year , which was voted for by WWE fans . On the February 12 , 2010 , episode of SmackDown , Maria began an on @-@ screen relationship with Matt Hardy . Her last match in WWE was a six @-@ person @-@ tag @-@ team match on the February 25 episode of WWE Superstars , where she , Hardy , and The Great Khali lost to The Hart Dynasty ( Tyson Kidd , David Hart Smith and Natalya Neidhart . Maria was released from her WWE contract on February 26 .
= = = Ring of Honor ( 2011 – 2015 ) = = =
Maria confirmed on her Twitter account that she would be appearing at Ring of Honor 's Final Battle pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 23 , 2011 . She accompanied her real @-@ life boyfriend , Mike Bennett , as a villainess , in a three @-@ way elimination match against Jay Lethal and El Generico for the ROH World Television Championship . At the event , Bennett was unsuccessful in winning the title . Kanellis continued accompanying Bennett at the January 7 , 2012 , tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling , where she was dubbed the " First Lady of ROH " .
At the June 21 tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling , Kanellis accompanied Bennett and Brutal Bob Evans to ring , where they lost to Eddie Edwards and Adam Cole . After the match , Kanellis , Bennett and Bob attacked Cole and Edwards , but were stopped by Sara Del Rey , who Edwards had brought in to neutralize Kanellis . At the Boiling Point pay @-@ per @-@ view on August 11 , Maria and Bennett lost to Del Rey and Edwards in an mixed tag team match . Kanellis ' storyline with Del Rey ended abruptly the following month , when Del Rey signed a contract with WWE . In September 2012 , Kanellis and Bennett became involved in a storyline with Mike Mondo after he kissed Kanellis during one of Bennett 's matches . Mondo continued to cost Bennett matches , until Glory by Honor in October , when Bennett defeated Mondo to end the feud . At the November 3 tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling , Maria accompied Bennett to the ring where he unsuccessfully challenged Kevin Steen for the ROH World Heavyweight Championship . On December 16 at Final Battle 2012 : Doomsday pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kanellis along with Bob accompied Bennett to the ring where he defeated Jerry Lynn in his final ROH match before retirement . At the Border Wars pay @-@ per @-@ view on May 4 , 2013 , Kanellis accompied Bennett to the ring where he was defeated by Roderick Strong , despite Kanellis attempting to interfere on Bennett 's behalf . On September 19 , Maria and Bennett defeated The Brutal Burgers ( Brutal Bob Evans & Cheeseburger ) in a Intergender tag team match . On October 26 , during Bennett 's match with Kevin Steen at the Glory by Honor XII pay @-@ per @-@ view , Kanellis tried to interfere but was attacked by Lisa Marie Varon .
Kanellis and Bennett returned to ROH at the January 4 , 2014 , tapings of Ring of Honor Wrestling which aired on February 1 , with Kanellis helping Bennett defeat Cedric Alexander . Throughout the summer , Maria and Bennett would get involved in Matt Hardy 's feud with The Briscoes , which would result a tag team match at the Best in the World pay @-@ per @-@ view on June 22 , which Hardy and Bennett would lose despite Maria 's interference . During the feud , The Kingdom stole Jay Briscoe 's title ; Matt Hardy customized it as the Iconic Championship . At All Stars Extravaganza 6 , Bennett and Maria customized the title as the Championship of Love . They were interrupted by Jay Briscoe 's brother , Mark . Bennett and Kanellis left ROH after the December 19 , 2015 , Ring of Honor Wrestling taping , after failing to come to terms on a new contract with the promotion .
= = = Other promotions ( 2012 – 2015 ) = = =
On February 25 , 2012 , Maria won a tournament to determine the inaugural Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) Women 's Champion . The victory also marked Kanellis ' first championship in professional wrestling . She held the championship until March 24 , when she lost it to Winter in a three @-@ way match also involving Rosita . In July , Kanellis regained the championship from Winter . Kanellis successfully defended her title against Angelina Love at FWE : No Limits .
In September 2012 , Kanellis made her debut for Chikara , managing Mike Bennett and The Young Bucks to the finals of the 2012 King of Trios tournament . Alongside Gavin Loudspeaker , Kanellis hosted the 2014 National Pro Wrestling Day . On October 4 , 2014 , Maria lost the FWE Women 's Championship against Ivelisse Vélez
= = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2015 ) = = =
On April 6 , 2015 , Kanellis managed Bennett and Matt Taven to capture New Japan Pro Wrestling 's IWGP Tag Team Championship at Invasion Attack 2015 . The following day , NJPW announced that , due to Kanellis ' popularity , the promotion had booked its first match involving female wrestlers since October 2002 , which would see Kanellis team up with Bennett and Taven to take on Amber Gallows , Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson at Wrestling Dontaku 2015 on May 3 . Kanellis pinned Amber to win the match . On July 5 at Dominion 7 @.@ 5 in Osaka @-@ jo Hall , Kanellis accompanied Bennett and Taven to their first IWGP Tag Team Championship defense against Doc Gallows and Karl Anderson . The Kingdom lost the match and the championship , after Doc Gallows superkicked Kanellis , which distracted Bennett , leaving Taven alone to lose the match .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2016 – present ) = = =
On January 5 , 2016 , during Impact Wrestling 's premiere on Pop TV , Maria made her debut as a heel introducing her husband as " The Miracle " Mike Bennett . In February , Maria started her first feud in the company , with Gail Kim , the then TNA Knockouts Champion , after the latter refused Maria 's help to make her go " mainstream " . On the April 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , Maria won a ladder match to become the new TNA Knockouts Division Commissioner .
= = Other media = =
In 2004 , she was a contestant on the reality show , Outback Jack . She made it to the final three before being eliminated .
During the week of November 5 , 2007 , she appeared on five episodes of Family Feud with several other WWE superstars . She also appeared on the February 6 , 2008 episode of Project Runway with some of the other WWE Divas . On August 17 , 2008 , Maria , Candice Michelle , and Eve Torres were on an episode of Sunset Tan . Kanellis later appeared on VH1 's Top 20 Video Countdown , along with John Cena . On December 17 , 2009 , she was a guest host on G4 's Attack of the Show . Kanellis began a new career as a mixed martial arts announcer for HDNet on March 26 , 2010 at the King of the Cage event in Reno , Nevada . Kanellis was also a contestant on the Celebrity Apprentice , which premiered in March 2010 . She was eliminated on the May 16 episode . She placed fifth out of fourteen contestants .
Kanellis was first asked to pose for Playboy when she was nineteen years old , but she turned down the offer in fear of embarrassing her sister . She eventually posed for the cover of the April 2008 issue , with an accompanying nude pictorial . For the pictorial , she chose her own wardrobe and made the black hooded jacket she wore in one of the photos . That same year , FHM named her 53rd of 100 on their " The Sexiest Women 2008 " list . With WWE transitioning to PG content a few months after Kanellis 's pictorial and Playboy itself announcing it would go non @-@ nude starting with the March 2016 issue , Kanellis was ultimately the last active WWE Diva to pose nude for the magazine .
Kanellis is also a singer and released her debut album Sevin Sins on April 13 , 2010 , with " Fantasy " as the first single .
In early 2011 , Kanellis starred in online comedy webshow Funny or Die , and in March 2011 she launched her own perfume line called Signature . In September 2011 , Kanellis launched her DVD line in conjunction with Code Red DVD called Maria 's B Movie Mayhem .
In January 2014 , Kanellis and Bennett launched a weekly podcast called Mike & Maria in Wonderland .
= = = Discography = = =
= = = = EPs = = = =
2010 : Sevin Sins
= = = Filmography = = =
= = Personal life = =
Kanellis previously dated fellow wrestler CM Punk between 2005 and 2007 , after the pair met during their tenures at OVW . In a December 2011 interview ,
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Reception = =
" Nepotism " first aired on September 23 , 2010 . In its original American broadcast , it was viewed by an estimated 8 @.@ 40 million viewers with a 4 @.@ 4 rating / 11 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic coming second in its time slot and improving its rating by 1 @.@ 80 million viewers from last season 's finale .
The Atlantic writer Suzanne Merkelson praised the episode , and felt the opening lip @-@ syncing scene highlighted the talents of the entire cast . However , she said the subplots were not as strong as the main story involving Michael , which underscored the challenge writers would have in maintaining The Office after Steve Carell 's departure . The A.V. Club writer Myles McNutt , who said he was critical of the sixth season , said " Nepotism " was effective both in its main storyline involving Michael and Luke , and its B story involving Pam pulling a prank on Dwight . Although slightly disappointed that the episode did not allude to Michael 's eventual replacement , McNutt said " Nepotism " demonstrated The Office would continue to be the same show even without Carell . Aishini Thiyagarajan of The Cornell Daily Sun highly praised the episode , claiming it highlighted the best traits of all the characters . She especially praised the cold open and the ending scene with Michael spanking Luke . Phoebe Reilly of New York magazine said the episode lacked any poor points , and said it established the season as one of " a mix of high jinks and heart " . Rick Porter of Zap2it described " Nepotism " as " an old @-@ school episode " with a strong main story and subplot , and praised Kelly 's new attitude following her executive training . His only criticism was that Dwight seemed too over @-@ the @-@ top , particularly while wielding a knife during the cold open lip dub .
Kevin Fitzpatrick of UGO Networks said that this was a good episode , but not an especially important one which failed to advance any ongoing story lines . Although he called scenes like Michael spanking Luke and his defense of Luke during the meeting as " classic Scott " , Fitzpatrick also said the episode does little to start establishing a proper send @-@ off for the character 's final season . Time magazine television critic James Poniewozik called it " a fine but unremarkable , meat @-@ and @-@ potatoes Office about a Michael screw @-@ up " , which made him question whether the show could continue after Carell left . Although he complimented individual moments , Poniewozik called the cold open a " self @-@ congratulatory , awkward ( and ) unearned curtain call " . Joel Keller of TV Squad praised the cold open , but felt the rest of the episode was extremely disappointing . Keller said few of the characters ' stories about how they spent their summers stood out , and said Michael 's spanking of Luke was awkward and unfunny . Brooklynne Kelly Peters of Blast magazine said the episode started strong with the lip synching cold open , but that the rest of the episode was not as funny as the series often is , describing it as " mundane hilarity " .
The spanking scene , with Michael Scott 's shouts of , " You are going to learn to be more professional ! That is what you are going to do ! " has become a popular soundbite on The Dennis Prager Show whenever the radio show 's production crew makes a mistake .
= Windosill =
Windosill is a 2009 puzzle video game by Vectorpark for Microsoft Windows , OS X , Linux , web browsers , and iOS . The player advances through eleven rooms through interacting with each level 's environmental objects . It was developed by artist Patrick Smith , who taught himself to animate and program the game in Adobe Flash . He was inspired by a variety of painters and artists . The game was first released for Windows , OS X , and web browsers in 2009 , and was later ported to the iPad in 2011 with several added features .
The game received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers noted the game 's especially short duration , memorability , art style , and emphasis on exploration over problem solving . Windosill has influenced games including Alto 's Adventure , Blek , Donut County , and Monument Valley .
= = Gameplay = =
In Windosill , the player solves logic puzzles to progress through eleven successive rooms . Everything on @-@ screen is interactive . The player experiments with the environmental objects in each room to find a hidden cube , which unlocks the door to the next level , through which the player guides a toy car . Responsive objects in each room include light switches , piles of leaves , clocks , " a squishy thing with an eye on top " , a building that grows legs when spun , a box that grows hair when touched , and a smokestack that can be squeezed to make clouds . Interactions with these objects reveal subsequent objects and possible interactions .
= = Development = =
Patrick Smith , a Brooklyn @-@ based artist , drew , animated , and programmed Windosill by himself for Microsoft Windows , OS X , Linux , web browser , and iPad ( iOS ) platforms . His collection of interactive animations and games , which he began around 2001 , are released under the name " Vectorpark " . Although Edge previously covered and praised Smith 's prior work , they wrote that he " is notable for never having made the jump to the mainstream " .
Smith first sketched Windosill level ideas in pencil , and transferred his favorites into Adobe Illustrator , where he added detail , " shapes and colors " . He then animated and programmed the scenes in Adobe Flash , and incorporated sounds from Freesound . While Smith studied painting at Washington University , he learned to animate and program on his own . He developed his own 3D and physics code instead of using existing software libraries , as he prefers to use code he fully understands . When Smith built the game , he considered the " aesthetic and functional aspects holistically " . Smith 's main inspirations when creating Windosill were mainly artists and not games : surrealists René Magritte and Joan Miró , metaphysical painter Giorgio de Chirico , animators Max and Dave Fleischer of Fleischer Studios , cartoonists Chris Ware and Jim Woodring , sculptor Alexander Calder , and Italian Renaissance painters Paolo Uccello and Piero della Francesca . Smith credits the latter painters for his use of flat shapes as 3D forms . Windosill was not designed for a specific audience — in fact , Smith designed them for his own enjoyment — but he noted that its " toy @-@ like " qualities and emphasis on discovery were intentional .
Windosill was originally released in 2009 as a downloadable Flash game for Microsoft Windows and OS X. In this version , the first half of Windosill 's was free @-@ to @-@ play and its second half could be unlocked with payment . Smith was satisfied with its sales , but said " it will take a long time to fund itself " . An iOS ( iPad @-@ only ) port was released on December 15 , 2011 , and added two features : Complex Gravity ( which adds " tilt controls " ) and See @-@ Thru ( which makes the room 's elements transparent ) . It also includes a 20 @-@ piece collection of concept art . The game was included in the April 2012 Amanita Design Humble Bundle .
= = Reception = =
The game received " universal acclaim " , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers noted the game 's especially short duration , memorability , and emphasis on exploration over problem solving . Multiple reviewers praised the game 's art style . Nissa Campbell of TouchArcade described the style as " surreal " , and Tim Rattray of Slide to Play wrote that Windosill is " serious " in its attempt to " be ' art ' " . Critics described Windosill as not just a game but " a toy " in itself . GameSetWatch selected the game for their " Best of Indie Games " the week of May 2 , 2009 .
Campbell of TouchArcade wrote that the iOS port was " always meant to be " due to the tactility of the game 's puzzles . Campbell added that iOS multitouch changed how players could interact with the puzzles , though it did not change any of the solutions . The reviewer wrote that the controls were intuitive and designed for experimenting , as there is no tutorial . Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku similarly wrote that the game helped him remember " how wonderfully tactile the iPad can be " .
Rattray of Slide to Play described Windosill as " an interactive abstract mosaic " and " absolute thrill ride " . He described the puzzle design and production value as " brilliant " , and praised the " fitting " sound effects , " smooth " controls , and " perfect " frame rate . 148Apps 's Dan Lee also called the puzzles " brilliant " , and described them as " so abstract " as to require unconventional thinking . Anthony Burch of Destructoid added that the puzzles were designed such that players would not become " frustrated or bored " . Lee and Rattray said there was little reason to return to the game after playing through , apart from a few minutes to experiment with the added iOS features . While Lee considered this a " niggle " , Rattray praised its brevity .
Windosill has influenced games including Alto 's Adventure , Blek , Donut County , and Monument Valley . Smith later made the 2015 interactive alphabet game Metamorphabet .
= Clint Grant =
Donald Clinton " Clint " Grant ( August 17 , 1916 – April 21 , 2010 ) was an American photographer and photojournalist based in Dallas , Texas . He was a staff photographer with The Dallas Morning News from 1949 to 1986 . He was particularly known for his " humorous and touching " images of animals and children . Grant 's photographs were published in numerous newspapers and magazines , including Paris Match , Newsweek and Time ; five of his feature photos were published on the back page of issues of Life magazine .
Grant was on assignment in November 1963 to cover President John F. Kennedy 's trip from Washington , D.C. , to Dallas . One of his photographs made the front page of the November 22 edition of the Morning News ; a copy is believed to be the last thing Kennedy ever signed . Grant also would make several pictures at Parkland Memorial Hospital within minutes after Kennedy 's motorcade arrived following the shooting in Dealey Plaza .
Grant was the recipient of multiple photojournalism awards during his career , including the Medallion for Excellence in Photojournalism . He retired from The Dallas Morning News in 1986 , but continued working in a semi @-@ retired capacity for more than a decade thereafter . He died in Dallas of heart failure at age 93 .
= = Early life = =
Clint Grant was born in Nashville , Tennessee . During his time at Vanderbilt University , economic troubles brought on by the Great Depression forced Grant 's family to move from Nashville ; they settled in Dallas , Texas , where his father was asked to lead the Art Department at the Morning News . Grant got a job with the Photo Department , but he was drafted into the United States Army before he could report to work . Grant served during World War II in Europe , where he never used a camera .
Grant married Myrtis Ann Halliburton in 1939 after a brief courtship ; they had known each other for ten months before they walked down the aisle . When they met , he worked behind the dairy counter at the local A & P market where she was a customer .
= = Photography and photojournalism = =
When Grant returned from overseas to Dallas in 1945 , all Morning News staff photographers resumed their duties , leaving him without a job . He ran a photography studio until 1949 , when a position at the newspaper became available .
During his early years with the News , Grant was one of up to ten staff photographers , including Jack Beers , Tom Dillard , Doris Jacoby and Joe Laird . He gained a reputation as a " kind and generous " mentor while with the newspaper , accompanying many young photographers on their early assignments ; one such staffer later recalled that whenever the Morning News needed a feature photograph , they would send " the trusty Clint Grant " to the zoo to work with an animal . His editor said Grant 's knack for putting both people and animals at ease for photographs came largely because he " had the patience of Job . "
Grant 's work also accompanied sports stories . A photograph of a boxing fan and a fallen fighter was named one of the best sports pictures of 1956 .
Grant taught classes in photography in the 1950s and ' 60s at North Texas University , where he served on the journalism advisory board . He was also the official photographer for the Dallas Zoo and the State Fair of Texas .
In an interview , Grant said he had his own tricks for making photos , especially of unwilling subjects at the sites of news stories . He would pre @-@ focus , pretend to not aim the camera , and " shoot from the hip . " He believed that any good photojournalist should have the skills necessary to do the job without needing to use the viewfinder .
One of Grant 's photos was blown up to eight feet and displayed for one year in Grand Central Terminal in New York . He also photographed the culinary creations of some of the best chefs in Dallas , who all knew Grant and respected his work . A menu item at the Casa Dominguez restaurant in Dallas was named for Grant .
Two collections of Grant 's work have been published : Moments from Life : An Exhibition of Photographs from the Grant Estate in 2000 , and 50 Years of the Best Photos of Clint Grant in 2001 . Moments from Life was published to accompany a traveling exhibit of 55 of Grant 's images . One of his photographs was included in Humor in News Photography , a collection published in 1961 . Grant was assigned to photograph some new cars and laid his hat atop one of the taillights ; the resulting image resembled " a Halloween spook , a Martian or the pilot of a satellite . " A Grant picture published by Life magazine was included in its 1988 compilation Life Smiles Back .
In addition to his feature photographs , Grant was known for his work accompanying hard news stories . Grant photographed every U.S. president and vice president starting with Harry S. Truman and through the administration of George H. W. Bush . He was present for the 1961 funeral for three @-@ time House Speaker Sam Rayburn , where he captured former Presidents Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower , President Kennedy , House Parliamentarian Clarence Cannon , and Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson standing together .
= = = John F. Kennedy = = =
= = = = Dallas , 1960 = = = =
John F. Kennedy and his running mate , Lyndon B. Johnson , were close to securing their spots on the Democrats ' ticket when they took a two @-@ day swing through the Dallas – Fort Worth area in September 1960 . Landing at Meacham Airport , the candidates rode in a motorcade through Dallas to the Chance Vought Aircraft factory , where Kennedy made an address . Clint Grant accompanied Kennedy and Johnson , making numerous photographs of the trip ; the pictures were developed , but kept in storage until their publication in 2013 .
= = = = Dallas , 1963 = = = =
Several days before President Kennedy made his November flight to Texas , Grant had been assigned to cover the state 's delegation in Washington , D.C. , then fly back with the White House press corps ; he was the only photographer to make the trip . At Dallas Love Field , Grant made the only published photograph from that visit of the president and Jacqueline Kennedy , Lyndon Johnson and Lady Bird Johnson , and Texas Governor John Connally and Nellie Connally , all in the same image . Another of Grant 's photos , from San Antonio 's Aerospace Medicine Center , was published on the front page of the Dallas Morning News on November 22 ; a copy was signed that morning by President Kennedy — across the photo , " To Jan White " — and is believed to be the last item he signed before he climbed aboard the presidential limousine for his intended trip to the Dallas Trade Mart .
Grant tried to find a seat in the third camera car in the motorcade — the one reserved for local photographers — but it was full ; he was then given a spot in the second camera car . Too far back to capture the shooting in Dealey Plaza , Grant 's car had just turned onto Houston Street from Main Street " when we heard one shot — pause — two shots in rapid succession . " Thinking someone was playing a prank , he gave it no further thought until he saw bystanders " prone on the ground " along Elm Street , where he made a photograph from the moving camera car of Bill and Gayle Newman lying atop their children on the grass .
Afterward , Grant suggested to his colleagues that they should catch up with the presidential limousine . Since he was the only Dallas @-@ based member of the press in camera car two , Grant directed his driver to the Trade Mart , where they saw " no cars , no activity " . A worker across the street said he saw a limousine speed past , accompanied by motorcycles with their sirens blaring ; Grant knew immediately that they were headed to Parkland Memorial Hospital . Once at Parkland , Grant started snapping pictures of anything he could , including Vice President Johnson 's car , and a man and a police officer " delivering a box thought to contain blood plasma . "
Grant later covered the trial of Jack Ruby . On the day the verdict was read , he believed his assignment was to photograph the jurors , but they " were too well shielded " .
Twenty @-@ five years after the assassination , Grant wrote that the events didn 't really sink in until after he 'd finished his work that day . " Then I was stunned , disappointed and embarrassed that it had happened — especially in my home town . I felt like crawling under a log . Although I wasn 't a great admirer , he was my President and I have great respect for whoever holds the office . "
= = = = Reporters ' panel , 1993 = = = =
Grant took part in " Reporters Remember 11 @-@ 22 @-@ 63 " at Southern Methodist University in Dallas in November 1993 . The panel discussion , broadcast on C @-@ SPAN as Journalists Remember the JFK Assassination , featured members of the press who spoke of their experiences on the day 30 years earlier that Kennedy was killed . From the dais , Grant recalled having asked his boss if he should go back to Washington , D.C. , with Kennedy 's body and being told no . Grant said he returned to Love Field to retrieve his luggage ahead of a planned visit to Vice President Johnson 's ranch nearby ; just as he reached the planes he saw Judge Sarah T. Hughes leaving Air Force One . " I 'd just missed her swearing in the new president . "
= = Later life and death = =
Grant retired his position with The Dallas Morning News in 1986 ; he stayed on in a semi @-@ retired capacity until 1997 . Five years later , Grant was awarded an honorary degree from Knox College in Illinois , which congratulated Grant for " more than 100 state , regional and national honors for photojournalism " . Associate Professor of Art Lynette Lombard lauded Grant for his body of work starting in 1963 and , in particular , his pictures " of world leaders , of children and of everyday life . " In her address , Lombard said , " Clint Grant 's work for the Dallas Morning News made him one of this country 's most important photojournalists . Through his photography , he has helped establish photojournalism as one of our most important forms of documentation of the public record " .
Clint Grant died of heart failure in his Dallas home in 2010 . Myrtis Grant , his wife of nearly 71 years , died in Dallas six months later .
= Battle of Machias ( 1777 ) =
The Battle of Machias ( August 13 – 14 , 1777 ) was an amphibious assault on the Massachusetts town of Machias ( in present @-@ day eastern Maine ) by British forces during the American Revolutionary War . Local militia aided by Indian allies successfully prevented British troops from landing . The raid , led by Commodore Sir George Collier was executed in an attempt to head off a planned second assault on Fort Cumberland , which had been besieged in November 1776 . The British forces landed below Machias , seized a ship , and raided a storehouse .
The outcome of the raid was disputed . Collier claimed that the action was successful in destroying military stores for an attack on Fort Cumberland ( although such stores had not been delivered to Machias ) , while the defenders claimed that they had successfully prevented the capture of Machias and driven off the British .
= = Background = =
The small community of Machias , located in the eastern district of Massachusetts that is now the state of Maine , was a persistent thorn in the side of British naval authorities since the start of the American Revolutionary War . In June 1775 its citizens rose up and seized a small naval vessel , and the community had ever since been a base for privateering .
In 1777 John Allan , an expatriate Nova Scotian , was authorized by the Second Continental Congress to organize an expedition to establish a Patriot presence in the western part of Nova Scotia ( present @-@ day New Brunswick ) . Although Congress authorized him to recruit as many as 3 @,@ 000 men , the Massachusetts government was only prepared to give him a colonel 's commission and authority to raise a regiment in eastern Massachusetts to establish a presence in the St. John River valley . Allan based his effort in Machias , and had by June landed some 40 men in the area . However , British authorities in Halifax had received some intelligence of Allan 's intended mission , and a larger British force arrived at the St. John River on June 23 . Men Allan had left at the settlements near the mouth of the river skirmished with the British but then withdrew upriver . Allan was forced to make a difficult overland journey back to Machias after his small force retreated up the river . He was joined on this journey by a number of sympathetic Maliseet Indians that he had persuaded to join the American cause . In early August the Massachusetts Provisional Congress voted to disband forces recruited for Allan 's expedition , because of the imminent threat posed by the army of General John Burgoyne in upstate New York .
Papers documenting Allan 's fairly elaborate plans , including a projected attack on Fort Cumberland , were taken during the action on the St. John River , and fell into the hands of Captain Sir George Collier , second in command to Admiral Mariot Arbuthnot in the naval station at Halifax . This spurred Collier to act , since there had already been one attempt on Fort Cumberland the previous year . He therefore organized an assault on Machias , Allan 's base of operations and the source of many of his recruits . Because Collier and the commander of land forces at Halifax , General Eyre Massey , did not get along , Collier decided to launch the expedition without taking on any British Army troops . He sailed from Halifax in late July in the frigate HMS Rainbow , accompanied by the brig HMS Blonde , planning to use the marines aboard those ships in ground operations . He was joined by the frigate HMS Mermaid and the sloop HMS Hope while making the passage to Machias .
The defense of Machias consisted of local militia under the command of Colonel Jonathan Eddy , the leader of the 1776 attack on Fort Cumberland . He had been warned that the British were organizing an attack . The militia laid a log boom across the Machias River , and constructed several earthen redoubts further upriver , armed with cannons taken from local privateers . The defense was coincidentally reinforced by 40 to 50 Maliseet , Passamaquoddy , and Penobscots that Colonel Allan had called to Machias to explain what had gone wrong with his expedition .
= = Battle = =
After leaving Halifax , Nova Scotia , Collier 's fleet arrived at the mouth of the river early on August 13 . He boarded 123 marines onto the Hope , and ordered her and the Blonde up the river . Word of this reached the militia , and 35 men mustered to oppose them . The ships reached the log boom , and a firefight began between the two forces . The militia resistance was sufficient to keep the British from attempting a landing that day . Early the next morning , under the cover of fog , the marines were landed . They cut the log boom , seized a sloop carrying lumber , and set fire to a storehouse , seizing stores of flour , rice , corn , shoes , and ammunition before returning to the ships .
The two ships then moved further up the river until they reached the town itself . All along the way they were harassed by musket and cannon fire from the shore , as the militia and their Indian allies positioned themselves to dispute possible landing sites . When darkness set in the Indians reportedly began chanting and shouting in an attempt to magnify their numbers . At this point , " To the great Surprise and Astonishment of every one [ , ] in Less than half an Hour after Coming to an Anchor , the Brig & Sloop Both Gote under way without firing a Gun " and " made down the River against the Tide of flood . " The Hope , however , ran aground while making its way downstream in the twilight . The militia hauled a swivel gun to a nearby shore , and peppered her with shot the next morning before she was refloated by the tide and made her way into Machias Bay .
= = Aftermath = =
Colonel Allan ascribed the militia 's success to British concerns that they might be entering a trap . He also grandiosely likened the encounter to another battle , writing " not an Action during the War Except Bunker Hill there was such a slaughter " . American estimates of British casualties ran from 40 to 100 , while claiming their own casualties at one killed and one wounded . The British reported their losses as three killed and 18 wounded , which were mainly incurred when the Hope grounded .
After departing from Machias , Collier cruised the Maine coast , capturing smaller American ships , and raided communities on the Sheepscot River . There he captured a frigate laden with mast timbers destined for France . In his report Collier declared the mission a success , and claimed to have successfully forestalled another invasion of Nova Scotia . He also believed that with another 100 men " the destruction [ of Machias ] would have been compleat " . General Massey , whose troops had been preparing to participate in the expedition but were excluded by Collier 's abrupt departure from Halifax , wrote that Collier " wanted the whole honour of destroying Machias " , and that he " stole out of Halifax , made a futile attack on Machias , was most shamefully drove from thence ... "
Machias was not attacked again during the war , although it became somewhat isolated when the British occupied Castine in 1779 , establishing the colony New Ireland . Collier returned to successfully defend New Ireland from the American patriot Penobscot Expedition . ( Machias and other parts of eastern Maine were successfully occupied by British forces during the War of 1812 , again the British created the colony New Ireland , but were returned to United States control after the war . )
= Insect wing =
Insect wings are adult outgrowths of the insect exoskeleton that enable insects to fly . They are found on the second and third thoracic segments ( the mesothorax and metathorax ) , and the two pairs are often referred to as the forewings and hindwings , respectively , though a few insects lack hindwings , even rudiments . The wings are strengthened by a number of longitudinal veins , which often have cross @-@ connections that form closed " cells " in the membrane ( extreme examples include Odonata and Neuroptera ) . The patterns resulting from the fusion and cross @-@ connection of the wing veins are often diagnostic for different evolutionary lineages and can be used for identification to the family or even genus level in many orders of insects .
The physical dynamics of flight are composed of direct and indirect flight . Those species that employ direct flight have wing muscles directly attached to the wing base , so that a small downward movement of the wing base lifts the wing itself upward . However , insects with indirect flight have muscles that attach to the thorax and deform it ; since the wings are extensions of the thoracic exoskeleton , the deformations of the thorax cause the wings to move as well .
The wings may be present in only one sex ( often the male ) in some groups such as velvet ants and Strepsiptera , or selectively lost in " workers " of social insects such as ants and termites . Rarely , the female is winged but the male not , as in fig wasps . In some cases , wings are produced only at particular times in the life cycle , such as in the dispersal phase of aphids . Beyond the mere presence / absence of wings , the structure and colouration will often vary with morphs , such as in the aphids , migratory phases of locusts and in polymorphic butterflies .
At rest , the wings may be held flat , or folded a number of times along specific patterns ; most typically , it is the hindwings which are folded , but in a very few groups such as vespid wasps , it is the forewings . How and why insect wings evolved is not well understood . Three main theories on the origins of insect flight are that wings developed from paranotal lobes , extensions of the thoracic terga ; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies ; and that insect wings arose from the fusion of pre @-@ existing endite and exite structures each with pre @-@ existing articulation and tracheation .
= = Morphology = =
= = = Internal = = =
Each of the wings consists of a thin membrane supported by a system of veins . The membrane is formed by two layers of integument closely apposed , while the veins are formed where the two layers remain separate and the lower cuticle may be thicker and more heavily sclerotized . Within each of the major veins there is a nerve and a trachea , and , since the cavities of the veins are connected with the hemocoel , hemolymph can flow into the wings . Also veins are the wing 's lumen , being an extension of the hemocoel , which contains the tracheae , nerves , and hemolymph . As the wing develops , the dorsal and ventral integumental layers become closely apposed over most of their area forming the wing membrane . The remaining areas form channels , the future veins , in which the nerves and tracheae may occur . The cuticle surrounding the veins becomes thickened and more heavily sclerotized to provide strength and rigidity to the wing . Two types of hair may occur on the wings : microtrichia , which are small and irregularly scattered , and macrotrichia , which are larger , socketed , and may be restricted to veins . The scales of Lepidoptera and Trichoptera are highly modified macrotrichia .
= = = Venation = = =
In some very small insects , the venation may be greatly reduced . In Chalcidoidea ( Chalcid wasps ) , for instance , only the subcosta and part of the radius are present . Conversely , an increase in venation may occur by the branching of existing veins to produce accessory veins or by the development of additional , intercalary veins between the original ones , as in the wings of Orthoptera ( grasshoppers and crickets ) . Large numbers of cross @-@ veins are present in some insects , and they may form a reticulum as in the wings of Odonata ( dragonflies and damselflies ) and at the base of the forewings of Tettigonioidea and Acridoidea ( katydids and grasshoppers respectively ) .
The archedictyon is the name given to a hypothetical scheme of wing venation proposed for the very first winged insect . It is based on a combination of speculation and fossil data . Since all winged insects are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor , the archediction represents the " template " that has been modified ( and streamlined ) by natural selection for 200 million years . According to current dogma , the archedictyon contained 6 – 8 longitudinal veins . These veins ( and their branches ) are named according to a system devised by John Comstock and George Needham — the Comstock @-@ Needham System :
Costa ( C ) – the leading edge of the wing
Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein ( behind the costa ) , typically unbranched
Radius ( R ) – third longitudinal vein , one to five branches reach the wing margin
Media ( M ) – fourth longitudinal vein , one to four branches reach the wing margin
Cubitus ( Cu ) – fifth longitudinal vein , one to three branches reach the wing margin
Anal veins ( A1 , A2 , A3 ) – unbranched veins behind the cubitus
The costa ( C ) is the leading marginal vein on most insects , although sometimes there is a small vein above the costa called the precosta , although in almost all extant insects , the precosta is fused with the costa ; The costa rarely ever branches because is at the leading edge , which is associated at its base with the humeral plate . The trachea of the costal vein is perhaps a branch of the subcostal trachea . Located after the costa is the third vein , the subcosta , which branches into two separate veins : the anterior and posterior . The base of the subcosta is associated with the distal end of the neck of the first axillary ( see section below ) . The fourth vein is the radius ( R ) , which is branched into five separate veins . The radius is generally the strongest vein of the wing . Toward the middle of the wing , it forks into a first undivided branch ( R1 ) and a second branch , called the radial sector ( Ra ) , which subdivides dichotomously into four distal branches ( R2 , R3 , R4 , R5 ) . Basally , the radius is flexibly united with the anterior end of the second axillary ( 2Ax ) .
The fifth vein of the wing is the media . In the archetype pattern ( A ) , the media forks into two main branches : a media anterior ( MA ) , which divides into two distal branches ( MA1 , MA2 ) , and a median sector , or media posterior ( MP ) , which has four terminal branches ( M1 , M2 , M3 , M4 ) . In most modern insects the media anterior has been lost , and the usual " media " is the four @-@ branched media posterior with the common basal stem . In the Ephemerida , according to present interpretations of the wing venation , both branches of the media are retained , while in Odonata the persisting media is the primitive anterior branch . The stem of the media is often united with the radius , but when it occurs as a distinct vein its base is associated with the distal median plate ( m ' ) or is continuously sclerotized with the latter . The cubitus , the sixth vein of the wing , is primarily two branched . The primary forking of the takes place near the base of the wing , forming the two principal branches ( Cu1 , Cu2 ) . The anterior branch may break up into a number of secondary branches , but commonly it forks into two distal branches . The second branch of the cubitus ( Cu2 ) in Hymenoptera , Trichoptera , and Lepidoptera was mistaken by Comstock and Needham for the first anal . Proximally the main stem of the cubitus is associated with the distal median plate ( m ' ) of the wing base .
Postcubitus ( Pcu ) is the first anal of the Comstock and Needham system . The Postcubitus , however , has the status of an independent wing vein and should be recognized as such . In nymphal wings , its trachea arises between the cubital trachea and the group of vannal tracheae . In the mature wings of more generalized insect the Postcubitus is always associated proximally with the cubitus and is never intimately connected with the flexor sclerite ( 3Ax ) of the wing base . In Neuroptera , Mecoptera , and Trichoptera the postcubitus may be more closely associated with the vannal veins , but its base is always free from the latter . The postcubitus is usually unbranched ; it is primitively two branched . The vannal veins ( lV to nV ) are the anal veins that are immediately associated with the third axillary , and which are directly affected by the movement of this sclerite that brings about the flexion of the wings . In number the vannal veins vary. from 1 to 12 , according to the expansion of the vannal area of the wing . The vannal tracheae usually arise from a common tracheal stem in nymphal insects , and the veins are regarded as branches of a single anal vein . Distally the vannal veins are either simple or branched . Jugal Veins ( J ) of the jugal lobe of the wing is often occupied by a network of irregular veins , or it may be entirely membranous ; but sometimes it contains one or two distinct small veins , the first jugal vein , or vena arcuata , and the second jugal vein , or vena cardinalis ( 2J ) .
C @-@ Sc cross @-@ veins – run between the costa and subcosta
R cross @-@ veins – run between adjacent branches of the radius
R @-@ M cross @-@ veins – run between the radius and media
M @-@ Cu cross @-@ veins – run between the media and cubitus
All the veins of the wing are subject to secondary forking and to union by cross @-@ veins . In some orders of insects the cross @-@ veins are so numerous that the whole venational pattern becomes a close network of branching veins and cross @-@ veins . Ordinarily , however , there is a definite number of cross @-@ veins having specific locations . The more constant cross @-@ veins are the humeral cross @-@ vein ( h ) between costa and subcosta , the radial cross @-@ vein ( r ) between R and the first fork of Rs , the sectorial cross @-@ vein ( s ) between the two forks of R8 , the median cross @-@ vein ( m – m ) between M2 and M3 , and the mediocubital cross @-@ vein ( m @-@ cu ) between media and cubitus .
The veins of insect wings are characterized by a convex @-@ concave placement , such as those seen in mayflies ( i.e. , concave is " down " and convex is " up " ) which alternate regularly and by its triadic type of branching ; whenever a vein forks there is always an interpolated vein of the opposite position between the two branches . A concave vein will fork into two concave veins ( with the interpolated vein being convex ) and the regular alteration of the veins is preserved . The veins of the wing appear to fall into an undulating pattern according to whether they have a tendency to fold up or down when the wing is relaxed . The basal shafts of the veins are convex , but each vein forks distally into an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch . Thus the costa and subcosta are regarded as convex and concave branches of a primary first vein , Rs is the concave branch of the radius , posterior media the concave branch of the media , Cu1 and Cu2 are respectively convex and concave , while the primitive Postcubitus and the first vannal have each an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch . The convex or concave nature of the veins has been used as evidence in determining the identities of the persisting distal branches of the veins of modern insects , but it has not been demonstrated to be consistent for all wings .
= = = Fields = = =
Wing areas are delimited and subdivided by fold @-@ lines along which the wing can fold , and flexion @-@ lines along which the wing can flex during flight . The fundamental distinction between the flexion @-@ lines and the fold @-@ lines is often blurred , as fold @-@ lines may permit some flexibility or vice versa . Two constants that are found in nearly all insect wings are the claval ( a flexion @-@ line ) and jugal folds ( or fold line ) ; forming variable and unsatisfactory boundaries . Wing foldings can very complicated , with transverse folding occurs in the hind wings of Dermaptera and Coleoptera , and in some insects the anal area can be folded like a fan . There are about four different fields found on the insect wings :
Remigium
Anal area ( vannus )
Jugal area
Axillary area
Alula
Most veins and crossveins occur in the anterior area of the remigium , which is responsible for most of the flight , powered by the thoracic muscles . The posterior portion of the remigium is sometimes called the clavus ; the two other posterior fields are the anal and jugal ares . When the vannal fold has the usual position anterior to the group of anal veins , the remigium contains the costal , subcostal , radial , medial , cubital , and postcubital veins . In the flexed wing the remigiumturns posteriorly on the flexible basal connection of the radius with the second axillary , and the base of the mediocubital field is folded medially on the axillary region along the plica basalis ( bf ) between the median plates ( m , m ' ) of the wing base .
The vannus is bordered by the vannal fold , which typically occurs between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein . In Orthoptera it usually has this position . In the forewing of Blattidae , however , the only fold in this part of the wing lies immediately before the postcubitus . In Plecoptera the vannal fold is posterior to the postcubitus , but proximally it crosses the base of the first vannal vein . In the cicada the vannal fold lies immediately behind the first vannal vein ( lV ) . These small variations in the actual position of the vannal fold , however , do not affect the unity of action of the vannal veins , controlled by the flexor sclerite ( 3Ax ) , in the flexion of the wing . In the hind wings of most Orthoptera a secondary vena dividens forms a rib in the vannal fold . The vannus is usually triangular in shape , and its veins typically spread out from the third axillary like the ribs of a fan . Some of the vannal veins may be branched , and secondary veins may alternate with the primary veins . The vannal region is usually best developed in the hind wing , in which it may be enlarged to form a sustaining surface , as in Plecoptera and Orthoptera . The great fanlike expansions of the hind wings of Acrididae are clearly the vannal regions , since their veins are all supported on the third axillary sclerites on the wing bases , though Martynov ( 1925 ) ascribes most of the fan areas in Acrididae to the jugal regions of the wings . The true jugum of the acridid wing is represented only by the small membrane ( Ju ) mesad of the last vannal vein . The jugum is more highly developed in some other Orthoptera , as in the Mantidae . In most of the higher insects with narrow wings the vannus becomes reduced , and the vannal fold is lost , but even in such cases the flexed wing may bend along a line between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein .
The Jugal Region , or Neala , is a region of the wing that is usually a small membranous area proximal to the base of the vannus strengthened by a few small , irregular veinlike thickenings ; but when well developed it is a distinct section of the wing and may contain one or two jugal veins . When the jugal area of the forewing is developed as a free lobe , it projects beneath the humeral angle of the hind wing and thus serves to yoke the two wings together . In the Jugatae group of Lepidoptera it bears a long finger @-@ like lobe . The jugal region was termed the neala ( " new wing " ) because it is evidently a secondary and recently developed part of the wing .
The axillary region is region containing the axillary sclerites has in general the form of a scalene triangle . The base of the triangle ( a @-@ b ) is the hinge of the wing with the body ; the apex ( c ) is the distal end of the third axillary sclerite ; the longer side is anterior to the apex . The point d on the anterior side of the triangle marks the articulation of the radial vein with the second axillary sclerite . The line between d and c is the plica basalis ( bf ) , or fold of the wing at the base of the mediocubital field .
At the posterior angle of the wing base in some Diptera there is a pair of membranous lobes ( squamae , or calypteres ) known as the alula . The alula is well developed in the house fly . The outer squama ( c ) arises from the wing base behind the third axillary sclerite ( 3Ax ) and evidently represents the jugal lobe of other insects ( A , D ) ; the larger inner squama ( d ) arises from the posterior scutellar margin of the tergum of the wing @-@ bearing segment and forms a protective , hoodlike canopy over the halter . In the flexed wing the outer squama of the alula is turned upside down above the inner squama , the latter not being affected by the movement of the wing . In many Diptera a deep incision of the anal area of the wing membrane behind the single vannal vein sets off a proximal alar lobe distal to the outer squama of the alula .
= = = Joints = = =
The various movements of the wings , especially in insects that flex the wings horizontally over the back when at rest , demand a more complicated articular structure at the wing base than a mere hinge of the wing with the body . Each wing is attached to the body by a membranous basal area , but the articular membrane contains a number of small articular sclerites , collectively known as the pteralia . The pteralia include an anterior humeral plate at the base of the costal vein , a group of axillaries ( Ax ) associated with the subcostal , radial , and vannal veins , and two less definite median plates ( m , m ' ) at the base of the mediocubital area . The axillaries are specifically developed only in the wing @-@ flexing insects , where they constitute the flexor mechanism of the wing operated by the flexor muscle arising on the pleuron . Characteristic of the wing base is also a small lobe on the anterior margin of the articular area proximal to the humeral plate , which , in the forewing of some insects , is developed into a large , flat , scale @-@ like flap , the tegula , overlapping the base of the wing . Posteriorly the articular membrane often forms an ample lobe between the wing and the body , and its margin is generally thickened and corrugated , giving the appearance of a ligament , the so @-@ called axillary cord , continuous mesally with the posterior marginal scutellar fold of the tergal plate bearing the wing .
The articular sclerites , or pteralia , of the wing base of the wing @-@ flexing insects and their relations to the body and the wing veins , shown diagrammatically , are as follows :
Humeral plates
First Axillary
Second Axillary
Third Axillary
Fourth Axillary
Median plates ( m , m ' )
The humeral plate is usually a small sclerite on the anterior margin of the wing base , movable and articulated with the base of the costal vein . Odonata have their humeral plate greatly enlarged , with two muscles arising from the episternum inserted into the Humeral plates and two from the edge of the epimeron inserted into the axillary plate .
The first axillary sclerite ( lAx ) is the anterior hinge plate of the wing base . Its anterior part is supported on the anterior notal wing process of the tergum ( ANP ) ; its posterior part articulates with the tergal margin . The anterior end of the sclerite is generally produced as a slender arm , the apex of which ( e ) is always associated with the base of the subcostal vein ( Sc ) , though it is not united with the latter . The body of the sclerite articulates laterally with the second axillary . The second axillary sclerite ( 2Ax ) is more variable in form than the first axillary , but its mechanical relations are no less definite . It is obliquely hinged to the outer margin of the body of the first axillary , and the radial vein ( R ) is always flexibly attached to its anterior end ( d ) . The second axillary presents both a dorsal and a ventral sclerotization in the wing base ; its ventral surface rests upon the fulcral wing process of the pleuron . The second axillary , therefore , is the pivotal sclerite of the wing base , and it specifically manipulates the radial vein .
The third axillary sclerite ( 3Ax ) lies in the posterior part of the articular region of the wing . Its form is highly variable and often irregular , but the third axillary is the sclerite on which is inserted the flexor muscle of the wing ( D ) . Mesally it articulates anteriorly ( f ) with the posterior end of the second axillary , and posteriorly ( b ) with the posterior wing process of the tergum ( PNP ) , or with a small fourth axillary when the latter is present . Distally the third axillary is prolonged in a process which is always associated with the bases of the group of veins in the anal region of the wing here termed the vannal veins ( V ) . The third axillary , therefore , is usually the posterior hinge plate of the wing base and is the active sclerite of the flexor mechanism , which directly manipulates the vannal veins . The contraction of the flexor muscle ( D ) revolves the third axillary on its mesal articulations ( b , f ) and thereby lifts its distal arm ; this movement produces the flexion of the wing . The Fourth Axillary sclerite is not a constant element of the wing base . When present it is usually a small plate intervening between the third axillary and the posterior notal wing process and is probably a detached piece of the latter .
The median plates ( m , m ' ) are also sclerites that are not so definitely differentiated as specific plates as are the three principal axillaries , but nevertheless they are important elements of the flexor apparatus . They lie in the median area of the wing base distal to the second and third axillaries and are separated from each other by an oblique line ( bf ) which forms a prominent convex fold during flexion of the wing . The proximal plate ( m ) is usually attached to the distal arm of the third axillary and perhaps should be regarded as a part of the latter . The distal plate ( m ' ) is less constantly present as a distinct sclerite and may be represented by a general sclerotization of the base of the mediocubital field of the wing . When the veins of this region are distinct at their bases , they are associated with the outer median plate .
= = = Muscles = = =
The muscles that control flight in insects can take up to 10 % to 30 % of the total body mass . The muscles that control flight vary with the two types of flight found in insects : indirect and direct . Insects that use first , indirect , have the muscles attach to the tergum instead of the wings , as the name suggests . As the muscles contract , the thoracic box becomes distorted , transferring the energy to the wing . There are two " bundles " of muscles , those that span parallel to the tergum , the dorsolongitudinals , and those that are attached to the tegum and extend to the sternum , the dorsoventrals . In direct muscle , the connection is directly from the pleuron ( thoracic wall ) to individual sclerites located at the base of the wing . The subalar and basalar muscles have ligament attachments to the subalar and basalar sclerites . Here resilin , a highly elastic material , forms the ligaments connecting flight muscles to the wing apparatus .
In more derived orders of insects , such as Diptera ( flies ) and Hymenoptera ( wasp ) , the indirect muscles occupy the greatest volume of the pterothorax and function as the primary source of power for the wingstroke . Contraction of the dorsolongitudinal muscles causes the severe arching of the notum which depresses the wing while contraction of the dorsoventral muscles causes opposite motion of notum . Other more primitive insects , such as Orthoptera ( locusts ) , Coleoptera ( beetles ) , and Odonata ( dragonflies ) use direct muscles that are responsible for developing the needed power for the up and down strokes .
Insect wing muscle is a strictly aerobic tissue . Per unit protein it consumes fuel and oxygen at rates taking place in a very concentrated and highly organized tissue so that the steady @-@ state rates per unit volume represent an absolute record in biology . The fuel and oxygen rich blood is carried to the muscles through diffusion occurring in large amounts , in order to maintain the high level of energy used during flight . Many wing muscles are large and may be as large as 10 mm in length and 2 mm in width . Moreover , in some Diptera the fibres are of giant dimensions . For instance , in the very active Rutilia , the cross @-@ section is 1800 µm long and more than 500 µm wide . The transport of fuel and oxygen from the surroundings to the sites of consumption and the reverse transport of carbon dioxide therefore represent a challenge to the biologist both in relation to transport in the liquid phase and in the intricate system of air tubes , i.e. in the tracheal system .
= = = Coupling , folding , and other features = = =
In many insect species , the fore and hind wing are coupled together , which improves the aerodynamic efficiency of flight . The most common coupling mechanism ( e.g. , Hymenoptera and Trichoptera ) is a row of small hooks on the forward margin of the hind wing , or " hamuli " , which lock onto the fore wing , keeping them held together ( hamulate coupling ) . In some other insect species ( e.g. , Mecoptera , Lepidoptera , and some Trichoptera ) the jugal lobe of the fore wing covers a portion of the hind wing ( jugal coupling ) , or the margins of the fore and hind wing overlap broadly ( amplexiform coupling ) , or the hindwing bristles , or frenulum , hook under the retaining structure or retinaculum on the forewing .
When at rest , the wings are held over the back in most insects , which may involve longitudinal folding of the wing membrane and sometimes also transverse folding . Folding may sometimes occur along the flexion lines . Though fold lines may be transverse , as in the hind wings of beetles and earwigs , they are normally radial to the base of the wing , allowing adjacent sections of a wing to be folded over or under each other . The commonest fold line is the jugal fold , situated just behind the third anal vein , although , most Neoptera have a jugal fold just behind vein 3A on the forewings . It is sometimes also present on the hindwings . Where the anal area of the hindwing is large , as in Orthoptera and Blattodea , the whole of this part may be folded under the anterior part of the wing along a vannal fold a little posterior to the claval furrow . In addition , in Orthoptera and Blattodea , the anal area is folded like a fan along the veins , the anal veins being convex , at the crests of the folds , and the accessory veins concave . Whereas the claval furrow and jugal fold are probably homologous in different species , the vannal fold varies in position in different taxa . Folding is produced by a muscle arising on the pleuron and inserted into the third axillary sclerite in such a way that , when it contracts , the sclerite pivots about its points of articulation with the posterior notal process and the second axillary sclerite .
As a result , the distal arm of the third axillary sclerite rotates upwards and inwards , so that finally its position is completely reversed . The anal veins are articulated with this sclerite in such a way that when it moves they are carried with it and become flexed over the back of the insect . Activity of the same muscle in flight affects the power output of the wing and so it is also important in flight control . In orthopteroid insects , the elasticity of the cuticle causes the vannal area of the wing to fold along the veins . Consequently , energy is expended in unfolding this region when the wings are moved to the flight position . In general , wing extension probably results from the contraction of muscles attached to the basalar sclerite or , in some insects , to the subalar sclerite .
= = Flight = =
Two groups of relatively large insects , the Ephemeroptera ( mayflies ) and the Odonata ( dragonflies and damselflies ) have the flight muscles attached directly to their wings ; the wings can beat no faster than the rate at which nerves can send impulses to command the muscles to beat . All other living winged insects fly using a different mechanism , involving indirect flight muscles which cause the thorax to vibrate ; the wings can beat faster than the rate at which the muscles receive nerve impulses . This mechanism evolved once , and is the defining feature ( synapomorphy ) for the infraclass Neoptera .
There are two basic aerodynamic models of insect flight . Most insects use a method that creates a spiralling leading edge vortex . Some very small insects use the fling and clap or Weis @-@ Fogh mechanism in which the wings clap together above the insect 's body and then fling apart . As they fling open , the air gets sucked in and creates a vortex over each wing . This bound vortex then moves across the wing and , in the clap , acts as the starting vortex for the other wing . Circulation and lift are increased , at the price of wear and tear on the wings .
Many insects can hover by beating their wings rapidly , requiring sideways stabilization as well as lift .
A few insects use gliding flight , without the use of thrust . It is found in some species of arboreal ants , known as gliding ants .
= = Evolution = =
Sometime in the Carboniferous Period , some 350 million years ago , when there were only two major land masses , insects began flying . How and why insect wings developed , however , is not well understood , largely due to the scarcity of appropriate fossils from the period of their development in the Lower Carboniferous .
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29 , 2010 and Madrid , Spain on June 4 , 2010 .
Cyrus performed the song during the Gypsy Heart Tour .
= = Release history = =
= = Charts = =
= Wake Up / Escape from the Citadel =
" Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " are the first two episodes of the sixth season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . " Wake Up " was written and storyboarded by Andy Ristaino and Cole Sanchez , whereas " Escape from the Citadel " was storyboarded by Tom Herpich and Steve Wolfhard . Both episodes ' stories were developed by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Adam Muto . The two episodes originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 21 , 2014 . The episodes guest star Kumail Nanjiani as Prismo , M. Emmet Walsh as the Cosmic Owl , Miguel Ferrer as Death , Ron Perlman as the Lich , and Stephen Root as Martin .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In " Wake Up " , Finn and Jake try to commit a cosmic crime in order to gain access to a multiverse prison called the Citadel to meet Finn 's father is trapped . Prismo ( voiced by Nanjiani ) offers to help them , but he is murdered by the Lich ( voiced by Perlman ) . In " Escape from the Citadel " , Jake , Finn , and the Lich are transported to the Citadel , where Finn and Jake meet Martin ( voiced by Root ) , Finn 's father , who is not what Finn expected . The three are forced to run from the Lich , as he begins to destroy the Citadel . At this time , Martin flees , and Finn tries to give chase , but his grass sword takes over his entire arm , causing Finn to lose it . Despite Finn 's loss of his father and limb , Finn and Jake are vindicated when the Lich is turned into a giant baby .
Both " Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " , were met with critical acclaim . Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times felt that the episode was exciting , whereas Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club applauded the episode 's use of humor as a way of balancing out the heavier aspects of the plot . Many of the reviews also praised Nanjiani 's return as Prismo . Reviews were also complimentary towards the darker nature of " Escape from the Citadel " . Both episodes were watched by 3 @.@ 321 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
= = = " Wake Up " = = =
Jake is partying with Prismo ( voiced by Kumail Nanjiani ) . At the party , Peppermint Butler ( voiced by Steve Little ) and Death ( voiced by Miguel Ferrer ) note that the Lich ( voiced by Ron Perlman ) is sitting ominously in the corner . Prismo explains that , after the events of an earlier episode , the Lich , an entity driven by the pursuit of causing mass death , is now harmless , functioning like a machine without a purpose . Later , Finn confronts Jake about the revelation that his father is still alive . Jake convinces him to ask Prismo to send them to the Citadel . Prismo explains that the only way to gain access to the Citadel is to commit a cosmic crime ; he instructs Finn and Jake to find and wake a certain old man who is asleep in the debris surrounding his Time Room .
It is revealed that this man is the actual , corporeal Prismo , and the version Finn and Jake are familiar with is merely a dream . Prismo explains that killing a wishmaster — as in , waking up the man — is a cosmic crime , but that he will return when his corporal body falls back asleep . At that instant , the Lich springs into action , physically waking and destroying Prismo , killing him . Suddenly , an interdimensional being arrives and begins taking the Lich to the Citadel , to which Finn and Jake give chase .
= = = " Escape from the Citadel " = = =
Finn and Jake grab hold of the captured Lich as he is transported to the Citadel . Once there , they discover a human figure encased in a crystal @-@ like substance , who they conclude must be Finn 's father . Meanwhile , the Lich uses his malevolent magic to begin melting the Citadel and turning its prisoners to his will . Finn 's father , Martin ( voiced by Stephen Root ) , is eventually freed by the Lich 's actions , and as the Citadel guardians battle the escaping prisoners he , Finn , and Jake try to escape . One of the Citadel guardians , however , uses its laser and melts away part of Martin 's flesh on his leg . Finn retrieves some guardian blood , which repairs and heals Martin . However , Finn starts to realize that his father is not the hero that he thought he would be .
Soon thereafter , Martin leaves Finn and Jake to save himself and the Lich appears , ordering Finn to fall . He delivers a monologue , explaining his desire to extinguish all life in the universe . Finn , overcome by the Lich 's power , feebly tries to fight back and ends up throwing some of the guardian blood on the Lich , which causes him to grotesquely begin growing flesh . With the Lich disposed of , Finn pursues his father , who is hitching a ride with escaping criminals on a loose piece of the Citadel , still held on by a vein . One of the criminals cuts the vein , but Finn holds on , causing his grass sword to envelope his arm and eventually rip away , severing it . Martin escapes , and Finn and Jake share a somber moment . Jake eventually reveals to Finn that the Lich has now been turned into a large humanoid baby ; the two leave him on the doorstep of Tree Trunks ( voiced by Polly Lou Livingston ) and Mr. Pig 's house .
= = Production = =
" Wake Up " was written and storyboarded by Andy Ristaino and Cole Sanchez , whereas " Escape from the Citadel " was storyboarded by Tom Herpich and Steve Wolfhard ; both episodes ' stories were developed by Kent Osborne , Pendleton Ward , Jack Pendarvis , and Adam Muto . Art direction was handled by Nick Jennings , whereas supervising direction was helmed by Elizabeth Ito ( for " Wake Up " ) and Muto ( for " Escape from the Citadel " ) . The design for the Citadel , which is featured in both episodes , was crafted by series storyboard artist Tom Herpich , who used Google SketchUp to design a 3 @-@ D model of the structure .
" Wake Up " featured the return of Kumail Nanjiani as Prismo , M. Emmet Walsh as the Cosmic Owl , and Miguel Ferrer as Death and one of the heads of Grob Gob Glob Grod . " Escape from the Citadel " featured the introduction of Finn 's father , Martin is voiced by Stephen Root . Root had previously voiced the characters Grimby and the Royal Tart Toter in the second season episode " The Other Tarts " . Ethan Maher voiced the baby version of the Lich . Herpich himself played the part of the Void Caster .
= = Cultural references = =
When the Lich is addressing Finn , he refers to the escaped criminals as " Ancients " , a reference to one of the many name for deities in H.P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu mythos . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club wrote that the transformation of Finn 's arm was similar to Tetsuo Shima 's transformation in the anime Akira . Jason Krell of io9 described similarities between the scene immediately following the loss of Finn 's arm and the end of the 1980 film The Empire Strikes Back .
= = Reception = =
" Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " , first aired on Cartoon Network on April 21 , 2014 . The episodes were viewed by 3 @.@ 321 million viewers and scored a 0 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episodes were seen by 0 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds who were watching television at the time of the episodes ' airing . Furthermore , the episode was the 23rd most @-@ watched cable program on the night it aired . These episodes were the last to have been watched by over 3 million viewers .
Both episodes received largely positive reviews from television critics . Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times , wrote that " Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " form a " beautiful , strange and exciting " two @-@ part special episode of the series . He specifically cited the plot as a highlight , as well as the return to the series by Nanjiani as Prismo . Eric Kohn of IndieWire awarded both this episode and " Escape from the Citadel " an " A – " , writing that while the episode featured extremely dark material , it was never presented in a way so as to drive viewers away . Kohn wrote highly of the comedy and naturalistic dialogue that took place during Prismo 's opening party in " Wake Up " , and felt that the addition about Prismo 's origins helped the show slip " in a certain wise gaze [ concerning ] the fog of time " . In regards to " Escape from the Citadel " , he also noted that " the fate of the Lich takes an amusing new turn , " and that the storyline concerning " Finn 's cursed sword arm — an ingredient that has festered in the sidelines for weeks — reaches a beguiling new state . "
Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club awarded " Wake Up " and " Escape from the Citadel " an " A " . Sava praised Nanjiani 's " delightfully low @-@ key " performance in the former , noting that his " soft , smooth voice is perfect for a character that is so laid back he 's completely flat , and his casual delivery of ominous lines helps keep the tone light as the material gets heavier . " Furthermore , he noted that the jokes were more pronounced in this episode , making the opening scene during Prismo 's party that much funnier . Sava felt that the Lich 's monologue to Finn in " Escape from the Citadel " was " even creepier thanks to Ron Perlman 's gravely voice for The Lich and the evocative staging by writers / storyboard artists Tom Herpich and Steve Wolfhard " , who were able to " achieve a fascinating combination of terror and hope when Finn touches The Lich with Guardian blood and starts a grotesquely stunning transformation that strips the villain of his power by making him a giant baby . " Sava also complimented the episode for being full of harsh realizations concerning Finn 's father and the vulnerability of his body . Ultimately he concluded that " the developments of these two episodes dramatically alter the series ' status quo to give this season an added boost of momentum from the very beginning . "
= The Game ( mind game ) =
The Game is a mental game where the objective is to avoid thinking about The Game itself . Thinking about The Game constitutes a loss , which must be announced each time it occurs . It is impossible to win most versions of The Game . Depending on the variation of The Game , the whole world , or all those aware of the game , are playing it all the time . Tactics have been developed to increase the number of people aware of The Game and thereby increase the number of losses .
Though the origins of The Game are unknown , a game featuring ironic processing was played by Leo Tolstoy in 1840 .
= = Gameplay = =
There are three commonly reported rules to The Game :
Everyone in the world is playing The Game . ( Sometimes narrowed to : " Everybody in the world who knows about The Game is playing The Game " , or alternatively , " You are always playing The Game . " ) A person cannot choose to not play The Game ; it does not require consent to play and one can never stop playing .
Whenever one thinks about The Game , one loses .
Losses must be announced . This can be verbally , with a phrase such as " I just lost The Game " , or in any other way : for example , via Facebook . Some people may have signals or expressions that remind others of The Game .
What constitutes thinking about The Game is not always clear . If one discusses The Game without explicitly realizing that they have lost , this may or may not constitute a loss . If someone says " What is The Game ? " before understanding the rules , whether they have lost is up for interpretation . According to some interpretations , one does not lose when someone else announces their loss , although the second rule implies that one loses regardless of what made them think about The Game . After a player has announced a loss , or after one thinks of The Game , some variants allow for a grace period between three seconds to thirty minutes to forget about the game , during which the player cannot lose the game again .
The common rules do not define a point at which The Game ends . However , some players state that The Game ends when the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom announces on television that " The Game is up . "
Most variations of The Game do not allow for a person to win . One interpretation is that one is winning the game whenever they are not thinking about it . An xkcd comic reads : " You just won The Game " and tells players , " You 're free ! " Another is that one has won when they have completely forgotten about The Game .
= = = Strategies = = =
Strategies focus on making others lose The Game . Common methods include saying " The Game " out loud or writing about The Game on a hidden note , in graffiti in public places , or on banknotes . Associations may be made with The Game , especially over time , so that one thing inadvertently causes one to lose . Some players enjoy thinking of elaborate pranks that will cause others to lose the game .
Other strategies involve merchandise : T @-@ shirts , buttons , mugs , posters and bumper stickers have been created to advertise The Game . The Game is also spread via social media websites such as Facebook and Twitter .
= = Origin = =
The origins of The Game are uncertain . In a 2008 news article , Justine Wettschreck says The Game has probably been around since the early 1990s , and may have originated in Australia or England . One theory is that it was invented in London in 1996 when two British engineers , Dennis Begley and Gavin McDowall , missed their last train and had to spend the night on the platform ; they attempted to avoid thinking about their situation and whoever thought about it first lost . Another theory also traces The Game to London in 1996 , when it was created by Jamie Miller " to annoy people " . Journalist Mic Wright of The Next Web recalled playing The Game at school in the late 1990s .
However , The Game may have been created in 1977 by members of the Cambridge University Science Fiction Society when attempting to create a game that did not fit in with game theory . A blog post by Paul Taylor in August 2002 described The Game ; Taylor claimed to have " found out about [ the game ] online about 6 months ago " . This is the earliest known reference on the internet .
The Game is most commonly spread through the internet , such as via Facebook or Twitter , or by word of mouth .
= = Psychology = =
The Game is an example of ironic processing ( also known as the " White Bear Principle " ) , in which attempts to avoid certain thoughts make those thoughts more persistent . There are early examples of ironic processing : in 1840 , Leo Tolstoy played the " white bear game " with his brother , where he would " stand in a corner and not think of the white bear " . Fyodor Dostoyevsky mentioned the same game in 1863 in the essay Winter Notes on Summer Impressions .
One psychological study of The Game by Cory Antiel involved 12 participants ; they were asked to record when and why they lost over four weeks . The study itself caused 57 % of participants ' losses ; Antiel claimed The Zeigarnik effect contributed to this . The participants recorded vastly different numbers of losses ; common reasons included " references to taking notes " , " references to time " and " seeing or thinking about other people who also play The Game " . Priming and sensitization played a large part in losses ; no strong correlation with habituation was found .
= = Reception = =
The Game has been described as challenging and fun to play , and as pointless , childish and infuriating . In some Internet forums , such as Something Awful and GameSpy , and several schools , including one in Ohio , The Game has even been banned . The Game has been described as a game , a meme and a " mind virus " .
Newspapers , including Metro , Rutland Herald , The Canadian Press and De Pers , have contained articles about The Game ; Wikinews has interviewed the owner of LoseTheGame.com. Webcomics Saturday Morning Breakfast Cereal , xkcd and Real Life have featured sketches relating to The Game . YouTube videos about The Game have attracted hundreds of thousands of views . In 2008 , the largest Facebook group relating to The Game had over 200 @,@ 000 members . The knowledge engine WolframAlpha answers the query " What is ' The Game ' ? " with the response " You just lost . "
Several celebrities know about The Game . Actor Simon Pegg has tweeted about The Game . Alex Baker has talked about The Game on multiple occasions on Kerrang Radio and Facebook .
Other attempts to increase losses of The Game have involved hoaxes and hacking . The 2009 Time 100 poll was manipulated by the hacktivist group Anonymous , so that the top 21 people 's names formed an acrostic for " marblecake also the game " , referencing The Game .
= Waptia =
Waptia fieldensis is an extinct species of arthropod from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale Lagerstätte of Canada . It grew to a length of about 8 cm ( 3 in ) and resembled modern shrimp in both morphology and habit . It had a large bivalved carapace and a segmented body terminating into a pair of tail flaps . It was an active swimmer , feeding on organic particles it gathers from the seafloor substrate . It is also one of the oldest animals with direct evidence of brood care .
Based on the number of individuals , Waptia fieldensis is the third most abundant arthropod from the Burgess Shale Formation , with thousands of specimens collected . It was among the first fossils found by the American paleontologist Charles D. Walcott in 1909 . He described it in 1912 and named it after two mountains near the discovery site – Mount Wapta and Mount Field .
Waptia fieldensis is the only species classified under the genus Waptia . Although it bears a remarkable resemblance to modern crustaceans , its taxonomic affinities remain unclear . It is currently classified as a stem group crustacean and tentatively included in the clade Crustaceomorpha .
= = Description = =
Waptia fieldensis had a maximum body length of 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) . The exoskeleton was very thin and easily distorted from fossilisation . It possessed a large bivalved carapace that was narrow at the front with wide posterior margins that covered the cephalon and most of the thorax . The cephalon had five short somites ( body segments ) with three to five pairs of small and poorly preserved feeding appendages .
A single pair of long and slender antennae is present , the segments of which are relatively few and elongated . They were most probably used as sensory organs , with most segments possessing small setae ( bristles ) . A pair of short lobed structures ( possible antennules ) are also present , their position corresponding to the location of the second pair of antennae in modern @-@ day crustaceans . In between them is a small triangular rostral plate with a narrow and sharp central ridge .
The well @-@ developed compound eyes were stalked . The striking morphological similarities of the eyes of Waptia fieldensis to that of extant mysid shrimps make it very likely that they were capable of producing true visual images or were at least sensitive to motion . A median eye may have also been present . Nervous tissue , including a putative brain , has been identified .
The thorax is divided into two groups of somites . The anterior group is composed of four somites , each with well @-@ developed walking limbs with lengths that extend past the margins of the carapace . Their morphological details are not well preserved but their distal segments appear to possess a multitude of small spines . It is unknown if these limbs are biramous , but they are assumed to be the endopodites , the inner branches ( ramus ) of the leg , with the exopodites , or outer branches , absent or not preserved .
The posterior thoracic group is made up of six somites , each possessing a pair of long multi @-@ jointed appendages . The segments of these appendages are longer near the body and taper towards the flexible distal segments , extending past the carapace . They bear a fringe of long , slender filaments , all of which are directed towards the middle of the body , a characteristic shared by extant crustaceans . Though usually squashed into blade @-@ like shapes from the fossilisation process , the filaments were slender cylindrical tubes when the animal was alive . The filaments at the tipmost segment are often bunched together . These appendages are believed to be the exopodites and may have functioned as gills and as swimming limbs . They are possibly biramous , with some specimens showing traces of what may be small endopodites at their bases .
The abdomen is composed of five somites , all of which lack appendages except the last . The back @-@ facing margins of these somites bear small spines and four or more larger spines . The last abdominal somite forks into a pair of flattened spatulate appendages ( the uropods ) that function as a tail fan ( caudal rami ) . In addition to stabilising the body while swimming , a quick flick of the tail fan can rapidly propel the animal backwards , which may have functioned as a means of escaping predators like in modern shrimp . Traces of four fused segments are evident in the three faint lines dividing each lobe of the tail fan . A long telson is present at the end of the body . Traces of a rounded stomach , small digestive glands , and an intestine that terminates into a tiny anal opening on the telson can also be observed in some specimens .
= = Discovery = =
Waptia fieldensis was one of the first fossils discovered by Charles D. Walcott from the Burgess Shale in August 1909 . A rough sketch of Waptia is present in his diary for August 31 , 1909 , alongside sketches of Marrella and Naraoia . A formal description for the species was published by Walcott in 1912 . The species was named after the two mountains connected by the Fossil Ridge containing the Burgess Shale locality , Mount Wapta and Mount Field of Yoho National Park , British Columbia , Canada . The name of Mount Wapta itself comes from the First Nation Nakoda word wapta , meaning " running water " ; while Mount Field was named after the American telecommunications pioneer Cyrus West Field .
= = Taphonomy = =
Specimens of Waptia fieldensis were recovered from the Burgess Shale Lagerstätte of Canada , which dates from the Middle Cambrian period ( 510 to 505 million years ago ) . The locality was once about 200 m ( 660 ft ) underwater ; it was located at the bottom of a warm and shallow tropical sea adjacent to a submarine limestone cliff ( now the Cathedral Limestone Formation ) . Undersea landslides caused by the collapse of parts of the limestone cliff would periodically bury the organisms in the area ( as well as organisms carried by the landslides ) in fine @-@ grained mud that later became shale .
Based on the number of individuals , Waptia fieldensis constitutes about 2 @.@ 55 % of the total number of organisms recovered from the Burgess Shale , and 0 @.@ 86 % of the Greater Phyllopod bed . This makes them the third most abundant arthropods of the Burgess Shale ( after Marrella and Canadaspis ) . The National Museum of Natural History alone houses more than a thousand specimens of the species from the Burgess Shale . Waptia fieldensis are often found disarticulated , with parts remaining in close proximity to each other .
Several possible specimens of W. fieldensis were also recovered from the Middle Cambrian Spence Shale member of the Langston Formation in Utah in 2008 .
= = Taxonomy = =
Waptia fieldensis is the only species accepted under the genus Waptia . It is classified under the family Waptiidae ( established by Walcott in 1912 ) , the order Waptiida ( established by Leif Størmer in 1944 ) , and ( tentatively ) the clade Crustaceomorpha . Early restorations of Waptia fieldensis by Charles R. Knight in 1940 erroneously depicted it as a primitive shrimp , but modern paleontologists now consider it among the Burgess Shale arthropods that are of unknown and uncertain taxonomic placement .
Some authors have suggested that it may be allied to crustaceans , but like many Cambrian crustaceomorphs , the mouthparts were not preserved , making it impossible to reliably classify them within the crustacean crown group . Others propose that it may be only distantly related to crustaceans , being at least a member of a stem group of crustaceans , or even of all arthropods . Despite being one of the first species recovered and being the third most abundant fossils of the Burgess Shale , there is still no in @-@ depth work on the morphology of Waptia fieldensis .
In 1975 , an apparently very similar species was described from the Lower Cambrian ( 515 to 520 million years ago ) Maotianshan Shale Lagerstätte of Chengjiang , China . It was originally placed within the " ostracod " -like genus Mononotella , as Mononotella ovata . In 1991 , Xian @-@ Guang Hou and Jan Bergström reclassified it under the new genus Chuandianella when additional discoveries of more complete specimens made its resemblance to W. fieldensis more apparent . Like W. fieldensis , Chuandianella ovata had a bivalved carapace with a median ridge , a pair of caudal rami , a single pair of antennae , and stalked eyes . In 2004 , Jun @-@ Yuan Chen tentatively transferred it to the genus Waptia . However , C. ovata had eight abdominal somites in contrast to five in W. fieldensis . Its limbs were biramous and were undifferentiated , unlike those of W. fieldensis . Other authors deemed these differences to be enough to separate it from Waptia to its own genus .
In 2002 , a second similar species , Pauloterminus spinodorsalis , was recovered from the Lower Cambrian Sirius Passet Lagerstätte of the Buen Formation of northern Greenland . It was also identified as a possible waptiid . Like C. ovata it had biramous undifferentiated appendages , but it also had only five abdominal somites like W. fieldensis . However , the poor preservation of the P. spinodorsalis specimens , particularly of the appendages on the head , make it difficult to ascertain its taxonomic placement . This difficulty is further compounded by evidence that the fossils of P. spinodorsalis may in fact be moults ( exuviae ) , and not of the actual animal .
= = Ecology = =
In addition to their striking , superficial similarity to contemporary shrimp , Waptia fieldensis were also very shrimp @-@ like in their habits . They were bottom @-@ dwelling ( nektobenthic ) deposit feeders . The lack of strong feeding appendages indicates that they were more likely to feed by sifting through the sea bottom for edible organic particles . Their tails and the feather @-@ like filaments on their posterior thoracic somites also imply that they were active swimmers .
In 2015 , egg clutches were identified in six specimens from the Burgess Shale . The clutch sizes were small , only containing up to 24 eggs , but each egg was relatively large , with an average diameter of 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) . They were tucked inside the carapace , attached along the inner surface . Along with Kunmingella douvillei from the Chengjiang biota ( around 7 million years older than the Burgess Shale ) , which also had fossilized eggs preserved inside the carapace , they constitute the oldest direct evidence of brood care and of K @-@ selection among animals . It indicates that they probably lived in an environment which required them to take special measures to ensure the survival of their young .
= Mars Attacks ! =
Mars Attacks ! is a 1996 American comedy science fiction film directed by Tim Burton and written by Jonathan Gems . Based on the cult trading card series of the same name minus the punctuation , the film features an ensemble cast consisting of Jack Nicholson ( in a dual role ) , Glenn Close , Annette Bening , Pierce Brosnan , Danny DeVito , Martin Short , Sarah Jessica Parker , Michael J. Fox , Rod Steiger , Tom Jones , Lukas Haas , Natalie Portman , Jim Brown , Lisa Marie Smith , and Sylvia Sidney . The film is a parody of science fiction B movies with elements of black comedy and political satire .
Alex Cox had tried to make a Mars Attacks ! film in the 1980s before Burton and Gems began development in 1993 . When Gems turned in his first draft in 1994 , Warner Bros. commissioned rewrites from Gems , Burton , Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski in an attempt to lower the budget to $ 60 million . The final production budget came to $ 80 million , while Warner Bros. spent another $ 20 million on the Mars Attacks ! marketing campaign . Filming took place from February to November 1996 . The film was shot in California , Nevada , Kansas , Arizona and Argentina . The soundtrack became famous for the Martians ' quirky speech pattern , which was created by reversing the sound of a duck 's quack .
The filmmakers hired Industrial Light & Magic to create the Martians using computer animation after their previous plan to use stop motion , supervised by Barry Purves , fell through because of budget limitations . Mars Attacks ! was released on December 13 , 1996 to mixed reviews from critics . The film grossed approximately $ 101 million in box office totals , which was seen as a disappointment . Mars Attacks ! was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation and earned multiple nominations at the Saturn Awards .
= = Plot = =
In Kentucky , a family watches in confusion a herd of cattle running past their home , on fire . A spaceship explodes before it returns to Mars , and hundreds of other Martian ships leave Mars and head towards Earth .
President James Dale along with his aides addresses the United States concerning the historic event . People around the country follow the story . The President 's science aides set up a first contact meeting with the Martians in Pahrump , Nevada as President Dale watches the development on TV with his wife Marsha and his daughter Taffy .
Using a universal translator , the Ambassador of the Martians announces that they intend to colonize the Earth . To prevent this intention from causing panic , the translator is reprogrammed to say that the Martians " come in peace " . When a hippie releases a dove as a symbol of peace , the Ambassador shoots it , then he and the other Martians slaughter a large number of people at the event including General Casey , news reporter Jason Stone , and Billy @-@ Glenn Norris before capturing chat show host Nathalie Lake and her pet Chihuahua Poppy whose heads they transpose .
Thinking that the Martians assumed that the dove was a symbol of war , President Dale tells Professor Donald Kessler to negotiate with the Martians , whose ambassador is invited to address the United States Congress . At this meeting , the Martians massacre most of Congress . Donald begs the Martian Ambassador to stop , but is rendered unconscious and taken aboard their ship where he is later shown with his body parts dismembered and his disembodied head remaining animated . General Decker tries to convince President Dale to retaliate with nuclear warfare , but he refuses .
After an attempt to assassinate Dale fails , The Martians invade Earth , starting with Washington , D.C. As they attack the White House , the Secret Service tries to rush the President and the First Lady to the bunker . Dale makes it , but Taffy is separated from them during the chaos and Marsha is crushed to death by the Nancy Reagan chandelier . After the U.S. government unsuccessfully attempts a nuclear attack on the mother ship , the Martians exact revenge by defacing world landmarks for amusement . That night , the Martians infiltrate the bunker where Dale has been taken and the leader reduces Decker to the size of an insect before killing him . The Martians kill everyone else in the bunker except for Dale , who makes an impassioned speech in an attempt to plea for peace and his life . The Martian uses a false hand to kill Dale .
As the Martians ravage Las Vegas with Art Land being one of their victims , Byron Williams , a casino employee and former world champion boxer , leads a small group of survivors consisting of Barbara Land , Tom Jones , a waitress named Cindy , and a gambler to an airfield in the hopes of flying a small jet to safety . They barely make it , losing the gambler in the process , but discover a large group of Martians stationed there as they are preparing to take off . Byron creates a diversion by challenging them to a fistfight . While he succeeds in killing the Ambassador , he is outnumbered and overwhelmed , but Tom , Barbara , and Cindy escape .
Billy @-@ Glenn 's brother Richie discovers that the Martians ' heads explode when they hear Slim Whitman 's " Indian Love Call . " He and his grandmother Florence drive around town , using the song to kill Martians . The military thereafter broadcast the song around the globe , killing most of the Martians and their leader , and causing the few remaining survivors to either flee from Earth or surrender . Nathalie and Donald kiss while drowning when the Martian spaceship crashes into the ocean .
In the aftermath , Richie and Florence are awarded the Medal of Honor by Taffy , with her being the only surviving member of the government . Byron , who survived his Martian brawl , arrives in D.C. to reunite with his former wife and their two sons ( who saved Dale 's life in the White House using two guns they stole from a dead Martian ) as the devastating is being cleaned up . Barbara , Cindy , and Tom Jones emerge from a cave with some animals to see a crashed Martian ship in the adjacent Lake Tahoe .
= = Cast = =
Jack Nicholson as President James Dale , the President of the United States .
Jack Nicholson also portrays Art Land , a developer in Las Vegas .
Glenn Close as First Lady Marsha Dale , James Dale 's wife .
Annette Bening as Barbara Land , Art Land 's wife .
Pierce Brosnan as Professor Donald Kessler , a science expert who works for President Dale and is later captured and experimented on by the Martians .
Danny DeVito as Rude Gambler
Martin Short as Press Secretary Jerry Ross
Sarah Jessica Parker as Nathalie Lake , a talk show host who is later captured and experimented on by the Martians .
Michael J. Fox as Jason Stone , a news reporter who is killed during the Martians ' first attack .
Rod Steiger as General Decker , a US Army general who works for President Dale .
Lukas Haas as Richie Norris , Billy @-@ Glenn Norris 's younger brother .
Natalie Portman as Taffy Dale , James and Marsha Dale 's daughter .
Jim Brown as Byron Williams , a Las Vegas casino employee and former boxer .
Lisa Marie Smith as Martian Girl , a Martian posing as a human female .
Sylvia Sidney as Florence Norris , Richie and Billy @-@ Glenn 's grandmother .
Tom Jones as Himself
Christina Applegate as Sharona , Billy @-@ Glenn 's girlfriend .
Pam Grier as Louise Williams , Byron 's former wife .
Jack Black as Billy @-@ Glenn Norris , a US Army private who is Richie 's older brother and gets himself killed trying to stand up to the Martians .
Paul Winfield as General Casey
Janice Rivera as Cindy , a co @-@ worker of Byron .
Brian Haley as Mitch , a Secret Service agent .
Joe Don Baker as Mr. Norris , Billy @-@ Glenn and Richie 's father .
O @-@ Lan Jones as Sue @-@ Ann Norris , Billy @-@ Glenn and Richie 's mother .
Ray J and Brandon Hammond as Cedric and Neville Williams , Byron and Louise 's sons .
Jerzy Skolimowski as Dr. Zeigler , a scientist who created a device that ( badly ) translated the Martian language .
Barbet Schroeder as Maurice , the President of France .
Joseph Maher as White House Decorator
Steve Valentine as TV Director
Frank Welker as Martian Vocal Effects
Roger L. Jackson as Dr. Zeigler 's translator ( voice uncredited )
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In 1985 , Alex Cox pitched the idea of a film based on the Mars Attacks trading card series as a joint @-@ production to Orion and Tristar Pictures . He wrote three drafts over the next four years , but was replaced by Martin Amis before Orion / Tristar placed Mars Attacks in turnaround .
Jonathan Gems , who had previously written multiple unproduced screenplays for director Tim Burton , came up with his own idea for a Mars Attacks film in 1993 . The writer pitched both concepts of Mars Attacks and Dinosaurs Attack ! to Burton , who both decided that Dinosaurs Attack ! would be too similar to Jurassic Park ( 1993 ) . Burton , who was busy preparing Ed Wood ( 1994 ) , believed that Mars Attacks ! would be a perfect opportunity to pay homage to the films of Edward D. Wood , Jr . , especially Plan 9 from Outer Space ( 1959 ) , and other 1950s science fiction B movies , such as Invaders from Mars ( 1953 ) , It Came from Outer Space ( 1953 ) , The War of the Worlds ( 1953 ) , Target Earth ( 1954 ) , Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1956 ) and Earth vs. the Flying Saucers ( 1956 ) .
Burton set Mars Attacks ! up with Warner Bros. and the studio purchased the film rights to the trading card series on his behalf . The original theatrical release date was planned for the summer of 1996 . Gems completed his original script in 1994 , which was budgeted by Warner Bros. at $ 260 million . The studio wanted to make the film for no more than $ 60 million . After turning in numerous drafts in an attempt to lower the budget , Gems was replaced by Ed Wood writers Scott Alexander and Larry Karaszewski .
Gems eventually returned to the project , writing a total of 12 drafts of the script . Although he is credited with both the screen story and screenplay of Mars Attacks ! , Gems dedicates his novelization of the movie to Burton , who " co @-@ wrote the screenplay and didn 't ask for a credit " . Warner Bros. was dubious of the Martian dialogue and wanted Burton to add closed captioning subtitles , but he resisted . Working with Burton , Gems pared the film 's 60 leading characters down to 23 , and the worldwide destruction planned for the film was isolated to three major cities . Scenes featuring Martians attacking China , the Philippines , Japan , Europe , Africa , India , and Russia were deleted from the screenplay . " Bear in mind this was way before Independence Day ( 1996 ) was written , " Gems commented . " We had things like Manhattan being destroyed building by building , the White House went and so did the Empire State Building . Warner Bros. figured all this would be too expensive , so we cut most of that out to reduce the cost . " Howard Stern claimed that the film 's climax , where an attack by Martians was thwarted by playing Slim Whitman songs to them , was originally created by him when he worked at WNBC in 1982 , in a sketch named " Slim Whitman vs. The Midget Aliens From Mars . " As Burton listened to the sketch while being interviewed by Stern , he dismissed it as mere coincidence .
= = = Casting = = =
The decision to hire an A @-@ list ensemble cast for Mars Attacks ! parallels the strategy Irwin Allen used for his disaster films , notably The Poseidon Adventure ( 1972 ) and The Towering Inferno ( 1974 ) . Warren Beatty was the original choice for the role of President Dale , but dropped out . Paul Newman replaced him , but then considered playing another role , and left the production over concerns about the film 's violence . Michael Keaton was also considered . Jack Nicholson was then approached , who jokingly remarked he wanted to play all the roles . Burton agreed to cast Nicholson as both Art Land and President Dale , specifically remembering his positive working relationship with the actor on Batman ( 1989 ) .
Susan Sarandon was originally set to play Barbara Land before Annette Bening was cast . Bening modeled the character after Ann @-@ Margret 's performance in Viva Las Vegas ( 1964 ) . Hugh Grant was the first choice for Professor Donald Kessler , which eventually went to Pierce Brosnan . Meryl Streep , Diane Keaton and Stockard Channing were considered for First Lady Marsha Dale , but Glenn Close won the role . In addition to Nicholson , other actors who reunited with Burton on Mars Attacks ! include Sylvia Sidney from Beetlejuice ( 1988 ) , Sarah Jessica Parker ( who signed on before reading the script ) from Ed Wood ( 1994 ) , O @-@ Lan Jones from Edward Scissorhands ( 1990 ) , and Danny DeVito from Batman Returns ( 1992 ) , continuing Burton 's trend of recasting actors several times from his previous works . Mars Attacks ! is also notable for one of the few times that Johnny Depp turned down a role in a Burton film . He was approached to play reporter Jason Stone . Michael J. Fox was cast instead .
= = = Filming = = =
The originally scheduled start date was mid @-@ August 1995 but filming was delayed until February 26 , 1996 . Director Tim Burton hired Peter Suschitzky as the cinematographer because he was a fan of his work in David Cronenberg 's films . Production designer Thomas Wynn ( A Beautiful Mind , Malcolm X ) intended to have the war room pay tribute to Dr. Strangelove ( 1964 ) . During production , Burton insisted that the art direction , cinematography and costume design of Mars Attacks ! incorporate the look of the 1960s trading cards .
On designing the Martian ( played by Burton 's then @-@ girlfriend Lisa Marie Smith ) who seduces Jerry Ross ( Martin Short ) , costume designer Colleen Atwood took combined inspiration from the playing cards , Marilyn Monroe , the work of Alberto Vargas and Jane Fonda in Barbarella ( 1968 ) . Filming for Mars Attacks ! ended on June 1 , 1996 . The film score was written / composed by Burton 's regular Danny Elfman , to whom Burton was reconciled after a quarrel occurred during The Nightmare Before Christmas ( 1993 ) , for which they did not co @-@ operate in producing Ed Wood ( 1994 ) . Elfman enlisted the help of Oingo Boingo lead guitarist Steve Bartek to help arrange the compositions for the orchestra .
= = = Visual effects = = =
Tim Burton initially intended to use stop motion animation to feature the Martians , viewing it as a homage to the work of Ray Harryhausen , primarily Jason and the Argonauts . Similar to his own Beetlejuice , Burton " wanted to make [ the special effects ] look cheap and purposely fake @-@ looking as possible . " He first approached Henry Selick , director of The Nightmare Before Christmas , to supervise the stop motion work , but Selick was busy directing James and the Giant Peach , also produced by Burton . Despite the fact that Warner Bros. was skeptical of the escalating budget and had not yet greenlit the film for production , Burton hired Barry Purves to shepherd the stop @-@ motion work . Purves created an international team of about 70 animators , who worked on Mars Attacks ! for eight months and began compiling test footage in Burbank , California . The department workers studied Gloria Swanson 's choreography and movement as Norma Desmond in Sunset Boulevard for inspiration on the Martians ' movement .
When the budget was projected at $ 100 million ( Warner Bros. wanted it for no more than $ 75 million ) , producer Larry J. Franco commissioned a test reel from Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) , the visual effects company he worked with on Jumanji . Burton was persuaded to change his mind to employ computer animation , which brought the final production budget to $ 80 million . Although Purves was uncredited for his work , stop @-@ motion supervisors Ian Mackinnon and Peter Saunders , who would later collaborate with Burton on Corpse Bride , received character design credit . Warner Digital Studios was responsible for the scenes of global destruction , airborne flying saucer sequences , the Martian landing in Nevada , and the robot that chases Richie Norris in his pickup truck . Warner Digital also used practical effects , such as building scale models of Big Ben and other landmarks . The destruction of Art Land 's hotel was footage of the real @-@ life night @-@ time demolition of The Landmark Hotel and Casino , a building Burton wished to immortalize .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
Warner Bros. spent $ 20 million on the movie 's marketing campaign ; together with $ 80 million spent during production , the final combined budget came to $ 100 million . A novelization , written by writer Jonathan Gems , was published by Puffin Books in January 1997 . The film was released in the United States on December 13 , 1996 , earning $ 9 @.@ 38 million in its opening weekend . Mars Attacks ! eventually made $ 37 @.@ 77 million in US totals and $ 63 @.@ 6 million elsewhere , coming to a worldwide total of $ 101 @.@ 37 million .
The film was considered a box office bomb in the US but generally achieved greater success both critically and commercially in Europe . Many observers found similarities with Independence Day , which also came out in 1996 . " It was just a coincidence . Nobody told me about it . I was surprised how close it was , " director Tim Burton continued , " but then it 's a pretty basic genre I guess . Independence Day was different in tone – it was different in everything . It almost seemed like we had done kind of a Mad magazine version of Independence Day . " During Mars Attacks ! theatrical run in January 1997 , TBS purchased the broadcasting rights of the film .
= = = Critical reaction = = =
Mars Attacks ! drew mixed responses from critics . Based on 63 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 52 % of the reviewers enjoyed the film , with an average score of 5 @.@ 9 / 10 . By comparison , Metacritic calculated an average score of 52 / 100 from 19 reviews . Roger Ebert observed the homages to the 1950s science fiction B movies . " Ed Wood himself could have told us what 's wrong with this movie : the makers felt superior to the material . To be funny , even schlock has to believe in itself . Look for Infra @-@ Man ( 1975 ) or Invasion of the Bee Girls ( 1973 ) and you will find movies that lack stars and big budgets and fancy special effects but are funny and fun in a way that Burton 's megaproduction never really understands . "
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote that " Mars Attacks ! is all 1990s cynicism and disbelief , mocking the conventions that Independence Day takes seriously . This all sounds clever enough but in truth , Mars Attacks ! is not as much fun as it should be . Few of its numerous actors make a lasting impression and Burton 's heart and soul is not in the humor " . Desson Thomson from The Washington Post said " Mars Attacks ! evokes plenty of sci @-@ fi classics , from The Day the Earth Stood Still ( 1951 ) to Dr. Strangelove ( 1964 ) , but it doesn 't do much beyond that superficial exercise . With the exception of Burton 's jolting sight gags ( I may never recover from the vision of Sarah Jessica Parker 's head grafted on to the body of a chihuahua ) , the comedy is half @-@ developed , pedestrian material . And the climactic battle between Earthlings and Martians is dull and overextended . "
Richard Schickel , writing in Time magazine , gave a positive review . " You have to admire everyone 's chutzpah : the breadth of Burton 's ( and writer Jonathan Gems ' ) movie references , which range from Kurosawa to Kubrick ; and above all their refusal to offer us a single likable character . Perhaps they don 't create quite enough deeply funny earthlings to go around , but a thoroughly mean @-@ spirited big @-@ budget movie is always a treasurable rarity . " Jonathan Rosenbaum from the Chicago Reader praised the surreal humor and black comedy , which he found to be in the vein of Dr. Strangelove and Gremlins ( 1984 ) . He said it was far from clear whether the movie was a satire , although critics were describing it as one . Todd McCarthy of Variety called Mars Attacks ! " a cult sci @-@ fi comedy miscast as an elaborate , all @-@ star studio extravaganza . "
= = = Awards = = =
Mars Attacks ! was on the shortlist for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects nomination , but the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences chose Independence Day , Dragonheart and Twister instead . The film was nominated for seven categories at the Saturn Awards . Danny Elfman won Best Music , while director Tim Burton , writer Jonathan Gems , actor Lukas Haas , costume designer Colleen Atwood and the visual effects department at Industrial Light & Magic received nominations . Mars Attacks ! was nominated for both the Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film ( which went to Independence Day ) and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation .
= Batman : The Ultimate Evil =
Batman : The Ultimate Evil is a novel written by Andrew Vachss and published in 1995 by the Warner Aspect imprint of Warner Books . Vachss was an attorney specializing in child abuse cases , as well as a crime novelist best known for his series of books featuring the character Burke , a private investigator who also takes on child abuse cases . A representative from DC Comics approached Vachss about the possibility of writing a novel featuring Batman . Viewing this as an opportunity to reach a completely different audience , Vachss agreed and wrote a draft . He continued with his themes concerning child sexual abuse and explored the topic of child sex tourism . The publisher required Vachss to follow certain rules , like making a clear distinction between fiction and reality and prohibiting the Batman character from killing , cursing , or having sex .
In the story , billionaire Bruce Wayne , who as a child witnessed his parents ' murder , encounters the social worker Debra Kane , who takes Wayne to check up on her clients : he sees clear cases of child abuse and brave but futile resistance to it . Wayne 's loyal butler , Alfred Pennyworth , gives him the secret files from his mother 's investigation into child abuse , which had led to her and her husband 's murder , illuminating the darkest mystery of Wayne 's childhood . As Batman , Wayne investigates child abuse and , through a series of informants , is led to a child sex tourism syndicate using the southeast @-@ Asian country of Udon Khai . Batman travels to Udon Khai and , with the help of a local rebel force of guerrilla fighters , topples the kingpin who controls the industry . In the process , he avenges the murder of his parents . The book ends with a non @-@ fiction essay , by journalist David Hechler , entitled " Child Sex Tourism " .
= = Background = =
At the time of publication , Vachss worked as an attorney , in New York City , specializing in child abuse cases and writing novels . The duality of Vachss 's work as a lawyer prosecuting and defending real cases and as a crime fiction author exploring fictional criminals resulted in Vachss being compared to the Bruce Wayne / Batman character . Vachss 's eighth novel , Footsteps of the Hawk , in the Burke series featuring a vigilante private investigator of child abuse cases , was released just two months before the publication of Batman : The Ultimate Evil . He had wanted to approach the topic of sex tourism in southeast Asia , but had been unable to find a way for the Burke character to go there ; the Batman character offered the chance for him to write about the topic .
Vachss had previously worked with Dark Horse Comics to produce a ten @-@ issue series ( 1992 – 1993 ) titled Hard Looks . Steve Korte of DC Comics 's book division approached Vacchs with the possibility of a partnership . Vachss was hesitant about using creative property that belonged to someone else but recognized the opportunity to reach a new audience . He started writing the novel , on speculation , and DC Comics eventually agreed to the project , allowing Vachss to take some creative liberties .
= = Plot summary = =
At a party , Bruce Wayne meets Debra Kane , a caseworker with Child Protective Services . He asks to join her while she visits clients . She agrees and shows him the varying degrees of child abuse she encounters in the course of her job . Wanting to understand the factors behind child abuse , Bruce , as Batman , breaks into Hellgate Prison and talks with an informant who points him to a child pornography and prostitution ring . Bruce 's butler Alfred Pennyworth reveals that Bruce 's mother , Martha Wayne , had been secretly investigating a similar child prostitution ring and was murdered along with her husband Thomas in order to stop the investigation .
Picking up where his mother 's files left off , Bruce finds a connection to a Southeast Asian country named Udon Khai . Using the assumed name Big Jack Hollister , Batman travels to San Francisco to meet a contact who explains how the sex tours to Udon Khai operate . As Hollister , Batman travels to Udon Khai , where he meets Rhama , a local translator hired by Alfred . Rhama shows Hollister life in Udon Khai and how the child sex tourism has affected its population . Saying Hollister sent him , Batman introduces himself to Rhama . Batman and Rhama confront a man who buys and sells children and they rescue a girl who had been sold by her family . They return the child to her village and find that her father , living in extreme poverty , had sold her so that the rest of the family could survive . The population mistakes Batman for a warrior of legend who would break the barriers that confine the population . Believing this to be their chance for a revolution to overthrow the military dictatorship , a rebel group joins Batman in storming the headquarters of the kingpin who controls the sex tour industry . Though Batman returns to Gotham City , the rebels continue to dismantle sex tour industry and overthrow the dictator of Udon Khai .
The novel ends with Bruce Wayne maintaining his friendship with Debra Kane as well as recruiting her as one of his informants as Batman , and also deciding to include child molesters as part of his quarry in his war on crime .
= = Publication = =
The 45 @,@ 000 @-@ word novel was released in November 1995 , simultaneous with an abridged audiobook and a two @-@ issue graphic novel . All three versions included a nonfiction essay about child prostitution in Thailand , titled " Child Sex Tourism " , by journalist David Hechler . The audiobook featured Tony Roberts , whose performance on the three @-@ hour , two @-@ cassette recording received a positive review from Trudi Miller Rosenblum of Billboard , who wrote that Roberts does " an outstanding job creating a distinctive voice for each character and effectively portraying Batman 's complex psyche " . The comic book adaption was drafted by Neal Barrett , Jr. with art by Denys Cowan . The novel was published by the Warner Aspect imprint of the Warner Books and promoted by Vachss with a book tour and as a guest at the 1995 San Diego Comic @-@ Con. Vachss used the promotion of the book to also raise awareness of child abuse and advocate a boycott of manufactured goods from Thailand . He declared that " three years from now , if there isn 't a boycott of Thailand , then this book is a cosmic failure " . Vachss supported Don 't ! Buy ! Thai ! , which believed that " if Thailand sells its children for money , then the only thing that will stop them is the loss of money " .
= = Style and themes = =
The publishers required that Vachss follow certain rules , including prohibiting the Batman character from killing , cursing , or having sex , and keeping a clear distinction between fiction and reality . For example , while Vachss wanted to write about Thailand , he created a fictional country named Udon Khai which had many similarities with Thailand — though Udon Khai is described as being dominated by a lone kingpin who controls the country 's one @-@ industry economy based on sex tourism while Thailand 's tourism economy , which includes sex tourism , is part of an economic development strategy enabled by international development agencies . Vachss deviated from Batman canon by having the Wayne family butler , Alfred Pennyworth , reveal to Bruce Wayne that his mother , Martha , was a sociologist who was secretly investigating a child pornography ring . In Vachss ' novel , the Waynes were not the victims of a random crime ; instead , Martha was targeted for assassination . One reviewer compared the characterization of Batman as " the same brooding , handsome , rich character that Val Kilmer played [ in Batman Forever ] " but with the " gothic presence of the older Batman seen in 1940s movie serials " . More complex analysis compared the story to an " 18th @-@ century contes philosophiques in which the dark irrationality of the Greek gods has been flattened out into tidy didactic instruction . "
Vachss said " writing is my way of preaching . For me , it 's always , always the message . The plot is something I contrive to deliver the message . You 've got to have enough narrative force to get people to finish the book , but if you can give them an exciting story , you can always make your points . " He stated that " the whole point of the book is to raise awareness about the kiddie @-@ sex tourism business in Thailand " . Though the story uses more realism than the escapism typically associated with superhero fiction , Vachss did end the book with endorsements of two real non @-@ profit groups ; Don 't ! Buy ! Thai ! and End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism . The writing is not subtle , as Vachss noted " If you don 't get angry , you 're not going to do anything " . Understanding that the likely readers were young males with short attention spans , Vachss tried to be dramatic by using what author Adam Begley calls " a motivational hat trick : sympathy for the victims , revenge , and a family calling " .
A major theme in the book is the characterization of child abuse . The story follows Bruce Wayne as he learns about the different categories of child abuse , from the ignorant to the incapable and to those who do it for pleasure . Batman , whose motivation is to prevent crimes like the murder of his parents , is contrasted against a social worker whose motivation is protecting children ; Batman realizes that throughout his career he had been fighting criminals , not crime . Vachss asserts that " child protection and crime prevention are the same thing " ; he believes that child abuse is never just a random crime but is done with intent . While Vachss warns that those abused can become future abusers , he also states that " abuse can push two similarly maltreated children in opposite directions . One incest victim becomes a promiscuous adult , another never engages in sex again . ... If you excuse a serial killer because he was tortured as a child , you disrespect the thousands of children who were treated worse and never imitated their oppressor . "
= = Reception = =
The book was described as a " slim , vivid novel " with a " very simple " and " fast paced " plot line . A review in The Washington Times was positive : " With a plot that takes Batman very seriously — and makes him very human — and a dismaying amount of information on the sexual exploitation of children for profit , this novel makes an ineradicable impression " . Likewise , another reviewer found it " an engaging and disturbing one @-@ night read that 's all the more astonishing because Vachss manages to explore and make his points about a wholly depressing topic without driving your moods into the sewer . " Roger Catlin in the Hartford Courant said " Vachss ' bold , simple prose is well suited to his story . He 's good at making Batman 's various devices — the Batmobile , computers , flying gizmos — come to life with his cool description . "
A review in the New York Times noted that the basic premise is a good idea , but " studded as it is with undigested chunks of scientific jargon , sociology @-@ speak and polemical rhetoric Batman : The Ultimate Evil misses out almost completely on the pure pulp thrills that lie at the heart of its title character 's appeal . " In the St. Petersburg Times , Adam Begley also noted the use of what he called " techno @-@ babble " . In The Washington Post , Jack Womack wrote that Vachss describes the Batmobile " lovingly yet gnomically , as if a Motor Trend review had been translated into Slovakian by someone more familiar with Czech " and concluded that the novel was " as satisfying — aesthetically , ethically , morally — as a pulse @-@ pounding yarn in which pulp @-@ fiction hero Doc Savage ransacks the shantytowns of South America in a terribly successful search for Doc Mengele . " In Kirkus Reviews , the story was compared to a generic " Destroy All Exploiters " video game where Batman " disposes of each lower @-@ level pimp , then moves up to the next level " . Sybil Steinberg in Publishers Weekly noted that " while no classic , this is likely the the [ sic ] most stylish adaptation yet of a comic @-@ book figure , its cold stiletto prose and white @-@ hot passions lifting it leagues above recent Spider @-@ man and Incredible Hulk offerings . It 's also Vachss ' best work since Shella " . Both the Library Journal and Booklist predicted heavy demand for it at public libraries .
= Metroid II : Return of Samus =
Metroid II : Return of Samus is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy handheld game console . The second installment and the first handheld title in the Metroid series , it was released in North America in November 1991 , and in Japan and Europe the following year . The story of Metroid II follows the protagonist and playable character Samus Aran , who is sent on a mission to exterminate the Metroid creatures from their home planet SR388 before the antagonistic Space Pirates obtain and use them . The gameplay of Metroid II involves killing a fixed number of Metroids before the player can advance deeper through the planet 's tunnels .
Metroid II was developed by Nintendo Research & Development 1 ( Nintendo R & D1 ) and produced by Gunpei Yokoi , who both worked on the first Metroid game for the Nintendo Entertainment System . The developers of the game added round metal shoulders on Samus ' Varia Suit to differentiate it from her Power Suit , since both looked similar on the Game Boy 's limited greyscale display . The updated suit has since been a staple of the series , appearing in all subsequent games . A unique color palette for Metroid II was added to the Game Boy Color console , a successor to the original Game Boy with a color screen .
The game was given generally favorable reviews . Critics praised Metroid II for its story and settings , while other reviews criticized its graphics and audio . A follow @-@ up to the game , Super Metroid , was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1994 . Metroid II became available as a Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console title in 2011 .
= = Gameplay = =
Metroid II is an action @-@ adventure game in which the player controls the protagonist Samus Aran on the fictional planet SR388 . In this side @-@ scroller , players advance through the game by using Samus ' weapons to kill a fixed number of Metroid creatures . The player is given a detector that displays the number of Metroids remaining in the area . Once all the creatures are eliminated , an earthquake occurs and the planet 's lava levels decrease , allowing Samus to travel deeper through its tunnels . The Metroid creatures are encountered in different evolution stages of their development cycle : original , Alpha , Gamma , Zeta and Omega . The more developed the organism is , the stronger its attack . Metroid II features save modules located around the planet , which allow players to save their progress and continue in another session .
The game features two weapons new to the Metroid series : the tri @-@ splitting Spazer Laser Beam , and the Plasma Beam , which passes through enemies when shot . Samus can only equip one beam at a time ; however , she can switch between them by returning to where they are first found . Metroid II features the Space Jump , a new suit enhancement that allows Samus to jump infinitely and access otherwise unreachable areas . The game also sees the return of Samus ' Morph Ball , a mode in which she curls up into a ball to travel through small tunnels . In addition , the game is the first in the series to feature the Spider Ball and Spring Ball . The Spider Ball allows Samus to climb most walls or ceilings , giving her freedom to explore both the surfaces and ceilings of caverns , and the Spring Ball gives Samus the ability to jump while curled up into a ball in the Morph Ball form .
= = Plot = =
In the previous Metroid , bounty hunter Samus Aran ruined the Space Pirates ' plans to use the newly discovered lifeform known as Metroid . To ensure that the Space Pirates can never obtain any more Metroids , the Galactic Federation sends several teams to the Metroid 's home planet , SR388 , to destroy them once and for all . However , when each of the teams disappear , the Galactic Federation contracts Samus to finish the mission .
While exploring the planet , Samus encounters Metroids and destroys them , slowly decreasing the planet 's Metroid population . During her mission , she notices the mutations that each creature exhibits : the Metroids grow from small jellyfish @-@ like creatures into large , hovering , lizard @-@ like beasts . After destroying most of the planet 's Metroids , Samus encounters and battles the Queen Metroid . Killing it , Samus proceeds to return to her gunship through the planet 's tunnels .
Along the way , she finds a Metroid egg that hatches in front of her . A Metroid hatchling floats out of the broken shell and imprints onto Samus , thinking that she is its mother . Unable to commit to her mission of extermination , Samus spares its life . She exits the tunnels while the Metroid helps clear the way . Reaching the planet 's
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= = Operators = =
Soviet Union
Soviet Air Force
People 's Republic of China
People 's Liberation Army Air Force
= = Survivors = =
Red 01 ( c / n 114010 ) is at the Central Air Force Museum , Monino , Russia
White 30 is at the Chinese Aviation Museum , Datangshan , Beijing , China
Blue 86104 is at the Beijing Air and Space Museum at Beihang University in Beijing , China
A fourth fuselage was photographed in 2007 and 2011 stored outdoors in downtown Beijing , China near Beihang University
= = Specifications ( MiG @-@ 9 ) = =
Data from Gordon and Kommissarov , pp. 60 – 61
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 9 @.@ 75 m ( 32 ft 0 in )
Wingspan : 10 m ( 32 ft 10 in )
Height : 3 @.@ 225 m ( 10 ft 7 in )
Wing area : 18 @.@ 2 m2 ( 196 sq ft )
Empty weight : 3 @,@ 350 kg ( 7 @,@ 385 lb )
Gross weight : 5 @,@ 000 kg ( 11 @,@ 023 lb )
Fuel capacity : 1 @,@ 625 liters ( 429 US gallons )
Powerplant : 2 × RD @-@ 20 axial @-@ flow turbojets , 7 @.@ 8 kN ( 1 @,@ 800 lbf ) thrust each
Performance
Maximum speed : 915 km / h ( 569 mph ; 494 kn )
Maximum speed : Mach 0 @.@ 85
Never exceed speed : 1 @,@ 050 km / h ( 652 mph ; 567 kn )
Range : 800 km ( 497 mi ; 432 nmi )
Service ceiling : 13 @,@ 500 m ( 44 @,@ 291 ft )
g limits : 14g
Rate of climb : 22 @.@ 0 m / s ( 4 @,@ 330 ft / min )
Armament
1 × 37 mm Nudelman N @-@ 37 cannon
2 × 23 mm Nudelman @-@ Suranov NS @-@ 23 cannon
= 2011 Philadelphia , Mississippi tornado =
During the afternoon of April 27 , 2011 , a violent EF5 tornado touched down in eastern Mississippi , killing three people . Part of the historic 2011 Super Outbreak , the largest tornado outbreak on record , this was the first of four EF5 tornadoes to touch down that day and the first such storm in Mississippi since the 1966 Candlestick Park tornado . While on the ground for 30 minutes , it traveled along a near 29 @-@ mile ( 47 km ) path through four counties , leaving behind three deaths , eight injuries , and $ 1 @.@ 1 million in damage .
The supercell thunderstorm that produced this tornado formed around 1 : 00 p.m. CDT south of Jackson , Mississippi . Traveling briskly to the northeast , it became severe within 25 minutes and potentially tornadic by 1 : 36 p.m. CDT . A tornado finally touched down at 2 : 30 p.m. CDT just east of the Philadelphia Municipal Airport . It quickly intensified and began producing EF5 damage by 2 : 38 p.m. CDT ; extreme ground scouring , up to 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) deep in places , occurred in northeastern Neshoba County . After crossing into Kemper County , the tornado obliterated a mobile home , killing all three inside . It reached EF5 strength a second time near the Kemper – Winston county line where extreme ground scouring again took place and pavement was scoured from roads . Extensive tree damage took place elsewhere along the track and it ultimately dissipated at 3 : 00 p.m. CDT about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Mashulaville .
= = Meteorological synopsis = =
The environmental conditions leading up to the April 2011 Super Outbreak were among the " most conducive to violent tornadoes ever documented " . On April 25 , a vigorous upper @-@ level shortwave trough moved into the Southern Plains states . Ample instability , low @-@ level moisture , and wind shear fueled a significant tornado outbreak from Texas to Tennessee ; at least 64 tornadoes touched down that same day . An area of low pressure consolidated over Texas on April 26 and traveled east while the aforementioned shortwave trough traversed the Mississippi River and Ohio River valleys . Another 50 tornadoes touched down on that day . The multi @-@ day outbreak culminated on April 27 with the most violent recorded day of tornadic activity since the 1974 Super Outbreak . Multiple episodes of tornadic activity ensued with two waves of mesoscale convective systems in the morning hours , followed by a widespread outbreak of supercells from Mississippi to North Carolina during the afternoon into the evening .
Activity on April 27 was precipitated by a 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 39 inHg ) surface low situated over Kentucky and a deep , negatively tilted ( aligned northwest to southeast ) trough over Arkansas and Louisiana . A strong southwesterly surface jet intersected these systems at a 60 ° angle , an ageostrophic flow that led to storm @-@ relative helicity values in excess of 500 m2s @-@ 2 — indicative of extreme wind shear and a very high potential for rotating updrafts within supercells . Ample moisture from the Gulf of Mexico was brought north across the Deep South , leading to daytime high temperatures of 77 to 81 ° F ( 25 to 27 ° C ) and dewpoints of 66 to 72 ° F ( 19 to 22 ° C ) . Furthermore , convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) values reached 2 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 J / kg @-@ 1 .
= = Tornado summary = =
Around 1 : 00 p.m. CDT , a supercell thunderstorm developed south of Jackson , Mississippi , and traveled northeast at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . About 25 minutes later , the intensifying storm became severe and prompted a severe thunderstorm warning — advising residents of damaging winds in excess of 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) and 1 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) diameter hail — from the National Weather Service office in Jackson for Leake , Rankin , and Scott counties . The developing storm gradually developed a hook echo signature , and a tornado warning was issued for Leake and Scott counties at 1 : 36 p.m. CDT , and extended to Neshoba County at 2 : 03 p.m. CDT . At 2 : 30 p.m. CDT , the storm produced a small tornado along the northern edge of Philadelphia , just east of Philadelphia Municipal Airport and near an Army National Guard armory . Here , large trees were downed and a building sustained significant roof damage . Within minutes , the tornado began producing EF2 damage to homes and other structures . It soon grew to 900 yards ( 820 m ) in diameter and warranted the issuance of a tornado emergency for northeastern Neshoba County at 2 : 36 p.m. CDT .
Traveling along and parallel to Highway 21 , the tornado leveled and partially swept away a brick home near the intersection with Highway 491 , indicative of low @-@ end EF4 damage . A debris ball was apparent on Doppler weather radar imagery by this time . The storm began producing EF5 damage at 2 : 38 p.m. CDT in northeastern Neshoba County . Tremendous ground scouring took place in the county , with up to 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of soil removed . Grass was torn out by the roots and in clumps by suction vortices embedded within the tornado . Large trees were entirely uprooted , debarked , defoliated , and thrown up to 20 yards ( 18 m ) as well . Maximum winds in the tornado were estimated at 205 mph ( 330 km / h ) . The storm moved through the Pearl River Resort , where it destroyed a historic log cabin , fencing , lighting , and dugouts at two baseball fields . As the storm neared the edge of Neshoba County , the tornado emergency was extended to include northern Kemper County , southeastern Winston County , and all of Noxubee County . The tornado weakened briefly as it passed through the small community of Coy along the Neshoba – Kemper border . Extensive tree damage took place in the area and a mobile home was destroyed . Upon leaving the community , the tornado intensified and produced EF5 damage again by 2 : 47 p.m. CDT . Throughout Neshoba County , the tornado damaged or destroyed 91 structures , rendering 32 people homeless .
In Kemper County , a 3 @,@ 000 ft2 ( 280 m2 ) mini @-@ mart was damaged beyond repair . Eleven people sought refuge inside the building 's bathroom when the tornado struck ; all escaped without injury . Along the border of Kemper and Winston counties , EF5 damage occurred as extremely deep ground scouring took place again and asphalt was ripped from roads . On Green Road , a double @-@ wide mobile home , anchored to the ground , was lofted 300 yards ( 270 m ) and obliterated when it landed in a nearby tree line ; debris from the home was scattered hundreds of yards farther . The survey team found no evidence of it having bounced or rolled from where it was picked up to where it impacted the tree line . All three occupants were killed , the sole fatalities from this tornado . Nearby , the tornado weakened to EF3 stength as two brick homes were destroyed with barely any interior walls left standing ; two people sustained serious injuries . A well @-@ built frame wood home was nearly swept clean off its foundation and two trailers were destroyed . Cars were hurled hundreds of yards , often bouncing along the way , and some were rendered almost unrecognizable and were wrapped around trees . Continuing through southeastern Winston County , the tornado weakened slightly to EF2 strength but continued to produce extensive tree and property damage . As it crossed Central McDonald Road , it destroyed a single @-@ wide mobile home and leveled a nearby grove of pine trees .
As the tornado approached the Winston – Noxubee border , it caused substantial roof damage to a church and left impact holes in the back wall . Extreme tree damage was noted along the border as the tornado regained EF3 intensity . Along Butler Road , to the southwest of Macon , additional pavement scouring took place , along with the destruction of a shop and a bus being rolled . Thereafter , the tornado steadily weakened before dissipating roughly 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of Mashulaville at 3 : 00 p.m. CDT . Throughout its 30 minute track , the tornado traveled almost 29 miles ( 47 km ) , killed three people , injured eight others , and caused $ 1 @.@ 1 million in damage .
The supercell that produced this EF5 tornado later spawned an EF1 in northeastern Noxubee County at 3 : 18 p.m. CDT . The parent storm dissipated around 3 : 29 p.m. CDT as another supercell overtook it near the Mississippi – Alabama state line . The cell produced an exceptionally long @-@ lived EF4 that traveled nearly 124 miles ( 200 km ) across Alabama . The Philadelphia tornado marked the first instance of an F5 or EF5 tornado in Mississippi since the March 3 , 1966 , Candlestick Park tornado . Following another EF5 that struck Smithville later on April 27 , the outbreak marked the first known instance of two EF5 tornadoes on a single day in Mississippi .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately following the destructive tornadoes , Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour declared a state of emergency for 39 counties . On April 29 , President Barack Obama signed a major disaster declaration for 29 Mississippi counties in the wake of the Super Outbreak and another deadly outbreak on April 15 . This allowed residents and some local governments to sign up to receive federal funding to repair damage incurred from the storms . More than 60 members of the Longino Baptist Church assisted residents of Neshoba County with debris removal and cleaning ; also providing refreshments . The Salvation Army established a feeding center at the Coy Methodist Church . Disaster unemployment assistance was made available for people who lost their jobs due to storms and flooding , starting on May 17 . By July , a total of $ 15 @,@ 734 @,@ 072 in federal funding was approved through the Federal Emergency Management Agency for victims of the April 15 – 28 storms .
= Pomeranian ( dog ) =
The Pomeranian ( often known as a Pom or Pom Pom ) is a breed of dog of the Spitz type , named for the Pomerania region in Central Europe ( today part of northern Poland and eastern Germany ) . Classed as a toy dog breed because of its small size , the Pomeranian is descended from the larger Spitz type dogs , specifically the German Spitz . It has been determined by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale to be part of the German Spitz breed ; and in many countries , they are known as the Zwergspitz ( " Dwarf @-@ Spitz " ) .
The breed has been made popular by a number of royal owners since the 18th century . Queen Victoria owned a particularly small Pomeranian and consequently the smaller variety became universally popular . During Queen Victoria 's lifetime alone , the size of the breed decreased by 50 % . Overall , the Pomeranian is a sturdy , healthy dog . The most common health issues are luxating patella and tracheal collapse . More rarely , the breed can suffer from Alopecia X , a skin condition colloquially known as " black skin disease " . This is a genetic disease which causes the dog 's skin to turn black and lose all or most of its hair . As at 2013 , in terms of registration figures , since at least 1998 , the breed has ranked among the top twenty most popular breeds in the USA , and the current fashion for small dogs has increased their popularity worldwide .
= = Appearance = =
Pomeranians are small dogs weighing 1 @.@ 9 – 3 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 4 @.@ 2 – 7 @.@ 7 lb ) and standing 5 @.@ 0 – 11 inches ( 13 – 28 cm ) high at the withers . They are compact but sturdy dogs with an abundant textured coat with a highly plumed tail set high and flat . The top coat forms a ruff of fur on the neck , which Poms are well known for , and they also have a fringe of feathery hair on the hindquarters .
The earliest examples of the breed were white or occasionally brown or black . Queen Victoria adopted a small red Pomeranian in 1888 , which caused that color to become fashionable by the end of the 19th century . In modern times , the Pomeranian comes in the widest variety of colors of any dog breed , including white , black , brown , red , orange , cream , blue , sable , black and tan , brown and tan , spotted , brindle , plus combinations of those colors . The most common colors are orange , black or cream / white .
The merle Pomeranian is a recent color developed by breeders . It is a combination of a solid base color with lighter blue / grey patch which gives a mottled effect . The most common base colors for the effect are red / brown or black , although it can also appear with other colors . Combinations such as brindle merle or liver merle are not accepted in the breed standard . In addition , the eye , nose and paw pad are marshmallow color , changing parts of the eye to blue and the color on the nose and paw pads to become mottled pink and black .
Pomeranians have a thick , double coat . While grooming is not difficult , breeders recommend that it be done daily to maintain the quality of the coat and because of its thickness and the constant shedding , with trimming every 1 – 2 months . The outer coat is long , straight , and harsh in texture while the undercoat is soft , thick and short . The coat knots and tangles easily , particularly when the undercoat is being shed , which happens twice a year .
= = Temperament = =
Pomeranians are typically friendly , playful and lively but are often aggressive to other dogs and try to prove themselves Pomeranians are alert and aware of changes in their environment and barking at new stimuli can develop into a habit of barking excessively in any situation . They are somewhat defensive of their territory and will thus bark a lot when they encounter any outside noises . Pomeranians are intelligent dogs , respond well to training , and can be very successful in getting what they want from their owners . They are extroverted and enjoy being the center of attention but can become quite aggressive and dominant if not well trained . The use of toys can be an effective tool in encouraging pomeranians to spend time alone .
= = Health = =
= = = Overall health = = =
The life expectancy of a Pomeranian is 12 to 16 years . A well @-@ bred dog on a good diet with appropriate exercise will have few health problems ; and , if kept trim and fit , a Pomeranian is a sturdy dog . The breed does have similar health issues to many dog breeds , although some issues such as hip dysplasia are uncommon because of the Pomeranian 's lightweight build . Some health issues can develop as a result of lack of attention to grooming and teeth- , ear- , and eye @-@ cleaning . With routine care , these problems can be avoided . They are prone to early tooth loss , and dry food is recommended . Poms are one of the breeds with the smallest average litter size , with various source giving numbers of between 1 @.@ 9 and 2 @.@ 7 puppies per litter .
= = = Common problems = = =
Merle colored dogs may suffer from mild to severe deafness , increased intraocular pressure , ametropia , microphthalmia , and colobomas . Merle dogs born from parents who are also both merles may additionally suffer from abnormalities of the skeletal , cardiac and reproductive systems .
Luxating patella is another health issue in the Pomeranian breed . It occurs when , through either malformation or trauma , the ridges forming the patellar groove in the knee are not prominent and are too shallow to allow the patella to properly sit securely . This can cause the patella to " luxate " ( jump out of the groove ) sideways which will cause the leg to lock up with the foot off the ground . While the muscles are contracted the patella cannot return to the correct position . The initial pain is caused by the knee cap sliding across the ridges of the femur . Once out of position , the dog does not feel any pain caused by the slipped disc .
Tracheal collapse is caused by a weakening of the tracheal rings in the windpipe . It occurs when the rings that normally hold the shape of the windpipe collapse , closing the airway . The symptoms of a collapse include a honking cough that can sound similar to a goose honk , an intolerance to exercise , fainting spells and a cough that is worsened by hot weather , exercise and excitement . The tendency for episodes of tracheal collapse typically increases in frequency and severity as the dog ages .
In Pomeranians , a condition often called " black skin disease " occurs which is a combination of alopecia ( hair loss ) and hyperpigmentation ( a darkening of the skin ) . Other names for this condition include woolly coat , coat funk , pseudo @-@ Cushing 's disease , or severe hair loss syndrome . This condition affects male Pomeranians more than females , and may be inherited . Although most affected dogs show signs following puberty , it can occur at any age . Other conditions can mimic this condition including Cushing 's syndrome , hypothyroidism , chronic skin infections , and reproductive hormone disorders .
Another common disorder in male Pomeranians is cryptorchidism . This is when either one or both of the testicles do not descend into the scrotum . It is treated through surgical removal of the retained testicle .
= = = Exercise = = =
The Pomeranian is a small but energetic breed of dog . Although Pomeranians benefit from frequent attention , they need relatively little exercise : it is recommended to take them on a short daily walk or let them run around an enclosed space .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The forerunners of today 's Pomeranian breed were large working dogs from the Arctic regions . These dogs are commonly known as the Wolfspitz or Spitz type , which is German for " sharp point " which was the term originally used by Count Eberhard zu Sayn in the 16th Century as a reference to the features of the dog 's nose and muzzle . The Pomeranian is considered to be descended from the German Spitz .
The breed is thought to have acquired its name by association with the area known as Pomerania which is located in northern Poland and Germany along the Baltic Sea . Although not the origin of the breed , this area is credited with the breeding which led to the original Pomeranian type of dog . Proper documentation was lacking until the breed 's introduction into the United Kingdom .
An early modern recorded reference to the Pomeranian breed is from 2 November 1764 , in a diary entry in James Boswell 's Boswell on the Grand Tour : Germany and Switzerland . " The Frenchman had a Pomeranian dog named Pomer whom he was mighty fond of . " The offspring of a Pomeranian and a wolf bred by an animal merchant from London is discussed in Thomas Pennant 's A Tour in Scotland from 1769 .
Two members of the British Royal Family influenced the evolution of the breed . In 1767 , Queen Charlotte , Queen @-@ consort of King George III of England , brought two Pomeranians to England .
Named Phoebe and Mercury , the dogs were depicted in paintings by Sir Thomas Gainsborough . These paintings depicted a dog larger than the modern breed , reportedly weighing as much as 30 – 50 lb ( 14 – 23 kg ) , but showing modern traits such as the heavy coat , ears and a tail curled over the back .
Queen Victoria , Queen Charlotte 's granddaughter , was also an enthusiast and established a large breeding kennel . One of her favoured dogs was a comparatively small red sable Pomeranian which she possibly named " Windsor 's Marco " and was reported to weigh only 12 lb ( 5 @.@ 4 kg ) . When she first exhibited Marco in 1891 , it caused the smaller type Pomeranian to become immediately popular and breeders began selecting only the smaller specimens for breeding . During her lifetime , the size of the Pomeranian breed was reported to have decreased by 50 % . Queen Victoria worked to improve and promote the Pomeranian breed by importing smaller Pomeranians of different colors from various European countries to add to her breeding program . Royal owners during this period also included Joséphine de Beauharnais , the wife of Napoleon I of France , and King George IV of England .
The first breed club was set up in England in 1891 , and the first breed standard was written shortly afterwards . The first member of the breed was registered in America to the American Kennel Club in 1898 , and it was recognized in 1900 .
In 1912 , two Pomeranians were among only three dogs to survive the sinking of RMS Titanic . A Pomeranian called " Lady " , owned by Miss Margaret Hays , escaped with her owner in lifeboat number seven , while Elizabeth Barrett Rothschild took her pet to safety with her in lifeboat number six .
Glen Rose Flashaway won the Toy Group at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1926 , the first Pomeranian to win a group at Westminster . It would take until 1988 for the first Pomeranian , " Great Elms Prince Charming II " , to win the Best in Show prize from the Westminster Kennel Club .
In the standard published in 1998 , the Pomeranian is included in the German Spitz standard , along with the Keeshond , by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale . According to the standard " Spitz breeds are captivating " and have a " unique characteristic , cheeky appearance . "
= = = Popularity = = =
The Pomeranian has been among the more popular dog breeds in the United States , featuring consistently in the top 20 of registered AKC dog breeds since at least 1998 , when it was ranked # 10 ; the breed was # 17 in the 2011 rankings , dropping two spots from the previous year . In 2012 and 2013 it remained in the top twenty and was ranked at # 19 .
It is not listed in the top 20 breeds in the UK in either 2007 or 2008 . In Australia their popularity has declined since 1986 , with a peak of 1128 Pomeranians registered with the Australian National Kennel Council in 1987 ; only 577 were registered in 2008 . However , this is an increase from 2004 , when only 491 dogs were registered .
It is more popular in American cities in 2008 , ranking joint tenth ( with American Bulldog ) in Detroit and Orlando , ninth in Los Angeles , a joint seventh in Seattle ( again , with the American Bulldog ) , but third in Honolulu , only bested by the Labrador Retriever and the German Shepherd Dog .
= Lorde =
Ella Marija Lani Yelich @-@ O 'Connor ( born 7 November 1996 ) , better known by her stage name Lorde ( pronounced " lord " ) , is a New Zealand singer @-@ songwriter . Born in Takapuna and raised in Devonport , Auckland , she became interested in performing as a child . In her early teens , she signed with Universal Music Group and was later paired with the songwriter and record producer Joel Little , who has co @-@ written and produced most of Lorde 's works . Her first major release , The Love Club EP , was commercially released in March 2013 . The EP reached number two on the national record charts of New Zealand and Australia .
In mid @-@ 2013 , Lorde released her debut single " Royals " . It became an international crossover hit and made Lorde the youngest solo artist to achieve a US number @-@ one single on the Billboard Hot 100 since 1987 . In late 2013 , she released her debut studio album , Pure Heroine . The record topped the charts of New Zealand and Australia and reached number three on the US Billboard 200 . Its following singles include " Tennis Court " , " Team " , " No Better " and " Glory and Gore " . In 2014 , Lorde released " Yellow Flicker Beat " as a single from the soundtrack for The Hunger Games : Mockingjay – Part 1 .
Lorde 's music consists of subgenres such as dream pop and indietronica . She has earned two Grammy Awards , a Brit Award and ten New Zealand Music Awards . In 2013 , she was named among Time 's most influential teenagers in the world , and in the following year , she was in Forbes 's " 30 Under 30 " list .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1996 – 2008 : Early life = = =
Of Croatian and Irish descent , Ella Yelich @-@ O 'Connor was born in Takapuna to Vic O 'Connor , a civil engineer , and Sonja Yelich ( Croatian : Sonja Jelić ) , a poet , on November 7 , 1996 . She was raised in the nearby suburb of Devonport with her two sisters , Jerry and India , and her brother , Angelo .
At age five , she joined a drama group and developed public speaking skills . At that same time , Lorde was attending Vauxhall School and later Belmont Intermediate School . Her mother encouraged her to read a range of genres , which Lorde cited as a lyrical influence , " I guess my mum influenced my lyrical style by always buying me books . She 'd give me a mixture of kid and adult books too , there weren 't really any books I wasn 't allowed to read . I remember reading Feed by M.T. Anderson when I was six , and her giving me Salinger and Carver at a young age , and Janet Frame really young too . "
= = = 2009 – 11 : Career beginnings = = =
In May 2009 , Lorde and musician friend Louis McDonald won the Belmont Intermediate School annual talent show as a duo . On August 13 , 2009 , Lorde and McDonald were invited in for a chat on Jim Mora 's Afternoons show on Radio New Zealand . There , they performed covers of Pixie Lott 's " Mama Do ( Uh Oh , Uh Oh ) " and Kings of Leon 's " Use Somebody " . McDonald 's father Ian sent both his home audio recording of her and Louis McDonald covering Duffy 's song " Warwick Avenue " and his home video recording of the pair singing Pixie Lott 's " Mama Do " to Universal Music Group ( UMG ) ' s A & R Scott Maclachlan . In 2009 Maclachlan signed her to UMG for development . Lorde was also part of the Belmont Intermediate School band Extreme ; the band placed third in the North Shore Battle of the Bands finals at the Bruce Mason Centre , Takapuna , Auckland on 18 November 2009 .
In 2010 Lorde and McDonald performed covers live on a regular basis as a duet called " Ella & Louis " , playing at The Leigh Sawmill Cafe on 15 August , at Roasted Addiqtion Cafe in Kingsland on 20 August , at The Vic Unplugged at Victoria Theatre , Devonport on 27 October , and at Devonstock in Devonport on 12 December . While working on her music career , she attended Takapuna Grammar School from 2010 to 2013 , completing Year Twelve . She later chose not to return in 2014 to finish Year Thirteen .
In 2011 , UMG hired vocal coach Frances Dickinson to give Lorde singing lessons twice a week for a year . During this time , she began writing songs and was set up with a succession of songwriters , but without success . At the age of fourteen , Lorde started reading short fiction and learned how to " put words together " . She performed her own original songs publicly for the first time at The Vic Unplugged II on the Devonport Victoria Theatre main stage on 16 November 2011 . In December 2011 , MacLachlan paired Lorde with Joel Little , a songwriter , record producer , and former Goodnight Nurse lead singer . The pair recorded five songs for an EP at Little 's Golden Age Studios in Morningside , Auckland , and finished within three weeks .
= = = 2012 – present : Pure Heroine and The Hunger Games soundtrack = = =
In November 2012 , Lorde self @-@ released the record , entitled The Love Club EP , through her SoundCloud account for free download . After being freely downloaded 60 @,@ 000 times , UMG decided to commercially release the EP for sales in March 2013 . The EP peaked at number two on the record charts of New Zealand and Australia . In June of that year , " Royals " was released as a single from the EP . The single became a crossover hit , peaking atop the US Billboard Hot 100 for nine consecutive weeks . Consequently , Lorde became the youngest solo artist to achieve a number @-@ one single in the US with " Royals " , since Tiffany 's " I Think We 're Alone Now " ( 1987 ) . The track eventually won the 2013 APRA Silver Scroll Award , and two Grammy Awards for Best Pop Solo Performance and Song of the Year at the 2014 Grammy Awards .
In September 2013 , Lorde released her debut studio album , Pure Heroine . The album topped the charts of New Zealand and Australia and reached the top five of several national charts , including Canada , Ireland , Norway and the United Kingdom . In the U.S. , Pure Heroine peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 , and had sold 1 @.@ 33 million copies by 2014 . Worldwide , Pure Heroine had sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies by the end of 2013 . The album was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album .
The release of Pure Heroine was preceded by four singles : " Tennis Court " was released in June 2013 , topping the New Zealand Singles Chart ; the third single , " Team " , became a top @-@ ten hit worldwide ; and " No Better " , a song only included on the extended version of Pure Heroine , and " Glory and Gore " were released as the two final singles from the record , respectively . In September 2013 , Lorde 's cover version of the Tears for Fears single " Everybody Wants to Rule the World " , produced by Michael A. Levine and Lucas Cantor , was included on The Hunger Games : Catching Fire film soundtrack .
In November 2013 , Lorde signed a publishing deal with Songs Music Publishing , worth a reported US $ 2 @.@ 5 million , after a bidding war between various companies , including Sony Music Entertainment and her label UMG . The agreement gives the publisher the right to license Lorde 's music for films and advertising . Late that year , she started a relationship with photographer James Lowe .
In December 2013 , Lorde announced that she had begun writing material for her second studio album . In June 2014 , Lorde said that her second studio album was in its early stages and that , so far , it was " totally different " from her debut album . In the first half of 2014 , Lorde headlined various festivals , including the Laneway Festival in Sydney , Australia , the three South American editions of Lollapalooza — Chile , Santiago ; Buenos Aires , Argentina ; and São Paulo , Brazil — and the Coachella Festival in California .
To promote The Love Club EP and Pure Heroine , Lorde embarked on an international tour , the first leg of which was held in North America in early 2014 . She later announced the Australian leg , held in July , and the second North American leg , held in August . In April of that year , Lorde performed " All Apologies " with the surviving members of Nirvana during the band 's induction ceremony at the Rock N ' Roll Hall of Fame .
On 1 August 2014 , Lorde performed at Lollapalooza again in Grant Park , Chicago . Lorde 's set was critically well received , with Billboard selecting it as the fifth @-@ best performance of the festival , while Rolling Stone deemed it the best segment of the Chicago event .
On 29 September 2014 , Lorde released " Yellow Flicker Beat " as the first single from the soundtrack album for the film The Hunger Games : Mockingjay — Part 1 ; Lorde oversaw the collation of the album 's content , in addition to contributing vocals to several songs . By her 18th birthday in November 2014 , it was estimated that Lorde was worth NZ $ 11 million . In 2015 , Lorde was featured on " Magnets " , a track on Disclosure 's second studio album Caracal . At the 2016 Brit Awards , Lorde gave a performance of " Life on Mars " in tribute to the late English singer David Bowie .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences = = =
Lorde grew up listening to American jazz musician Billie Holiday , and soul musicians Sam Cooke , Etta James and Otis Redding , whose music Lorde admires for " harvesting their suffering . " Additionally , she listened to her parents ' favourite records by the likes of Cat Stevens , Neil Young and Fleetwood Mac in her early years . Among those records , Lorde deemed Rumours by Fleetwood Mac as " a perfect record " . She cites the unusual vocals of Grimes , band Sleigh Bells and producer SBTRKT as her prominent influences . Furthermore , Lorde names Thom Yorke as an influence for his " smart " way of using his voice , as well as Nicki Minaj and Kendrick Lamar for their " sassy " tone . Other inspirations for Lorde include Lana Del Rey , Grace Jones , James Blake , Yeasayer , Animal Collective , Bon Iver , Radiohead , Jamie Woon , Arcade Fire , Kurt Vonnegut , Laurie Anderson , Kanye West and Prince .
She cites rapper J. Cole and electronic producers as influences , saying that she was impressed by " their vocals in a really interesting way , whether it might be chopping up a vocal part or really lash or layering a vocal " . Katy Perry , Justin Timberlake , Bruno Mars and Sara Bareilles have also influenced Lorde vocally . Lorde also states that she was inspired by the initially hidden identities of Burial and The Weeknd , explaining , " I feel like mystery is more interesting " . She names her mother , a poet , as the main influence for her songwriting skill . In addition , Lorde names several authors including Raymond Carver , Wells Tower , Tobias Wolff , Claire Vaye Watkins , Sylvia Plath , Walt Whitman and T. S. Eliot as lyrical inspirations – particularly noting their sentence structures .
= = = Musical style = = =
Lorde 's music has been described as art pop , dream pop , indie pop , electropop , and indie @-@ electro . Multiple reviewers also note the influences of hip hop and R & B on Lorde 's releases . In a review for Consequence of Sound , Jon Hadusek details the minimal production on Lorde 's music " allows [ her ] to sing any melody she wants , layering them over one another to create a choral effect " . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard shares that her works features deep bass rumbles , lilting loops and programmed beats . Paul Lester from The Guardian compares Lorde 's music to that of Sky Ferreira , Lana Del Rey , Grimes and Eliza Doolittle .
Lorde is an alto ; however , on " Royals " , she performs with a mezzo @-@ soprano vocal range . Lorde writes her music vocally and does not play musical instruments on her records or onstage . She states that her main focus is her voice , elaborating , " I don 't play any instruments , so my voice needs to have the focus . My vocal @-@ scape is really important . " PopMatters 's Evan Sawdey describes Lorde 's vocals as being " unique and powerfully intriguing " . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard praises her vocals for being " dynamic , smoky and restrained " . Lester characterises Lorde 's vocals as " sweet , sultry and sour " , while James Lachno from The Daily Telegraph details the singer 's voice as " twitchy electro " . In an article for The AV Club , Kevin McFarland writes that " [ Lorde 's ] voice is the alpha and omega of her talent . She has the presence and vocal development of singers more than twice her age . Her voice isn 't booming or overpowering , but rather mystifying and alluring , both floating on its own in a sea of reverb and digital blips and awash in an army of chorused overdubs . "
= = = Songwriting and lyrics = = =
Talking about her collaboration with Joel Little , Lorde shares that Little 's refining her " raw potential to end up with [ the music ] " was one of the best aspects of him . She also views Little as " the only one who was working with electronic music in the way [ she ] was interested in at the time " . Lorde details that her songs are shaped by her lyrics , which she felt as a " more cohesive way of working . " She said , " I tend to start with lyrics – sometimes the seed of a song will just be a word that I thought was rad , one that summed up a particular idea I 'd been trying to pin down . " Nonetheless , she points out that the songwriting process of " Tennis Court " was different to how she normally writes a song : the lyrics are built on the instant music and beat .
The lyrical content of her two first major releases , The Love Club EP and Pure Heroine , criticises mainstream popular culture . Lindsay Zoladz from Pitchfork Media noted that Lorde expressed her indifference towards modern @-@ day 's culture , further explaining that " Lorde has introduced herself to the world as someone who gives very few fucks . " On behalf of Rolling Stone , critic Jonah Weiner also noted the typical themes of teen pop music , including " social anxiety , romantic yearning , debilitating ennui [ and ] booze @-@ soaked ragers " . Jim Pickney from the New Zealand Listener writes that Lorde 's lyrics are structured in a short story manner and praised that her songwriting ability " combines unmistakably teenage confusion , curiosity and confidence with word skills beyond her years . "
= = Public image = =
Lorde chose her stage name because she was fascinated with " royals and aristocracy " . However , she felt the name Lord was too masculine , thus she added an " e " to make it more feminine . She described her public image as coming " naturally " to her . Her music is noted for the manner in which its view of pop culture is contrasted with that of her contemporaries , such as Miley Cyrus and Rihanna . Lorde is a self @-@ identified feminist .
In a November 2013 interview with Q , Lorde expressed frustration about " certain things about music " : " There are a lot of shock tactics these days . People trying to outdo each other , which will probably culminate in two people fucking on stage at the Grammys . " Following the release of Pure Heroine , she also described herself as a " sex @-@ positive " person , elaborating :
People like to paint me in a certain way , but I 'm a hugely sex @-@ positive person and I have nothing against anyone getting naked . For me personally I just don 't think it really would complement my music in any way or help me tell a story any better . It 's not like I have a problem with dancing around in undies — I think you can use that stuff in a hugely powerful way . It just hasn 't felt necessary for me .
In November 2013 , Lorde was included in Time 's list of the most influential teenagers in the world , with Mark Metcalfe from the publication commenting that she was " forging her own path " . In January 2014 , Forbes placed Lorde on their " 30 Under 30 " list of young people " who are changing our world " . She was the youngest individual to be featured on the list . In October of that year , Lorde was included in the list " The 25 Most Influential Teens of 2014 " by Time . Featuring Lorde in its 6 September 2013 cover story , Billboard named Lorde " your new alt @-@ rock heroine " . Britney Spears is an admirer of Lorde , commenting that her music " [ is ] really different and cool . "
In June 2014 , Lorde released a two @-@ piece make @-@ up limited edition collection in collaboration with MAC Cosmetics , consisting of a lipstick titled after her debut album , Pure Heroine , and an eyeliner . She filmed a video for the Electoral Commission to encourage voter turnout of young people at the 2014 New Zealand general election , despite being too young to vote at the time . On 13 May 2015 , a wax figure of Lorde was introduced to the Madame Tussauds Hollywood .
Her career and the influence of the music industry were parodied in the episodes ″ The Cissy ″ and " # REHASH " of South Park ( season 18 , episode 3 and 9 ; broadcast in October / December 2014 ) . That role was also used in other episode of the same season .
= = Discography = =
Pure Heroine ( 2013 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Following her breakthrough , Lorde won four New Zealand Music Awards at the 2013 ceremony . " Royals " additionally earned the New Zealand APRA Silver Scroll Awards in that year . At the 2014 Grammy Awards , Lorde received two Grammy Awards for her single " Royals " in the categories Best Pop Solo Performance and Song of the Year . She has also won two Billboard Music Awards , one MTV Video Music Award and three World Music Awards .
= = Related articles = =
Surname Jelić
Surname O 'Connor
= Demi Lovato =
Demetria Devonne " Demi " Lovato ( / ˈdɛmi loʊˈvɑːtoʊ / DEM @-@ ee loh @-@ VAH @-@ toh or lə @-@ VAH @-@ toh ; born August 20 , 1992 ) is an American singer , songwriter , and actress who made her debut as a child actress in Barney & Friends . In 2008 , Lovato rose to prominence in the Disney Channel television film Camp Rock and signed a recording contract with Hollywood Records . Musically , Lovato is considered a pop , pop rock , and R & B artist . She released her debut album , Don 't Forget , in September 2008 ; it debuted at No. 2 on the U.S. Billboard 200 and has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales of over 530 @,@ 000 copies . In 2009 , Lovato received her own television series , Sonny with a Chance . Her second album , Here We Go Again , was released that July and debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 , and it has been certified gold by the RIAA for sales of over 496 @,@ 000 copies . Its title track became her first single to reach the top 20 of the Billboard Hot 100 , reaching number 15 , and was certified platinum .
After the release of additional television films and their soundtracks in 2010 , Lovato 's personal issues put her career on hiatus and ended Sonny with a Chance after its second season . Her third album , Unbroken ( 2011 ) , addresses several of her difficulties . Its lead single , " Skyscraper " , became Lovato 's second top ten single as well as first platinum single in the United States ; its second single , " Give Your Heart a Break " , was certified triple platinum . Lovato was a judge and mentor on the American version of The X Factor in 2012 and 2013 . Her fourth album , Demi ( 2013 ) , had first @-@ week sales of 110 @,@ 000 copies ( the best debut week of Lovato 's recording career ) and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 . Its lead single , " Heart Attack " , became her third top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also peaked at No. 3 in the United Kingdom , becoming her highest charting single and first to reach the top 10 in the UK . Lovato 's fifth album , Confident ( 2015 ) , debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 . Its lead single " Cool for the Summer " peaked at number eleven on the Hot 100 and was certified platinum .
Lovato has won a number of awards , including an MTV Video Music Award , 13 Teen Choice Awards , five People 's Choice Awards , an ALMA Award , and a Billboard Touring Award . In 2013 , Maxim ranked her 26th on its Hot 100 list and Billboard ranked her second on its Social 50 Artists of the Year list . Outside the entertainment industry , Lovato is involved with several social and environmental causes . In May 2013 , she was cited for her dedication as a mentor to teens and young adults with mental health challenges at a National Children 's Mental Health Awareness Day hosted by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration in Washington , D.C. She has also become an advocate for the LGBT community . In 2014 , she was announced as the Grand Marshal for LA Pride week , and that same year she became the face for Human Rights Campaign 's Americans for Marriage Equality Campaign .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1992 – 2006 : Early life and career beginnings = = =
Lovato was born on August 20 , 1992 in Albuquerque , New Mexico , to engineer and musician Patrick Martin Lovato ( 1960 — June 22 , 2013 ) and former Dallas Cowboys cheerleader Dianna Lee Hart ( nee Smith ; born August 8 , 1962 ) . Lovato has an older sister , Dallas ( born February 4 , 1988 ) ; a younger maternal half @-@ sister , actress Madison De La Garza ; and an older paternal half @-@ sister , Amber , to whom she first spoke when she was 20 .
Lovato 's parents divorced in the late summer of 1994 , shortly after her second birthday . Lovato 's father was of Mexican descent , while her mother has English and Irish ancestry . Through her father , Lovato is a descendant of Civil War Union veteran Francisco Perea ( 1830 – 1913 ) and Santa Fe de Nuevo México governor Francisco Xavier Chávez .
Lovato was raised in Dallas , Texas . With Selena Gomez , she began her acting career on the children 's television series Barney & Friends as Angela . She began playing piano at age seven and guitar at ten , when she also began dancing and acting classes . Lovato told Ellen DeGeneres that she was bullied so badly that she asked for homeschooling , and she received her high @-@ school diploma through homeschooling in April 2009 . She later became a spokesperson for the anti @-@ bullying organization PACER and appeared on America 's Next Top Model to speak out against bullying . In 2006 , Lovato appeared on Prison Break , and on Just Jordan the following year .
As of September 2015 , Lovato 's name appears on the " Unclaimed Coogan " list , which is a fund for child actors whose earnings were partially withheld , but which remain unclaimed by the former child performers .
= = = 2007 – 08 : Camp Rock and Don 't Forget = = =
In 2007 and 2008 , Lovato played Charlotte Adams on the Disney Channel short series As the Bell Rings . Lovato auditioned for the channel 's television film Camp Rock and series Sonny with a Chance during the summer of 2007 , and got both roles . Lovato played the lead character , aspiring singer Mitchie Torres , in Camp Rock . The film premiered on June 20 , 2008 to 8 @.@ 9 million viewers . Its soundtrack was released three days earlier ; however , the music was considered less current than that of High School Musical . Gillian Flynn of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Lovato 's acting skills were underwhelming and she " has the knee @-@ jerk smile of someone who is often told she has a great smile " . Lovato sang four songs on the soundtrack , including " We Rock " and " This Is Me " . That summer , she began her Demi Live ! Warm Up Tour before the release of her debut album and appeared on the Jonas Brothers ' Burnin ' Up Tour .
Lovato 's debut album , Don 't Forget , was released on September 23 , 2008 and was met with generally positive reviews from critics . Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly said , " Demi Lovato might satisfy her ' tween fans but she won 't be winning any rockers over with Don 't Forget " . The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 89 @,@ 000 copies . Ten of its songs were co @-@ written with the Jonas Brothers . Don 't Forget was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for US sales of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . Its lead single , " Get Back " , was praised for its pop rock style and peaked at number 43 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , selling over 560 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The album 's second single , " La La Land " , was cited for its strong rock elements and peaked at number 52 in the US , and cracked the top 40 in Ireland and the United Kingdom . The music video was directed by Brendan Malloy and Tim Wheeler The album 's third single , " Don 't Forget " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number sixty @-@ eight on October 11 , 2008 and fell off the chart the following week .
= = = 2009 – 10 : Sonny With a Chance and Here We Go Again = = =
In 2009 , Lovato recorded " Send It On " , a charity single and the theme song for Disney 's Friends for Change , with friends Selena Gomez , Miley Cyrus and the Jonas Brothers . All proceeds from the song were donated to environmental charities supported by the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund . Lovato 's Disney Channel sitcom Sonny with a Chance , with her character Sonny Munroe the newest cast member of the show @-@ within @-@ a @-@ show So Random ! , premiered on February 8 . Lovato 's acting ability was described by Robert Lloyd of the Los Angeles Times as " very good " , and he compared her favorably to Hannah Montana star ( and friend ) Miley Cyrus . That June , she co @-@ starred as Princess Rosalinda with Selena Gomez in the Disney Channel film , Princess Protection Program . The film , the third highest @-@ rated Disney Channel original movie , premiered to 8 @.@ 5 million viewers .
Lovato 's second album , Here We Go Again , was released on July 21 , 2009 ; she described its acoustic style as similar to that of John Mayer . The album received favorable reviews from critics who appreciated its enjoyable pop @-@ rock elements , echoing reviews of Don 't Forget . Lovato 's first number @-@ one album , it debuted atop the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 108 @,@ 000 copies . Before its release , she began her Summer Tour 2009 . The album 's lead single , " Here We Go Again " peaked at number 59 on the Billboard Hot 100 and managed to peak at number 15 , becoming Lovato 's highest peaking solo single at the time , The song peaked at number 68 on the Canadian Hot 100 and 38 in New Zealand . The album 's second and final single , " Remember December " failed to match the success of its predecessor , but it peaked at number 80 on the UK Singles Chart .
The entertainer made her first 40 @-@ city national concert tour , Live in Concert , in support of Here We Go Again . The tour , from June 21 to August 21 , 2009 , had David Archuleta , KSM and Jordan Pruitt as opening acts and Lovato and Archuleta received the Choice Music Tour award at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards . In March 2010 , Lovato and Joe Jonas recorded " Make a Wave " as the second charity single for Disney 's Friends for Change . In May Lovato guest @-@ starred as a teenage schizophrenic in the sixth @-@ season Grey 's Anatomy episode , " Shiny Happy People " . Although critics praised her versatility , they were underwhelmed by her acting and felt that her appearance was designed primarily to attract viewers . Later that year , she headlined her first international tour , the South American Tour , and joined the Jonas Brothers Live in Concert tour as a guest .
Camp Rock 2 : The Final Jam , with Lovato reprising her role as Mitchie Torres , premiered on September 3 , 2010 . Critics were ambivalent about the film 's plot , and it has a 40 @-@ percent approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes . However , Lovato 's performance was called " dependably appealing " by Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly . The film premiered to eight million viewers , the number @-@ one cable @-@ television movie of the year by the number of viewers . Its accompanying soundtrack was released on August 10 with Lovato singing nine songs , including " Can 't Back Down " and " Wouldn 't Change a Thing " . The soundtrack debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 41 @,@ 000 copies . The Jonas Brothers ' 2012 World Tour was reworked to incorporate Lovato and the rest of the film 's cast ; it began on August 7 , two weeks later than planned . The Sonny with a Chance soundtrack was released on October 5 ; Lovato sang on four tracks , including " Me , Myself and Time " . It debuted ( and peaked ) at number 163 on the Billboard 200 , her lowest @-@ selling soundtrack .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Unbroken and The X Factor = = =
That month , Lovato also announced her departure from Sonny with a Chance , putting her acting career on hiatus and ending the series ; she later said that she would return to acting when she felt confident doing so . Her departure led to the spin @-@ off series So Random ! with the Sonny cast , featuring sketches from the former show @-@ within @-@ a @-@ show . The series was cancelled after one season . Lovato released her third album , Unbroken , on September 20 , 2011 . Begun in July 2010 , the album experimented with R & B and featured less pop rock . The album and the stylistic change received mixed to positive reviews from critics , who saw a growth in musicianship because of her struggles and have praised Lovato 's vocals but found the music more generic than her previous efforts . The record was a commercial success , peaking at number four on the Billboard 200 , with sales exceeding 97 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , and going on to sell over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , being certified Gold .
The album 's lead single , " Skyscraper " , was acclaimed for its messages of self @-@ worth and confidence , peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot 100 , selling 176 @,@ 000 downloads during the first week of release , becoming Lovato 's highest first week sales , until the release of " Heart Attack " by Lovato in 2013 . The song also Lovato 's highest @-@ peaked single since " This Is Me " reached number nine in August 2008 . The song also debuted at number two on the Hot Digital Songs chart . " Skyscraper " received the Best Video With a Message award at the September 2012 MTV Video Music Awards . The album 's second and final single , " Give Your Heart a Break " , peaked Billboard Hot 100 at number 16 , making Lovato 's fourth highest peaking song . Also , it has peaked at number 12 on the US Adult Top 40 chart , number 1 on the US Pop Songs chart and became the longest climb by a female artist to No. 1 in the Pop Songs chart history . In April 2014 , the song was certified three @-@ times platinum by the RIAA ; as of October 2014 , it has sold 2 @.@ 1 million digital copies .
In May , she became a judge for the second season of the American version of The X Factor , with a reported salary of one million dollars . Joining Britney Spears , Simon Cowell and L.A. Reid , it was speculated that she was chosen to attract a younger audience . Mentoring the Young Adults category , her final act ( CeCe Frey ) finished sixth . At the Minnesota State Fair in August , Lovato announced that after a pre @-@ show performance at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards she would release a single by December . On December 24 , she released a video on her YouTube account of herself singing " Angels Among Us " dedicated to the victims of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting . In March , she was confirmed as returning for the The X Factor 's third season , with her salary reportedly doubling .
= = = 2013 – 14 : Demi and Glee = = =
Demi was released on May 10 , 2013 , the album features influences of synthpop and bubblegum pop and was met with positive reviews who have praised Lovato 's vocals , although Jon Carmichael of The New York Times found Lovato 's transition fun , according to Entertainment Weekly it signified a less @-@ mature image . The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 110 @,@ 000 copies , the best @-@ selling debut week of Lovato 's career . It was also successful internationally , charting in the top ten in New Zealand , Spain and the UK. and has been certified Gold in the US .
On June 11 , Lovato released an e @-@ book , Demi , on iBooks . Her lead single , " Heart Attack , " debuted at number 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , with first @-@ week sales of 215 @,@ 000 copies . " Heart Attack " had the third @-@ highest opening @-@ week sales of 2013 , behind Justin Timberlake 's " Suit & Tie " and Ariana Grande 's " The Way " . The song peaked at number 10 ( Lovato 's third showing in the US top ten ) , and was also successful in Australia and Spain . The second single , " Made in the USA " peaked at number 80 on Billboard Hot 100 chart . The third single from Demi , " Neon Lights " , peaked in the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 36 and in the US Hot Dance Club Songs at number one . The fourth single ; " Really Don 't Care " featuring English recording artist Cher Lloyd , became Lovato 's third number one hit on the US Dance chart and debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 98 before rising to peak position number 26 .
Lovato later released a deluxe version of her fourth studio album , which was to include 7 new tracks , consisting of 4 live performances and 3 studio recordings . One of these songs included a collaboration with Olly Murs on a song for his fourth studio album , entitled " Up " . Lovato contributed to the The Mortal Instruments : City of Bones soundtrack album with " Heart by Heart " .
Lovato planned to appear in at least six episodes of the fifth season of Glee . She played Dani , a struggling New York @-@ based artist who befriends Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) and Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) and interacts with fellow newcomer Adam Lambert 's character . Lovato debuted in the season 's second episode , which aired on October 3 . On November 19 , she released a book , Staying Strong : 365 Days a Year , which topped The New York Times bestseller list . The entertainer has agreed to write a memoir , which is expected to be published in 2014 .
She announced her upcoming Neon Lights Tour ( including a Canadian leg ) on 29 September 2013 , which began February 9 , 2014 and ended May 17 . On October 21 , she released " Let It Go " for the Disney film Frozen , which was released in theaters on November 27 , and the song was promoted as the single for the film 's soundtrack . The song peaked in the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 38 , spending twenty weeks on the chart . On December 18 , 2013 , Lovato confirmed that she would not return to the The X Factor for a fourth season . On May 18 , 2014 , " Somebody to You " featuring Lovato was released as the fourth single from The Vamps ' debut album , Meet the Vamps . On May 29 , she announced her fourth concert tour ( and first world tour , covering 25 cities ) , the Demi World Tour , and its first North American dates . In November 2014 , Lovato opened the UK shows on Enrique Iglesias 's Sex and Love Tour . She also worked with her longtime friend Nick Jonas on a song for his self @-@ titled album called " Avalanche , " released November 2014 . Lovato was featured on " Up " , the second single from Olly Murs ' fourth studio album , Never Been Better .
Lovato announced her skincare line called Devonne by Demi to be available in December 2014 . She released a music video for her song " Nightingale " on December 24 , 2014 as an early Christmas present for her fans .
= = = 2015 – present : Confident = = =
Lovato 's fifth album , Confident , was released on October 16 , 2015 , and received generally positive reviews from music critics . The album debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 98 @,@ 000 copies . During the album 's production , Lovato commented : " I 've already started recording for my new album , and I have plans to record during the tour . The sound just evolves into everything that I 've been and everything that I want to become . " She further stated , " I 've never been so sure of myself as an artist when it comes down to confidence , but not only personal things , but exactly what I want my sound to be and what I know I 'm capable of and this album will give me the opportunity to show people what I can really do . " In May 2015 , Billboard revealed Lovato was in the process of starting an " artist @-@ centric " new record label , Safehouse Records , of which she will be co @-@ owner . The label will be a partnership between her , Nick Jonas , and Lovato 's manager Phil McIntyre , and will form part of a new collaborative arrangement with record label Island . Confident was released through the new venture deal . This will be Lovato 's second multi @-@ label venture of her career ; she was formerly part of Jonas Records , a UMG / Hollywood / Jonas Brothers partnership , which is now defunct .
Lovato released the lead single from Confident titled " Cool for the Summer " on July 1 , 2015 . On September 18 , 2015 , the title track " Confident " was released as the album 's second single . On October 17 , 2015 , she performed a " Cool for the Summer " and " Confident " medley , and " Stone Cold " on Saturday Night Live during the series ' forty @-@ first season . Lovato was also featured on the re @-@ release of " Irresistible " , the fourth single from Fall Out Boy 's sixth studio album American Beauty / American Psycho . The same month , she signed with the major modeling agency , Wilhelmina Models . Lovato released the music video for her R & B @-@ influenced song " Waitin for You " featuring American rapper Sirah on October 22 , 2015 . On October 26 , 2015 , Lovato and Nick Jonas announced that they would tour together on the Future Now Tour . She was honored with the first @-@ ever Rulebreaker Award on December 11 , 2015 at the 2015 Billboard Women in Music event . On April 2 , 2016 , Lovato received GLAAD Vanguard Award for making a significant difference in promoting equal rights for LGBT people at the 27th GLAAD Media Awards ceremony .
In June 2016 , Lovato was among the artists that signed an open letter to stop gun violence , created by Billboard . That month , the Human Rights Campaign also released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting ; in the video , Lovato and others told the stories of the people killed there . On July 1 , 2016 , Lovato released a new single titled " Body Say " .
= = Philanthropy = =
In May 2009 , Lovato was named an Honorary Ambassador of Education by the American Partnership For Eosinophilic Disorders . As part of her involvement with Disney 's Friends for Change , Lovato , Selena Gomez , Miley Cyrus and the Jonas Brothers recorded the initiative 's theme song ( " Send It On " ) in 2009 . The song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 20 , and its proceeds were directed to environmental charities through the Disney Worldwide Conservation Fund . Lovato and Joe Jonas recorded another song , " Make a Wave " , for the charity in March 2010 . She is also spokesperson for the Join the Surge Campaign ! , DoSomething.Org and Joining the Surge by Clean & Clear ; the latter is a national campaign encouraging teenagers to take action in their communities .
Lovato was featured in a January 2010 public @-@ service announcement for Voto Latino to promote the organization 's " Be Counted " campaign preparing for the 2010 United States Census . In October
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2012 , Chloe Bennet was cast as Skye , the sixth and final main cast member .
In January 2013 , actress Cobie Smulders , who portrayed Maria Hill in The Avengers , indicated that she would be open to appearing in the show . That July it was confirmed that she would guest star in the pilot , with Whedon stating that he wanted to include Smulders because " she IS SHIELD . She 's cool and commanding and has the dry humor that plays so well with Clark 's . " Other guest cast members in the episode include two actors that had previously worked with Whedon on other television shows : Ron Glass , who played Shepherd Book in Firefly and the subsequent film Serenity , appears in " Pilot " as a S.H.I.E.L.D. doctor ; and J. August Richards , who appeared in Whedon 's Angel as Charles Gunn , portrays the character Mike Peterson . Additionally , Shannon Lucio and Bob Stephenson guest star as the Centipede doctor Debbie and Mike 's former boss Gary , respectively .
= = = Filming = = =
Production on the pilot , under the name of S.H.I.E.L.D. , took place from January 23 to February 12 , 2013 in Los Angeles , to accommodate Joss Whedon 's busy schedule . Additional filming also took place on location in Paris for two days , with Dalton noting that " it lends a kind of authenticity to the show and production value . " When the crew was scouting locations , the weather was " almost too perfect " , but during shooting it was foggy and raining , which Dalton described as " more authentic " rather than unnecessarily " picaresque " . In May 2014 , Jed Whedon revealed that on the first day of shooting the pilot , images of vehicles meant to be kept secret during production of the episode had already been leaked online , quickly showing how difficult dealing with secrecy on a Marvel project would be .
= = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = =
The episode uses the extremis virus from Iron Man 3 as one source of power for the character of Mike Peterson . Executive producer Jeffrey Bell explained that the idea of using it came up independent of the film , but the crew realized that it would be a good opportunity to tie in with the films , and worked with Marvel [ Studios ] on the tie @-@ in to ensure that " they didn 't feel like we were just ripping off their idea . " Additional sources of power for the character include : Chitauri technology , from The Avengers and Item 47 ; and super @-@ soldier serum , from Captain America : The First Avenger and The Incredible Hulk . The events of The Avengers are referenced numerous times throughout the episode , and archive footage from the film is briefly used in an opening montage . Also , Coulson 's flying car is a working model of the prototype seen in Captain America : The First Avenger .
= = Release = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
" Pilot " was first aired in the United States on ABC on September 24 , 2013 . It was aired alongside the US broadcast in Canada on CTV , while it was first aired in the United Kingdom on Channel 4 on September 27 , 2013 . It premiered on the Seven Network in Australia on October 2 , 2013 , and on TV2 in New Zealand on February 16 , 2014 .
= = = Marketing = = =
The first television spot for the episode was released on May 12 , 2013 , during the season 2 finale of Once Upon a Time . It featured footage from The Avengers , along with new footage for the pilot episode , and was noted as having high production values , which were compared to those of the Marvel One @-@ Shots . Two days later an extended trailer was released , " devoted to expository dialogue , setting up the characters and establishing the pecking order " . " Pilot " was then screened at San Diego Comic @-@ Con on July 19 , 2013 , and was met with a very positive reaction from the crowd . Prior to the airing of the episode in the UK , a viral marketing campaign was underway to promote the show . Posters asking for witnesses of " Suspected Extraordinary Activity " were placed around London .
= = = Home media = = =
The episode , along with the rest of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s first season , was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on September 9 , 2014 . Bonus features include behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , audio commentary , deleted scenes , and a blooper reel . It was released in Region 2 on October 20 , and in Region 4 on November 11 , 2014 . On November 20 , 2014 , the episode became available for streaming on Netflix .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In the United States the episode received a 4 @.@ 7 / 14 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 7 percent of all households , and 14 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was watched by 12 @.@ 12 million viewers . This was the highest ratings received by the first episode of a drama series in the United States for almost four years since the pilot episode of ABC 's V , however NCIS was the most viewed show in the time slot with more than 20 million viewers . " Pilot " was watched by 2 @.@ 71 million viewers during its Canadian premiere , earning the third highest viewership for the week on the network . It was watched by 14 @.@ 2 percent of all viewers in the UK watching television at the time of the broadcast , an average of 3 @.@ 1 million . The broadcast had a 27 percent share of those aged between 16 and 34 . It was the most viewed new drama on Channel 4 in 2013 . The Seven Network premiere in Australia was watched by 1 @.@ 3 million viewers , the top show of the night . In New Zealand , the first episode premiered to 326 @,@ 790 viewers , the fourth highest show of the night , and the most watched show on TV2 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Jason Hughes of The Huffington Post said that " Everything about this premiere worked " . He felt that the show was a cross between Fringe and Heroes with elements of The X @-@ Files included . He thought that there was a potential for the series to be a success and thought that it would attract both Marvel fans and new viewers alike . Dave Bradley gave the episode four and a half out of five for SFX magazine , saying that the show was going to become a phenomenon alongside Doctor Who , The Walking Dead and Game of Thrones . He felt that using the Skye character to introduce the viewer to the series was cheesy , but effective . He praised J August Richards ' performance but did not enjoy some of the characterizations of the main characters , which made him think the team was similar to that seen in Torchwood .
Eric Goldman at IGN rated " Pilot " 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , stating that the " inspired collaboration " between Joss Whedon and Marvel that began with The Avengers is highly entertaining , and should keep fans wanting more , but noting that viewers wanting the series to have the same scale as the MCU films " will be disappointed – this is a high budget TV series , but it is a TV series " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a " B " , feeling that the episode had enough " fun and funny moments " to indicate that the series could " settle into a groove with time " , but also that there were cautious and predictable moments , and that even at its best , the episode feels like " the product of several hundred cooks . "
Brian Lowry , writing for Variety , found the episode to be " OK " , finding some dialogue to be " a little precious and clunky " and feeling the plot to be " yet another twist on a procedural , albeit with a few mythological elements to sweeten the experience " , summing that " with great boxoffice and ostentatious synergy come super @-@ sized expectations . " Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter was not sure from the pilot whether the series would go on to be good or not . He thought that having Joss Whedon 's name attached the project would lead to positive reviews for at least a month . Goodman said that " It 's a fun hour and calling it ' good but not great ' has more to do with expectations in the wake of the Marvel movies than anything else . "
Jim Steranko , known for his work on Nick Fury , Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. , felt the episode was unfocused and " had no menace , no tension " . He lamented the absence of Samuel L. Jackson 's Nick Fury , and felt the episode needed " to be much tougher , much stranger , much edgier to reach its potential " . James Hunt of Den of Geek , thought that the episode struggled to meet expectations . He thought that the CGI was worse than that seen on Smallville and that the sets seemed small . However , he praised the script and in particular the speech given by Richards ' character at the end of the episode . He thought that the start was better than Whedon 's Dollhouse , but was not perfect .
= = = Accolades = = =
" Pilot " was nominated for Outstanding Visual Effects in a Broadcast Program at the 12th Visual Effects Society Awards , but lost to the Game of Thrones episode " Valar Dohaeris " .
= = = Controversy = = =
The episode introduced a group called the " Rising Tide " , also the name of a real @-@ life volunteer group who work on climate change issues . The group issued a statement saying that they were concerned with the use of the name for the fictional group which appeared to be similar to Anonymous . They have since been mistakenly contacted on Twitter by fans of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D and have created a petition against The Walt Disney Company to stop using the name .
= Joseph Parry =
Joseph Parry ( 21 May 1841 – 17 February 1903 ) was a Welsh composer and musician . Born in Merthyr Tydfil , Wales , he is best known as the composer of Myfanwy and the hymn tune Aberystwyth , which the National anthem of South Africa , Nkosi Sikelel ' iAfrika , is said to be based on . Parry was also the first Welshman to compose an opera ; his composition , Blodwen , was the first opera in the Welsh language .
Born into a large family , Parry left school to work in the local coal mines when he was nine years of age . He then went to work at the Cyfarthfa Ironworks , where his father was also employed . In 1854 the family emigrated to the United States , settling at Danville , Pennsylvania , where Parry again found employment at an iron works .
Though Parry had a great interest in music , he had no opportunity to study it until there was a temporary closure of the Rough and Ready Iron Works . Some of his co @-@ workers were also musicians , and they offered music lessons while the iron works was closed . Parry joined a music sight @-@ reading class taught by one of the men . He continued to study harmony with another co @-@ worker , and learned how to read and write while he was learning about harmony .
Parry soon began submitting compositions to eisteddfodau in Wales and the United States and winning awards . During a return visit to Wales for the National Eisteddfod at Llandudno , Parry was offered two music scholarships , but was unable to accept due to family obligations . A fund was established for the support of Parry and his family while he studied music .
Parry went on to receive a Doctorate in Music from the University of Cambridge ; he was the first Welshman to receive Bachelor 's and Doctor 's degrees in music from the University . He returned to Wales in 1874 to become the first Professor of Music at Aberystwyth University , later accepting a position at Cardiff University .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Parry was born in Merthyr Tydfil in 1841 , the seventh of eight children of Daniel and Elizabeth Parry ( née Richards ) . The family was musically inclined , with all family members singing in the chapel choir . Parry 's mother , who performed at church functions , was remembered for her fine voice ; two of Parry 's sisters , Elizabeth and Jane , and a brother , Henry , gained some prominence in the United States as vocalists . He left school at age nine to work in the mines as the family needed the income . Young Parry worked a 56 hour week for twelve and a half pence while at the mine . By age 12 , Parry was working at the puddling furnaces of the Cyfarthfa Ironworks , where his father also worked .
Parry 's father , Daniel , emigrated to the United States in 1853 ; the rest of the family followed in 1854 . Like his father and brother , Parry became a worker at the Rough and Ready Iron Works in Danville , Pennsylvania . Danville had a large Welsh community and he became involved in strengthening Welsh culture locally , attending the Congregational Chapel and the Sunday school . Parry also served as the organist for the Mahoning Presbyterian Church in Danville ; the organ he played is still in service . Although he had sung in church choirs in Wales and the United States , Parry received no formal music lessons until he was 17 and living in Danville .
Parry 's opportunity to study music came in the form of a temporary closure of the iron works where he was employed . Parry had the good fortune to become friendly with three fellow workers who were also musicians . During rest periods , the three often would sing . Parry listened with interest at first , later joining in . One of the men started a music sight @-@ reading class while the iron works was closed ; Parry joined this class and became a fine sight @-@ reader . His interest in harmony made him want to study that also . One of his other co @-@ workers agreed to take Parry as a pupil . Young Parry was unable to read or write at the time he began harmony studies . The teacher patiently blended reading lessons with principles of harmony , and Parry quickly became skilled at both ; the teacher often found it hard to keep up with his pupil . During this time , Parry also learned to play the harmonium .
= = = Return to Wales = = =
Parry competed in the eisteddfod at Utica in 1861 , and took first prize for Temperance Vocal March . Curious as to how his music would be received in his native Wales , in 1864 , he sent an anthem to the National Eisteddfod of Wales at Llandudno . The adjudicators awarded him first prize , believing he was a professional musician . In 1865 , Parry again prepared an entry , but this time he travelled to the contest in Aberystwyth . Parry 's anthem entry was lost in the post , so it could not be judged . Instead , he was given a seat in the Gorsedd and the title " Pencerdd America " ( " Chief Musician of America " ) .
During this visit , Parry and his friends who had accompanied him to Wales travelled the country giving concerts of Parry 's own works . They were well received throughout the land . Parry was offered the opportunity to study for a year under Dr Davies of Swansea , followed by a one year scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music . He had to refuse both offers since he had a wife and child in the United States dependent on him for support . By 1865 , Parry 's musical ability had become well @-@ known in Wales and in the United States . A fund was established to support Parry and his family while he studied music ; donations were received from both countries . Parry aided his own cause by giving concerts in Pennsylvania , New York and Ohio .
In August 1868 Parry and his family arrived in England , where he began a three year study at the Royal Academy of Music under William Sterndale Bennett and Manuel Garcia . During his last year of study at the Royal Academy , Parry appeared before Queen Victoria three times , each time by her special request . The Queen made another request of Parry each time he appeared : that he perform only works he had composed . In 1871 , Bennett convinced Parry to enter University of Cambridge for a degree in music . While at Cambridge , Parry became the first Welshman to take both the MusB and MusD there . After earning his Bachelor 's degree , Parry and his family returned to Danville , where he operated a school of music for the next three years . When Aberystwyth University established a chair for music , it was offered to Parry ; he moved his family back to Wales , becoming the university 's first Professor of Music .
= = = Professor and Doctor of music = = =
Parry worked at Aberystwyth from 1874 to 1881 . In addition to his university duties , Parry frequently travelled as an adjudicator and conducting concerts of his compositions . He received his Doctorate from Cambridge in 1878 . At the time a candidate was required to compose a short oratorio and to have the work publicly performed ; the normal method was to have one of the college Chapel Choirs perform the oratorio . But Parry obtained the services of many Welsh singers ; 100 made the trip to Cambridge to perform Parry 's oratorio . When Parry resigned his position at Aberystwyth University in 1880 , he opened his own academy of music in the town .
In 1881 , the Parry family left Aberystwyth for Swansea , where Parry became the organist at Ebenezer Chapel and was head of a musical college he founded . When he was offered a chair at Cardiff University in 1888 , Parry and his family moved to the nearby town of Penarth . He lectured and taught at the university and was known as " Y Doctor Mawr " ( " The Great Doctor " ) . Parry also accepted a position as the organist at Christ Church Congregational Church in Penarth .
Parry became a candidate for principal of the Guildhall School of Music in 1896 ; the vacancy was due to the death of Sir Joseph Barnby . Officials of the city of Cardiff , colleagues and students at Cardiff University , as well as Parry 's former teachers wrote letters to the School of Music Committee in support of his election to the position . There were 38 applicants for the position ; the field was reduced to two candidates through a series of ballots by the Court of Common Council . Parry was no longer under consideration after the first round of reductions . He remained at the university and continued his work as an eisteddfod adjudicator , a conductor at Cymanfaoedd Canu , and as a performer and lecturer throughout Wales and the United States until the time of his death .
= = = Personal life and characteristics = = =
In 1861 , Parry married Jane Thomas . She was the daughter of Welsh immigrants and the sister of Gomer Thomas , who published many of Parry 's early compositions . The couple had three sons and two daughters . The older children were born when the family was still living in Danville ; only Parry 's youngest child was born in Wales . Two of Parry 's three sons died after the family moved to Penarth . Parry 's youngest son , William , died in 1892 ; his oldest son , Joseph Haydn , died two years later . While all of Parry 's children are said to have had musical talent , his eldest , Joseph Haydn , followed in his father 's footsteps as a composer and teacher .
Later in 1894 , Parry and his wife hoped a trip to the US would help ease some of the sadness over the deaths of their two sons . Parry had last visited the United States on a vocal concert tour in 1880 . Though the Parrys would be visiting family , he believed he should be available to the public during the visit since many people in the US had helped him financially when he was studying music in England .
Parry asked an old friend to notify the Welsh community in the United States that he would be visiting and would adjudicate at eisteddfodau , lecture or lead cymanfaoedd canu if desired . The community could arrange for Parry to visit by contacting Rev. Thomas Edwards of Edwardsville , Pennsylvania . Parry and his family visited many cities and towns in the eastern US and were warmly received wherever they went . He kept those back in Cardiff advised of his travels through letters to The Western Mail which were printed by the newspaper . Parry 's last journey to the United States in 1898 included a visit to Salt Lake City , where he adjudicated at the third Salt Lake eisteddfod which was held in the Mormon Tabernacle . His last major work , an opera entitled The Maid of Cefn Ydfa , premiered at the Grand Theatre in Cardiff in late December 1902 .
Parry was known as a religious man and a hard worker both at the iron works and at his craft . Despite his recognition in Wales and in the United States , he was not a wealthy man . Parry had little aptitude for business . With his permission , a committee of his friends managed his affairs , with Parry creating compositions and his friends tending to the business of publications . Since his compositions were based primarily on Welsh subjects , many of Parry 's friends believed it would have been to his advantage to have settled in London , where there were more cosmopolitan experiences to draw inspiration from . In 1859 , Parry and his family became citizens of the United States ; he was equally proud of being a Welshman and a United States citizen .
David Jenkins , who was a student and assistant to Parry at Aberystwyth , described him as impulsive and unable to criticise his own works , too erratic to be a good conductor and too impatient for all but advanced students , but with a boyish enthusiasm , especially for music . Sir Alexander Mackenzie , who also worked with Parry , also noted his great enthusiasm and described him as a man of great musical ability .
= = = Death = = =
About two weeks before his death , Parry became suddenly ill . The medical condition was serious enough to warrant surgery . An operation was performed and a full recovery was expected . Some days after the surgery , it was necessary to perform a second operation due to complications . Parry developed a high fever from blood poisoning a few days after the second surgery . There was a slight rally , but Parry continued to have relapses and grew steadily weaker . Parry , who had planned a tour of Australia and the US for 1904 , lay in his sick bed when The Maid of Cefn Ydfa was signed for performances by three opera companies ; he was never able to be told of the good news . Parry died at his Penarth home on 17 February 1903 . His last composition was written during his final illness @-@ a tribute to his wife , Jane , entitled Dear Wife .
At least 7 @,@ 000 people from all parts of the country gathered in Penarth for the funeral of Joseph Parry . They lined the route from Parry 's home to Christ Church , where the family worshipped and to the churchyard at St Augustine 's . His family and friends were joined by officials from the city of Cardiff , faculty and students from Cardiff University , representatives from the National Eisteddfod and many members of various choirs throughout Wales . Ministers of various denominations were also part of those gathered to pay respects to Parry . He was buried on the north side of St Augustine 's Churchyard , Penarth . Parry 's monument is a marble column topped by a lyre with seven strings , with the strings representing the members of Parry 's family . Two of the seven strings of the lyre are broken to represent the deaths of his two sons , who died before Parry .
Shortly after his death , a national fund was established in Parry 's name . This was meant to provide support for his widow , Jane , through an annual annuity ; any funds remaining after Jane 's death were to be used to provide a national music scholarship named for Parry .
= = Compositions and other works = =
Parry was a prolific composer ; one of his early works , " My Childhood Dreams " , was published while he was living in Danville . Despite his penchant for composing , most of his major works were not commercially successful . His oratorio , Saul of Tarsus , was commissioned for the National Eisteddfod at Rhyl in 1892 , and was somewhat successful . Parry and others considered it to be his best work ; the problem with the oratorio was that it was difficult to perform and that the score for the composition is 305 pages long .
Parry is believed to have composed 27 complete works , among them ten operas , five cantatas and two oratorios , as well as countless songs and hymns . By the 1890s , Parry was sufficiently well known and was asked to produce many of his works on a commission basis . He dealt with a variety of publishers for some of his works , while he published others himself . Parry published his opera , Blodwen , himself but the reasons for this are not clear . He appears to have done less self @-@ publishing in the 1890s . Part of the reason for this may have been the loss of his printing plates in the Western Mail fire of 1893 .
During Parry 's lifetime , many of his works remained unpublished ; the shelves of his study held stacks of manuscripts . A friend of Parry 's talked with him about the possibility of losing all of his manuscripts if there was a fire and suggested Parry needed a safe to store his manuscripts in . When Parry said he could not afford to buy a safe , the friend gave him one as a gift . Over 100 years after his death , one of his unknown works , Te Deum , was discovered by accident in the National Library of Wales archives .
After Parry 's death , the Welsh Congregational Church sought to purchase the copyrights of all Parry 's works and to publish them . The church was successful in obtaining the copyright to Aberystwyth and more than 60 other hymns and anthems written by Parry . In 1916 , Parry 's widow , Jane , sold the rights to all works which Parry owned the copyrights of to Snell and Sons , music publishers , for £ 1150 .
= = = Aberystwyth = = =
The music , written by Parry , was first published in 1879 by Stephen and Jones in Second Book of Tunes and Hymns . It was paired with Charles Wesley 's words , " Jesus , Lover of My Soul " , and first sung at the English Congregational Church in Portland Street in Aberystwyth , where Parry worked as an organist .
Enoch Sontonga worked in a Methodist mission school near Johannesburg . Sontonga , like Parry , was a choirmaster ; in 1897 , he set new words to Parry 's music and called the hymn Nkosi Sikelel ' iAfrika . Welsh missionaries often brought various copies of hymnals to their African missions ; it is believed Parry 's hymn reached Africa in this manner . While Sontonga wrote only one stanza of lyrics and a chorus for the song , Samuel Mqhayi composed seven more stanzas in 1927 . The song became the national anthem of South Africa and four other African nations .
= = = Blodwen = = =
Parry 's opera , Blodwen , was first performed in Aberystwyth 's Temperance Hall on 21 May 1878 , although Parry did not publish it until 1888 , while at Swansea . This was the first opera written by a Welsh composer and also the first opera to be performed in Welsh . The opera , with its libretto written by Richard Davies , is set during the time of the Welsh Revolt — the last attempt by the Welsh to preserve their independence .
At the time , very few people in Wales had seen an opera , and they had no idea what it was like . The opera programmes provided explanations , especially that the singers would wear costumes but would not be acting . Those who were members of Welsh nonconformist churches needed reassurance that this was not a theatrical performance , as acting and theatres were held in as much contempt as taverns . Parry was raised in the nonconformist Annibynwyr Chapel and adhered to the tenets of his faith for his entire life . The majority of participants in the first performance of Blodwen were music students of Parry ; his two older sons were also part of the production , playing piano and harmonium . Before the performance , Parry spoke to the audience . He repeated what had been printed in the programmes : that the participants were not acting and explained to those gathered what an opera was . Despite this , there were some clergymen who were not pleased .
Soon after the first performance of Blodwen , a local couple named their baby daughter after the opera 's heroine . There were no recorded instances of any children being named Blodwen until after the premiere of Parry 's opera . Records show the great popularity of the name for girls and also the popularity of Howell , the name of the hero , for boys . The opera was successful , with a further 500 performances worldwide by 1896 . Despite the success of Aberystwyth and Myfanwy , Blodwen seems to have been Parry 's most popular work while he was living ,
= = = Myfanwy = = =
While Parry is most often thought of as the sole creator of the ballad , it was actually the work of three men . At some point , Thomas Walter Price , a poet and journalist , published a poem in English called Arabella . It is believed that Parry wrote the music before the Welsh words of Myfanwy were written by Richard Davies . Parry 's work was published in 1875 , with Parry selling all rights to the song to a publisher for £ 12 . The song was first performed at the first concert of the Aberystwyth and University Musical Society on 28 May 1875 , with Parry as the conductor . It remains a standard in repertoires of Welsh male choirs today .
= = = Te Deum = = =
Edward @-@ Rhys Harry reconstructed Parry 's setting of the Te Deum taken from the text of The Book of Common Prayer . The manuscript was discovered in the National Library of Wales archives . Parry wrote the manuscript in 1863 , while living in Danville . Harry uncovered the manuscript while researching choral traditions at the library . He worked a year at transcribing the original Parry manuscript . The London Welsh Chorale gave the work its world première performance under Harry at St Giles Cripplegate , Barbican , London on 14 July 2012 .
= = = Other works = = =
Parry was also involved in music @-@ related publishing . Beginning in 1861 , he was a regular contributor of Tonic sol @-@ fa material to the Welsh music journal , Y cerddor Cymreig . Parry 's work with making Tonic sol @-@ fa accessible allowed everyone with an interest in choral work to participate . He edited Cambrian Minstrelsie ( A National Collection of Welsh Songs ) in 1893 . He also complied Dr Parry 's Book of Songs , which was a collection of his own works , and wrote Elfenau Cerddoriaeth ( " Elements of Music " ) , a Welsh handbook on theory , in 1888 . In 1895 , Parry entered into an agreement with an American music publishing firm , the John Church Company . The company published some of Parry 's songs along with English translations of poems by Heinrich Heine . The translations were done by poets of note , including James Thomson . Since it is doubtful that Parry was familiar with Heine 's work , there is the possibility that Parry was commissioned by the company to write the songs during an extensive US trip he had made the year before .
After his move to Penarth , Parry became involved in journalism , writing regular columns for both The Cardiff Times and The South Wales Weekly News . He also did some writing for The Western Mail . In his later years , Parry wrote an autobiography which has been described as inaccurate ; he never published the information . The National Library of Wales acquired this manuscript in 1935 from Edna Parry Waite , Parry 's daughter and his last surviving child . The National Library published Parry 's writings as a bilingual book , The Little Hero @-@ the Autobiography of Joseph Parry , in 2004 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Britain = = =
In 1947 , another son of Merthyr Tydfil , Jack Jones , based his novel , Off to Philadelphia in the Morning , on the events in the life of Joseph Parry . The book became a BBC three @-@ part presentation of the same name in 1978 . Jones never offered the book as anything except a work of fiction ; despite this , some aspects of the novel have been misconstrued as fact .
The centenary of Parry 's death was marked by an open air concert in Merthyr Tydfil 's Cyfarthfa Park featuring performances of Parry 's works . The concert was recorded on 28 July 2002 by Welsh television production company Avanti Media . It was broadcast by S4C on 17 February 2003 . A great @-@ grandaughter of Parry 's , who was a professional opera singer , was present for the event .
An anthem Parry composed with the Rev. Robert David Thomas while living in Pennsylvania was performed for the first time in Wales to mark the centenary of the composer 's death . There was no record of the anthem , " Cymry Glan Americ " , having been performed in Wales ; it is not certain if the work , which was written on January 1 , 1872 had ever been performed previously . A relative of Rev. Thomas located the composition and shared the information with Geraint Jones , the conductor of the Trefor brass band . Jones and his band performed the anthem on 28 May 2002 in Pwllheli at the centenary of the town hall .
In 2011 conductor Edward @-@ Rhys Harry oversaw the total reconstruction of Parry 's oratorio Emmanuel , which was performed by Cor Bro Ogwr and The British Sinfonietta , conducted by Harry , in December of that year . In May 2013 , Emmanuel was performed in the US for the first time when Harry and Côr Bro Ogwr performed in New York and Philadelphia .
= = = Parry 's cottage = = =
The cottage at 4 Chapel Row , Merthyr Tydfil , where Parry was born , is now open to the public as a museum . The row of cottages was attached to the Bethesda Chapel , where the family attended services . There are two bedrooms upstairs with the kitchen and another bedroom downstairs . The Parry family lived here with two lodgers until emigrating to the United States in 1854 .
The chapel and its attached cottages were slated for demolition in 1977 ; efforts by the local council and students from Cyfarthfa High School saved the row of cottages , but not the Bethesda Chapel . In 1979 , the Merthyr Tydfil Heritage Trust opened the cottage to the public . Exhibitions were installed upstairs in 1986 and restoration of the ground floor was completed in 1990 . Parry 's home was refurbished in 2016 through funds from a local company and was reopened to the public beginning on what would have been the composer 's 175th birthday . The home is now part of the Cyfarthfa Heritage Area .
= = = United States = = =
Parry is warmly remembered , particularly at the Mahoning Presbyterian Church in Danville , where he served as organist and choirmaster . Each time he visited the US , Parry returned to the church to play the organ . The Susquehanna Valley Welsh Society holds an annual Cymanfa Canu in his honour at the church on the Sunday nearest his May 21st birthday . In 2007 , the church 's steeple was restored with help from the National Welsh American Foundation . The re @-@ dedication of the church was held on May 21st , the birthday of Parry . A plaque has been placed at one of his homes in Danville ; the community marked the centenary of his death at the local Danville Festival by a memorial concert of Parry 's works .
= New York State Route 122 =
New York State Route 122 ( NY 122 ) is an east – west state highway in northern Franklin County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 37 in the town of Westville . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in the town of Burke . Near its midpoint , NY 122 has a short overlap with NY 30 in the town of Constable . NY 122 serves as a northerly bypass of the village of Malone , situated 6 miles ( 10 km ) to the south .
NY 122 was assigned c . 1938 as a north – south connector between what is now NY 11B and US 11 in the nearby town of Bangor . It was extended northeast to Burke via Westville after the state acquired ownership of the Westville – Burke highway in 1980 , and truncated to begin in Westville about 10 years later . Modern NY 122 follows what was originally designated New York State Route 188 during the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
NY 122 begins at an intersection with NY 37 in the Westville hamlet of Westville Center as an eastward continuation of County Route 19 ( CR 19 , Jewett Road ) . The route initially heads eastward from NY 37 as a rural , two @-@ lane road before ducking to the southeast . After an intersection with Bird Road roughly 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) from Westville Center , it continues on a southeasterly track for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , running alongside the Salmon River before curving eastward into the town of Constable . NY 122 soon enters the hamlet of the same name , where the undeveloped surroundings give way to a stretch of residences on both sides of the highway .
In the center of Constable , NY 122 intersects NY 30 , which overlaps with NY 122 for one block on its way from Malone to the Canadian border . The highway continues east from NY 30 , serving residences in the eastern part of the hamlet before curving to the southeast and entering another rural area . The road crosses into the town of Burke at a junction with Constable – Burke Town Line Road 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of Constable , and subsequently takes on a more pronounced southeasterly alignment . NY 122 ends 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) later at an intersection with US 11 just west of the hamlet of Burke Center .
= = History = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , a north – south highway in the town of Bangor that linked the hamlets of Bangor and North Bangor was designated as part of NY 187 , an east – west route connecting Nicholville to North Bangor via Bangor . Farther north , an east – west roadway between NY 10 ( now NY 30 ) in Constable and US 11 in Burke was assigned the NY 188 designation . NY 187 was realigned c . 1937 to continue east from Bangor to Malone via modern NY 11B . Its former routing between Bangor and North Bangor was designated as NY 122 by the following year . Meanwhile , NY 188 was extended west to NY 37 in Westville c . 1932 before it was removed c . 1939 .
On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of former NY 188 ( by this point redesignated as CR 22 ) was transferred from Franklin County to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . In return , the state transferred all of then @-@ NY 122 to Franklin County . The new Westville – Burke state highway became part of NY 122 , which was extended north along CR 19 to Westville Center and east along former NY 188 to Burke . NY 122 was truncated between 1985 and 1993 to consist only of the state @-@ maintained part of the route between Westville and Burke .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Franklin County .
= John D. Rockefeller =
John Davison Rockefeller Sr. ( July 8 , 1839 – May 23 , 1937 ) was an American industrialist and philanthropist . He was a co @-@ founder of the Standard Oil Company , which dominated the oil industry and was the first great U.S. business trust . Rockefeller revolutionized the petroleum industry , and along with other key contemporary industrialists such as Andrew Carnegie , defined the structure of modern philanthropy . In 1870 , he founded Standard Oil Company and actively ran it until he officially retired in 1897 .
Rockefeller founded Standard Oil as an Ohio partnership with his brother William along with Henry Flagler , Jabez A. Bostwick , chemist Samuel Andrews , and a silent partner , Stephen V. Harkness . As kerosene and gasoline grew in importance , Rockefeller 's wealth soared and he became the world 's richest man and the first American worth more than a billion dollars , controlling 90 % of all oil in the United States at his peak . His fortune upon his death in 1937 stood at US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( equivalent to $ 23 billion in 2015 dollars ) . At the time , his fortune accounted for more than 1 @.@ 5 % of the national economy , equivalent to $ 253 billion in 2013 . His peak net worth was estimated at $ 336 billion or almost 2 % of the American economy ( in 2007 USD ; inflation @-@ adjusted ) at 74 years of age , making him arguably the richest person in modern history .
Rockefeller spent the last 40 years of his life in retirement at his estate , Kykuit , in Westchester County , New York . His fortune was mainly used to create the modern systematic approach of targeted philanthropy . He was able to do this through the creation of foundations that had a major effect on medicine , education and scientific research . His foundations pioneered the development of medical research and were instrumental in the eradication of hookworm and yellow fever .
Rockefeller was also the founder of both the University of Chicago and Rockefeller University and funded the establishment of Central Philippine University in the Philippines . He was a devout and devoted Northern Baptist , and supported many church @-@ based institutions . Rockefeller adhered to total abstinence from alcohol and tobacco throughout his life . He was a faithful congregant of the Erie Street Baptist Mission Church , where he taught Sunday school , and served as a trustee , clerk , and occasional janitor . Religion was a guiding force throughout his life , and Rockefeller believed it to be the source of his success . Rockefeller was also considered a supporter of capitalism based on a perspective of social darwinism , and is often quoted as saying " The growth of a large business is merely a survival of the fittest . "
= = Early life = =
Rockefeller was the second of six children and eldest son born in Richford , New York , to con artist William Avery " Bill " Rockefeller ( November 13 , 1810 – May 11 , 1906 ) and Eliza Davison ( September 12 , 1813 – March 28 , 1889 ) . His siblings were Lucy ( 1838 – 1878 ) , William Jr . ( 1841 – 1922 ) , Mary ( 1843 – 1925 ) , and twins Franklin ( Frank ) ( 1845 – 1917 ) and Frances ( 1845 – 1847 ) . His father was of English and German descent while his mother was of Scots @-@ Irish descent . Bill was first a lumberman and then a traveling salesman who identified himself as a " botanic physician " and sold elixirs . The locals referred to the mysterious but fun @-@ loving man as " Big Bill " and " Devil Bill " . He was a sworn foe of conventional morality who had opted for a vagabond existence and who returned to his family infrequently . Throughout his life , Bill became notorious for shady schemes . In between the births of Lucy and John , Bill and his mistress / housekeeper Nancy Brown had a daughter named Clorinda ( c . 1838 – ? , died young ) . Between John and William Jr . ' s births , Bill and Nancy had another daughter , Cornelia ( c . 1840 – ? ) .
Eliza , a homemaker and devout Northern Baptist , struggled to maintain a semblance of stability at home , as Bill was frequently gone for extended periods . She also put up with his philandering and his double life , which included bigamy . Thrifty by nature and necessity , she taught her son that " willful waste makes woeful want " . Young Rockefeller did his share of the regular household chores and earned extra money raising turkeys , selling potatoes and candy , and eventually lending small sums of money to neighbors . He followed his father 's advice to " trade dishes for platters " and always get the better part of any deal . Bill once bragged , " I cheat my boys every chance I get . I want to make ' em sharp . "
When he was a boy , his family moved to Moravia , NY , and in 1851 to Owego , where he attended Owego Academy . In 1853 , his family moved to Strongsville , a suburb of Cleveland . Rockefeller attended Cleveland 's Central High School , the first high school in Cleveland and the first free , public high school west of the Alleghenies . Then , he took a ten @-@ week business course at Folsom 's Commercial College , where he studied bookkeeping .
In spite of his father 's absences and frequent family moves , young John was a well @-@ behaved , serious , and studious boy . His contemporaries described him as reserved , earnest , religious , methodical , and discreet . He was an excellent debater and expressed himself precisely . He also had a deep love of music and dreamed of it as a possible career . Early on , he displayed an excellent mind for numbers and detailed accounting .
= = Pre @-@ Standard Oil career = =
= = = As a bookkeeper = = =
In September 1855 , when Rockefeller was sixteen , he got his first job as an assistant bookkeeper working for a small produce commission firm called Hewitt & Tuttle . He worked long hours and delighted , as he later recalled , in " all the methods and systems of the office . " He was particularly adept at calculating transportation costs , which served him well later in his career . Making 50 cents a day , the full salary for his first three months ' work was $ 50 ( equivalent to $ 1 thousand in 2015 dollars ) . As a youth , Rockefeller reportedly said that his two great ambitions were to make $ 100 thousand ( equivalent to $ 3 million in 2015 dollars ) and to live 100 years .
= = = Business partnership and Civil War service = = =
In 1859 , Rockefeller went into the produce commission business with a partner , Maurice B. Clark , and they raised $ 4 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 100 thousand in 2015 dollars ) in capital . Rockefeller went steadily ahead in business from there , making money each year of his career . After wholesale foodstuffs , the partners built an oil refinery in 1863 in " The Flats " , then Cleveland 's burgeoning industrial area . The refinery was directly owned by Andrews , Clark & Company , which was composed of Clark & Rockefeller , chemist Samuel Andrews , and M. B. Clark 's two brothers . The commercial oil business was then in its infancy . Whale oil had become too expensive for the masses , and a cheaper , general @-@ purpose lighting fuel was needed .
While his brother Frank fought in the Civil War , Rockefeller tended his business and hired substitute soldiers . He gave money to the Union cause , as did many rich Northerners who avoided combat . Rockefeller was an abolitionist who voted for President Abraham Lincoln and supported the then @-@ new Republican Party . As he said , " God gave me money " , and he did not apologize for it . He felt at ease and righteous following John Wesley 's dictum , " gain all you can , save all you can , and give all you can . "
In February 1865 , in what was later described by oil industry historian Daniel Yergin as a " critical " action , Rockefeller bought out the Clark brothers for $ 72 @,@ 500 ( equivalent to $ 1 million in 2015 dollars ) at auction and established the firm of Rockefeller & Andrews . Rockefeller said , " It was the day that determined my career . " He was well positioned to take advantage of postwar prosperity and the great expansion westward fostered by the growth of railroads and an oil @-@ fueled economy . He borrowed heavily , reinvested profits , adapted rapidly to changing markets , and fielded observers to track the quickly expanding industry .
= = = Beginning in the oil business = = =
In 1866 , his brother William Rockefeller Jr. built another refinery in Cleveland and brought John into the partnership . In 1867 , Henry M. Flagler became a partner , and the firm of Rockefeller , Andrews & Flagler was established . By 1868 , with Rockefeller continuing practices of borrowing and reinvesting profits , controlling costs , and using refineries ' waste , the company owned two Cleveland refineries and a marketing subsidiary in New York ; it was the largest oil refinery in the world . Rockefeller , Andrews & Flagler was the predecessor of the Standard Oil Company .
= = Standard Oil = =
= = = Founding and early growth = = =
By the end of the American Civil War , Cleveland was one of the five main refining centers in the U.S. ( besides Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , New York , and the region in northwestern Pennsylvania where most of the oil originated ) . By 1869 there was three times more kerosene refining capacity than needed to supply the market , and the capacity remained in excess for many years .
On 10 January , 1870 , Rockefeller abolished the partnership of Rockefeller , Andrews & Flagler , forming Standard Oil of Ohio , which rapidly became the most profitable refiner in Ohio . Standard Oil grew to become one of the largest shippers of oil and kerosene in the country . The railroads competed fiercely for traffic and , in an attempt to create a cartel to control freight rates , formed the South Improvement Company in collusion with Standard and other oil companies outside the main oil centers . The cartel received preferential treatment as a high @-@ volume shipper , which included not just steep rebates of up to 50 % for their product but also rebates for the shipment of competing products . Part of this scheme was the announcement of sharply increased freight charges . This touched off a firestorm of protest from independent oil well owners , including boycotts and vandalism , which led to the discovery of Standard Oil 's part in the deal . A major New York refiner , Charles Pratt and Company , headed by Charles Pratt and Henry H. Rogers , led the opposition to this plan , and railroads soon backed off . Pennsylvania revoked the cartel 's charter , and non @-@ preferential rates were restored for the time being .
Undeterred , though vilified for the first time by the press , Rockefeller continued with his self @-@ reinforcing cycle of buying competing refiners , improving the efficiency of his operations , pressing for discounts on oil shipments , undercutting his competition , making secret deals , raising investment pools , and buying rivals out . In less than four months in 1872 , in what was later known as " The Cleveland Conquest " or " The Cleveland Massacre " , Standard Oil absorbed 22 of its 26 Cleveland competitors . Eventually , even his former antagonists , Pratt and Rogers , saw the futility of continuing to compete against Standard Oil : in 1874 , they made a secret agreement with Rockefeller to be acquired . Pratt and Rogers became Rockefeller 's partners . Rogers , in particular , became one of Rockefeller 's key men in the formation of the Standard Oil Trust . Pratt 's son , Charles Millard Pratt , became Secretary of Standard Oil . For many of his competitors , Rockefeller had merely to show them his books so they could see what they were up against and make them a decent offer . If they refused his offer , he told them he would run them into bankruptcy and then cheaply buy up their assets at auction . He saw himself as the industry 's savior , " an angel of mercy " absorbing the weak and making the industry as a whole stronger , more efficient , and more competitive . Standard was growing horizontally and vertically . It added its own pipelines , tank cars , and home delivery network . It kept oil prices low to stave off competitors , made its products affordable to the average household , and , to increase market penetration , sometimes sold below cost . It developed over 300 oil @-@ based products from tar to paint to Vaseline petroleum jelly to chewing gum . By the end of the 1870s , Standard was refining over 90 % of the oil in the U.S. Rockefeller had already become a millionaire ( $ 1 million is equivalent to $ 25 million in 2015 dollars ) .
" He instinctively realized that orderliness would only proceed from centralized control of large aggregations of plant and capital , with the one aim of an orderly flow of products from the producer to the consumer . That orderly , economic , efficient flow is what we now , many years later , call ' vertical integration ' I do not know whether Mr. Rockefeller ever used the word ' integration ' . I only know he conceived the idea . " A Standard Oil of Ohio successor of Rockefeller
In 1877 , Standard clashed with Thomas A. Scott , the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad , Standard 's chief hauler . Rockefeller envisioned pipelines as an alternative transport system for oil and began a campaign to build and acquire them . The railroad , seeing Standard 's incursion into the transportation and pipeline fields , struck back and formed a subsidiary to buy and build oil refineries and pipelines . Standard countered and held back its shipments and , with the help of other railroads , started a price war that dramatically reduced freight payments and caused labor unrest . Rockefeller prevailed and the railroad sold its oil interests to Standard . But in the aftermath of that battle , in 1879 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania indicted Rockefeller on charges of monopolizing the oil trade , starting an avalanche of similar court proceedings in other states and making a national issue of Standard Oil 's business practices .
Rockefeller was under great strain during the 1870s and 1880s when he was carrying out his plan of consolidation and integration and being attacked by the press . He complained that he could not stay asleep most nights . Rockefeller later commented :
" All the fortune that I have made has not served to compensate me for the anxiety of that period . "
= = = Monopoly = = =
Standard Oil gradually gained almost complete control of oil refining and marketing in the United States through horizontal integration . In the kerosene industry , Standard Oil replaced the old distribution system with its own vertical system . It supplied kerosene by tank cars that brought the fuel to local markets , and tank wagons then delivered to retail customers , thus bypassing the existing network of wholesale jobbers . Despite improving the quality and availability of kerosene products while greatly reducing their cost to the public ( the price of kerosene dropped by nearly 80 % over the life of the company ) , Standard Oil 's business practices created intense controversy . Standard 's most potent weapons against competitors were underselling , differential pricing , and secret transportation rebates . The firm was attacked by journalists and politicians throughout its existence , in part for these monopolistic methods , giving momentum to the antitrust movement . By 1880 , according to the New York World , Standard Oil was " the most cruel , impudent , pitiless , and grasping monopoly that ever fastened upon a country " . To the critics Rockefeller replied , " In a business so large as ours ... some things are likely to be done which we cannot approve . We correct them as soon as they come to our knowledge . "
At that time , many legislatures had made it difficult to incorporate in one state and operate in another . As a result , Rockefeller and his associates owned dozens of separate corporations , each of which operated in just one state ; the management of the whole enterprise was rather unwieldy . In 1882 , Rockefeller 's lawyers created an innovative form of corporation to centralize their holdings , giving birth to the Standard Oil Trust . The " trust " was a corporation of corporations , and the entity 's size and wealth drew much attention . Nine trustees , including Rockefeller , ran the 41 companies in the trust . The public and the press were immediately suspicious of this new legal entity , and other businesses seized upon the idea and emulated it , further inflaming public sentiment . Standard Oil had gained an aura of invincibility , always prevailing against competitors , critics , and political enemies . It had become the richest , biggest , most feared business in the world , seemingly immune to the boom and bust of the business cycle , consistently making profits year after year .
The company 's vast American empire included 20 @,@ 000 domestic wells , 4 @,@ 000 miles of pipeline , 5 @,@ 000 tank cars , and over 100 @,@ 000 employees . Its share of world oil refining topped out above 90 % but slowly dropped to about 80 % for the rest of the century . In spite of the formation of the trust and its perceived immunity from all competition , by the 1880s Standard Oil had passed its peak of power over the world oil market . Rockefeller finally gave up his dream of controlling all the world 's oil refining , he admitted later , " We realized that public sentiment would be against us if we actually refined all the oil . " Over time foreign competition and new finds abroad eroded his dominance . In the early 1880s , Rockefeller created one of his most important innovations . Rather than try to influence the price of crude oil directly , Standard Oil had been exercising indirect control by altering oil storage charges to suit market conditions . Rockefeller then ordered the issuance of certificates against oil stored in its pipelines . These certificates became traded by speculators , thus creating the first oil @-@ futures market which effectively set spot market prices from then on . The National Petroleum Exchange opened in Manhattan in late 1882 to facilitate the trading of oil futures .
Even though 85 % of world crude production was still coming from Pennsylvania wells in the 1880s , drilling in Russia and Asia began to reach the world market . Robert Nobel had established his own refining enterprise in the abundant and cheaper Russian oil fields , including the region 's first pipeline and the world 's first oil tanker . The Paris Rothschilds jumped into the fray providing financing . Additional fields were discovered in Burma and Java . Even more critical , the invention of the light bulb gradually began to erode the dominance of kerosene for illumination . But Standard Oil adapted , developing a European presence , expanding into natural gas production in the U.S. then into gasoline for automobiles , which until then had been considered a waste product .
Standard Oil moved its headquarters to New York City at 26 Broadway , and Rockefeller became a central figure in the city 's business community . He bought a residence in 1884 on 54th street near the mansions of other magnates such as William Henry Vanderbilt . Despite personal threats and constant pleas for charity , Rockefeller took the new elevated train to his downtown office daily . In 1887 , Congress created the Interstate Commerce Commission which was tasked with enforcing equal rates for all railroad freight , but by then Standard depended more on pipeline transport . More threatening to Standard 's power was the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 , originally used to control unions , but later central to the breakup of the Standard Oil trust . Ohio was especially vigorous in applying its state anti @-@ trust laws , and finally forced a separation of Standard Oil of Ohio from the rest of the company in 1892 , the first step in the dissolution of the trust .
In the 1890s , Rockefeller expanded into iron ore and ore transportation , forcing a collision with steel magnate Andrew Carnegie , and their competition became a major subject of the newspapers and cartoonists . Rockefeller also went on a massive buying spree acquiring leases for crude oil production in Ohio , Indiana , and West Virginia , as the original Pennsylvania oil fields began to play out . Amidst the frenetic expansion , Rockefeller began to think of retirement . The daily management of the trust was turned over to John Dustin Archbold and Rockefeller bought a new estate , Pocantico Hills , north of New York City , turning more time to leisure activities including the new sports of bicycling and golf .
Upon his ascent to the presidency , Theodore Roosevelt initiated dozens of suits under the Sherman Antitrust Act and coaxed reforms out of Congress . In 1901 , U.S. Steel , then controlled by J. Pierpont Morgan , having bought Andrew Carnegie 's steel assets , offered to buy Standard 's iron interests as well . A deal brokered by Henry Clay Frick exchanged Standard 's iron interests for U.S. Steel stock and gave Rockefeller and his son membership on the company ’ s board of directors . In full retirement at age 63 , Rockefeller earned over $ 58 million in investments in 1902 .
One of the most effective attacks on Rockefeller and his firm was the 1904 publication of The History of the Standard Oil Company , by Ida Tarbell , a leading muckraker . She documented the company 's espionage , price wars , heavy @-@ handed marketing tactics , and courtroom evasions . Although her work prompted a huge backlash against the company , Tarbell stated she was surprised at its magnitude . " I never had an animus against their size and wealth , never objected to their corporate form . I was willing that they should combine and grow as big and wealthy as they could , but only by legitimate means . But they had never played fair , and that ruined their greatness for me . " Tarbell 's father had been driven out of the oil business during the South Improvement Company affair .
Rockefeller called her " Miss Tarbarrel " in private but held back in public saying only , " not a word about that misguided woman . " Instead Rockefeller began a publicity campaign to put his company and himself in a better light . Though he had long maintained a policy of active silence with the press , he decided to make himself more accessible and responded with conciliatory comments such as " capital and labor are both wild forces which require intelligent legislation to hold them in restriction . " He wrote and published his memoirs beginning in 1908 .
Critics found his writing to be sanitized and disingenuous and thought that statements such as " the underlying , essential element of success in business is to follow the established laws of high @-@ class dealing " seemed to be at odds with his true business methods .
Rockefeller and his son continued to consolidate their oil interests as best they could until New Jersey , in 1909 , changed its incorporation laws to effectively allow a re @-@ creation of the trust in the form of a single holding company . Rockefeller retained his nominal title as president until 1911 and he kept his stock . At last in 1911 , the Supreme Court of the United States found Standard Oil Company of New
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taken as a prisoner by the Byzantines during the reign of Nikephoros III Botaneiates ( ruled 1078 – 81 ) . Tzachas entered Byzantine service and advanced rapidly through imperial favour , receiving the title of protonobilissimus and rich gifts . However , when Alexios I Komnenos deposed Botaneiates in 1081 , Tzachas lost his position and fled Byzantium .
From ca . 1088 on , he used his base at Smyrna to wage war against the Byzantines . Employing Christian craftsmen , he built a fleet , with which he captured Phocaea and the eastern Aegean islands of Lesbos ( except for the fortress of Methymna ) , Samos , Chios and Rhodes . A Byzantine fleet under Niketas Kastamonites was sent against him , but Tzachas defeated it in battle . Some modern scholars have speculated that his activities during this time may have been in conjunction , and perhaps even coordination , with two contemporary Byzantine Greek rebels , Rhapsomates in Cyprus , and Karykes in Crete .
In 1090 / 91 , the Byzantines under Constantine Dalassenos recovered Chios . Undeterred , Tzachas rebuilt his forces , and resumed his attacks , even proclaiming himself emperor ( basileus ) and seeking to conclude an alliance against Alexios I with the Pechenegs in Thrace for a joint attack on Constantinople . In 1092 , Dalassenos and the new megas doux , John Doukas , were sent against Tzachas , and attacked the fortress of Mytilene on Lesbos . Tzachas resisted for three months , but finally had to negotiate a surrender of the fortress . During his return to Smyrna , Dalassenos attacked the Turkish fleet , which was almost destroyed .
In spring 1093 , Tzachas attacked the port of Abydos in the Sea of Marmara . Alexios I called upon the Sultan of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Kilij Arslan I ( r . 1092 – 1107 ) , who was married to Tzachas 's daughter and was thus his son @-@ in @-@ law , to attack Tzachas from the rear . The Sultan advanced to Abydos , where , at the pretext of inviting Tzachas to a banquet , he had his father @-@ in @-@ law murdered . However , in ca . 1097 a " Tzachas " — possibly the original Tzachas ' son — is reported as still holding Smyrna when the Byzantine army under John Doukas recaptured the city .
= Country Joe and the Fish =
Country Joe and the Fish was an American psychedelic rock band formed in Berkeley , California , in 1965 . The band was among the influential groups in the San Francisco music scene during the mid- to late 1960s . Much of the band 's music was written by founding members Country Joe McDonald and Barry " The Fish " Melton , with lyrics pointedly addressing issues of importance to the counterculture , such as anti @-@ war protests , free love , and recreational drug use . Through a combination of psychedelia and electronic music , the band 's sound was marked by innovative guitar melodies and distorted organ @-@ driven instrumentals which were significant to the development of acid rock .
The band self @-@ produced two EPs that drew attention on the underground circuit before signing to Vanguard Records in 1966 . Their debut album , Electric Music for the Mind and Body , followed in 1967 . It contained their only nationally charting single , " Not So Sweet Martha Lorraine " , and their most experimental arrangements . Their second album , I @-@ Feel @-@ Like @-@ I 'm @-@ Fixin ' -to @-@ Die , was released in late 1967 ; its title track , with its dark humor and satire , became their signature tune and is among the era 's most recognizable protest songs . Further success followed , including McDonald 's appearance at Woodstock , but the group 's lineup underwent changes until its disbandment in 1970 . Members of the band continue in the music industry as solo recording artists and sporadically reconvene .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 1965 ) = = =
The first lineup of Country Joe and the Fish formed in mid @-@ 1965 , when Country Joe McDonald ( vocals , acoustic guitar ) and Barry " The Fish " Melton ( lead guitar , vocals ) came together as a duo . The two musicians had a background rooted in folk music , were enamored with the recordings of Woody Guthrie , and worked on the local acoustic coffeehouse circuit in the early 1960s . Melton honed his political protest prowess as a guitarist in Los Angeles , at venues such as the Ash Grove , before relocating to Berkeley , California , where he was a regular at the Jabberwock cafe . Prior to the group , McDonald set up two folk and jug bands , the Berkeley String Quartet and the Instant Jug Band , both of which served as outlets for his original material , and with the latter group including Melton . In addition , McDonald was a publisher of the left @-@ wing underground magazine Et Tu Brute , which later became Rag Baby , containing poetry , drawings , and political messages . By early 1965 , McDonald had become involved in the burgeoning folk scene in Berkeley , and the Free Speech Movement that was organizing demonstrations in University of California , Berkeley which opposed the war in Vietnam . Not long afterwards , McDonald was inspired to record a " talking issue " of his magazine , and organized Country Joe and the Fish with Melton and fellow musicians Carl Schrager ( washboard , kazoo ) , Bill Steele ( bass guitar ) , and Mike Beardslee ( vocals ) , out of both necessity of a recording alias and political device , to self @-@ produce an extended play .
ED Denson , the co @-@ publisher of Rag Baby , introduced McDonald to Chris Strachwitz , who owned Arhoolie Recording Studios , to self @-@ produce the EP . Sensing the band 's potential , Denson assumed management control , and was responsible for coining the group 's name — a reference to Josef Stalin and to Mao Zedong 's description of a revolutionary as " the fish who swim in the sea of the people " . McDonald , who had recording experience , began utilizing Arhoolie Recording Studios to record four songs split equally between the band and a local folk musician , Peter Krug . It was during this time at Arhoolie Records that Country Joe and the Fish 's folk sound and political protest prowess — an amalgam of their own Guthrie @-@ influenced material and their folk music roots — began to emerge . The band 's side of the EP featured two originals by McDonald , an acoustic version of " I Feel Like I 'm Fixin ' to Die Rag " ( also known as " The Fish Cheer " ) , and " Superbird " . According to McDonald , " The Fish Cheer " was written in 30 minutes , with a purpose of expressing satiric and dark commentary on the US 's involvement in the Vietnam conflict . In October 1965 , 100 copies of the EP , titled Rag Baby Talking Issue No. 1 , were distributed on McDonald 's independent label at a Teach @-@ in in UC Berkeley and underground shops selling Rag Baby magazine .
For a brief period , McDonald and Melton performed together as a duo at college campuses in the Northwest on behalf of Students for a Democratic Society before returning as regulars at the Jabberwock cafe . The two were joined by local jug band musicians , including Melton 's roommates , bass player Bruce Barthol and guitarist Paul Armstrong , and bluegrass guitarist David Bennett Cohen , with whom Melton played in another jug band . The addition of drummer John Francis @-@ Gunning rounded out the six @-@ piece ensemble . It was during their residency at the Jabberwock that Country Joe and the Fish learned to play as a group and expand their repertoire . Within months , based on McDonald and Melton 's interest in the live performances of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band , the recordings on Bob Dylan 's album , Highway 61 Revisited , and their use of the mind @-@ altering drug , LSD , the group began equipping themselves with electric instruments and delving more into psychedelia . As a result , Cohen was moved over to the organ . Cohen 's experience with keyboards was limited to having played piano at a semiprofessional capacity at the Jabberwock , but , nonetheless , he quickly adapted to the qualities of the instrument . Melton describes the change of the group : " Once we hit into the electric medium and into the rock medium , we were pandering to the public taste . We became extraordinarily popular . The little folk club where we used to play once every two weeks , we played every single night for a month , or something like that , and filled it . And after a while we filled two shows every single night " .
= = = Electric music ( 1966 – 68 ) = = =
As Country Joe and the Fish 's popularity grew , the band relocated to San Francisco in early 1966 and became popular fixtures at the Avalon and the Filmore Auditorium . On June 6 , 1966 , the band recorded a second self @-@ produced EP , which was packaged separately from the Rag Baby magazine and , upon its release , debuted the new psychedelic rock incarnation of the group . The EP fulfilled the band 's ambitions to incorporate electric instruments into their music , effectively melding the instrumentals and pioneering an early template for the musical subgenre of acid rock . It included McDonald 's compositions " ( Thing Called ) Love " and " Bass Strings " on the A @-@ side and the six @-@ minute " Section 43 " on the B @-@ side . Music historian Richie Unterberger praised " Section 43 " , saying its " Asiatic guitar , tribal maracas , devious organ , floating harmonica , and ethereal mid @-@ sections of delicate koto @-@ like guitar picking rivaled the Paul Butterfield Blues Band 's East West as the finest psychedelic instrumental ever " . Within three months , airplay of the EP spread across the new so @-@ called progressive radio stations , reaching as far as New York City , and establishing Country Joe and the Fish as a nationally relevant musical act .
Through connections that Cohen had with record producer Samuel Charters , the group signed a recording contract with Vanguard Records in December 1966 , just as the label , which had primarily released folk music , was attempting to branch out into the growing psychedelic rock scene . While the band waited to record their debut album , they were present at the Human Be @-@ In , along with other influential San Francisco musical acts , including Jefferson Airplane , Big Brother and the Holding Company , and Quicksilver Messenger Service . The event was a prelude to the Summer of Love and helped publicize counterculture ideals such as ecology , free @-@ love and the use of illicit drugs .
In February 1967 , Country Joe and the Fish entered Sierra Sound Laboratories to record their debut album , Electric Music for the Mind and Body , with Charters and Denson overseeing the process . Prior to their studio work , Armstrong left the group and began a two @-@ year alternative assignment as a conscientious objector , driving a truck for Goodwill Industries . Francis @-@ Gunning was involved in the beginnings of the album 's development but left when the rest of the band complainted about his drumming technique . He was replaced by Gary " Chicken " Hirsh . The next recording session was postponed for three days as the most recognizable lineup of Country Joe and the Fish rehearsed with their new drummer at the Barn , in Santa Cruz . Hirsh 's abilities were immediately distinguishable on the album , as he demonstrated an acute and articulate drum beat that music critic Bruce Eder praised as " some of the best drumming on a psychedelic record this side of the late Spencer Dryden " .
Electric Music for the Mind and Body was released on May 11 , 1967 . Much of the album 's material continued to expand upon the band 's new psychedelic medium , with it embracing all facets of the members ' influences , which ranged from their folk roots , blues , raga rock and hard rock . The album also saw Cohen coming forward in a larger role with inventive distorted @-@ organ melodies . In addition , McDonald 's lyrical content , which brazenly pronounced topics of political protest , recreational drug use , and love , augmented by satirical humor , clearly introduced the band 's orientation and message . The compositional structures followed discrete movement patterns emulating the style of John Fahey , who McDonald admired . Though Electric Music for the Mind and Body was among the most complex works to date , it possessed the quality that several other San Francisco acts shared of being recorded mostly live , with only the vocals being overdubbed after the instrumentals were completed .
Electric Music for the Mind and Body was a success upon release , charting at number 39 on the Billboard 200 , and remains one of the most enduring psychedelic works of the counterculture era . A single , " Not So Sweet Martha Lorraine " , was distributed a month prior to the release of the album and became the only Country Joe and the Fish single to chart , peaking at number 98 on the Billboard Hot 100 , in large part a culmination of its airplay on FM broadcasting and college stations . A reworked version of " The Fish Cheer " was intended to be released as a track on the album . However , Charters vetoed the decision to see whether the controversial song " Superbird " would face a radio ban . Nonetheless , the band was considered a forerunner in the emerging music scene in San Francisco , exhibiting one of the more polished debuts , just as its contemporaries were still refining their own sound . Melton attributes the album 's success , particularly in San Francisco , to the band 's appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival in June 1967 . Subsequently , the group toured the East Coast with an elaborate psychedelic light show .
The band returned to the studio , this time at Vanguard Studios in New York City , between July and September 1967 . When " Superbird " , a tune mocking President Lyndon Johnson , was not banned from radio promotion , the band was given the go @-@ ahead to record " The Fish Cheer " , which saw the group moving away from the original folk composition toward electric instrumentals more synthesized toward psychedelia . The song became the title track of the band 's second album , I @-@ Feel @-@ Like @-@ I 'm @-@ Fixin ' -to @-@ Die , released in November 1967 . The album was not as successful as its predecessor , but still charted at number 67 . The composition represented growing anti @-@ war sentiment expressed by those opposing the Vietnam War , and is often considered one of the most recognized and celebrated protest songs of the era . " The Fish Cheer " was also pivotal in communicating the attitude against the war , but was set apart from other anti @-@ war songs for its use of sarcastic humor and satire on the controversial conflict . Writer Lee Andresen reflects on the song 's meaning , saying , " the happy beat and insouciance of the vocalist are in odd juxtaposition to the lyrics that reinforce the sad fact that the American public was being forced into realizing that Vietnam was no longer a remote place on the other side of the world , and the damage it was doing to the country could no longer be considered collateral , involving someone else . "
The song met unprecedented exposure among the band 's young audience after a performance at the Schaefer Music Festival in New York City , in the summer of 1968 . Hirsh suggested that instead of the opening chorus spelling " fish " , it would spell " fuck " , giving birth to the infamous " Fuck Cheer " . The crowd of young teenagers and college students applauded the act ; however executives from The Ed Sullivan Show barred Country Joe and the Fish from their scheduled appearance on the program , and any other possible events . Hirsh has never explained why he recommended the change in lyrics , but the act is seen as a social and political statement advocating free speech . The recorded version of " The Fish Cheer " received airplay , even on mainstream radio stations , which contributed to the success of the band 's third album , Together , its most commercially successful . The album , released in August 1968 , featured songwriting by all of the band members and charted at number 23 nationally .
= = = Lineup changes and Woodstock ( 1969 – 70 ) = = =
In September 1968 , Barthol left the band , just prior to their fourth album . His departure was due to the rest of the band 's unwillingness to partake in the Fesitval for Life , an event established by the Youth International Party in Chicago that was intended to have the participation of several well @-@ known musicians attract thousands of spectators for the 1968 Democratic National Convention . However , the city refused to issue any permits , and the band members , by majority vote , decided to withdraw out of fear that their equipment would be damaged . After the festival resulted in riots and violent clashes between demonstrators and the police , Barthol 's conviction that Country Joe and the Fish should have held a larger role precipitated his departure from the group and move to England .
Between January 9 and 11 , 1969 , the band performed at the Fillmore West as a farewell to the group 's most famous lineup , with Jack Casady of Jefferson Airplane standing in as the bass player . The band was joined by Jerry Garcia , Jorma Kaukonen , Steve Miller , and Mickey Hart for the 38 @-@ minute finale , " Donavan 's Reef Jam " . Recordings from the concerts were later assembled on the live album Live ! Fillmore West 1969 , released on March 12 , 1996 . Hirsh and Cohen left soon after recording their next album , Here We Are Again , and a new lineup was configured with Casady and David Getz , who formerly played drums with Big Brother and the Holding Company . The group released Here We Are Again in the spring of 1969 . It charted at number 48 , and saw Country Joe and the Fish moving to a pop @-@ oriented approach . Country Joe and the Fish 's personnel remained relatively stable for the next six months , though Peter S. Albin , also an alumnus of Big Brother and the Holding Company , replaced Casady at bass .
However , when McDonald reassembled the band for a last @-@ minute scheduling at the Woodstock Festival , another personnel change resulted in the group 's final lineup , which included recruits Mark Kapner on keyboards , Doug Metzner on bass , and Greg Dewey on drums . Among the festival 's most memorable moments was McDonald 's unexpected solo performance on August 16 , 1969 , which included " The Fuck Cheer " as a finale . The audience receptively responded by chanting along with McDonald . McDonald 's rendition of " The Fuck Cheer " propelled the song into the mainstream culture in the U.S. , and was featured on the Woodstock film , which was released on March 26 , 1970 . Radio stations regularly played both versions of the cheer , though the opposition to " The Fuck Cheer " limited its exposure to underground stations . In December 1969 , McDonald began his own career outside the band , releasing cover versions of Guthrie @-@ penned songs on Thinking of Woody Guthrie , and country standards on Tonight I 'm Singing Just For You . All the while , the group looked to capitalize on the momentum from Woodstock and their appearance in the film , Zachariah , by releasing their fifth album , CJ Fish , in May 1970 . The album was a moderate success , reaching number 111 nationally . However the band members lacked the motivation for touring and recording , which led to their disbandment in mid @-@ 1970 .
= = = Aftermath and reunions = = =
McDonald pursued his solo recording career , which spans over 30 albums , and remains an active anti @-@ war campaigner . He has also appeared in every Woodstock reunion festival since 1979 . Melton performed solo as well , under the moniker " The Fish " , and later became a member of the Bay Area supergroup , the Dinosaurs , in the 1980s . Since 1982 , Melton was able to practice law in California and became a Public Defender of Yolo County , California until his retirement in June 2009 . Country Joe and the Fish members sporadically reconvene , most notably when the classic 1967 lineup recorded Reunion in 1977 . The lineup , except Hirsh , came together again as the Country Joe Band in 2004 . In the same year , the group resumed touring , released the Barthol @-@ penned single , " Cakewalk to Baghdad " , and the live album Live in Berkeley . Though the Country Joe Band disbanded in 2006 , some of the members still occasionally tour together .
= = Discography = =
= = = Singles = = =
" Not So Sweet Martha Lorraine " b / w " Masked Marauder " ( 1967 ) ( # 98 Billboard Hot 100 )
" Janis " b / w " Janis " ( instrumental ) ( 1967 )
" Who Am I ? " b / w " Thursday " ( 1968 )
" Rock and Soul Music Part 1 " b / w " Rock and Soul Music Part 2 " ( 1968 )
" Here I Go Again " b / w " Baby You 're Driving Me Crazy " ( 1969 )
" I Feel Like I 'm Fixin ' to Die Rag " b / w " Janis " ( 1969 )
" Hang On " b / w " Hand of Man " ( 1971 )
= = = EPs = = =
Talking Issue # 1 , Rag Baby ( 1965 )
Country Joe and the Fish , Rag Baby ( 1966 )
= = = Studio albums = = =
Electric Music for the Mind and Body ( 1967 )
I @-@ Feel @-@ Like @-@ I 'm @-@ Fixin ' -to @-@ Die ( 1967 )
Together ( 1968 )
Here We Are Again ( 1969 )
CJ Fish ( 1970 )
Reunion ( 1977 )
= = = Live album = = =
Live ! Fillmore West 1969 ( 1994 )
= = = Compilations = = =
Greatest Hits , Vanguard ( 1969 )
The Life and Times of Country Joe and the Fish , Vanguard ( 1971 )
Collector 's Items : The First 3 EPs , Rag Baby ( 1980 )
Collected Country Joe and the Fish , Vanguard ( 1987 )
Time Flies By . Rag Baby ( 2012 )
= Batman : Arkham Asylum =
Batman : Arkham Asylum is a 2009 action @-@ adventure video game based on the DC Comics superhero Batman . It was developed by Rocksteady Studios and published by Eidos Interactive in conjunction with Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 video game consoles , and Microsoft Windows . It was released worldwide for consoles , beginning in North America on August 25 , 2009 , with a Microsoft Windows version following on September 15 .
Written by veteran Batman writer Paul Dini , Arkham Asylum is based on the long @-@ running comic book mythos . In the game 's main storyline , Batman 's archenemy , the Joker , instigates an elaborate plot to seize control of Arkham Asylum and trap Batman inside with many of his incarcerated foes . With Joker threatening to detonate hidden bombs around fictional Gotham City , Batman is forced to fight his way through the asylum 's inmates and put an end to the Joker 's plans . Most of the game 's leading characters are voiced by actors who have appeared in other media based on the DC Animated Universe ; Kevin Conroy , Mark Hamill , and Arleen Sorkin reprised their roles as Batman , the Joker , and his sidekick Harley Quinn respectively . The game is presented from the third @-@ person perspective with a primary focus on Batman 's combat and stealth abilities , detective skills , and gadgets that can be used in combat and exploration .
The game received critical acclaim — particularly for its narrative — and won several awards , including Best Action Adventure game , Best Game , and Game of the Year from different media outlets . It held the Guinness World Record for " Most Critically Acclaimed Superhero Game Ever " . A Game of the Year edition was released on March 26 , 2010 , and an OS X version was released in November 2011 . A remastered version will be released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on July 26 , 2016 . Arkham Asylum 's success launched a series of Batman : Arkham sequels , beginning in October 2011 with Batman : Arkham City .
= = Gameplay = =
Batman : Arkham Asylum is an action @-@ adventure game viewed from the third @-@ person perspective . The playable character is visible on the screen and the camera can be freely rotated around him . The player controls Batman as he traverses Arkham Asylum , a secure facility for the criminally insane located off the coast of Gotham City . The opening areas of the game are linear , serving as a tutorial for the moves and approaches available to the player . Once the player emerges onto the island he can freely explore the game world , although some areas remain inaccessible until certain milestones in the main story . Batman can run , jump , climb , crouch , glide from heights using his cape , and use his grapple gun to climb low structures or escape to higher ledges .
The player can use " Detective Vision " — a visual mode which provides contextual information , tinting the game world blue and highlighting interactive objects like destructible walls and removable grates , the number of enemies in an area and their status — such as their awareness of Batman 's presence — and shows civilians and corpses . The mode is also used to follow footprints , investigate odors , and solve puzzles .
Batman has access to several gadgets which he can use to explore or fight . The batarang is a throwing weapon that can temporarily stun enemies or trigger remote devices . A remotely controlled version can be steered once thrown , and the sonic batarang can be used to attract the attention of specific enemies wearing monitoring collars , or detonated to knock a nearby enemy unconscious . Explosive gel can be used on weak walls and floors , and can be remotely detonated — sending rubble crashing onto an enemy . The line launcher can be used to traverse horizontal spans . The Batclaw — a grappling device — can be used to interact with remote objects such as vent covers or to grab enemies . The Cryptographic Sequencer is used to override security panels , open new paths , or disable various asylum functions . Some areas are inaccessible until Batman acquires the gadgets necessary to overcoming the obstacle . The player is encouraged to explore the game world away from the main game to find and solve riddles left by the Riddler — who hacks into Batman 's communication system to challenge him with riddles . Objects can be collected , and some of the Riddler 's puzzles require the player to find areas related to the answer to a riddle and scan it with " Detective Vision " . The game world has 240 collectable items , such as Riddler trophies , chattering Joker teeth , interview tapes with some of Arkham 's inmates , and cryptic messages left in the asylum by its founder Amadeus Arkham that discuss the facility 's bleak history . The player is rewarded for solving riddles and finding collectibles with experience points and additional game content , including challenge maps that test the player 's skill at the game 's combat system , character biographies , and in @-@ game statues of Arkham Asylum 's characters .
Players can traverse enemy @-@ controlled areas using stealth or direct combat . The game 's " Freeflow " combat uses three main buttons : attack , stun , and counter . The system lets Batman move quickly between enemies , chaining attacks together until all enemies are unconscious . Combining the three main abilities can keep Batman attacking while moving between enemies and avoiding being attacked himself . The more combo attacks that are chained together , the faster and more agile Batman becomes , and special attacks — such as a throw , grapple , and an instant takedown which can immediately defeat an enemy — become available . Combat is rewarded with experience points , which are used to unlock gadgets , combat moves , and health upgrades . Higher combos , a wider variety of moves , and avoiding damage delivers more points . Enemy attacks are preempted with a warning icon , which indicate the attack can be countered . Some enemies require different approaches to overcome ; knife @-@ wielding thugs must be stunned before they can be attacked , and others must be struck from behind . Some enemies are armed with guns which significantly damage Batman . Enemies react to Batman 's elimination of their allies , which raises their fear level and alters their behavior ; for example , they will adopt new patrol routes , requiring the player to adapt to the changing situation . During combat , Batman 's health is diminished by attacks , but is fully restored once the battle ends .
The player can use predatory tactics through stealth — including silent takedowns , dropping from overhead perches and snatching enemies away , or using the explosive gel to knock foes off their feet — to tilt the odds in their favor . Some areas feature sections that require the player to use these tactics to avoid alerting the Joker 's henchmen and thus failing to meet an objective . Many areas feature stone gargoyles placed high above , helping Batman remain concealed . Batman can use his grapnel gun to reach the gargoyles , giving him a high vantage point over the area and the enemies . From the gargoyles , Batman can glide down to attack enemies or hang upside down from the gargoyles to grapple a nearby enemy and leave him tethered there . The player can use floor grates to attack from below , hide around corners , use batarangs to stun enemies from afar , and use the grapnel gun to pull enemies over ledges .
Arkham Asylum features a series of challenge maps separate from the game 's story mode that are unlocked while playing , and others are available as optional downloadable content ( DLC ) . The maps focus on the completion of specific goals , such as eliminating successive waves of enemies in combat , and subduing patrolling enemies while using stealth . The methods and variety of abilities used to achieve these goals earn an overall performance score that is ranked online against other players . On the PlayStation 3 , the Joker is a playable character in the combat and stealth challenge maps via optional DLC ; he must confront the asylum guards and police commissioner James Gordon . The Joker has his own combat abilities and weapons , such as a handgun , exploding chattering teeth , and x @-@ ray glasses which allow him to see opponents through walls .
On compatible systems , the Microsoft Windows version uses nVidia 's PhysX software engine to produce realistic , dynamic interactions with the game world . With PhysX enabled , some areas contain smoke or fog which reacts to Batman moving through it , while with PhysX disabled the fog will not appear at all . Other effects include dynamic interaction with paper and leaves , surfaces which can be scratched and chipped , and dynamic , destructible cloth elements such as banners and cobwebs . The Game of the Year version features the ability to play the game in 3D on any 2D television using anaglyph 3D glasses .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Characters = = =
Arkham Asylum is set in the fictional Arkham Asylum , a facility on Arkham Island off the coast of Gotham City that houses criminally insane supervillains . The game features a large ensemble of characters from the history of Batman comics . Three voice actors , who worked on the DC Animated Universe series of film and television , reprised their roles for the game . Kevin Conroy voices Batman — a superhero trained to the peak of human physical perfection and an expert in martial arts , Mark Hamill voices Batman 's psychopathic nemesis the Joker , and the Joker 's sidekick Harley Quinn is voiced by Arleen Sorkin . Batman is aided by his allies Oracle ( Kimberly Brooks ) — who remotely provides him with intelligence , and police commissioner James Gordon ( Tom Kane ) .
In the asylum , Batman is faced with several supervillains ; he must defend himself from an enraged Bane ( Fred Tatasciore ) , subdue indiscriminate serial killer Victor Zsasz ( Danny Jacobs ) , confront the monstrous Killer Croc ( Steven Blum ) , defeat the plant @-@ controlling Poison Ivy ( Tasia Valenza ) , and battle his way through hallucinogen @-@ induced nightmares created by the Scarecrow ( Dino Andrade ) . The Riddler ( Wally Wingert ) does not physically appear in the game , but communicates with Batman and challenges him to solve riddles placed around the island . Other characters appearing in the game include the asylum 's warden Quincy Sharp ( also voiced by Kane ) , Batman 's parents Thomas and Martha Wayne ( voiced by Conroy and Valenza respectively ) , and asylum guard Aaron Cash ( Duane R Shepard , Sr ) . The shape @-@ shifting Clayface appears in cameo , taking on the guise of other characters as he tries to trick the player into releasing him . The Mad Hatter was almost included in the game , but the developers removed him . The body of Ra 's al Ghul is in the asylum 's morgue and the Ventriloquist 's dummy , Scarface , appears several times in the story . Several other characters — including the Penguin , Jack Ryder , Mr. Freeze , Two @-@ Face , Catwoman , and the asylum 's founder Amadeus Arkham — are referenced in the game , but do not appear in it .
= = = Plot = = =
After the Joker assaults Gotham City Hall , he is caught by Batman and taken to Arkham Asylum , which temporarily houses many members of the Joker 's gang , who were transferred after a fire at Blackgate Prison . Believing the Joker allowed himself to be captured , Batman accompanies him into the asylum . The Joker 's plan is revealed as Harley Quinn takes control of the security and the Joker escapes into the facility , aided by a corrupt guard who kidnaps Commissioner Gordon . The Joker threatens to detonate bombs hidden around Gotham City if anyone tries to enter Arkham , forcing Batman to work alone . While pursuing Quinn to rescue Gordon , Batman is exposed to the Scarecrow 's fear toxin and hallucinates , seeing Gordon 's death and the corpses of his parents talking to him . Batman fights off Scarecrow and the toxin 's influence , and eventually finds Quinn , knocks her unconscious , and rescues Gordon . The Joker then directs Batman to the captured Bane , who has been experimented on by asylum doctor Penelope Young . The Joker frees Bane and Batman is forced to fight him , after which he navigates his way to a secret Batcave installation he had hidden on the island , where Batman restocks his gadgets .
There , Batman learns that the Joker returned to the asylum to gain access to Young , who has been developing Titan — a more powerful version of the Venom drug that gives Bane his strength — intending to use it to help patients survive more strenuous therapies . Young learned that the Joker had been funding her research to create an army of superhuman henchmen ; her refusal to hand over the formula precipitated Joker 's return to the Asylum . While searching for Young , Batman is again attacked by Scarecrow and the fear toxin , and hallucinates the night of his parents ' deaths . After he recovers , Batman destroys Young 's Titan formula and rescues Young from Victor Zsasz . An explosion kills Young and the Joker obtains the completed batches of Titan .
Quinn releases Poison Ivy from her cell and later fights Batman , but is defeated and imprisoned . Quinn inadvertently reveals that Joker has a Titan production facility in the Arkham botanical gardens . Batman travels there and learns that Titan is created by genetically modified plants . He tries to enlist Ivy 's help to create an antidote , but she tells him that it can only be made from spores found exclusively in Killer Croc 's lair in a sewer . En route to Croc , Batman is again attacked by Scarecrow and overcomes several doses of fear toxin . Meanwhile , Joker injects Ivy with Titan , enhancing her powers . Ivy begins ravaging Arkham Island with giant mutant plants . Pursued by Batman into the sewers , Scarecrow is attacked by Croc and disappears . Batman recovers the necessary spores and subdues Croc before returning to the Batcave , but can only synthesize one dose of the antidote before Ivy 's plants breach the cave and destroy his equipment .
Batman returns to the botanical gardens and defeats Ivy , halting the rampaging plants . The Joker announces that the preparations for his party are finally complete and Batman travels to the asylum 's visitor center where the Joker 's applauding henchmen welcome him . The Joker reveals he has recaptured Gordon and tries to shoot him with a Titan @-@ filled dart ; Batman leaps to Gordon 's defense and is shot instead . Batman attempts to resist the change , and an upset Joker takes an overdose of Titan , mutating into a massive monster . In a makeshift arena on the building 's roof , the Joker challenges Batman to a fight as Titan @-@ induced monsters in front of news helicopters . Batman refuses to transform , uses the antidote on himself , and defeats the Titan @-@ affected Joker and his henchmen , knocking his nemesis unconscious with an explosive gel @-@ enhanced punch . In the aftermath , those affected by Titan begin to revert to normal , including the Joker — who is restrained and taken into custody as police officers retake the asylum . Batman overhears a call about a crime led by Two @-@ Face in progress and flies back to Gotham City in the Batwing . In a post @-@ credits scene , a crate of Titan formula is shown floating in the ocean near the asylum when a hand surfaces and grabs it .
= = Development = =
Batman : Arkham Asylum was first announced in August 2008 ; it was developed by British studio Rocksteady Studios under the aegis of Eidos Interactive and Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment . Eidos obtained the rights to make a Batman game in spring 2007 , and approached then little @-@ known Rocksteady after viewing the developer 's prototype . At Eidos ' request , Rocksteady presented their approach to the Batman license , and by May 2007 , they had begun developing the game 's concept , with full production beginning in September . Writer Paul Dini ( Batman : The Animated Series , Detective Comics ) was first approached by DC Comics around late 2007 about the prospect of creating a story for an original Batman video game . Dini found the idea intriguing , believing that few Batman games were based on an original idea , instead being adapted from film or television . DC Comics asked Dini what his approach to writing a new Batman film or graphic novel would be , but one that was designed for gameplay . He later met with the Rocksteady team , where it was decided that Dini 's ideas were in line with what Rocksteady wanted to achieve . By the time Dini joined the project , Rocksteady were investigating the idea of setting the game within Arkham , and had produced preliminary designs depicting it as a huge estate on an island connected to mainland Gotham City by a bridge . The cast had not been finalized , but given the setting it was certain that the Joker would play a large role . The game and story were developed together , with the limitations of mechanics requiring the story to be built around them . The core aim was to make the game engaging enough for players to spend 8 – 10 hours completing it , especially those uninterested in Batman @-@ franchised media . Rocksteady would guide Dini when they thought he was writing too much story or character motivation .
Among various Neal Adams and Frank Miller @-@ penned Batman stories , Grant Morrison 's Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth was an inspiration for the game 's design . Producer Nathan Burlow said the narrative and atmosphere of the 2007 game BioShock influenced Arkham Asylum 's design . Director Sefton Hill said the influences of the gadgets and abilities that can be combined and used in different ways in The Legend of Zelda and Metroid . The design team isolated the components that they felt made Batman , and exaggerated these elements . Design ideas which contradicted these facets of the character were dropped , and other elements of Batman , such as his refusal to kill his enemies , were strictly enforced , which provided additional challenges in allowing the player to have complete freedom in the game without transgressing on that fundamental aspect of the character . Arkham Asylum was chosen as the setting because it confined the player to an area containing several enemies , whereas in an open city setting he could receive help , return to the Batcave , or otherwise be able to distance himself from his opponents .
The development team wanted to include iconic aspects of the Batman mythos , and decided early on in production to have Conroy , Hamill , and Sorkin reprise their roles in Dini 's Batman : The Animated Series as Batman , the Joker , and Harley Quinn , respectively . Hamill has thousands of lines of dialogue in the game , and Conroy has relatively few in comparison . After seeing character models of the Joker 's Arkham Asylum appearance , Hamill decided to portray the character as dark and gritty while retaining a clownish and playful nature . Although the game features references to plot events in both The Animated Series and Batman comics , the story does not directly follow any singular story or depiction of the character .
The game took approximately 21 months to complete ; Rocksteady began development with a team of 40 , which had expanded to around 60 by the game 's completion . Combat was considered one of the greatest challenges in developing the game ; the system went through three iterations . Rocksteady originally developed the game 's combat as a full rhythm action game . It was later set in 2D , which involved colored circles crashing into each other during fights ; the final system was based on this 2D model . Combat was designed to be unique for Batman , and was given a simple control scheme to reflect the ease with which Batman can perform the moves . Arkham Asylum was built on Epic Games ' Unreal Engine 3 . Eidos president Ian Livingstone said one developer spent two years programming Batman 's cape , using over 700 animations and sound effects to make it move realistically .
The developers intended to use other Batman characters in the game , but these were removed when it was decided they would not work within the story . For example , Batman 's enemy Mr. Freeze did not fit because the character has different motivations to the Joker . Unlike the Riddler , who is obsessed with proving his superiority over Batman , Mr. Freeze does not hold a personal grudge against Batman , and Mr. Freeze would not care about the other villains ' plans . A garden maze under Poison Ivy 's control was considered as a location ; she could grow it in different directions . In its center , Batman would find the Mad Hatter hosting a tea @-@ party , but the developers decided these ideas would not match the game 's tone . Batman 's vehicles , the Batmobile and Batwing , were considered for inclusion in the game , but developing unique control mechanics and gameplay segments for them would have taken too much time , and compromised its quality ; the vehicles appear in the game , but players cannot control them .
Rocksteady began conceiving ideas for a possible sequel , which became Batman : Arkham City , approximately seven months before development of Arkham Asylum was completed . Rocksteady developed ideas for the sequel 's story and setting so the games ' narratives could be effectively connected . A secret room containing hints , blueprints , and concept art for the next game was hidden in the asylum warden 's office in Arkham Asylum . The room remained hidden for six months following the game 's release until Rocksteady revealed its presence . Arkham Asylum 's musical score was composed by Ron Fish and Nick Arundel , who also composed the soundtrack for the sequel , Batman : Arkham City .
= = = Design = = =
To develop the game 's overall aesthetic , the main aim was to create designs that would combine comic book style with realism . The environmental architecture and characters had to be extravagant enough to represent the Batman universe , but needed realistic texture and detail . The second aim was to recreate the dark , Gothic imagery inherent to the Batman universe , especially Arkham Asylum , so that the structure would feel as insane as those whom it houses . The asylum was considered an ideal location because it can house many of Batman 's foes .
Batman 's design was heavily influenced by the work of comic artist Jim Lee , who drew Batman as a strong , muscular character who could believably take part in extreme combat . His black and dark gray costume was based on modern versions , and has military influences and an industrial look . About 13 concept designs were produced before his final appearance took form . Artists avoided film interpretations of the Joker , partly because the developers only had access to the rights to the original Batman license . Alan Moore 's 1988 graphic novel Batman : The Killing Joke influenced the character 's design . Harley Quinn underwent a drastic redesign , removing her black and red full @-@ body outfit and jester 's hat , and replacing them with a costume with design elements from a nurse 's outfit and a schoolgirl 's uniform . WildStorm , Lee 's now @-@ defunct comic book publishing company , produced concept art for the game .
Designs for the asylum departed from comic interpretations of a large mansion and instead developed an entire island , with hints of Alcatraz prison , composed of multiple buildings to allow for greater variety and exploration . Each building was designed with a different architectural style to make the facility appear believable and to imbue each location with a history . The medical building was inspired by Victorian architecture and its metalwork structure was intended to inspire feelings of horror . The intensive treatment unit has a Gothic , industrial aesthetic . The catacombs beneath the facility , inspired by early twentieth @-@ century brickwork and Victorian industry , were meant to feel oppressive . The maximum security area was designed to feel claustrophobic and was retrofitted like a bunker , and the
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Arkham mansion displays a High Gothic style . The designers integrated crooked lines into environmental objects , such as trees and drainpipes , where possible . 40 rooms , 34 corridors , 3 exterior areas , and 3 Scarecrow @-@ induced hallucination areas were designed for the game .
To bring these areas to life , the level designers produced game mechanic elements using simple room layouts and shapes , while concept artists worked in tandem to create artwork for each location , following the art direction . Environment artists would then build 3D layouts based on those designs . Finding an appropriate color palette for the game world was difficult ; browns and monochromatic colors could depict the desired dark and moody atmosphere , but the developers wanted the aesthetic to resemble the vibrant color schemes of a comic book . To this end , they used saturated colors for in @-@ game lighting . Lighting was an important component of the game , being used to highlight points of interest and to draw the player onward in otherwise boring corridors . To maintain the intended level of detail and allow the game 's console versions to fit into the devices ' memory , each area had to be streamed in and out of memory seamlessly to free up memory for textures and geometry . All of the cutscenes were storyboarded by Rocksteady artists , being visualized in the game engine before the character performances were motion @-@ captured . The design team decided that cutscenes should be used to advance character relationships , and that after each cutscene the player should have had their goal changed or the importance of their actions modified . Priority was given to keeping action scenes under the player 's control rather than showing them in cutscenes .
= = Release = =
Batman : Arkham Asylum was released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in North America on August 25 , 2009 , and on August 28 in Europe and Australia . It was released for Microsoft Windows in North America on September 15 , 2009 , and on September 18 in Europe and Australia . A Game of the Year edition was released on March 26 , 2010 , in Europe and on May 11 in North America . Feral Interactive developed an OS X version , which was released on disc and as a download on November 3 , 2011 . On the Windows version of the game , the developers used an anti @-@ duplication measure that disables Batman 's glide ability and causes other bugs , preventing copied games from progressing beyond a certain point . Although not the first game to implement such countermeasures , Arkham Asylum received media coverage , as this was seen as a novel method of copy protection .
A Collector 's Edition containing the game , a 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) replica of Batman 's batarang , a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes DVD , a leather @-@ bound 48 @-@ page book about Arkham 's inmates , and a code to download the " Crime Alley " challenge map was released . Pre @-@ ordering the game at some retailers allowed access to the " Dem Bones " challenge map . The Game of the Year version was initially announced for release only in Europe , Asia , and Australia , but a North American release was later added . The Game of the Year version includes the game , support for TriOviz 3D visual effects , two pairs of themed 3D glasses , and the six released DLC challenge maps — two of which were omitted from the North American version .
Batman : Return to Arkham , developed by Virtuos , features remastered versions of Arkham Asylum and Arkham City using the Unreal Engine 4 for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . Additionally , both games include all previously released downloadable content , and feature improved graphics , upgraded models and environments , and improvements in the lighting , effects and shaders for both games . Originally intended for release in North America on July 26 , 2016 , and in Europe on July 29 , 2016 , the collection has since been delayed indefinitely in order to give the development team " additional time to deliver a polished Batman Arkham game experience . "
= = = Downloadable content = = =
In April 2009 , it was announced that the Joker would be a downloadable playable character for use in the game 's challenge maps exclusively for the PlayStation 3 . Additional DLC packs were later released . The Insane Night pack , containing the " Totally Insane " combat and " Nocturnal Hunter " stealth challenge maps , was released on September 17 , 2009 . The " Prey in the Darkness " pack was released on September 23 , 2009 , and contains the " Heart of Darkness " combat and " Hothouse Prey " stealth challenge maps . In North America , the " Prey in the Darkness " pack was released exclusively for the PlayStation 3 .
= = = Marketing = = =
A demo version of the game was released via digital download for the PlayStation 3 on August 6 , 2009 , and for Xbox 360 and Microsoft Windows on August 7 . The PlayStation 3 version of Arkham Asylum unlocked a Batcave @-@ themed virtual apartment for players on the social @-@ gaming platform , PlayStation Home . Additionally , North American game retailer GameStop ran a contest which allowed one winner to be rendered in @-@ game as an Arkham inmate . A series of action figures based on character designs from the game were released through Warner Bros. ' outlet DC Direct .
= = Reception = =
Batman : Arkham Asylum received critical acclaim . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave the Xbox 360 version 92 @.@ 34 % and 92 / 100 , the PlayStation 3 version 92 @.@ 07 % and 91 / 100 , and the Microsoft Windows version 91 @.@ 89 % and 91 / 100 . The game held the Guinness World Record for " Most Critically Acclaimed Superhero Game Ever " based on an average Metacritic score of 91 @.@ 67 , until it was succeeded by Arkham City .
Arkham Asylum was called one of the best comic book superhero games ever made . Edge magazine said it was " by some distance the best superhero game of modern times " , IGN 's Greg Miller called it " the greatest comic book game of all time " , and Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead called it " the best superhero game bar none " , and wrote that it has " excellent visuals , a compelling story and superb voice acting . " Whitehead also wrote , even without the iconic superhero , it would be a polished and engrossing game featuring compelling story and superb voice acting . PSM3 's Andy Kelly wrote , " Rocksteady have struck the perfect balance of giving you the confident power of a superhero , but with enough weaknesses to make the game challenging ; a remarkable feat of balancing and design " . Wired 's Chris Kohler said that the game 's strength lies in its tight script and masterful acting , making what could be a generic game captivating . 1UP.com 's Thierry Nguyen gave the game an A − , stating that Rocksteady " manages to combine combat , stealth , storytelling , and cartoon voices into the best digital Batman simulator we 've seen to date . "
Several reviewers compared Arkham Asylum to other games — including BioShock for its ability to deliver a unique adventure and establish a connection with the game world , and its innovative ideas ; The Legend of Zelda for its adventuring style ; Metroid for its world layout ; and Resident Evil and Tomb Raider for its classic action @-@ adventuring that acts as a true hybrid of brawling , stealth , and platforming .
The game world 's design and the game 's attention to detail were well received by critics . Game Informer 's Andrew Reiner said the game 's setting had a taut and mesmerizing atmosphere , and was a place of wonder and inexplicable horror . Miller called it the right mix of creepy and cool , and appreciated the gradual damage reflected on Batman 's suit as the story progressed , but said that pixelated CGI and lip synching issues diminished the presentation . Whitehead said that the impressive animation makes Batman feel alive , but wrote that the world itself was lifeless and lacking in interactive objects . He criticized segments in which character logic was sacrificed for video game tropes , citing repeated use of poison gas and electric floors as obstacles .
The combat system was well received for the simplicity of its implementation , allowing players to use it effectively without learning complex combinations of special moves , and the emphasis upon timing and flow to create fluid , graceful , and satisfyingly brutal attacks . Reviewers said that the combat remained challenging with the inclusion of more difficult @-@ to @-@ overcome enemies , and better use of combat was well incentivized without punishing those unable to master it . The design of stealth and the wide variety of methods available to disable enemy opponents were praised . Computer and Video Games ' Andy Robinson wrote that it is a " thinking man 's stealth game " that is the centerpiece of the game , and Edge said that the stealth offering was thrilling . Others wrote about the way in which enemies react with fear to the elimination of their allies , but some reviewers criticized the AI for allowing Batman to easily escape when discovered , and for being oblivious to Batman 's presence . Whitehead said that stealth was not as directly rewarding as combat , citing difficulty in controlling Batman at close quarters and the inconsistent contextual actions .
Arkham Asylum 's boss fights were criticized , with many reviewers labeling them as the game 's biggest failing . Reviewers found that the battles often rely on old @-@ fashioned , tedious , and repetitive game tropes that required the player to learn and repeat monotonous routines — some of which , in the case of Bane , had already been employed on lesser enemies — or to confront repetitive attack patterns and one @-@ hit deaths . Reviewers generally agreed that the fights were anti @-@ climactic to their build @-@ up spectacle . The final boss fight with the Joker was singled out for vapid gameplay , a battle with Killer Croc was labeled boring and overly long , and the reviewers said these should not have been in the game . However , the fear toxin @-@ induced hallucination segments of Scarecrow 's battles were almost unanimously praised as some of the game 's best and most cerebral moments for their fourth wall manipulation , subversion of the game 's established narrative and expectations , and meta @-@ textual influences that were compared to the battle against Psycho Mantis in 1998 's Metal Gear Solid , and 2002 's Eternal Darkness .
The main voice cast — including Conroy as Batman , Sorkin as Harley Quinn , Valenza as Poison Ivy , and Wingert as Riddler — was well received , but Hamill 's performance received consistent praise , with reviewers commenting upon his excellent inflection and timing on a cackling , maniacal performance that steals the show . Nguyen said that Dini and Hamill 's Joker was the best depiction of the character outside of The Killing Joke and Heath Ledger 's incarnation in The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) .
Writer Grant Morrison said the game was the inspiration for his Batman Incorporated comic book . He said he wanted to " capture the feeling of the Batman : Arkham Asylum game ... When I played that game , it was the first time in my life where I actually felt what it is like to be Batman ... We are now the heroes , and we can look through their eyes . "
= = = Sales = = =
Worldwide , the game sold nearly two million units in its first three weeks of release , and had sold 2 @.@ 5 million by the end of September 2009 . According to NPD Group , Batman : Arkham Asylum sold approximately 593 @,@ 000 units in North America during the five tracked days following its release on August 25 . By December 2009 , the PlayStation 3 version of the game had outsold the Xbox 360 version by approximately 10 @,@ 000 units despite multi @-@ platform titles typically selling better on the Xbox 360 at the time . The exclusive content featuring the Joker as a playable character was cited as a possible reason for the success of the PlayStation 3 version . The game took two of the top five spots on the US software chart in its first week of release , and topped the UK all @-@ format chart for two weeks .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards , Rocksteady Studios won Studio of the Year , while the game received nominations for Best Action Adventure Game , Best Graphics , Best Voice for Hamill and Sorkin , respectively , Best Xbox 360 Game , and Game of the Year . As part of the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences ( AIAS ) 2009 awards , it won Outstanding Achievement awards for Character Performance ( Mark Hamill as the Joker ) , Game Design , and Adapted Story , and was nominated for Adventure Game of the Year , Overall Game of the Year , and Outstanding Achievement awards for Animation , Original Music Composition , and Game Direction . At the 6th British Academy Video Games Awards , it won the awards for Best Game , and Gameplay , and received nominations for Action , Original Score , Story , Use of Audio , Artistic Achievement , and the publicly voted GAME Award of 2009 . It won Best Game Design at the 10th Game Developers Choice Awards , and was nominated for Game of the Year and Best Writing . It was also nominated for Best Sound Editing : Computer Entertainment for the 2010 Golden Reel Awards . According to Metacritic , on all platforms , Arkham Asylum was tied with God of War Collection and Forza Motorsport 3 as the fourth @-@ highest @-@ rated game of 2009 . It was also the highest @-@ rated Microsoft Windows game alongside Dragon Age : Origins and Street Fighter IV , the third @-@ highest @-@ rated Xbox 360 game alongside Forza Motorsport 3 , and the fifth @-@ highest @-@ rated PlayStation 3 game alongside FIFA 10 and Killzone 2 .
Batman : Arkham Asylum appeared on several lists of the top video games of 2009 . It was placed at number one by The A.V. Club , number two by CNET , Time and CraveOnline , number three by Complex , IGN UK , Joystiq , and The Daily Telegraph , number four by CBC News and Wired , and number five by Gamasutra and IGN Australia . Giant Bomb named it the 2009 Best Multiplatform Game , GamesRadar labeled it their Game of the Year ahead of Uncharted 2 : Among Thieves , and Eurogamer listed it on their " Games of 2009 " series . GameSpot listed it as having the Best Atmosphere and the Best Use of a Creative License as part of their " Best Games of 2009 " series , and IGN UK named it the Best PC Action Game and Best Xbox 360 story . GameTrailers named the title both Best Action @-@ Adventure Game and Biggest Surprise of 2009 . In 2013 , Eurogamer listed it as the twentieth best game of the contemporary console generation , Game Informer named it the second best superhero game of all time , and GamingBolt listed it as the eighty @-@ ninth greatest game ever made . In 2014 , Empire named it the 28th Greatest Video Game of All Time , behind Arkham City at number 12 , and IGN listed as the twenty @-@ second best game of the console generation . In 2015 , PC Gamer named it the fiftieth best PC game , and IGN listed it as the 91st Top Game of All Time .
= = Legacy = =
Arkham Asylum 's success launched a series of Batman : Arkham sequels , beginning in October 2011 with Batman : Arkham City . Batman : Arkham City , set one year after the events of Arkham Asylum , is the direct sequel to the earlier game . It was developed by Rocksteady Studios , and distributed by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment . Manipulated by Hugo Strange , Gotham City 's mayor Quincy Sharp closes Arkham Asylum and Blackgate prison , and converts a section of the city 's slums into an open air prison known as Arkham City , to house all of Gotham 's criminals . While a wary Batman watches over the activities in Arkham City , the Joker is dying from his consumption of Titan . The sequel introduces several new characters — including Hugo Strange , Robin , Catwoman , Ra 's al Ghul , and Mr. Freeze — to the series . A limited , six @-@ issue comic series , also titled Batman : Arkham City — bridging the plots of Arkham Asylum and Arkham City — was written by Paul Dini and featured art by Carlos D 'Anda . The first issue was released on May 11 , 2011 . A third installment of the Arkham series ( not developed by Rocksteady ) , Batman : Arkham Origins , was released in October 2013 , featuring a story set before the events of Arkham Asylum . A narrative sequel to Arkham City , Batman : Arkham Knight , was released on June 23 , 2015 and is the series ' concluding chapter .
= Star Trek : Voyager – Elite Force =
Star Trek : Voyager – Elite Force is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Raven Software and published by Activision . The game was initially released on September 20 , 2000 for Windows and Mac OS personal computers . Aspyr Media was responsible for porting the game to the Mac OS platform . Elite Force was later ported to the PlayStation 2 console by Pipe Dream Interactive and published by Majesco Entertainment on December 11 , 2001 .
The game is set in the Star Trek universe , specifically relating to the fourth Star Trek television series , Star Trek : Voyager . The dates in the game place Elite Force 's plot late in Voyager 's sixth season . The player assumes the role of Ensign Alex Munro , a member of the Hazard Team , a new elite security section created to deal with particularly dangerous and hostile away missions . The game 's plot focuses on the USS Voyager being trapped in a starship graveyard , heavily damaged and under attack from a variety of hostile factions . The Hazard Team is tasked with protecting Voyager as repairs are made , and investigating the cause of their entrapment .
Elite Force was one of several Star Trek games announced after Activision secured the license to Star Trek video games from Viacom in 1998 . The game was one of the first to license id Tech 3 , a game engine by id Software used by a number of video games during the early 2000s . Elite Force was a critical success , and is often praised as the first truly successful Star Trek video game , able to appeal to people who were not Star Trek fans . Raven Software released an expansion pack to the game in May 2001 , while Wildstorm adapted the story for a short graphic novel in July 2000 . A sequel developed by Ritual Entertainment , Star Trek : Elite Force II , was published in 2003 .
= = Gameplay = =
An example of the first @-@ person shooter genre , Elite Force is based on gameplay conventions shared by multiple other games . The game is focused on story @-@ driven combat within a 3D environment , with all activity viewed as if from the eyes of the game 's protagonist . The player controls the movement of the player character through walking , crouching , jumping or interacting with the environment . The only exception to this is in cut scenes , where the player loses control of the character to a third @-@ person view for scripted events . The player character possesses numerical values for their health and armor , which are displayed on the game 's heads @-@ up display . As the player character takes damage from non @-@ player characters and certain aspects of the environment , both values will decrease ; when the health value reaches zero , the player character will die . Armor lessens the impact to the player character 's health from hostile action , but once depleted the player will be more susceptible to damage . However , both armor and health can be restored by using wall @-@ mounted terminals or from receiving assistance from certain friendly non @-@ player characters such as the Doctor .
Elite Force includes an arsenal of Star Trek – themed weapons , such as phasers and disruptors . The weapons vary in power , ammunition consumption and effectiveness in given situations . Usually , the player is equipped with a hand phaser , a low @-@ damage weapon that automatically recharges ammunition , and a phaser compression rifle , a more powerful weapon with an optional sniper mode for long distance kills . Other weapons , acquired as the game progresses , include grenade launchers , stasis weaponry and pulse energy weapons . The player can restock on ammunition by using wall @-@ mounted terminals that dispense weapon energy , or by picking up certain items in the game environment .
= = = Single @-@ player = = =
The game 's single @-@ player campaign consists of around 30 linear levels , divided up into eight distinct missions . Missions have different objectives , from retrieving a particular item and accessing computer systems , escorting a friendly character through hostile territory , or destroying vital ship and station components . Enemies come in multiple forms in the game , often as Star Trek species such as the Borg and the Klingons . Each group of enemies uses a different means of attacking : most humanoid enemies are armed with weapons similar to the player , and will use cover and squad tactics to attempt to kill the player character . The Borg differ from this in that , instead of using squad tactics , they eventually adapt their personal energy shields to most of the player 's weapons , slowly rendering the player 's attacks useless as they advance . Other enemies may attempt to swarm the player and eliminate them with melee attacks .
The player is usually accompanied by one or more friendly non @-@ player characters , who will follow the player and provide assistance in combat against enemies . As they are often key to the story , friendly characters must not be killed in combat except during scripted events . In between combat missions , the player can move around the USS Voyager and interact with other members of its crew , often performing non @-@ combat tasks to progress the story .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
Elite Force was originally released with a 32 @-@ player multiplayer element , in which participants use the weaponry and characters from the single @-@ player game to compete in several different game modes . Referred to as a " holomatch " , the multiplayer is themed as though it were a holodeck experience . Players can compete against other players in local area network and Internet games , or play against bots , opponents that use the game 's artificial intelligence . Each player can choose one of a variety of Star Trek characters as their aesthetic player character in multiplayer . The initial release contained multiplayer game modes shared by other multiplayer games in the genre . The standard " deathmatch " game mode involves each player moving around a level , collecting weaponry and killing the other players , with the first to reach a particular amount of kills winning . As player characters are killed , they respawn into the game after a short time . " Team deathmatch " follows the same principle , albeit grouping the players into teams to do so . Capture the flag involves two teams of players attempting to retrieve a flag within the other team 's base and returning it to their own to score .
The Elite Force expansion pack added an additional five @-@ game types . In an " assimilation " match , one team plays as Borg and must attempt to assimilate the other team ; if a player is assimilated , they join the Borg team , gradually reducing the amount of players on the other team . The " action hero " mode gives one player more weapons , health , and overall power than every other player , but when an opposing player kills this player they take these advantages . A further game type known as " elimination " is a deathmatch game except that players can 't respawn . As player characters are killed , they sit out the remainder of the round until only one player is left alive . The " disintegration " mode gives every player a slow firing semi @-@ automatic phaser rifle that will kill and vaporize an opposing player in one shot , thus requiring shots to be carefully aimed to ensure they hit . The final game mode , called " specialties , " adds a class @-@ based mode for team deathmatch and capture the flag modes , giving players the option to choose from one of six combat roles , such as a sniper , medic or infiltrator , each with different weapons , speeds and abilities .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Elite Force is based on the fourth Star Trek television series , Star Trek : Voyager . The series follows the adventures of the Starfleet vessel USS Voyager , which is stranded by an enigmatic alien power in the Delta Quadrant of the Milky Way galaxy . 70 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from Federation space , the series shows Voyager 's effort to make the 75 @-@ year journey home . The stardate of 53854 @.@ 7 given in the game places Elite Force in the latter parts of the sixth season of Star Trek : Voyager , in the year 2376 . Significant parts of the game are set on Voyager itself , although much of the game takes place on away missions to other ships and space stations . The player interacts with several races from the series , such as the Borg , Hirogen and Malon , as well as new species created solely for the game .
= = = Characters = = =
Elite Force incorporates a large cast of characters , both original characters created for the game and characters from the television series . All nine of the core Voyager characters in the sixth season appear , such as Captain Kathryn Janeway and Lieutenant Commander Tuvok , each voiced by the appropriate cast member from the television series . The only exception to this is the character of Seven of Nine , who was voiced by Joan Buddenhagen in the initial release ; however , actress Jeri Ryan retroactively replaced Buddenhagen 's voice through a later patch and the expansion pack . The player takes on the role of Ensign Alex Munro ; depending on the player 's choice of gender , Alex is short for either Alexander or Alexandria . Munro is the second in command of an elite security force , the Hazard Team , a special unit created by Tuvok . Munro reports to Lieutenant Les Foster , the team 's commanding officer . Although fourteen characters make up the Hazard Team , the player only interacts consistently with a limited number of these characters , among them Telsia Murphy , the team 's scout and sharpshooter , Austin Chang , a demolitionist and good friend of Munro 's , and Kendrick Biessman , a boisterous heavy weapons specialist . In addition , two core members of the Hazard Team are minor characters from the television series itself ; Juliet Jurot , the team 's combat medic and a telepath , is seen in the episode " Counterpoint " , while Chell , the squad 's technician , is an apprehensive Bolian character who appears in several Voyager episodes . Most character development , such as Munro 's growing relationship with Murphy , takes place between missions , when the player has the chance to explore areas of the ship and interact with the crew .
= = = Plot = = =
The game opens with the Hazard Team conducting a holodeck training exercise set on a Borg ship ; however , the team fails the exercise as most get captured by the Borg , and Munro accidentally destroys the ship while trying to rescue them . Following the termination of the exercise , Voyager is attacked by an unidentified ship . Voyager manages to destroy the ship , but takes heavy damage in the battle . The hostile ship explodes , emitting a shockwave that teleports the now – crippled Voyager to an unknown location , surrounded by derelict ships . As the Voyager crew attempts repairs , the ship is boarded by scavengers , who steal some of Voyager 's cargo supplies before being driven off . In an effort to establish where Voyager is , the Hazard Team is sent to a derelict ship where power is still functioning to download the derelict 's database . The mission goes awry when aliens begin transporting in and attacking the team ; however , the aliens , identifying themselves as Etherians , eventually manage to communicate with the team , and the ordeal is waved off as a misunderstanding , allowing the Hazard Team to access the Etherian database .
Through the Etherians , Voyager learns of an energy field being projected by a gigantic space station , the Forge , which is draining power and preventing repairs from being completed . To counteract the effects of the field , chief engineer B 'Elanna Torres suggests the use of a rare substance called Isodesium , and the Hazard Team is sent on a stealth mission to the scavenger base to steal their supplies of Isodesium . However , the mission is a disaster : despite acquiring the Isodesium , one crewman is briefly captured and another team member is critically injured . As the team attempts to extract , Borg drones transport into the extraction point , killing another team member , capturing Lieutenant Foster and taking the Isodesium . In Foster 's absence , Munro is made the team leader . Along with Seven of Nine , the team transports to the Borg cube to retrieve the Isodesium . While on the cube , Munro is given the chance to rescue Foster from assimilation by the Borg . Matters are complicated when the Borg corner the team , leveraging their freedom and the Isodesium for assistance against a number of Species 8472 on board , a race highly resistant to the Borg . Although successful , the Borg attempt to assimilate the team ; anticipating a double cross , however , Munro has Chang detonate an explosive in a sensitive part of the cube and the team escapes with the Isodesium in the chaos .
As Voyager installs the Isodesium , a ship is sent from the Forge to tear Voyager apart for resources . Tuvok leads the Hazard Team to a nearby derelict dreadnought gunship to use the gunship 's weaponry to destroy the incoming ship , but is only successful in disabling it as it attaches to Voyager . Voyager is consequently swarmed by crab @-@ like aliens intent on carrying off crew and cargo , although the crew manages to eliminate these aliens . Munro prompts the captain to counterattack , in order to destroy the dampening field projected by the station . The Hazard Team uses the Forge 's ship to infiltrate the Forge and disable its defensive systems , allowing the Voyager crew to attack using shuttlecraft ; however , Crewman Biessman is killed while waiting for Voyager 's reinforcements . The Forge 's power core is destroyed , thereby dropping the dampening field . Munro , however , learns of the species behind the Forge , the Vohrsoth , and the station 's true purpose : to harvest the genetic features of those trapped by the Forge to create an army designed for conquering the galaxy . Munro disobeys orders to ensure the Vohrsoth cannot recreate the Forge and kills the Vohrsoth commander . With power restored , Voyager attacks the Forge and destroys the station , beaming Munro off in the last few moments . Voyager and other active ships in the area are freed , and Munro is promoted to lieutenant .
= = Development = =
Publisher Activision acquired the rights to produce Star Trek video games from Viacom in September 1998 . With Viacom leaving the video game industry , Activision 's licensing agreement allowed the publisher to hold the rights to Star Trek video games for ten years . Elite Force was one of several Star Trek games announced shortly afterward . Developed by Raven Software , a company whose past projects included the first @-@ person shooters Heretic and Soldier of Fortune , Elite Force was developed using technology created by id Software . Elite Force was one of the first games to license id Tech 3 , the game engine which debuted with Quake III : Arena . During late 1999 and early 2000 , Raven revealed several screenshots and discussed the premise of the game , with Activision setting a release date for the second quarter of 2000 . Activision presented a demonstration of Elite Force at the E3 convention in May 2000 , alongside Away Team and Bridge Commander . In the months following the E3 convention , the biographies of several of the game 's key characters were released as promotional material . On August 29 , 2000 , Activision announced that Raven Software had completed development on Elite Force , stating that the game would be released later in September . Elite Force was consequently published on September 20 , 2000 . Raven continued to support the game post @-@ release , with the addition of patches and bonus content for the game 's multiplayer mode .
In a June 2000 interview , Raven Software co @-@ founder Brian Raffel stated that one of the objectives of the game was to make the player feel " like [ they 're ] part of a Voyager episode " . To this end , Elite Force extensively uses scripted sequences to interact with non @-@ player characters , convey plot information and build up the immersion in the game 's setting , with Valve Corporation 's first @-@ person shooter title Half @-@ Life cited as a direct inspiration . However , in contrast to Half @-@ Life , the player is given the ability to influence the outcome of some scripted sequences , which can often involve the injury or death of other characters , sometimes with immediate or delayed repercussions depending on the player 's actions . Over fifty in @-@ game cut scenes were produced for Elite Force , in addition to computer @-@ generated cinematics . In addition , large portions of the USS Voyager were recreated from the series to enhance the player 's immersion in the Star Trek setting .
= = Versions and sequels = =
= = = Graphic novel = = =
Prior to the release of Elite Force , Wildstorm published a graphic novel based on Raven Software 's story . The graphic novel was released in July 2000 as part of a Star Trek : Voyager graphic novel series produced by Wildstorm , written by British comic book authors Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning . The book 's artwork was produced by Jeffrey Moy and W.C. Carani . The book follows a broadly similar storyline to that of the game , predominantly focusing on USS Voyager being trapped by the Forge , which is controlled by an ancient race , the Tarlus , for the purpose of creating an army to conquer the galaxy . The Elite Force graphic novel focuses on a limited number of the Hazard Team , and does not expand on the plot points created by the Etherians and the scavengers in the game , instead using the Borg to fill in these roles .
= = = PS2 port = = =
The development of a PlayStation 2 version of Elite Force was announced in late 2000 . Whereas the original version of Elite Force had been published by Activision and developed by Raven Software , the PlayStation 2 version was published by Majesco Entertainment and developed by their in @-@ house studio , Pipe Dream Interactive . Elite Force was to be the second PlayStation 2 project undertaken by Majesco . The PlayStation 2 version of the game includes most of the same content as the computer version of the game , albeit that the game 's graphics was simplified slightly for the console . Due to the lack of online support for the PlayStation 2 , the port only allows for four players to compete in a multiplayer game . Pipe Dream paid particular attention to adjusting the controls of the game to suit the PlayStation 2 's gamepad , introducing an auto @-@ aim feature to assist the player . The first screenshots of the game were released in March 2001 , and the game was released on December 11 , 2001 .
= = = Expansion Pack for PC = = =
An expansion pack to the computer version of Elite Force was announced by Activision in February 2001 . The expansion pack does not add new campaign content in the conventional sense , rather adding a " Virtual Voyager " mode to the game , allowing the player to explore ten more decks of the ship . Within these ten levels , the player can interact with a variety of characters , collect secret items and operate various ship functions such as using replicators , reading characters ' personal logs and accessing the ship 's computer files . Two new combat campaigns are added , integrated as holodeck programs ; the first revolves around Tom Paris ' black @-@ and @-@ white Captain Proton hobby , while the second is based around an infiltration mission into a Klingon base . In addition , five new multiplayer modes were introduced . Development was completed on May 5 , 2001 , and the expansion pack was released on May 16 , 2001 . With ratings of 59 percent and 62 percent on the aggregator sites Game Rankings and Metacritic , respectively , the expansion did not enjoy the critical acclaim of the original material . While the pack was considered to maintain its predecessor 's production values , it was thought to lack the focus and breadth of the original game . As well as updating the original to the latest version , the expansion pack also replaced Joan Buddenhagen 's Seven of Nine character voice with that of Jeri Ryan .
= = = Elite Force II = = =
Towards the end of March 2002 , rumors were reported that a sequel to Elite Force was in development . Activision confirmed these rumors at the beginning of April , officially announcing Star Trek : Elite Force II on April 4 , 2002 . The game was the last Star Trek title to be developed under Activision 's supervision , following a dispute with Star Trek licensing holder Viacom , and was produced by Ritual Entertainment . Like Elite Force , Elite Force II was developed on the id Tech 3 game engine , one of the last games to do so . Most of the core Hazard Team characters return in Elite Force II , this time set on the USS Enterprise @-@ E following the events of the tenth film , Star Trek : Nemesis . Elite Force II was released in June 2003 to favorable reviews from critics , although with ratings of 80 percent and 78 percent on the review aggregator sites Game Rankings and Metacritic , it was not as successful as its predecessor .
= = Reception = =
Elite Force was a critical success , scoring 86 percent on the review aggregator sites Metacritic and Game Rankings . Although sales figures for Elite Force have not been released , the game 's sales were reported to have significantly contributed to Activision 's revenues for the second quarter of 2000 . Praise was bestowed on the game 's story , level design , gameplay and graphics , although criticisms focused on the perceived short length of the game 's single @-@ player campaign . In addition , Elite Force was recipient to several Editor 's Choice commendations from individual publications .
A number of reviews praised Elite Force 's gameplay and level design . The battles were described by GameSpot as " particularly intense " , enhanced by friendly non @-@ player characters being " surprisingly responsive " in combat , giving the player the sense that they are " not doing all the fighting by [ themselves ] " . While GameSpy voiced the view that Elite Force does not deviate radically from other games in the genre , it stated that " what it does do , it does extremely well " . Admiring the game 's pacing , GameSpy noted that the use of periods with character interaction rather than combat helped prevent the game becoming a " continuous onslaught " and allowed the story to flow smoothly , a point echoed by GameSpot . However , both GameSpot and GameSpy were critical of the game 's artificial intelligence in some circumstances , leading friendly characters to get in the way of the player during firefights . IGN was impressed with the variety of gameplay , from finding solutions to problems in coordination with other characters , engaging in stealth missions and pursuing a wide selection of objectives within the individual missions . Several reviewers were complimentary towards the design of the weapons in the game , commenting that they were powerful and fun to use as well as fitting for the Star Trek theme .
The game 's graphics were thought to be very good , using the id Tech 3 engine effectively . Describing the graphics as superb , Game Revolution commented that " from detailed weapons to terrific lighting effects to smooth character animation , everything just looks great " . Eurogamer commented that the characters were " very well done " on the engine , although Allgame felt that the character models for the original Voyager cast were " just a little off " . Other reviewers were equally impressed ; IGN described the graphics as " fantastic " while GameSpy commented that " in each environment it 's obvious that the artists were limited only by their imaginations " .
Elite Force 's attention to immersing the player within the Star Trek universe was praised as one of the stronger points of the game ; GamePro suggested that even people who were not fans of the franchise " will marvel at the amount of detail in the ships and characters " , further praising the game 's " faithful " recreation of key sets of the USS Voyager in the TV series . Many reviewers were positive towards the game 's story , GameSpy suggesting that the plot " really draws you in " , while IGN praised the story as one in stark contrast to many of the poorly produced storylines used in the TV series . However , many reviewers felt that the game 's single @-@ player campaign was too short , while others felt the game 's closing levels were disappointing .
Due to shared technology and similar gameplay conventions , critics often compared Elite Force 's multiplayer to that in Quake III : Arena , with varied opinions . For their part , Raven Software stated that so little had been fundamentally changed that the multiplayer could almost be labeled as a modification of Quake III . Game Revolution commented that the multiplayer felt more refined than that in Quake III and innovative in its attempt to mimic a holodeck , and while Eurogamer agreed with the latter , criticisms were directed towards the gameplay seeming " very slow and unexciting " . However , other reviewers disagreed ; IGN described the multiplayer as " a solid experience " , and GamePro expressed that it helped compensate for the short length of the single @-@ player campaign .
There was a consensus amongst reviewers that Elite Force was the first truly successful Star Trek game , standing out from past titles deemed to be mediocre in quality and design . Game Revolution stated that Elite Force managed to " fight off the curse which until now has plagued most Star Trek action games " , while IGN enthusiastically proclaimed " Trekkies , rejoice ! You 've finally got something to be proud of " . GamePro further commented that " you don 't even have to be a full @-@ fledged Trekker to appreciate the gaming goodness that Elite Force has to offer " . GameSpot put Elite Force 's success down to the influence of Half @-@ Life and its expansion Opposing Force , noting that the influence of these games is " evident in Elite Force 's level design " . GameSpy closed its review by putting Elite Force as one of the year 's best first @-@ person shooters , and " almost certainly the best Star Trek game period , a franchise infamous for its string of bad titles " . Likewise , PC Gamer UK commended the game as " the best Star Trek game ever , and a first @-@ rate FPS in its own right " .
Although the original PC version of Elite Force gained critical acclaim , the 2001 PlayStation 2 port received a more negative reception . Majesco 's port of the game garnered mediocre reviews , holding scores of 54 percent and 52 percent on Game Rankings and Metacritic respectively . While the level design , story and atmosphere were praised , critics were negative towards what was seen to be a poorly performed port , with complaints focused on difficult controls , graphical problems and frame rate issues . In addition , the artificial intelligence was deemed to be significantly worse than the earlier PC incarnation of the game . Several reviews suggested that Majesco had simply not put effort into the port , resulting in a level of quality behind that which was expected of PlayStation 2 games at the time .
= Darius Charles =
Wesley Darius Donald Charles ( born 10 December 1987 ) , known as Darius Charles , is an English professional footballer who plays as a defender for League One club AFC Wimbledon .
Charles started his career after progressing through the Brentford youth system and he made his first @-@ team debut in 2005 . He was loaned out by Brentford on seven occasions and he joined the last of these , Ebbsfleet United , permanently in 2009 in a historic transfer . Six months later , a proposed transfer to York City fell through , after he decided against moving to the city . He spent another season with Ebbsfleet before signing for Stevenage in 2010 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Brentford = = =
Charles first played football aged 11 while at school , for Greenford Celtic . He later played for Drayton Manor before signing for and graduating from the Centre of Excellence at Brentford . He made his first @-@ team debut as a left midfielder in a 2 – 1 victory over Hull City on 7 May 2005 ; the final day of the 2004 – 05 season . He made his first appearance of the 2005 – 06 season in the Football League Trophy against Oxford United , which finished as a 1 – 1 draw after extra time and a 4 – 3 defeat in a penalty shoot @-@ out , while Charles played as a left @-@ back . His first league appearance of the season came as an 88th minute substitute in a 1 – 1 draw with Chesterfield on 10 December 2005 . He went on to play as a 32nd @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 3 draw with Bradford City on 2 January 2006 , which proved to be his final appearance of the season for Brentford , which he finished with three appearances . He was loaned out to Conference South team Thurrock on 3 February 2006 , where he made one appearance , in a 1 – 0 defeat to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . He was subsequently sent out to Yeading on a work experience deal on 16 March 2006 , and he made his debut in a 2 – 1 defeat to Eastbourne Borough , before finishing the loan spell with six appearances . Charles signed a professional contract with Brentford on 27 June 2006 .
After having made nine appearances for Brentford during the 2006 – 07 season , he signed for Staines Town of the Isthmian League Premier Division on a one @-@ month loan on 16 October 2006 . He made two appearances for Staines before returning to Brentford in November 2006 . He joined Conference National team Crawley Town on loan on 9 February 2007 until the end of April . He made his debut a day later after coming on as a 72nd @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 2 draw with St Albans City . He finished the loan spell with six appearances . He played for Brentford on five further occasions , which included scoring the winning goal in the 89th minute of a 4 – 3 victory over Port Vale , and he finished the season with 19 Brentford appearances . Brentford took up their option for his contract to be extended for another season in May 2007 , before he signed a new two @-@ year contract with the option of another year with the club in June . He signed for Sutton United of the Conference South on an initial three @-@ month loan on 2 August 2007 . He made his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat to Basingstoke Town . He was recalled by Brentford in September 2007 , after making seven appearances for Sutton . He made his first appearance for Brentford of the 2007 – 08 season in a 2 – 0 victory over Chester City on 22 September 2007 .
= = = Ebbsfleet United = = =
He joined Conference Premier team Ebbsfleet United on loan until the end of the season on 21 March 2008 , having made 18 appearances for Brentford up to that point in the 2007 – 08 season . Charles made his Ebbsfleet debut the following day as a 78th @-@ minute substitute in a 3 – 1 defeat to Stevenage Borough . He started in the following match , a 2 – 1 victory over Cambridge United , and he finished the loan spell with nine appearances . He made one more appearance for Brentford in 2007 – 08 , in a 1 – 0 away defeat to Stockport County on 3 May 2008 , finishing the season with 19 appearances for the club .
Charles re @-@ signed for Ebbsfleet after joining on loan for the 2008 – 09 season on 21 June . He fouled Simon Brown to concede a penalty kick against Wrexham on 13 September 2008 , which was scored by Brown , as Ebbsfleet lost 3 – 2 . He was sent off for a second bookable offence late into a 1 – 0 defeat to Histon on 6 October 2008 . After his Brentford contract was cancelled he moved to Ebbsfleet permanently on 29 January 2009 , after the owners of Ebbsfleet , MyFootballClub , ratified a compensation fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 , making this the first transfer in football history to be decided by a group of members . He finished the season with 44 appearances and was named Ebbsfleet 's Player of the Year .
Conference Premier rivals York City made a £ 10 @,@ 000 bid for Charles in June , which was subsequently rejected , with MyFootballClub members voting against the offer with over a 98 % majority . Following this , York manager Martin Foyle said it was unlikely they would increase their offer for Charles . Ebbsfleet later agreed to sell Charles and striker Michael Gash for a combined fee of £ 80 @,@ 000 to an unnamed club , which was revealed to be York and he was reported to have signed on 29 June 2009 . However , the deal eventually fell through after Charles decided against joining the club as he did not want to relocate to York . Shortly after Ebbsfleet received an enquiry about him from an unnamed League Two club , although nothing came of this interest . He later became Ebbsfleet captain and was sent off for dissent in a 1 – 0 defeat to Tamworth on 21 November 2009 . He made 42 appearances for Ebbsfleet during the 2009 – 10 as they were relegated into the Conference South .
= = = Stevenage = = =
Charles turned down a new contract with Ebbsfleet to sign for newly promoted League Two team Stevenage on a two @-@ year contract for a compensation fee on 18 May 2010 . He made his Stevenage debut in the club 's 3 – 1 home victory against Stockport , playing 78 minutes of the match . The following week , he started against Aldershot Town , but was taken off after 38 minutes after struggling with injury . Charles returned to the starting eleven on 18 September 2010 , starting in a 0 – 0 draw against Torquay United , Stevenage 's first clean sheet of the season . He scored his first goal for the club in Stevenage 's 1 – 1 draw with Milton Keynes Dons in an FA Cup first round replay on November 2010 . Charles ' goal came in the fifth minute of stoppage time , taking the game to extra time and then to a penalty shoot @-@ out , which Stevenage won 7 – 6 . Charles received a straight red card for a professional foul on John Johnson in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 home loss to Northampton Town on 11 December 2010 , just ten minutes after coming on as a substitute . He scored his second goal for Stevenage in the club 's fourth round FA Cup tie against Championship side Reading , cutting inside and curling the ball past the outstretched arm of Adam Federici to restore parity in a game that Stevenage went on to lose 2 – 1 . Charles scored his first league goal of the 2010 – 11 season with a shot from 12 yards in Stevenage 's 2 – 1 home win against Bradford City on 2 April 2011 . He provided the
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assist for Joel Byrom 's goal after flicking a right @-@ wing cross in Stevenage 's 2 – 0 play @-@ off victory over Accrington Stanley , a game in which he also hit the crossbar with a strike from 30 yards out . Charles started upfront for Stevenage in the 2011 League Two play @-@ off Final , played at Old Trafford on 28 May 2011 . Charles ' pass through to John Mousinho resulted in the only goal of the game , as a 1 – 0 victory over Torquay United meant Stevenage were promoted into League One . He played 33 games for Stevenage during the 2010 – 11 season , scoring four goals .
After starting in both of Stevenage 's opening fixtures of the 2011 – 12 campaign , Charles signed a contract extension on 11 August 2011 , keeping him contracted to the club until 2013 . Two days later , Charles scored his first goal of the season with a close range header in a 1 – 1 draw away at Chesterfield . Charles ' appearances were sporadic throughout the remainder of 2011 , with the player suffering from a knee injury . He made his first start in nearly two months in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 away victory against Reading at the Madejski Stadium in the FA Cup on 7 January 2012 , with Charles scoring the winning goal in the first @-@ half with a finish from the edge of the area . Charles ' season ended prematurely after he suffered a hamstring injury in Stevenage 's 1 – 1 draw with Wycombe Wanderers on 31 March 2012 , with the injury ruling him out of action for up to six weeks . He made 34 appearances during the campaign , scoring five times .
Ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , Charles signed a new two @-@ year contract with the club . He started in the club 's first game of the campaign , a 3 – 1 home win over AFC Wimbledon in the League Cup , playing the whole game at left @-@ back . He scored his first goal of the season in a 1 – 1 draw against Shrewsbury Town on 1 September 2012 , after cutting in from the wing to strike into the top corner to restore parity in the match . It turned out to be his only goal of the season as Charles played most of the season at left @-@ back , making 41 appearances during the campaign . With a year remaining on his current deal , Charles ' contract was extended for a further year in June 2013 , keeping him contracted to the club until the summer of 2015 . He made a goalscoring start to the 2013 – 14 campaign , scoring after pouncing on a loose ball in a 4 – 3 home defeat to Oldham Athletic on the opening day of the season .
= = = Burton Albion = = =
Charles signed for newly promoted League One club Burton Albion on a one @-@ year contract on 19 June 2015 . Having failed to appear for Burton , he joined League Two club AFC Wimbledon on loan until the end of 2015 – 16 on 17 March 2016 . Charles started for AFC Wimbledon as they beat Plymouth Argyle 2 – 0 at Wembley Stadium in the 2016 League Two play @-@ off Final , meaning they were promoted into League One for the first time .
= = = AFC Wimbledon = = =
On 31 May 2016 , Charles signed for AFC Wimbledon permanently after a successful loan spell at the club .
= = International career = =
Charles was named in the England C team , who represent England at non @-@ League level , in May 2009 , for the final of the 2007 – 09 International Challenge Trophy against Belgium . He started the match to make his debut for England and they were defeated 1 – 0 . He was called up to the team for a friendly against the Poland Olympic team in November , and he started the game as England won 2 – 1 .
= = Style of play = =
Charles ' preferred position is centre @-@ back , although he can also play as a left @-@ back , left midfielder or centre @-@ forward .
= = Personal life = =
Charles was born in Ealing , London . His footballing hero when growing up was Ronaldo , and this was because he could " change any game with one bit of genius " . He supports Manchester United , and states that the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final between Manchester United and Bayern Munich was the best match he has ever watched . Charles ' ex @-@ partner was pregnant as of July 2009 .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 30 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
Stevenage
League Two play @-@ offs : 2010 – 11
AFC Wimbledon
League Two play @-@ offs : 2015 – 16
Individual
Ebbsfleet United Player of the Year : 2008 – 09
= The Boat Race 1897 =
The 54th Boat Race took place on 3 April 1897 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race . The crews were almost evenly matched weight @-@ wise , Oxford marginally the heavier , whose crew consisted almost entirely of veterans of the event . In a race umpired by former rower Frank Willan , Oxford won by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 19 minutes 12 seconds , the victory taking the overall record to 31 – 22 in their favour . It was Oxford 's eighth consecutive victory and the third fastest winning time in the history of the event .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the boat clubs of University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , as of 2014 it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by two @-@ fifths of a length in the previous year 's race , and held the overall lead , with 30 victories to Cambridge 's 22 .
Oxford were coached by G. C. Bourne who had rowed for Oxford in the 1882 and 1883 races , William Fletcher , who rowed for Oxford in the 1890 , 1891 , 1892 and 1893 races and Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887 ) . There is no record of who coached the Cambridge crew . Oxford were very quick , and set a full course record ( on the ebb tide ) of 18 minutes and 27 seconds two weeks before the race . Conversely , according to author and former rower George Drinkwater , Cambridge " never fulfilled its early promise ... always slow into the water . " The umpire for the race for the ninth year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 6 @.@ 25 lb ( 78 @.@ 8 kg ) , 0 @.@ 875 pounds ( 0 @.@ 4 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . The Cambridge boat included four former Blues in their number five William Augustus Bieber who was participating in his third Boat Race . Five of the Light Blues were studying at Trinity Hall . Their number four , American rower Benjamin Hunting Howell , was the only participant in the race registered as non @-@ British , hailing from the New York . All but one of Oxford 's crew had rowed in the event prior to 1897 , only G. O. C. Edwards was new to the race . Eight of the nine members of the Dark Blue crew were educated at Eton College ; four of their crew were studying at New College . George Drinkwater , former Oxford rower and author stated " this year saw the finest Oxford crew that has ever rowed " .
= = Race = =
As a result of their impressive performances during the build up to the race , Oxford were clear favourites to win . Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The race was started at 2 : 24 p.m. in a light breeze from the east on a favourable tide . The Light Blues made the quicker start , with stroke William James Fernie taking his crew off at 41 strokes per minute . Within a quarter of a mile , Cambridge held a half @-@ length lead but the Dark Blues began to draw back into contention and took the lead just before Craven Cottage .
A spurt at the Mile Post from the Light Blues kept them in touch but Oxford rowed away from them , taking a clear water advantage by Hammersmith Bridge , effectively ending the contest . Oxford extended their lead " as they liked " and passed the finishing post two and a half lengths clear of Cambridge , in a winning time of 19 minutes 12 seconds . It was Oxford 's eighth consecutive victory and was , at the time , the third fastest winning time in the history of the event . It took the overall record to 31 – 22 in Oxford 's favour .
= Coltrane for Lovers =
Coltrane for Lovers is a posthumous compilation album by American jazz musician John Coltrane , released on January 23 , 2001 , by Impulse ! Records . Its tracks were recorded during December 1961 to April 1963 at engineer Rudy Van Gelder 's recording studio in Englewood Cliffs , New Jersey . The first in the Verve for Lovers series by Verve Records , the album contains eleven of Coltrane 's romantic ballads recorded during his early years with Impulse ! Records . The songs feature Coltrane 's classic quartet and collaborations with vocalist Johnny Hartman and pianist Duke Ellington .
The recordings compiled for Coltrane for Lovers initially received criticism for Coltrane 's stylistic move from complex jazz compositions of the free jazz form to a simplistic formula of ballads and blues . Following the initial controversy , the album 's recordings gained a legacy as one of Coltrane 's most popular recordings and significant in the genre of romantic jazz . The tracks were compiled by producer Richard Seidel and remastering engineer was Allan Tucker at Foothill Digital , New York City .
Coltrane for Lovers was issued 33 years after Coltrane 's death and nearly 40 years after the original recording dates . The album peaked at number 5 on the Top Jazz Albums chart and received generally positive reviews from most music critics , despite some criticism from writers who viewed it as a cash @-@ in compilation from the release 's label . The album was later compiled , along with other For Lovers titles , onto the box set The Complete Verve for Lovers Collection .
= = Background and recording = =
Shortly before completing his contract with Atlantic in May 1961 , John Coltrane joined the newly formed Impulse ! label , with whom the " Classic Quartet " would record . It is generally assumed that the clinching reason Coltrane signed with Impulse ! was that it would enable him to work again with recording engineer Rudy Van Gelder , who had taped his Prestige sessions , as well as Blue Train . It was at Van Gelder 's new studio in Englewood Cliffs , New Jersey that Coltrane would record most of his records for the label .
During this period of Coltrane 's recording career , critics and fans were fiercely divided in their estimation of Coltrane , who had radically altered his style from bebop to the modal and free jazz styles , as featured on Coltrane ( 1962 ) , his first studio project for the Impulse ! label . John Tynan of Down Beat magazine went so far as to call his playing " anti @-@ jazz . " In the midst of this controversy , Coltrane decided to release his next three albums in order to improve the critical perception of himself . In an interview with music journalist Gene Lees , Coltrane was asked of his musical and stylistic change from modal and free jazz to more simplistic forms and standards . He responded by stating " Variety " .
John Coltrane 's primary record producer , Bob Thiele , who had worked with Coltrane on his previous albums Live ! at the Village Vanguard ( 1961 ) and Coltrane ( 1962 ) , acknowledged that the next three Coltrane albums to be released were to be recorded at his behest and as ballad @-@ themed to quiet the negative criticism of Coltrane 's more diverse playing . The material chosen for Coltrane 's next records would be suited for more slow @-@ tempo , smooth and romantic playing , in contrast to Coltrane 's forceful , aggressive style that had dominated his previously issued recordings , and which had led to reviewers describing his playing as " angry " . The recordings featured on Coltrane for Lovers were recorded between December 1961 and April 1963 , during his early years with Impulse ! Records .
= = Composition = =
As Bob Thiele intended , the next of Coltrane 's releases featured the hard bop form of playing , incorporating influences from rhythm and blues , gospel music , and the blues , especially with the saxophone and piano , and straght @-@ ahead ballads and standards . Ballads , recorded in late 1961 and 1962 , was at first criticized as predictable and too simple after the aggressiveness Coltrane displayed on his previous recordings , but was later reevaluated favorably , by some as a masterpiece . On Duke Ellington and John Coltrane , Ellington " sat in " with the John Coltrane Quartet for a set dominated by the pianist 's songs . Some performances had Ellington 's usual sidemen , bassist Aaron Bell and drummer Sam Woodyard , replacing Jimmy Garrison and Elvin Jones in the group .
Recording for the collaboration LP John Coltrane and Johnny Hartman ( 1963 ) found the " classic quartet " backing up singer Hartman on ballad standards . Rolling Stone magazine later described the album as " ... one of Coltrane 's least innovative records , but impeccably dignified and elegant " , and music critic Richard S. Ginell commented by saying that " Coltrane 's eloquence and the warm , masculine baritone of Hartman can still break your heart . " Renowned writer and poet Al Young wrote of the album 's most well @-@ known recording , " My One and Only Love " , and interpretation of the song by Coltrane and Hartman :
Shortly after the release of his ballad @-@ oriented albums , Coltrane returned to a more experimental phase , recording Impressions ( 1963 ) and his magnum opus A Love Supreme ( 1965 ) . In spite of this , the previous serious of ballad @-@ oriented recordings served in helping increase Coltrane 's legacy and influence on romantic jazz .
= = Release = =
Compiling eleven of the recordings from this period seen best fit for a romance @-@ themed compilation , Coltrane for Lovers was issued in the United States by the Verve Music Group on January 23 , 2001 . Thirty @-@ three years after Coltrane 's death and nearly 40 years after the original recording dates , the album entered the Top Jazz Albums chart on February 10 , 2001 and peaked at number 5 . It remained on the chart for 83 weeks , until February 1 , 2003 , nearly two years after entering the chart .
The album served as the first of several other For Lovers compilations that the Verve label would later issue , including recordings by Sarah Vaughan , Chet Baker , and Charlie Parker . A similar compilation , entitled Plays for Lovers , was released by Prestige in 2003 . Another Verve compilation of Coltrane ballads , entitled More Coltrane for Lovers , followed in 2005 . Coltrane for Lovers was later compiled , along with other For Lovers titles , onto the box set The Complete Verve for Lovers Collection , released exclusively on Amazon.com on November 14 , 2006 .
= = Critical reception = =
In a four @-@ star review , Allmusic editor Alex Henderson called Coltrane for Lovers " an excellent collection that has no problem reminding us just how warm and expressive his ballad playing could be . " After discussing how Coltrane 's ballad @-@ playing has been undervalued in comparison to his more experimental recordings , in a December 21 , 2001 article for The New York Times , writer Ben Ratliff wrote that " This collection ... presents all the argument you need . " Some , however , have criticized the album and Verve negatively for repackaging Coltrane material for an unnecessary cash @-@ in compilation . In The Penguin Guide to Jazz on CD , Richard Cook and Brian Morton gave the album one out of four stars and commented , " Oh , for goodness ' sake ! We 're tempted to tell you that this contains a previously unreleased rehearsal of Ascension , which we have long regarded as excellent make @-@ out music , but it does not . Needless to say , the music is fine ... It 's the concept we have problems with . Avoid . "
In a 2007 interview for Esquire magazine , author and Coltrane biographer Ben Ratliff praised Coltrane 's music and balladry , stating " His work contains most of the well @-@ known ideals of jazz ... If you 're interested in improvisation , this guy pushed improvisation to the wall . He was the best blues player of his time . He wrote and played incredible ballads . Record companies are still putting out compilations of Coltrane ballads called Coltrane for Lovers or whatever . You can poke fun at the idea , but if you ever listen to one , they 're indescribably beautiful . " The recordings compiled for Coltrane for Lovers have endured a legacy as one of Coltrane 's best performing and interpreting of ballads and standards . In a September 2000 essay on the recordings , writer Al Young elaborated on John Coltrane 's ability during the period of recording the compiled jazz ballads , writing that " The rapport between performer and audience smooths and deepens when a player of John Coltrane 's caliber breathes personal expression into some aspect of a song 's lyric or meaning . " Young continued in his review of the album , stating :
= = Track listing = =
All tracks have John Coltrane playing tenor saxophone .
Track sources
a originally from Coltrane ( 1962 )
b originally from Duke Ellington and John Coltrane ( 1962 )
c originally from Ballads ( 1962 )
d originally from John Coltrane and Johnny Hartman ( 1963 )
e originally from Impressions ( 1963 )
= = Chart history = =
Billboard Music Charts ( North America ) – Coltrane for Lovers
2001 : Top Jazz Albums – # 5 ( 83 weeks )
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
= = = Production = = =
= Cyclone Tia =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Tia was the first of six tropical cyclones to affect Vanuatu , during the 1991 – 92 South Pacific cyclone season . The system was first noted within the South Pacific convergence zone as a small tropical depression on November 13 , to the northeast of the Solomon Islands . Over the next few days the system gradually developed further within an area of light winds in the upper troposphere , before it was named Tia early on November 16 . Later that day due to a developing northerly steering current , the system slowed down and undertook a small anticlockwise loop before starting to move towards the southwest and rapidly intensify . After rapidly intensifying throughout November 16 and 17 , Tia passed within 55 km ( 35 mi ) of the Solomon Island : Anuta at around 1800 UTC on November 17 , before passing near Tikopia Island six hours later . As Tia moved near Tikopia , the system reached its peak intensity as a category 3 severe tropical cyclone , with 10 ‑ minute sustained windspeeds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) .
During November 18 , due to cooler waters and increased wind shear , Tia started to weaken as it moved southwards under the influence of a strengthening upper @-@ level northerly wind flow . Over the next 24 hours , the system continued to move southwards and passed within 150 km ( 95 mi ) of Vanuatu 's Banks Islands , while gradually weakening further . Tia subsequently degenerated into a tropical depression during November 20 , before it was last noted the next day as it crossed a part of its former track , where it had been producing hurricane @-@ force wind speeds a few days earlier . While it was active Tia directly affected the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu , while it indirectly affected Kiribati . The Solomon Island of Tikopia was the worst affected island , after more than 1000 people were left homeless on the island and 90 % of all dwellings were destroyed . Damage was minimal in Vanuatu , and was mainly confined to crops and fruit trees on the Banks and Torres Islands . After this usage of the name Tia , the name was retired and withdrawn from use on the tropical cyclone naming lists .
= = Meteorological history = =
A small tropical depression developed within the South Pacific convergence zone , to the northeast of the Solomon Islands during November 13 . During that day the system moved towards the south @-@ west , before it sharply turned towards the east early the next day , as an equatorial westerly wind burst took place to the north of the cyclone . During that day the depression gradually developed further within an area of light winds in the upper troposphere and sea @-@ surface temperatures of over 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . Early on November 15 , the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center initiated advisories on the depression and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 03P , after it had become equivalent to a tropical storm . During that day the system 's upper level outflow characteristics became more favourable for further development , before the system was named Tia by the Fiji Meteorological Service TCWC Nadi named the system Tia early the next day after the system had developed into a category one tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . When it was named , Tia moving slowly and was located about 250 nmi ( 465 km ) to the northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands , before the JTWC reported at around 0600 UTC that Tia had become equivalent to a category one hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale with 1 ‑ minute sustained windspeeds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Around this time , because of a developing northerly steering current , Tia slowed down and undertook a small anticlockwise loop , before starting to move towards the southwest and rapidly intensify .
After rapidly intensifying throughout November 16 and 17 , Tia passed within 55 km ( 35 mi ) of Anuta Island at around 1800 UTC on November 17 , before passing near Tikopia Island six hours later . As Tia moved near Tikopia , TCWC Nadi reported that the system had reached its peak intensity as a category 3 severe tropical cyclone , with sustained windspeeds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . The JTWC followed suit six hours later and reported that the cyclone had peaked as a category 2 equivalent hurricane with sustained windspeeds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . By 1800 UTC on November 18 , due to cooler waters and increased wind shear , Tia started to weaken as it moved southwards under the influence of a strengthening upper @-@ level northerly wind flow . Over the next 24 hours , the system continued to move southwards and passed within 150 km ( 95 mi ) of Vanuatu 's Banks Islands , while gradually weakening further before moving to the southeast under the influence of strong upper level northwesterlies . By 0000 UTC on November 20 , Tia had weakened into a category one tropical cyclone on the Australian Scale and became slow moving while located about 370 km ( 230 mi ) to the east of Port Villa in Vanautu . During that day the system turned and moved towards the northwest , before TCWC Nadi reported later that day at 1200 UTC , that Tia had weakened below tropical cyclone intensity . However , the JTWC monitored the system as a tropical cyclone for another 24 hours , before issuing their final advisory on the system at 1200 UTC as the system had weakened below tropical cyclone intensity . Tia was subsequently last noted by TCWC Nadi and JTWC later that day as it crossed a part of its former track , where it had been producing hurricane @-@ force windspeeds a few days earlier .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Apart from several smaller islands no major inhabited islands lied in the path of Tia , while no deaths were associated with the system . After this usage of the name Tia , the name was retired and withdrawn from use on the tropical cyclone naming lists .
= = = Solomon Islands = = =
During November 17 , warnings were issued by the Solomon Islands Meteorological Service for parts of Temotu Province in the Solomon Islands , after it became apparent that Tia was moving towards the eastern most islands of Anuta and Tikopia . During that day the system affected the province and came to within 55 km ( 35 mi ) of Anuta at around 1800 UTC on November 17 , before passing near to Tikopia six hours later . The southern most Solomon Island of Tikopia was the worst affected island , with 90 % of all dwellings destroyed and the remaining 10 % either having walls destroyed or roofs blown off . As a result , more than 1000 people were left homeless on the island , which was declared a disaster area by the Solomon Islands National Disaster Council . The cyclone also destroyed seven of the eight church buildings and all but one of the classroom buildings belonging to the two primary schools . Food crops were destroyed with all coconut trees either blown down or uprooted . High seas and waves caused extensive damage to the coasts and flooded low @-@ lying areas , which damaged the taro , other food crops and the water supply on the island due to salt spray . Sustained windspeeds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , wind gusts of 172 km / h ( 105 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 987 @.@ 9 hPa ( 29 @.@ 17 inHg ) were all reported by the automatic weather station on Anuta .
= = = Other islands = = =
On November 16 , the Kiribati islands suffered the side @-@ effects of Cyclone Tia , with several houses in Tarawa and seaweed farms damaged . Late on November 17 , TCWC Nadi started to release special advisories for Vanautu after it had become clear that the systems south @-@ southwest movement , would bring the cyclone sufficiently close to the Banks and Torres Islands to cause either gale or storm force winds . Over the next 24 hours , TCWC Nadi continued to issue these bulletins as the system moved southwards and brought gale force winds to Maewo , Pentecost and the Banks Islands before they issued the final advisory early on November 19 . Tia was the first of six tropical cyclones to affect Vanuatu during the 1991 – 92 South Pacific cyclone season , and caused minor damage that was mainly confined to houses , crops and fruit trees on the Banks and Torres Islands . Within the Banks Islands a church was flattened , several roads were blocked and a man was slightly injured by flying debris .
= Evanna Lynch =
Evanna Patricia Lynch ( born 16 August 1991 ) is an Irish actress and model . She rose to prominence for her portrayal of Luna Lovegood in the Harry Potter film series , appearing in four films and their tie @-@ in video games . She has made fashion accessories and recorded an audiobook of Foster by Claire Keegan . She has also appeared in photo shoots for various magazines , and modelled for Katrin Thomas and Ciaran Sweeney .
= = Early life = =
Lynch was born in Termonfeckin , County Louth , Ireland , the daughter of Marguerite and Donal Lynch . She has two older sisters , Emily and Mairead , and one younger brother , Patrick . As a child , Lynch read the Harry Potter series and became a fan , sending letters to the author , J. K. Rowling . She attended Cartown National School in Termonfeckin until June 2004 , and then moved to Our Lady 's College in Drogheda , where her father was the deputy principal . In 2008 , Lynch studied speculative fiction and drama at the Centre for the Talented Youth of Ireland , a summer school for gifted teens , in Glasnevin . While on the Harry Potter set , she was tutored for at least three hours a day . From September 2010 , Lynch attended the Institute of Education to repeat her Leaving Certificate .
Lynch has mentioned having a Catholic upbringing but no longer practices .
= = Career = =
= = = Harry Potter = = =
Lynch credits her being cast in the Harry Potter films to the obsession she had with the Harry Potter book series . At age 11 , during the release of the fifth book in 2003 , she was hospitalized and her family consulted with the book 's publisher and the hospital and Lynch was allowed to leave for an hour and collect a signed copy of the book . While some have stated that her prior relationship with J. K. Rowling ( a strictly epistolary relationship ) was the reason behind the casting decision , this theory has been debunked by both Lynch and Rowling , confirming that Rowling was unaware of Lynch being cast in the role of Luna Lovegood until the producers mentioned Lynch ’ s name . Lynch got the role by reading about the casting call on one of the many Harry Potter fan sites and going to the open audition . In 2006 , Lynch auditioned at a casting call in London for the role of Luna Lovegood in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix , the fifth film in the series adapted from the books . After auditioning against 15 @,@ 000 other girls , and a subsequent screen test with lead actor Daniel Radcliffe , she was cast at the age of 14 . Producers were impressed with her affinity for the character ; David Heyman said " The others could play Luna ; Evanna Lynch is Luna . " Although uninvolved in the casting process , Rowling believed that Lynch was perfect for the role . She had never acted professionally before the Harry Potter series , her experience limited to school plays . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was Lynch 's debut screen performance in 2007 . The film was a box office hit , taking US $ 938 million worldwide , and garnered generally favourable reviews . Critics praised the performances of the supporting cast , often singling out Lynch for particular acclaim ; A. O. Scott of The New York Times called her performance " spellbinding " , and Jane Watkins of Country Life said she " [ brought ] an appealing sweetness to her character that 's not so developed in the book " . She reprised her role as Luna in the film 's tie @-@ in video game .
Two years later , Lynch again starred as Luna in Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince , the sixth installment in the series . The film was critically and financially successful . Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe wrote that Lynch as Luna " combats the movie 's occasional sluggishness with a hilarious sluggishness of her own " , and Michael Dwyer of The Irish Times called her the best Irish actress of 2009 for her work on the film . Her performance earned her Scream Award and Young Artist Award nominations , and she reprised her role in the film 's tie @-@ in video game .
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 , the first of two films adapted from the seventh and final Harry Potter book , was released in 2010 . The film was a success at the box office and drew generally favourable reviews from critics . James Verniere of The Boston Herald commented that Luna " is still delightfully lunar , " while Simon Miraudo of Quickflix criticised the film commenting that " the delightful Evanna Lynch is brutally underutilised as the loopy Luna Lovegood " . She reprised her role in the film 's tie @-@ in video game .
Lynch again appeared as Luna in the eighth and final installment in the series , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 . The film opened to critical acclaim and went on to become the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of all time , grossing US $ 1 @.@ 328 billion in box @-@ office receipts worldwide . Moira Macdonald of The Seattle Times wrote that Lynch " continues to be all @-@ that @-@ and @-@ a @-@ radish @-@ earring as the ever @-@ wafting Luna Lovegood , " and Roger Moore of The Orlando Sentinel named her as " maybe " one of his " favorite players in the finale . " She again reprised her role in the film 's tie @-@ in video game . In August 2012 at Leakycon in Chicago she joined the cast of StarKid to play Luna Lovegood in a script reading of the third Harry Potter parody musical , A Very Potter Senior Year ( the other two being A Very Potter Musical and A Very Potter Sequel . )
The author of the Harry Potter series , J.K. Rowling , gave a speech during the world premiere of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows Part 2 on 7 July 2011 in London , England . She stated that there were seven major cast members in the series , whom she referred to as The Big Seven , and she named Lynch as one of the seven members , along with Daniel Radcliffe , Rupert Grint , Emma Watson , Tom Felton , Matthew Lewis , and Bonnie Wright . Rowling has said that , of all the actors in the film series , Lynch has had the most influence on how her character was subsequently written . In 2012 , she told Charlie Rose that when composing the final books , " I saw her . [ She ] got in my head . I even heard her voice when I was writing Luna . "
= = = Further career = = =
Lynch went on to guest star as Princess Alehna ( daughter of Taryn , played by Orla Brady ) in the first season finale of the Sky1 television series Sinbad .
She was also scheduled to play Fiona Carrick @-@ Smith in the 2013 indie crime drama film Monster Butler . The film was to have been based on the life of British serial killer and thief Archibald Hall . The film was cancelled due to problems with funding . Lynch also starred in indie teen comedy G.B.F. , which screened at the Tribeca Film Festival in New York in April 2013 and at the Frameline Film Festival in San Francisco on 30 June 2013 .
In May 2013 , it was announced that Lynch was to star in the British stage tour production called Houdini which performed at various theatres in the United Kingdom from 9 September 2013 to 12 October 2013 . Lynch played the role of Bess Houdini , the wife and assistant of the famous magician Harry Houdini .
In December 2013 , it was announced that Lynch would play Theresa Bornstein in the independent crime thriller Dynamite : A Cautionary Tale . Filming for the production took place in New York City and was set to be filmed for eighteen days .
In September 2014 , it was announced that Lynch would star in her first lead role as the titular character in the Irish @-@ produced film My Name Is Emily , written and directed by a man battling amyotrophic lateral sclerosis . Filming began in Ireland that month and the film was released in 2015 .
= = Other work = =
Lynch has used the fame that she has achieved from her role in the films as a way to promote healthy self @-@ esteem and body image in young girls because of her previous experiences with the disorder anorexia nervosa . From the age of 11 Lynch was in and out of rehabilitation clinics for two years . She soon found a connection with the character of Luna Lovegood from the Harry Potter book series and was inspired by the character ’ s embracing of her own oddities . Lynch wrote an essay entitled “ Why the Body Bind is My Nightmare ” in which she describes her emotional struggle with her appearance and how she managed to overcome this through the use of allusions that pertain to the Harry Potter series .
Lynch has made and helped design a number of fashion accessories for the Harry Potter films . She has modelled for Katrin Thomas and Ciaran Sweeney , and in 2012 appeared on the cover of the Fall issue of Runway magazine . She has also recorded an abridged audiobook version of Claire Keegan 's short story Foster . Her charity work includes participation with the Multiple Sclerosis Society of Ireland , in which she launched their MS Readathon fundraiser in 2010 . Lynch is also a member of the Board of Advisors for the non @-@ profit organisation , the Harry Potter Alliance ( HPA ) . With the HPA , she has supported same @-@ sex marriage in Maine , taken part in a webcast fundraiser , written an article about body image and contributed to a fundraising book . In 2015 Lynch became vegan .
= = Personal life = =
Lynch is dating her Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix co @-@ star Robbie Jarvis .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Video games = = =
= = Stage = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Legacy Parkway =
Legacy Parkway ( designated as State Route 67 , SR @-@ 67 ) is an 11 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 18 @.@ 5 km ) four @-@ lane controlled @-@ access parkway located almost completely within Davis County in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah . The parkway travels north from Interstate 215 ( I @-@ 215 ) in northwestern Salt Lake City to an interchange named the Wasatch Weave in Farmington with two intermediate interchanges providing access to Woods Cross and Centerville . Wetlands of the nearby Great Salt Lake and nature preserves border the western side of the parkway while the eastern side roughly parallels Union Pacific and Utah Transit Authority rail lines and I @-@ 15 .
Construction began in 2006 and was completed in 2008 , with the parkway opening in September of the same year . The parkway was controversial in its construction and was challenged in court several times before a compromise was met between the state and the Sierra Club , which limited the speed on the road and banned trucks on the highway except in emergencies . In addition to the restrictions on speed and trucks , the road was reduced from a six @-@ lane expressway to a four @-@ lane parkway . On average , between 20 @,@ 000 and 23 @,@ 000 vehicles use the parkway daily .
= = Route description = =
The parkway begins at an incomplete interchange with I @-@ 215 in extreme northern Salt Lake County near the Jordan River Off @-@ Highway Vehicle State Recreation Area . The interchange allows motorists from the Interstate to transfer onto Legacy Parkway and travelers to access I @-@ 215 southbound . After about 1 ⁄ 4 mile ( 400 m ) , Legacy Parkway enters Davis County , and heads northerly with two lanes in each direction through semi @-@ rural Woods Cross . The parkway then turns northeasterly and back north again , meeting 500 South at a diamond interchange , which also provides a connection to Redwood Road ( SR @-@ 68 ) . The eastern border of the Legacy Nature Preserve is formed by the parkway as it travels north . In West Bountiful , the parkway curves to the northeast as it follows the contour of the wetlands which lie on the western side of the road . Before reverting to its original northerly direction , the route intersects Parrish Lane ( SR @-@ 105 ) at another diamond interchange . Past the intersection , Union Pacific and Utah Transit Authority ( FrontRunner ) railroad tracks run between the parkway and I @-@ 15 to the east . For the remainder of the parkway 's length , I @-@ 15 is located approximately 300 feet ( 91 m ) east . Upon entering Farmington , the parkway gains one lane in each direction and terminates at a triple @-@ junction with I @-@ 15 , SR @-@ 225 and U.S. Route 89 west of Lagoon . This interchange is referred to as the Wasatch Weave .
The design of the road was re @-@ envisioned to include extensive wetland protection west of the parkway and in the parkway median , a trail system along the side of the parkway , and numerous pedestrian overpasses and underpasses for ease of access to the trail system . Many of the architectural features were also specially @-@ designed to give the parkway a unique feel . There are a total of 2 @,@ 225 acres ( 900 ha ) of protected areas to the west of the highway , and an additional 20 acres ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) of wetlands along the length of the highway . The Legacy Nature Preserve lays along the western border of the parkway near its southern terminus . Further north , the parkway forms much of the eastern border of the Farmington Bay Waterfowl Management Area . For the entirety of the parkway 's length it is paralleled by the Legacy Parkway Trail , and is partially paralleled by the Denver and Rio Grande Western rail trail .
Every year , the Utah Department of Transportation ( UDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , UDOT calculated that as many 22 @,@ 955 vehicles used the highway on an average day near its junction with 500 South , and as few as 20 @,@ 240 vehicles used the highway at its southern terminus at I @-@ 215 . The Federal Highway Administration classifies Legacy Parkway as a MAP @-@ 21 Principal Arterial .
= = History = =
Legacy Parkway is part of the larger Legacy Highway project first proposed by then @-@ governor Mike Leavitt , which ultimately will run north from Nephi toward Brigham City . The concept of a western Davis County highway has existed since the 1960s , with some proposals routing the highway over Antelope Island or across Farmington Bay . Legacy Parkway was to extend to the west side of the Salt Lake City International Airport and connect to I @-@ 80 at 5600 West ; however , that plan was abandoned in October 1997 . A survey taken by Valley Research for The Salt Lake Tribune in December 1997 showed 64 percent of Davis County residents were in support of building the parkway , with just 19 percent opposing the construction . State officials had hoped to have the parkway open in time for the 2002 Winter Olympics being held in Salt Lake City ; however , construction was delayed too many times for that to occur .
Initial construction of Legacy Parkway began in 2001 ; however , it was forced to stop as a result of lawsuits over the completeness of the environmental impact statement ( EIS ) . A federal appeals court ruled that the EIS was " inadequate " and " ... arbitrary and capricious " as it did not study other alternate routes that were less harmful to wetlands that the parkway was originally to be routed through . A supplemental EIS ( SEIS ) , which changed the routing of the highway as well as increased the amount of land to be part of the Legacy Nature Preserve , was completed in January 2005 . The SEIS also added in the trail system that now parallels the parkway . On September 21 , 2005 , the State of Utah and the Sierra Club ( acting on behalf of numerous groups opposing the overall Legacy Highway project ) officially signed a compromise regarding Legacy Parkway . Some of the agreements reached include no billboards along the route , no semi @-@ trailer trucks allowed on the parkway ( except in cases where they are used in response to an accident or there is construction on I @-@ 15 ) , and a 55 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 90 km / h ) speed limit . This speed limit is routinely ignored by commuters , who will typically add 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) to the court @-@ ordered speed limit . The speed limit on the parallel I @-@ 15 is 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) ; however speeds in the leftmost lane can reach upwards of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Original plans for the highway had included a six @-@ lane expressway , compared to the four @-@ lane controlled @-@ access parkway that was built .
Construction of the parkway resumed in March 2006 , with limited construction activity followed by heavy construction on the road beginning December 2006 . The parkway earned the Federal Highway Administration 's Environmental Excellence Award in 2007 . The highway was opened by then @-@ governor Jon Huntsman , Jr . , John Njord of UDOT and Stuart Adams of the Utah Transportation Commission on September 13 , 2008 around 4 : 40 PM . The total cost of the parkway was $ 685 million ( equivalent to $ 791 million in 2015 ) . The original budget for the parkway was $ 451 million ( equivalent to $ 521 million in 2015 ) . A 5K and 10K run ( 3 @.@ 1 and 6 @.@ 2 mi ) and a 20 mi ( 32 km ) bike race were held the morning of the opening of the highway along the main roadway to support cancer research . The route was designated a Utah Scenic Byway ( as the Great Salt Lake Legacy Parkway Scenic Byway ) on May 16 , 2002 , six years prior to its opening . Should the parkway be extended further north , significant work will have to be done to reroute the parkway or move the Farmington FrontRunner station and shopping complex which was built just north of the parkway .
= = Exit list = =
= Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern , BWV 1 =
Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern ( How beautifully the morning star shines ) , BWV 1 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in 1725 in Leipzig for the feast of the Annunciation and led the first performance on 25 March 1725 , which that year fell on Palm Sunday . It is a chorale cantata , based on Philipp Nicolai 's hymn " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " ( 1599 ) .
Bach was in his second year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , where the feast was the only occasion during Lent when festive music was permitted . The theme of the hymn suits both the Annunciation and Palm Sunday , in a spirit of longing expectation of an arrival . An unknown poet retained , as in the other chorale cantatas of Bach 's second cantata cycle , the hymn 's first and last stanza unchanged , but paraphrased the themes of the inner stanzas to a sequence of alternating recitatives and arias . Bach scored the cantata for three vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two horns , two oboes da caccia , two solo violins , strings and continuo . All instruments play in the opening festive chorale fantasia , while the soprano carries the hymn tune and the lower voices answer in counterpoint of instrumental motifs . An oboe da caccia accents the first aria , the solo violins and strings return in the second aria , and an independent horn part crowns the closing chorale .
The cantata was the last chorale cantata of the cycle , possibly because Bach lost a librettist who had inspired him . The work was chosen to open the first attempt to publish Bach 's complete works , a century after his death .
= = History and words = =
When Bach composed the cantata , he was in his second year as Thomaskantor ( director of church music ) in Leipzig . He had written during his first year a cycle of cantatas for the occasions of the liturgical year that began on the first Sunday after Trinity 1723 . In his second year he had composed a second annual cycle of cantatas that was planned to consist exclusively of chorale cantatas based on Lutheran hymns . Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern is based on Philipp Nicolai 's " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " ( 1599 ) . The hymn in seven stanzas was associated with Epiphany but also with the Annunciation .
The prescribed readings for the day are Isaiah 's prophecy of the birth of the Messiah ( Isaiah 7 : 10 – 16 ) and from the Gospel of Luke , the angel Gabriel announcing the birth of Jesus ( Luke 1 : 26 – 38 ) . The feast of the Annunciation fell on Palm Sunday in 1725 . The unknown librettist retained the first and the last stanza of the hymn , and paraphrased the other stanzas to recitatives and arias , using stanza 2 for the first recitative , stanza 3 for the first aria , stanza 4 and part of stanza 5 for the second recitative , and stanza 6 for the second aria . The hymn , expressing the longing for the arrival of the Saviour , can be connected to Jesus ' birth being announced to Mary . The theme of arrival was also fitting for Palm Sunday when the arrival of Jesus in Jerusalem is celebrated . The Bach scholar Alfred Dürr notes : " The librettist must be credited with the empathy he shows for that fervour which characterizes Nicolai 's poem and which has made his hymns into an enduring possession of the Protestant Church . " While the name of the librettist , a " poetically and theologically competent specialist " is not known , scholars have suggested Andreas Stübel ( 1653 – 1725 ) , a former headmaster of the Thomasschule .
Bach led the first performance of the cantata on 25 March 1725 which was in that year both the Annunciation and Palm Sunday . Annunciation was the only occasion for festive music during Lent when Leipzig observed tempus clausum ( silent time ) . Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern turned out to be the last chorale cantata Bach composed in his second cantata cycle . If Stübel was the librettist , his death in January 1725 explains that Bach lacked a competent collaborator . The composer returned to other texts for the remaining liturgical time of Easter , Pentecost and Trinity . The completion of the cycle of chorale cantatas meant so much to him , that he included the early chorale cantata for Easter Christ lag in Todes Banden , BWV 4 , and added a few chorale cantatas for occasions that were missing .
Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern was chosen by the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft to begin the first volume of Bach 's complete works , which the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft began in 1850 , a century after Bach 's death . It was later listed as BWV 1 in the Bach @-@ Werke @-@ Verzeichnis .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in six movements . The text and tune of the hymn are kept in the outer choral movements , a chorale fantasia and a four @-@ part closing chorale , which frame a sequence of alternating recitatives and arias . Bach scored the work for three vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of two horns ( Co ) , two oboes da caccia ( Oc ) , two violins ( Vl ) , two obbligato violins ( Vs ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo . A festive scoring like this , including brass , was usually performed on holidays . The duration of the cantata is given as 25 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
The scoring provides a rich orchestration , the sparkle of the morning star is illustrated by two solo violins , first in the first chorus , and reappearing with the other strings in the second aria . The sound of the oboe da caccia returns in the first aria . The horn sound returns in the closing chorale , with the second horn enriching the texture of the four @-@ part setting by an independent line . The scoring is reminiscent of Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen , BWV 65 , written for Epiphany . Bach would later use the pair of horns in Part IV of his Christmas Oratorio , dealing with the naming of Jesus as announced to Mary . These works are all set in F major , observed by the musicologist Julian Mincham to be a key of " personal and contemplative " joy , compared to the " rousing , communal , major , sharp @-@ key " joy of the opening chorus of the Christmas Oratorio , for example .
= = = 1 = = =
The cantus firmus , " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " ( How beautifully the morning star shines ) , in the chorale fantasia of the opening chorus is sung by the sopranos . The orchestra , with the two solo violins illustrating the sparkle of the morning star , plays indepently and festively . Bach achieves " unusual animation " by setting the hymn not in common time but 12 / 8 . John Eliot Gardiner who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , notes that movement begins intimately with a phrase of the second solo violin , answered by other instruments together and echoed individually , preparing the entrance of the soprano . The lower counter the cantus firmus by a version of the theme heard at the beginning in the solo violin . In further lines , the lower voices even enter first in their counterpoint , preparing the chorale tune entry . One phrase stands out as composed in chordal wwriting : " lieblich , freundlich " ( loving , friendly ) ,
= = = 2 = = =
The tenor expresses in secco recitative the belief " Du wahrer Gottes und Marien Sohn " ( You , very son of God and Mary ) .
= = = 3 = = =
In the first aria , the soprano renders " Erfüllet , ihr himmlischen göttlichen Flammen " ( Fill utterly , you divine celestial flames ) , accompanied by an obbligato oboe da caccia , an instrument in alto range . The instruments illustrates in coloraturas the celestial flames .
= = = 4 = = =
In another secco recitative , the bass contrasts " Ein irdscher Glanz , ein leiblich Licht rührt meine Seele nicht " ( An earthly flash , a corporeal light does not stir my soul ) with heavenly light , illustrated by a melisma on both " Freudenschein " ( joyful radiance ) and " Erquickung " ( refreshment ) .
= = = 5 = = =
The two solo violins return from the first movement , accompanying with the other strings the tenor in the second aria , an expression of thanks and praise , " Unser Mund und Ton der Saiten " ( Our mouths and the tones of strings ) . The song of praise is intensified by a dance @-@ like motion , called " graceful minuet pulse " by the Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann . The voice has to master coloraturas on the repeated word " Gesang " ( singing ) .
= = = 6 = = =
The closing chorale , " Wie bin ich doch so herzlich froh " ( How earnestly glad I am indeed ) , is embellished by an independent part of the second horn , while the other instruments double the voices . Thus , the last chorale cantata in the second cantata cycle reaches an " air of baroque festive splendour " .
= = Selected recordings = =
The selection is taken from the listing by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly marked as large by red background ; green background indicates vocalists with one voice per part ( OVPP ) and instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances .
= Day of Rage ( Bahrain ) =
Day of Rage ( Arabic : يوم الغضب ) is the name given by protesters in Bahrain to 14 February 2011 , the first day of their national uprising . Inspired by the successful uprisings in Egypt and Tunisia , Bahraini youth organised protests using social media websites . They appealed to the Bahraini people " to take to the streets on Monday 14 February in a peaceful and orderly manner . " The day had a symbolic value being the ninth and tenth anniversaries of the Constitution of 2002 and the National Action Charter respectively .
Some opposition parties supported the protests ' plans , while others did not explicitly call for demonstration . However , they demanded deep reforms and changes similar to those by the youth . Before the start of protests , the government introduced a number of economic and political concessions . The protests started with a sit @-@ in in solidarity with the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 in the vicinity of the Egyptian embassy in the capital , Manama ten days before the ' Day of Rage ' . On the eve of 14 February , security forces dispersed hundreds of protesters south of Manama .
On 14 February , thousands of Bahrainis participated in 55 marches in 25 locations throughout Bahrain . Protests were peaceful and protesters demanded deep reforms . The earliest demonstration started at 5 : 30 a.m. in Nuwaidrat , the last just minutes before midnight in the vicinity of Salmaniya hospital heading to the Pearl Roundabout . The largest was in Sitra island . Security forces responded to protests by firing tear gas , rubber bullets , stun grenades and birdshot . More than 30 protesters were injured and one was killed by birdshot . The Bahraini Ministry of Interior said a number of security forces were injured after groups of protesters attacked them .
= = Background = =
Bahrain is a tiny island in the Persian Gulf that hosts the United States Naval Support Activity Bahrain , the home of the US Fifth Fleet ; the US Department of Defense considers the location critical for its ability to counter Iranian military power in the region . The Saudi Arabian government and other Gulf region governments strongly support the King of Bahrain . Although government officials and media often accuse the opposition of being influenced by Iran , a government @-@ appointed commission found no evidence supporting the claim . Iran has historically claimed Bahrain as a province , but the claim was dropped after a UN 1970 survey found that most Bahraini people preferred independence over Iranian control .
= = = Modern political history = = =
Bahrainis have protested sporadically throughout the last decades demanding social , economic and political reforms . In the 1950s , following sectarian clashes , the National Union Committee was formed by reformists ; it demanded an elected popular assembly and carried out protests and general strikes . In 1965 a month @-@ long uprising broke out after hundreds of workers at Bahrain Petroleum Company were laid off . Bahrain became independent from Britain in 1971 and the country had its first parliamentary election in 1973 . Two years later , the government proposed a law called the " State Security Law " giving police wide arresting powers and allowing individuals to be held in prison without trial for up to three years . The assembly rejected the law , prompting the late Amir to dissolve it and suspend the constitution . It was not until 2002 that Bahrain held any parliamentary elections , after protests and violence between 1994 and 2001 .
= = = Economy = = =
Despite its oil @-@ rich Gulf neighbors , Bahrain 's oil , discovered in 1932 , has " virtually dried up " making it poorer than other countries in its region . In recent decades , Bahrain has moved towards banking and tourism making it one of the most important financial hubs in the region ; it has since held some of the top international rankings in economic freedom and business @-@ friendly countries , making it the freest economy in the Middle East . However , Bahrainis suffer from relative poverty . Semi @-@ official studies found that the poverty threshold ( the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a given country . ) in the country in 1995 was .د.ب 308 . The Bahrain Centre for Human Rights said that by 2007 it had increased to .د.ب 400 at least , putting half of Bahrainis under the poverty line . In 2008 , the government rejected the UN 's conclusion that 2 % of Bahrainis lived in " slum @-@ like conditions " . Poor families receive monthly financial support . In 2007 , CNN produced a documentary titled " Poverty in Bahrain " , which was criticized by pro @-@ government newspaper , Gulf Daily News . Al Jazeera produced a similar documentary in 2010 .
The unemployment rate in Bahrain is among the highest in GCC countries . Sources close to the government estimated it between 3 @.@ 7 % and 5 @.@ 4 % , while other sources said it was as high as 15 % . Unemployed was especially widespread among youth and the Shia community . Bahrain also suffers from a " housing problem " with the number of housing applications reaching about 53 @,@ 000 in 2010 . These conditions prompted the Bahrain Youth Society for Human Rights to consider housing one of the most important problems in Bahrain .
= = = Human rights = = =
Human rights in Bahrain improved after the government introduced reform plans in 1999 – 2002 but declined again in subsequent years . Between 2007 and 2011 Bahrain 's international rankings fell 21 places from number 123 to 144 on the Democracy Index , as ranked by the Economist Intelligence Unit . The Freedom in the World index on political freedom classified Bahrain as " Not Free " in 2010
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couple were reconciled . Much to the pleasure and relief of Henry , Matilda then gave birth to a sequence of two sons , Henry and Geoffrey , in 1133 and 1134 .
= = Death and legacy = =
= = = Death , 1135 = = =
Relations between Henry , Matilda , and Geoffrey became increasingly strained during the King 's final years . Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England . In 1135 they urged Henry to hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he was still alive , and insisted that the Norman nobility swear immediate allegiance to her , thereby giving the couple a more powerful position after Henry 's death . Henry angrily declined to do so , probably out of concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy . A fresh rebellion broke out amongst the barons in southern Normandy , led by William , the Count of Ponthieu , whereupon Geoffrey and Matilda intervened in support of the rebels .
Henry campaigned throughout the autumn , strengthening the southern frontier , and then travelled to Lyons @-@ la @-@ Forêt in November to enjoy some hunting , still apparently healthy . There Henry fell ill – according to the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon , he ate a number of lampreys against his physician 's advice – and his condition worsened over the course of a week . Once the condition appeared terminal , Henry gave confession and summoned Archbishop Hugh of Amiens , who was joined by Robert of Gloucester and other members of the court . In accordance with custom , preparations were made to settle Henry 's outstanding debts and to revoke outstanding sentences of forfeiture . The King died on 1 December 1135 , and his corpse was taken to Rouen accompanied by the barons , where it was embalmed ; his entrails were buried locally at Port @-@ du @-@ Salut Abbey , and the preserved body was taken on to England , where it was interred at Reading Abbey .
Despite Henry 's efforts , the succession was disputed . When news began to spread of the King 's death , Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army , which included a number of Matilda 's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester . Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late king was properly buried , which prevented them from returning to England . The Norman nobility discussed declaring Theobald of Blois king . Theobald 's younger brother , Stephen of Blois , quickly crossed from Boulogne to England , however , accompanied by his military household . With the help of his brother , Henry of Blois , he seized power in England and was crowned king on 22 December . The Empress Matilda did not give up her claim to England and Normandy , leading to the prolonged civil war known as the Anarchy between 1135 and 1153 .
= = = Historiography = = =
Historians have drawn on a range of sources on Henry , including the accounts of chroniclers ; other documentary evidence , including early pipe rolls ; and surviving buildings and architecture . The three main chroniclers to describe the events of Henry 's life were William of Malmesbury , Orderic Vitalis , and Henry of Huntingdon , but each incorporated extensive social and moral commentary into their accounts and borrowed a range of literary devices and stereotypical events from other popular works . Other chroniclers include Eadmer , Hugh the Chanter , Abbot Suger , and the authors of the Welsh Brut . Not all royal documents from the period have survived , but there are a number of royal acts , charters , writs , and letters , along with some early financial records . Some of these have since been discovered to be forgeries , and others had been subsequently amended or tampered with .
Late medieval historians seized on the accounts of selected chroniclers regarding Henry 's education and gave him the title of Henry " Beauclerc " , a theme echoed in the analysis of Victorian and Edwardian historians such as Francis Palgrave and Henry Davis . The historian Charles David dismissed this argument in 1929 , showing the more extreme claims for Henry 's education to be without foundation . Modern histories of Henry commenced with Richard Southern 's work in the early 1960s , followed by extensive research during the rest of the 20th century into a wide number of themes from his reign in England , and a much more limited number of studies of his rule in Normandy . Only two major , modern biographies of Henry have been produced , Warren Hollister 's posthumous volume in 2001 , and Judith Green 's 2006 work .
Interpretation of Henry 's personality by historians has altered over time . Earlier historians such as Austin Poole and Richard Southern considered Henry as a cruel , draconian ruler . More recent historians , such as Hollister and Green , view his implementation of justice much more sympathetically , particularly when set against the standards of the day , but even Green has noted that Henry was " in many respects highly unpleasant " , and Alan Cooper has observed that many contemporary chroniclers were probably too scared of the King to voice much criticism . Historians have also debated the extent to which Henry 's administrative reforms genuinely constituted an introduction of what Hollister and John Baldwin have termed systematic , " administrative kingship " , or whether his outlook remained fundamentally traditional .
Henry 's burial at Reading Abbey is marked by a local cross , but Reading Abbey was slowly demolished during the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century . The exact location is uncertain , but the most likely location of the tomb itself is now in a built @-@ up area of central Reading , on the site of the former abbey choir . A plan to locate his remains was announced in March 2015 , with support from English Heritage and Philippa Langley , who aided with the successful exhumation of Richard III .
= = Family and children = =
= = = Legitimate = = =
Henry and his first wife , Matilda , had at least two legitimate children :
Matilda , born in 1102 , died 1167 .
William Adelin , born in 1103 , died 1120 .
Possibly Richard , who , if he existed , died young .
Henry and his second wife , Adeliza , had no children .
= = = Illegitimate = = =
Henry had a number of illegitimate children by various mistresses .
= = = = Sons = = = =
Robert of Gloucester , born in the 1090s .
Richard , born to Ansfride , brought up by Robert Bloet , the Bishop of Lincoln .
Reginald de Dunstanville , Earl of Cornwall , born in the 1110s or early 1120s , possibly to Sibyl Corbet .
Robert the King 's son , born to Ede , daughter of Forne .
Gilbert FitzRoy , possibly born to an unnamed sister or daughter of Walter of Gand .
William de Tracy , possibly born in the 1090s .
Henry the King 's son , possibly born to Nest ferch Rhys .
Fulk the King 's son , possibly born to Ansfride .
William , the brother of Sybilla de Normandy , probably the brother of Reginald de Dunstanville .
= = = = Daughters = = = =
Matilda FitzRoy , Countess of Perche .
Matilda FitzRoy , Duchess of Brittany .
Juliane , wife of Eustace of Breteuil , possibly born to Ansfrida .
Mabel , wife of William Gouet .
Constance , Vicountess of Beaumont @-@ sur @-@ Sarthe .
Aline , wife of Matthew de Montmorency .
Isabel , daughter of Isabel de Beaumont , Countess of Pembroke .
Sybilla de Normandy , Queen of Scotland , probably born before 1100 .
Matilda Fitzroy , Abbess of Montvilliers .
Gundrada de Dunstanville .
Possibly Rohese , wife of Henry de la Pomerai .
Emma , wife of Guy of Laval .
Adeliza , the King 's daughter .
The wife of Fergus of Galloway .
Possibly Sibyl of Falaise .
= = Ancestors = =
= 1995 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1995 Pacific hurricane season was the least active Pacific hurricane season since 1979 . Of the eleven tropical cyclones that formed during the season , four affected land , with the most notable storm of the season being Hurricane Ismael , which killed at least 116 people in Mexico . The strongest hurricane in the season was Hurricane Juliette , which reached peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , but did not significantly affect land . Hurricane Adolph was an early @-@ season Category 4 hurricane . Hurricane Henriette brushed the Baja California Peninsula in October .
The season officially started on May 15 , 1995 , in the Eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1995 , in the Central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1995 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The season saw eleven tropical cyclones form , of which ten became tropical storms . Seven of these storms attained hurricane status , three of them becoming major hurricanes . There were fewer tropical storms than the average of 16 , while the number of hurricanes and major hurricanes were slightly below average . The season marked the beginning of a multi @-@ decade period of low activity in the Eastern Pacific .
= = Season summary = =
The seasonal activity during 1995 was below normal , and marked the first of several seasons with lower than normal activity , a trend that persists to this date . Four tropical cyclones affected Mexico : first , Hurricane Flossie passed within 75 miles ( 120 km ) of Baja California Peninsula , producing moderate winds and killing seven people . Afterwards , Tropical Storm Gil dropped heavy rainfall in Southern Mexico early in its life , though caused no damage . Hurricane Henriette later made landfall near Cabo San Lucas with winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , resulting in moderate damage but no deaths . Finally , Ismael struck the state of Sinaloa as a minimal hurricane . Offshore , fishermen were caught off guard by the hurricane , causing 57 of them to drown . On land , Ismael destroyed thousands of houses , leaving 30 @,@ 000 homeless and killing another 59 . Both Hurricanes Flossie and Ismael also produced moisture and localized damage in the Southwestern United States .
Activity in the Central Pacific Ocean was below normal , as well . No tropical storms formed in the basin . For the first time in four years , Barbara was the only tropical cyclone to exist within the basin , but it formed in the Eastern Pacific . It entered as a weakening tropical storm , and quickly dissipated , without affecting land . It was the least activity in the basin since 1979 , when the basin was completely quiet , as no storms entered the basin that year .
= = Storms = =
Eleven Tropical Cyclones , including one Tropical Depression that failed to attain tropical storm status , developed in the Eastern Pacific Ocean in 1995 .
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ E = = =
A westward @-@ moving tropical wave entered the Pacific Ocean in mid @-@ May . Convection within the disturbance became more concentrated and organized on May 19 while the wave was located a short distance south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . The deep convection concentrated around a low @-@ level circulation with expanding outflow , and the system developed into Tropical Depression One @-@ E on May 21 , while located about 400 mi ( 645 km ) south of Manzanillo , Mexico . Initially the depression was forecast to strengthen to reach winds of 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) as it moved westward under the influence of a high @-@ pressure system to its north . Outflow increased as the storm moved through an area of warm waters and a favorable upper @-@ level environment , and two satellite classifications indicated the system was at tropical storm status around nine hours after forming . Despite the favorable environment and satellite classifications of tropical storm status , the depression failed to organize further . The convection and organization continued to decrease , and on May 23 the depression dissipated .
While it was developing , locally moderate to heavy rainfall fell across southern Mexico along the disturbance 's northern periphery , with rainfall totals peaking at 5 @.@ 18 inches ( 132 mm ) at Vallecitos / Petatlan .
= = = Hurricane Adolph = = =
An area of disturbed weather associated with a tropical wave organized off the southwest coast of Mexico during the middle of June . Banding features developed as a circulation persisted on the northeast side of its deep convection , and the system developed into Tropical Depression Two @-@ E on June 15 . Under weak steering currents , the depression moved slowly northward , and with deep convection organizing near its center , the depression intensified to Tropical Storm Adolph on June 16 . Located in an area of warm waters , Adolph exhibited a well @-@ defined outflow pattern , and rapidly strengthened to attain hurricane status on June 17 as a banding @-@ type eye developed . Hurricane Adolph turned to the northwest and attained major hurricane status late that same day . The small eye of the hurricane continued to organize , as very deep convection surrounded the eyewall , and Adolph reached its peak intensity of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) on June 18 , making it a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Shortly thereafter , the storm weakened , as the upper @-@ level environment became more hostile , and the system moved over progressively cooler waters . On June 19 , Adolph turned to the west , and degenerated back into a tropical storm later that day . On June 20 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression , and on June 21 , Adolph began to dissipate as its center became devoid of deep convection .
As Adolph moved north towards Mexico while about 290 mi ( 465 km ) off the coast , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch from Punta Tejupan to Cabo Corrientes . When the storm turned to the northwest and later to the west , the government discontinued the warnings as it was determined the storm would not be a threat to land . No damage or casualties were reported .
= = = Hurricane Barbara = = =
A few days later , on June 24 , another weak tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa . It moved steadily westward through the Atlantic Ocean without any development , and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on July 5 . At this point , convection developed along the wave axis , and the system gradually organized . A circulation developed as it passed through an area of warm waters , and the system developed into Tropical Depression Three @-@ E on July 7 , while located about 600 miles ( 965 km ) south of Manzanillo , Colima . Although the outer rainbands warmed slightly in the hours after the formation , the convection near the center deepened further with favorable upper @-@ level outflow , and the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Barbara early on July 8 . Barbara steadily intensified , and following the development of a ragged eye that night , Barbara strengthened into a hurricane on July 9 , while located about 700 miles ( 1130 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula .
After moving into an area of light vertical shear and warm water temperatures , Barbara quickly intensified to reach major hurricane status on July 10 . The eye continued to become better organized , and Barbara attained winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) later on July 10 . After maintaining its intensity for 24 hours , increased wind shear from an upper @-@ tropospheric trough degraded the appearance of the deepest convection , and the eye became obscured from satellite images . After weakening to a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) hurricane , Barbara maintained its intensity for 30 hours before moving into an area with very warm waters and a favorable upper @-@ level environment . On July 13 , the hurricane re @-@ organized , a distinct eye again developed , and Barbara strengthened to reach its peak intensity of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) later that day . Barbara continued westward under the influence of a subtropical ridge to its north , and began to steadily weaken on July 14 as it moved into an area of cooler water temperatures . The hurricane degraded to a tropical storm on July 16 , and a day later it deteriorated to a tropical depression . As a depression with little to no convection near its center , Barbara continued west @-@ northwestward until dissipating on July 18 while located 720 mi ( 1160 km ) east @-@ southeast of Hilo , Hawaii . Barbara remained away from land for its entire lifetime , and it did not cause any damage or deaths .
= = = Hurricane Cosme = = =
As Barbara moved away from land , another area of disturbed weather moved off the coast of Central America on July 11 . Moving westward , this area slowly organized , and developed a low @-@ level circulation on July 15 . The convection developed into curved rainbands , and based on Dvorak classifications of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) , the National Hurricane Center estimated that the system developed into Tropical Depression Four @-@ E on July 17 , while located about 400 mi ( 645 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula . As the depression was situated in an area with warm waters and moderate upper @-@ level outflow , the system was forecast to slowly intensify to a 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tropical storm . Initially , the depression followed the forecasts , and it intensified into a tropical storm about 30 hours after developing , receiving the name " Cosme " . Cosme was expected to strengthen only slightly due to predicted cooler waters and increased shear .
On July 18 , contrary to the predictions , Cosme became much better organized , and well @-@ defined banding features were visible on satellite imagery . The storm continued to steadily intensify , and subsequent to the development of an eye , Cosme strengthened into a hurricane late on July 19 , while located 380 miles ( 615 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula . After maintaining hurricane status for 18 hours , Cosme weakened back to a tropical storm on July 20 . Cooler water temperatures deteriorated the convection near the center , resulting in Cosme quickly weakening to a tropical depression on July 21 . After turning to the west @-@ southwest , Cosme dissipated on July 22 . Cosme never affected land , and as a result caused no damage or fatalities . However , the intensity of the storm is still uncertain ; late on July 18 , a ship 70 mi ( 110 km ) to the east of Cosme reported winds of 17 mph ( 27 km / h ) , despite that a normal 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) tropical storm would produce tropical storm force winds for locations within at least 70 mi ( 110 km ) of the center .
= = = Tropical Storm Dalila = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on July 11 . It moved westward and quickly developed two areas of convection along the wave axis . One of the areas nearly developed into a tropical depression after moving northwestward , though it failed to organize further and dissipated . The southern area continued westward and ultimately entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on July 21 . Thunderstorms along the wave axis became more concentrated a few hundred miles south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec , and the system developed into Tropical Depression Five @-@ E on July 24 while located 500 mi ( 800 km ) southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico .
Located in an area of weak steering currents and easterly wind shear , the tropical depression drifted to the north @-@ northeast while the convection was displaced up to 70 mi ( 110 km ) west of the circulation . Slightly strengthening occurred , and on July 25 the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Dalila . The storm turned to the northwest , and later to the west @-@ northwest , and remained a minimal tropical storm until July 28 when a decrease in wind shear allowed Dalila to strengthen . A strong anticyclone developed to the north of the system , causing Dalila to accelerate to the northwest . Late on July 28 , Dalila reached a peak intensity of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) at a position 570 mi ( 915 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Tropical Storm Dalila slowly weakened after moving over progressively cooler water temperatures , and on August 1 it degenerated into a tropical depression . Dalila turned to the southwest after much of the convection waned , and the system dissipated on August 2 .
= = = Tropical Storm Erick = = =
On July 17 a tropical wave exited the coast of Africa , and moved westward . An area of convection along the wave organized slightly on July 18 , though the next day the convection diminished . After moving through the Windward Islands on July 23 , deep convection again increased . The system failed to organize further , though convection continued to develop upon entering the eastern Pacific Ocean on July 27 . The cloudiness and thunderstorms became more consolidated off the coast of southern Mexico , and on July 31 Dvorak classifications began on the system . A circulation developed , and the system organized into Tropical Depression Six @-@ E on August 1 while located about 520 mi ( 835 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula .
Initially , the depression was a small system with moderate amounts of easterly wind shear . It organized slowly , and after moving to the southwest for 24 hours it turned to the northwest . Subsequent to an increase in convection over the center , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Erick on August 4 . Erick gradually strengthened as it moved to the west @-@ northwest , and reached peak winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) on August 5 while located about 720 miles ( 1160 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Operationally , the storm was forecast to continue to strengthen to reach hurricane status , though this did not occur . The mid @-@ level ridge which had been tracking Erick westward weakened , resulting in Erick to turn to the north over cooler waters . It quickly weakened to a tropical depression on August 6 , and after turning to an eastward drift Erick dissipated on August 8 while located 700 mi ( 1130 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula . Erick never affected land .
= = = Hurricane Flossie = = =
A large circulation with an area of low pressure persisted in the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean in early August . The large circulation was well @-@ developed by August 7 , and the convection concentrated a few hundred miles southwest of Acapulco . Based on its organization , the National Hurricane Center designated the system Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E. On August 8 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Flossie , based on ship reports . The storm paralleled the coast of Mexico as it moved northwestward , and after a decrease of wind shear Flossie developed very deep convection over its center . It intensified into a hurricane on August 10 , reaching peak winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) as an embedded warm spot appeared in the center of the storm . After maintaining its peak intensity for 18 hours and passing within 75 mi ( 121 km ) of Baja California Peninsula , Flossie weakened over cooler waters and degenerated to a tropical storm on August 12 . The storm continued to weaken , and early on August 14 Flossie dissipated .
The government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Punta Tejupan to Cabo Corrientes early in its life , though it was discontinued shortly thereafter . Officials issued a tropical storm watch and later a warning for Baja California Sur south of La Paz , which was later extended from Loreto on the east coast to San Juanico on the west coast . The large circulation of Hurricane Flossie produced gusty winds along the west coast of Mexico and southern Baja California Peninsula . Cabo San Lucas reported a gust of 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , and San José del Cabo recorded a gust of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . The storm produced heavy rainfall , peaking at 9 @.@ 72 in ( 247 mm ) at San Felipe / Los Cabos . Seven people died in Mexico from the storm , including two that drowned in Cabo San Lucas . A monsoon surge moving around its eastern periphery produced heavy rainfall in the American Southwest . Flooding from the rainfall killed one person and left eleven motorists stranded . Thunderstorms in Tucson , Arizona , produced hurricane @-@ force wind gusts which caused widespread power outages and damage . Damage from the storm in Arizona totaled to $ 5 million ( 1995 USD ; $ 7 @.@ 76 million 2016 USD ) , although damage in Mexico , if any , is unknown .
= = = Tropical Storm Gil = = =
An area of disturbed weather , possibly related to a tropical wave , persisted and gradually organized in the Gulf of Tehuantepec . A circulation developed within its deep convection , and the system organized into Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E on August 19 while located about 115 mi ( 185 km ) southeast of Acapulco . Operationally , it was not until 15 hours later that the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on the system . The depression moved westward and quickly intensified into a tropical storm . A nearby ship confirmed the existence of tropical storm force winds , and Gil reached winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) early on August 21 . With well @-@ defined outflow and continually developing convection , forecasters predicted Gil to strengthen more and attain hurricane status within two days of becoming a tropical storm . However , increased northeasterly wind shear initially prevented further strengthening .
On August 22 , the cloud pattern of Gil became better organized , though the low @-@ level circulation was located to the northeast of the deep convection due to the wind shear . The shear also limited outflow to the east , preventing further strengthening . Gradually the convection developed nearer to the center . After Gil turned to the northwest , the deep convection organized into a central dense overcast , and it strengthened to reach winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) on August 24 . Later that day the storm attained a peak strength of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) while located 380 mi ( 610 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula . After maintaining its peak strength for 30 hours , Gil moved over progressively cooler waters , and weakened to a tropical depression on August 26 . The depression drifted westward and later turned to the north , and dissipated on August 27 while located 670 mi ( 1075 km ) to the west of Cabo San Lucas . While located a short distance off of Mexico , Gil produced heavy rainfall near the coast . However , there were no reports of casualties or damages in association with the storm .
= = = Hurricane Henriette = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 15 . It traversed westward and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 29 . The system quickly developed deep convection and a low @-@ level circulation , and on September 1 it organized into Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E while located about 170 mi ( 270 km ) off the southwest coast of Mexico . Under favorable conditions , the depression slowly strengthened to become Tropical Storm Henriette on September 2 while located 220 mi ( 350 km ) west of Manzanillo . Henriette quickly organized and intensified into a hurricane on September 3 while located 135 mi ( 235 km ) west @-@ southwest of Puerto Vallarta in Jalisco . Late on September 3 , an eye began to form in the center of the deep convection as Henriette turned to the northwest . The eye became better defined the next day , and Henriette attained a peak intensity of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) as the northern portion of the eyewall moved over southern Baja California Peninsula . The hurricane quickly crossed the southern tip of Baja California Peninsula and re @-@ emerged into the Pacific Ocean . Convection gradually waned as the hurricane moved over progressively colder waters , and on September 6 Henriette weakened to a tropical depression .
On September 2 , a few hours after Henriette became a tropical storm , the government of Mexico issued tropical cyclone warnings and watches for Baja California Peninsula . The threat of Hurricane Henriette prompted a Carnival Cruise Line ship to alter their route . Winds of up to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) in southern Baja California Sur left much of Cabo San Lucas without water or power . 2 @,@ 000 people were directly affected by the hurricane . A strong storm surge produced flooding and heavy road damage in the state . 800 people were forced from their homes , and crop damage was reported . No damage estimates are available , and no deaths were reported .
= = = Hurricane Ismael = = =
Hurricane Ismael developed from a persistent area of deep convection on September 12 , and steadily strengthened as it moved to the north @-@ northwest . Ismael attained hurricane status on September 14 while located 210 mi ( 340 km ) off the coast of Mexico . It continued to the north , and after passing a short distance east of Baja California Peninsula it made landfall on Topolobampo in the state of Sinaloa with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Ismael rapidly weakened over land , and dissipated on September 16 over northwestern Mexico . The remnants entered the United States and extended eastward into the mid @-@ Atlantic states .
Offshore , Ismael produced waves of up to 30 ft ( 9 m ) in height . Hundreds of fishermen were unprepared by the hurricane , which was expected to move more slowly , and as a result 52 ships were wrecked , killing 57 fishermen . The hurricane destroyed thousands of houses , leaving 30 @,@ 000 people homeless . On land , Ismael caused 59 casualties in mainland Mexico and resulted in $ 26 million in damage ( 1995 USD ; $ 40 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) . Moisture from the storm extended into the United States , causing heavy rainfall and localized moderate damage in southeastern New Mexico .
= = = Hurricane Juliette = = =
Hurricane Juliette was the strongest and final hurricane of the season . It formed on September 16 from a tropical wave off the southwest coast of Mexico , and moved west @-@ northwest for the early part of its duration . Juliette was smaller than usual tropical cyclones , and as a result it intensified quickly , reaching hurricane status on September 18 and major hurricane status a day later . On September 20 , Juliette reached peak winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , a Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . It subsequently began a slow weakening trend and turned toward the northeast , briefly threatening the Baja California Peninsula . Instead , strong wind shear overcame the storm , and Juliette dissipated on September 26 without significantly affecting land .
= = Other storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression One @-@ W = = =
According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center , on January 4 a tropical depression formed east of the International Dateline , and 3 days later it exited CPHC 's area of responsibility ; however , this storm wasn 't included into CPHC database .
= = = Tropical Depression Colleen = = =
According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Japan Meteorological Agency , on November 10 a tropical depression formed east of the International Dateline , and soon it exited CPHC 's area of responsibility ; however , this storm wasn 't included into CPHC database . As it entered into western Pacific , it strengthened as a tropical storm and received the name Colleen .
= = Accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) ranking = =
The table on the right shows the accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) for each storm in the season . The total ACE for the 1995 season was 100 @.@ 2 x 104 kt2 . The ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the storm multiplied by the length of time it existed for , so hurricanes that lasted a long time have higher ACEs . Because several storms in the season were long @-@ lasting or intense , the ACE of the season was near normal . The 1995 season total was the lowest since 1981 , though due to a period of inactivity in the following years it has only been surpassed by four seasons .
Hurricane Barbara had the highest overall ACE of the season with a total of 29 @.@ 83 x 104 kt2 .
Source of data : Best track data from the National Hurricane Center 's Tropical Cyclone Reports .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms that formed in the northeast Pacific in 1995 . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . The names not retired from this list were used again in the 2001 season . This is the same list used for the 1989 season . The name Dalila was used for the first time in 1995 ; in the 1989 season , it was Dalilia , though an error in documents prior to the season changed it . The name change has remained .
For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 degrees west and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 1995 are shown below , however none of them were used .
= = = Retirement = = =
The World Meteorological Organization retired one name in the spring of 1996 : Ismael . It was originally replaced in the 2001 season by Israel , but for political reasons , due to its connection with Israel and the coincidence that the first name of 2001 was " Adolph " ( later retired for similar reasons ) , this was changed to Ivo after the season began , but before it reached the " I " storm .
= The Fame Ball Tour =
The Fame Ball Tour was the debut concert tour by American singer Lady Gaga , in support of her debut studio album The Fame ( 2008 ) . North American shows began in March , followed by dates in Oceania and a solo trek through Europe . Dates in Asia soon followed , as well as two performances at England 's V Festival and two shows in North America that had been postponed from April . Gaga described the tour as a traveling museum show incorporating artist Andy Warhol 's pop @-@ performance art concept . Tickets were distributed for charity also . Alternate versions of the show with minimal variations were planned by Gaga to accommodate different venues .
The show consisted of four segments , with each segment being followed by a video interlude to the next segment , and it ended with an encore . The set list consisted of songs from her debut album only . Gaga appeared on the stage in new costumes including an innovative dress made entirely of bubbles and premiered an unreleased song called " Future Love " . An alternate set list with minor changes were performed after the first North American leg of the tour . The show has received critical acclaim with critics complimenting her vocal clarity and fashion sense as well as her ability to pull off theatrics like a professional artist .
= = Background = =
The tour was officially announced on January 12 , 2009 through Gaga 's official MySpace page . It was her first headlining tour ; she has previously served as opening act for New Kids on the Block 's New Kids on the Block : Live tour , as well as The Pussycat Dolls ' Doll Domination Tour . Gaga stated , " I consider what I do to be more of an Andy Warhol concept : pop performance art , multimedia , fashion , technology , video , film . And it 's all coming together , and it 's going to be traveling museum show . " Gaga started planning for the show while on the tour with The Pussycat Dolls . In an interview with MTV News , she described the tour as ,
" It 's not really a tour , it 's more of a traveling party . I want it to be an entire experience from [ the ] minute you walk in [ the ] front door to [ the ] minute I begin to sing . And when it 's all over , everyone 's going to press rewind and relive it again . [ ... ] It 's going to be as if you 're walking into New York circa 1974 : There 's an art installation in the lobby , a DJ spinning your favorite records in the main room , and then the most haunting performance that you 've ever seen on the stage . [ ... ] I 'm on the phone every minute of every day , talking to people , being creative , planning this Ball , and my tour manager is constantly saying , ' Come on , we have to go , we 've got to go right now , ' [ ... ] But to me , the Ball is so important . I want so much to make every depression dollar that everyone spends on my show worth it . And , yeah , I 'm paying a lot for it — out of my own pocket . But that 's OK . I just don 't care about money . "
Gaga prepared three versions of her show to cater to different sizes of the venues she played . In an interview with Billboard she said ,
" I am so mental and sleepless and excited for this tour , [ ... ] This is so different than anything you 've seen from me in the past year . What 's fantastic about [ the show ] was I was able to plan it while I was on another tour that was on a much smaller scale , opening for the Dolls . This is going to be , like , the ultimate creative orgasm for me ' cause I 'm ready to move on . I 'm not restricted to a certain structure for my show anymore . No limitations . I 'm free . [ ... ] I want to have a clear schedule of the dimensions for each venue so that we can properly execute all the technology and visuals . I need to mentally prepare days in advance if things are going to be taken out ; otherwise , I won 't have a good show ... Every show 's gonna be an A show by the time I 'm done screaming at everyone – ' Hang it ! Hang everything ! Find a place to hang it ! ' That 's gonna be my motto . "
The set list consisted of songs from her debut album mainly , but some new songs like " Fashion " from the Confessions of a Shopaholic soundtrack were also considered . In May , during an interview with Edmonton Sun Gaga announced that the tour would continue through European festivals in summer . She also declared plans for a bigger North American tour including Canada . Gaga explained that the show is supposed to be much bigger than the previous version . She said , " Oh , you have no idea , [ ... ] The tour that we 're about to announce is such a dream that I have to pinch myself almost every day to remind myself that it 's happening . "
= = Concert synopsis = =
The show is mainly divided into four parts with the last part being the encore . The main show began with a video introduction called " The Heart " where Gaga appeared as alter @-@ ego Candy Warhol . She was shown dressing up and displayed the symbol of a pink heart on her T @-@ shirt and said " My name is Lady Gaga , and this is my Haus " . The video was projected on a giant screen in front of the stage . As the video approached towards the end , a countdown from ten to one happened , Gaga 's face was shown wearing the video sunglasses , and flames engulfed the screen as it dropped . Gaga appeared in the middle of the stage being surrounded by her dancers holding glass encrusted plates which camouflage them . She wore a futuristic black dress in geometric patterns with a triangular piece on her right breast and peplum . DJ Space Cowboy was present at a corner , playing the backing music . Gaga came out in the center as the plates rolled around and started singing " Paparazzi " .
The performance ends with continuous clicking of the camera . Gaga comes to the top of the pillar and sings a combination of " Starstruck " and " LoveGame " as she is joined by her dancers in tracks and jackets and hands Gaga her trademark disco stick . After " LoveGame " , she talks a monologue about the year " 3009 " . And says that " The kids came out of New York and shot the paparazzi . " followed by saying " It was a thousand years before when the monster first entered the city , vanished for our hearts and for our brains and for our faces ( referencing to the three video interludes of the tour ) " and " we knew we could co @-@ exist with this monster with our MUSIC ! ! ! With our art and with our fashion . My name is Lady Gaga . " and tells the crowd she feels " beautiful and dirty rich " and sang " Beautiful , Dirty , Rich " . This leads to the end of the first part wherein a video introduction called " The Brain " starts with Gaga appearing again as Candy Warhol and brushing her hair . After the video ends , Gaga appears on the stage in a black and white leotard with high @-@ pointed " puff " shoulders and lightning shaped symbols , while riding on a similarly colored vespa . She then starts singing " The Fame " . This is followed by a speech . Gaga said she 's been " travelling the whole world , but when I get back , I can still smell the stench of greed . " And then she performs " Money Honey " with the dancers who are wearing backpacks . " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " starts immediately , accompanied by hand @-@ waving and Gaga wore a hat made of toppled dominoes .
Gaga then leaves the stage only to appear shortly after in a dress completely made of plastic bubbles . She sits in front of a glass piano and starts singing an acoustic version of " Poker Face " . She sometimes puts her leg on the piano and even plays it with her stilettos . And then , thanks the audience and surprises them by performing an unreleased and new song called " Future Love " whose lyrics referenced far @-@ off galaxies , mechanical hearts and constellations . She was surrounded by a glowing mannequin while singing the song . The stage had a blue setting with mechanical fog . Gaga left for a costume change as the third video interlude titled The Face starts .
After the video ended , she then came on the stage wearing a tutu shaped dress with pointed shoulder pads and peplum . Her dancers were clad in Louis Vuitton Steven Sprouse printed trousers which matched Gaga 's shoes . The backdrop changed to show blinking disco lights and Gaga stood in the center wearing her video sunglasses which display the line " Pop Music Will Never Be Low Brow " . A remix of the intro for " Just Dance " started and Gaga was joined by her dancers on stage . When the song shifts to the bridge , Gaga once again is handed her disco stick and performs the bridge with it . The ending shifts to a remixed version of the song . Then Gaga and the dancers , joined by DJ Space Cowboy or DJ Nicodemus , take a bow in front of the audience . Gaga comes back with her dance to perform the encore . The encore of the tour consisted of " Boys , Boys , Boys " and the original version of " Poker Face " . Gaga was dressed in a khaki leotard embellished with crystals . She wore an admiral 's cap and gloves on her hands , both were decorated with the word Gaga on them .
= = = Changes from Oceania shows = = =
Since the Fame Ball show in Auckland , New Zealand , Gaga performed a different setlist during the rest of the tour , involving outfit changes as well . " Paparazzi " , " LoveGame " , and " Beautiful , Dirty , Rich " were performed in a similar , this time tinfoil tutu with a triangular piece . " The Fame " and " Money Honey " was then followed by " Boys Boys Boys " – all three songs were performed in a glittering silver leotard with small pointy wings , riding a similarly colored vespa . " Just Dance " and " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " were performed in the yellow dress from the American leg of the tour . After performing " Brown Eyes " ( replacing " Future Love " ) and " Poker Face " on the piano , Gaga closed the show with the album version of " Poker Face " , wearing a nude corseted leotard embellished with crystals .
= = Reception = =
The Fame Ball Tour received acclaim from critics . Whitney Pastorek from Entertainment Weekly gave a mixed review of the concert saying , " Her onstage banter was at times a bit silly and the visuals occasionally lacking in coherent theme , but her voice was strong and refreshingly free of overbearing tracking vocals . For all her cocky bluster , perhaps the most undeniable aspect of Gaga 's talent is this : The girl can , and does , sing . " The show was described to be a " sartorial experimentation that it made Rocky Horror look like cotillion . One presumed the Lady approved – and somewhere , to be sure , Andy Warhol stirred in his grave . "
Sheri Linden from Yahoo ! gave a positive review of the concert saying " Gaga 's first theater tour is a hot ticket – and the Lady did not disappoint . Borrowing from Madonna , Grace Jones , David Bowie and Daryl Hannah 's " Blade Runner " replicant , Gaga put on a compelling show revolving around her mysterious persona , a trio of leather @-@ jacketed dancers , multiple costume changes and props and a lone DJ providing musical accompaniment . " Christopher Muther from The Boston Globe reviewed the concert in House of Blues and said " The combination of song and spectacle was crowd @-@ pleasing and exhilarating . Her club @-@ ready songs were delivered by a woman who is clearly studied , intelligent , and talented . "
Lynn Saxberg from Ottawa Citizen gave a positive review of the concert at Bronson Centre in Ottawa and said , " Accompanied by a DJ who also played a funky electric guitar , the curvy dynamo ( Gaga and Space Cowboy ) fronted one of wildest spectacles ever mounted at Bronson Centre , an action @-@ packed circus of sound , lights , video images , fog and choreography . Though heavy on theatrics , there was no skimping on the music . " She also commented on Gaga 's fashion sense and style in her costumes by saying , " In an hour , Gaga proved her star power by packing in all her hits , displaying influences that ranged from Motown to 80s pop , and exhibiting a fearless fashion sense in several costume changes , none of which covered her bum . "
Andy Downing from Chicago Tribune was impressed by the show at House of Blues and said " The work is paying off . Just weeks into her first nationwide headlining tour , the 22 @-@ year @-@ old New Yorker [ ... ] already commands the stage like a seasoned pro . " Jill Menze from Billboard also gave a positive review for the performance and complimented songs like " Just Dance " , LoveGame " , Poker Face " , " Boys , Boys , Boys " and the fame obsessed " Paparazzi " . The reviewer also said that " [ From ] her chart success , Lady Gaga has proven herself to be an of @-@ the @-@ moment pop sensation . Dig deeper , and it 's clear she 's versatile and talented enough to have staying power . " Mikel Wood from Rolling Stone also gave a positive review saying " The tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek tabloid @-@ victim shtick that provides some laughs on The Fame grew somewhat tiresome at the Wiltern , especially when the singer started spewing half @-@ baked media @-@ studies nonsense like , ' Some say Lady Gaga is a lie ' ... Fortunately , this is a woman who knows how to lighten a mood : Within 10 minutes or so , she 'd donned a flesh @-@ colored leotard and a bedazzled admiral 's cap and was rhyming ' boys in cars ' with ' buy us drinks in bars . "
On March 13 , 2009 Gaga was presented with a plaque from the Recording Industry Association of America by social blogger Perez Hilton commemorating three million sales of her debut single " Just Dance " , during her performance at the Wiltern Theatre . This show was also attended by rapper Kanye West . Craig Rosen from The Hollywood Reporter said that " Lady Gaga showed she 's a serious contender to Madonna 's crown Friday at the Wiltern . She might be a relative newcomer , but the artist born Stefani Joanne Germanotta commanded the stage with a royal air during her hourlong set , at times even sporting a glowing scepter . "
= = Opening acts = =
The White Tie Affair ( North America )
Chester French ( North America )
Cinema Bizarre ( North America )
Gary Go ( Great Britain )
= = Set list = =
" Paparazzi " ( contains elements of " Starstruck " )
" LoveGame " ( contains elements of " Chew Fu GhettoHouse Fix " remix )
" Beautiful , Dirty , Rich "
" The Fame "
" Money Honey "
" Boys Boys Boys "
" Just Dance "
" Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) "
" Starstruck " ( Intermission )
" Brown Eyes "
" Poker Face " ( Piano Version )
" Poker Face "
= = Tour dates = =
Cancellations
= = = Box office score data = = =
= The Exchange , Bristol =
The Exchange is a Grade I listed building built in 1741 – 43 by John Wood the Elder , on Corn Street , near the junction with Broad Street in Bristol , England . It was previously used as a corn and general trade exchange but is now used as offices and St Nicholas Market .
The Exchange underwent major building work in 1872 , including roofing over the courtyard , and again in the early 1900s when the City Valuer 's Department moved to the building . Since World War II the external clock tower has been removed and the roof lowered .
Outside the building are four bronze tables dating from the 16th and 17th centuries , known as " nails , " at which merchants carried out their business . At the front of the building is a clock showing both Greenwich Mean Time and " local time " .
= = History = =
The Exchange was built in 1741 – 43 by John Wood the Elder , with carvings by Thomas Paty . Wood was also the architect of the Liverpool Exchange , which was completed in 1754 and gutted by fire in 1795 . The London Exchange of Wood 's day was also destroyed by fire in 1838 . Bristol 's Exchange is therefore unique , the only surviving 18th @-@ century exchange building in England .
When finished in 1743 the Exchange , as planned , had " the outward appearance of one grand structure , ” and the much @-@ admired exterior remains today largely as built . The front of the building has Corinthian columnsin the centre and pilasters to the sides . A central semicircular @-@ arched doorway has cast @-@ iron lion @-@ head knockers . A frieze with human and animal heads symbolises trade , and a Royal Coat of Arms is displayed in the tympanum . The rear of the building is symmetrical with pedimented windows and semicircular ground @-@ floor arches .
Internally , however , it consisted of various spaces . On either side of the front entrance in Corn Street were a coffeehouse and tavern , each of four storeys . Above and below the main entrance were rooms designed as strongrooms . In the centre of the Exchange was an open court , surrounded by a colonnade . At the back of the building was a two @-@ storey range , consisting of an arcade on the ground floor and a long first @-@ floor room . Facing All Saints Lane were two four @-@ storey houses for business or trades persons , and on the frontage to Exchange Avenue were a further three houses . Below these various elements were cellars . Those below the five houses were each separate ; the others were mostly interconnected .
In 1872 a major programme of building works was undertaken to a design by Edward Middleton Barry . This provided a roof over the central court of the Exchange and a new suite of offices on the first floor above the colonnades around the court . Other internal alterations appear to have been made in the late 19th century , possibly also by Barry in 1872 . This is uncertain as Barry 's plans are yet to be found . Further extensive alterations were made in the 1900s when the City Valuer 's Department moved to the Exchange in 1907 . These included the provision of a lift from the basement and cellars to the first floor and major alterations to the cellars under the central part of the Exchange . Since 1945 further alterations have included the replacement of the roof over the central court by a temporary roof at a lower level , the removal of the clock tower at the back of the building and the internal rebuilding of all four floors of the coffeehouse together with the corresponding floors over the main entrance .
Despite its name it was intended for merchants of all types , and a number directly involved in the Guinea and West Indian slave trade used it for business transactions . Inside the Corn Exchange the plasterwork in the main hall represents the four corners of the world , including Africa and America , the latter wearing a headdress of tobacco leaves . On the outside of the building are carvings of African , American , Asian and European figures and animals , again symbols of Bristol 's foreign trade including the Bristol slave trade .
During the mid- to late 1960s the Exchange was a popular concert venue . British Beat groups including The Rolling Stones , The Yardbirds , Cream , The Pretty Things and Spencer Davis all played several times in the main hall . A regular Tuesday night club called The Bristol Chinese R 'n'B and Jazz Club was also established which attracted American Blues singers including John Lee Hooker , Sonny Boy Williamson and Little Walter .
Today the Exchange is designated as a Grade I listed building . Always owned by the City of Bristol , the building has served a variety of purposes , currently housing offices of both the former City Valuer 's Department , Market Traders and the Joint Trade Unions Safety Office
= = Nails = =
Four bronze tables are located outside The Exchange on Corn Street , probably modelled after mobile tables which were taken to trade fairs and markets . Before the Corn Exchange was built in the 18th century , the tables — called nails — were located in the Tolzey Walk . This covered area was along the south wall of All Saints Church , which remains as a narrow lane giving access to commercial premises .
The bronze nails , with their flat tops and raised edges which prevent coins from tumbling onto the pavement , were made as convenient tables at which merchants could carry out their business . The oldest pillar is undated , but experts say it is late Elizabethan . The second oldest was given by Bristol merchant Robert Kitchen , who died in 1594 . The two remaining nails are dated 1625 and 1631 .
The four nails were made at different times , and this is reflected in their varying designs . One of the nails bears the name John Barker on its rim . Barker was a wealthy merchant who owned houses and storehouses on the Quay , in Wine Street and in Small Street . He was mayor during the reign of Charles I and represented Bristol in the 1623 Parliament .
Deals could be closed by payment on the nails — the popularly supposed origin of the saying " pay on the nail " or " cash on the nail " . However , this origin of the term is disputed .
= = Clock = =
The clock was first installed in 1822 . A second minute hand was later added to show the time in London as well as the local time in Bristol ; the red minute hand shows Greenwich Mean Time and the black minute hand shows Bristol time . This became necessary following the arrival of the railways , which required a standardised time for timetabling around the country , known as railway time ; Bristol officially adopted railway time on 14 September 1852 . The city is 2º 35 ' west of Greenwich , so when it is noon in Bristol by old local time , it is just after 12 : 10 p.m. in London by standard time .
= Gyromitra caroliniana =
Gyromitra caroliniana , known commonly as the Carolina false morel or big red , is an ascomycete fungus of the genus Gyromitra , within the Pezizales group of fungi . It is found in hardwood forests of the southeastern United States , where it fruits in early spring soon after snowmelt . Although it is collected and eaten by some , there is some suggestion it may contain the toxic compound gyromitrin like its poisonous relative , the false morel G. esculenta , and for this reason it is usually not recommended for consumption .
The fruit body , or ascocarp , appears on the ground in woodland , and can grow to massive sizes . The heavily wrinkled cap is red @-@ brown in color , nearly spherical to roughly elliptical in shape , and typically measures 15 to 20 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) tall and 6 to 13 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 1 in ) wide . The stipe is massive , up to 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) thick , with a white felt @-@ like surface . The brittle flesh is densely packed into the cap in convoluted folds that form internal locules .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was originally named Morchella caroliniana by French botanist Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc in 1811 , and later sanctioned under this name by Elias Fries in 1822 . It was transferred to Gyromitra by Fries in 1871 . Gyromitra caroliniana is the type species of subgenus Caroliniana of genus Gyromitra . This grouping comprises species that have , in maturity , coarsely reticulate ascospores ( i.e. , with a network of ridges on the surface ) with multiple blunt spines that originate from the reticulum on the spores . Other species in this subgenus include G. fastigiata and the central European species G. parma . In 1969 , Erich Heinz Benedix believed that the spore reticulation was sufficiently unique to be worthy of designation as a separate genus , and he described Fastigiella to contain G. caroliniana . Harri Harmaja disagreed , later placing Fastigiella in synonymy with Gyromitra .
In a 2009 review of the genus Gyromitra , authors van Vooren and Moreau say that Bosc 's original species description is ambiguous , leaving much room for interpretation , and they suggest that several reports of the species occurring in Europe should be referred to Gyromitra fastigiata . They point out that in 1970 , Estonian mycologist Ain Raitviir considered Bosc 's Morchella caroliniana a nomen dubium , and Fries 's description as nomen confusum , and advocated the abandonment of the specific epithet caroliniana . In the early 1970s , Kent McKnight redefined the taxon and selected a neotype , based on five specimens collected from Lorton , Virginia in 1942 .
The specific epithet refers to the Carolinas , where it was first collected scientifically . Common names include the " brown false morel " , " Carolina false morel " , " big red " , ( particularly in Missouri and Arkansas ) , or " river red " .
= = Description = =
The cap is roughly spherical to elliptical , and features a folded , crumpled , or corrugated surface that somewhat resembles the surface of a brain . It has areas of more or less symmetrical pits , or ribs arranged vertically . The cap margin is close to the stipe and sometimes adheres to it . The color is reddish to reddish @-@ brown , but becomes darker in weathered specimens ; the reverse side is whitish . Fruit bodies are typically 6 – 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) across but can grow to be much larger . Fred J. Seaver reported one specimen to have grown to a height of 10 @.@ 5 in ( 27 cm ) , but a more usual height range is 15 – 20 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) . The underside is whitish , but not readily visible . The stipe is short and stout , furrowed , typically 6 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long by 4 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide but sometimes much larger , and usually thickest at the base . Pure white when young and with a felt @-@ like surface , it discolors in age or with handling . The upper portion of the stipe is usually branched , but the branches are hidden by the cap . The whitish flesh forms locules ( chambers ) and is densely packed in the stipe and cap , forming branches to the points of attachment .
The spores are narrowly elliptical , hyaline ( translucent ) , and apiculate ( with a sharply pointed tip ) , measuring 30 – 33 by 11 @.@ 5 – 14 μm . Spores usually have one large oil droplet and one or two smaller ones . Initially smooth , the spore surface becomes reticulate and coarse , developing small warts . The use of scanning electron microscopy has revealed up to 6 short apiculi ( the part of a spore that attaches to the sterigmata ) that originate from extensions of the reticulation . Asci ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 320 – 420 by 18 @.@ 5 – 23 μm , and the paraphyses are 6 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 9 μm wide .
Although some guides indicate the species is edible with suitable preparation ( such as boiling ) , it is generally not recommended for consumption because of the risk of confusion with other toxic Gyromitra species that contain the compound gyromitrin . When boiled in water , or digested in the body , this compound is readily hydrolyzed to the toxic compound monomethylhydrazine — used as a propellant in some rocket fuels .
= = = Similar species = = =
Gyromitra brunnea is similar in appearance to G. caroliana , and has an overlapping geographical range . G. brunnea is distinctly lobed , and lacks ribs and cross @-@ ribs . Consequently , " seams " can usually be found where the undersurface is exposed . In contrast , G. caroliniana is almost never lobed and thus lacks seams . Its tightly wrinkled and attached cap mostly hide the undersurface . G. korfii has a more block @-@ like or square appearance , and its yellowish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown cap surface has fewer wrinkles , folds , and convolutions . G. fastigiata is a European species that resembles the North American G. brunnea . The common and widespread G. esculenta has a loosely lobed , irregularly shaped , brainlike cap . It has shorter spores measuring 21 – 25 by 12 – 13 μm .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fungus fruits singly or in loose groups on the ground under hardwood trees , in rich humus . Common habitats include near stumps and other dead wood , particularly oak , and along river bottoms . In the southern states , it can appear as early as March , but elsewhere it typically fruits in April and May . The species has been used as an indicator signalling the start of " morel season " . Gyromitra species are " officially " considered saprobic , but exhibit some mycorrhizal tendencies , and may integrate both ecological lifestyles in their life cycle .
The range of G. caroliniana includes Oklahoma to the Carolinas and north to the Great Lakes . Erich Benedix reported the fungus in Thuringia and Austria , where he claimed it had previously often been misidentified with young forms of Gyromitra infula . A more recent revision disputes those claims , saying " Reports from Europe are unsubstantiated and are due to confusion with G. fastigiata and G. gigas " . The fruit bodies develop slowly , and specimens left until late in the season can grow up to five pounds or more .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Abbott SP , Currah RS ( 1997 ) . " The Helvellaceae : systematic revision and occurrence in northern and northwestern North America " . Mycotaxon 62 : 1 – 125 .
= Jenny ( Doctor Who ) =
Jenny , portrayed by Georgia Moffett , is a fictional character in the long @-@ running British science fiction television series Doctor Who . She appeared in the episode " The Doctor 's Daughter " , originally broadcast 10 May 2008 . Jenny is the daughter of the series protagonist the Doctor , a product of altered DNA extracted from a tissue sample from his hand . Jenny was introduced by writer Stephen Greenhorn .
Moffett herself is the real @-@ life daughter of the actor Peter Davison who portrayed the Doctor 's fifth incarnation from 1981 to 1984 . She was cast as Jenny after auditioning for a more minor part in the episode " The Unicorn and the Wasp " , and impressing the series producers . Following the broadcast of " The Doctor 's Daughter " , the character was generally well received by reviewers , with many speculating that Jenny would return to the franchise . Moffett also expressed an interest in this possibility .
= = Appearance = =
When the Doctor 's time travelling TARDIS is drawn to the planet Messaline , his DNA is used by warring human soldiers on the planet in a Progenation Machine , a device that instantly creates a fully grown and educated new person , and the Doctor recognises her as his " daughter " . Born a fighter , with combat skills and tactics automatically programmed , she is initially ideologically at odds with the Doctor 's pacifism , but after learning she has two hearts and is connected to the near @-@ extinct race of Time Lords , she begins to pattern her behaviour on that of her father .
Named " Jenny " by the Doctor 's companion Donna ( Catherine Tate ) as she is a " generated anomaly " , she is initially received with ambivalence by the Doctor , whom she reminds of the loss of his previous family . He eventually warms to her , however , and welcomes her aboard his crew as a companion . Just as peace appears to have been restored between the planet 's warring factions , Jenny is shot and apparently killed . The Doctor cradles her dying form in his arms , and is visibly distraught when she does not revive or regenerate from the wound . In the episode 's closing scenes after the Doctor leaves
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would allow players under NBA contracts to play overseas , provided that the contracts they signed had opt @-@ out clauses that allowed players to return once the work stoppage ended . Stern said the league would allow players to play overseas , but he warned that it could divide the union and possibly jeopardize players ' contracts if they were seriously injured . Most leagues permitted the signing of locked @-@ out NBA players with the option of opting out ; the Chinese Basketball Association , however , only allowed its clubs to sign foreign free agents who could play for at least the entire season . Chinese nationals were exempt from this rule ; this allowed Yi Jianlian to return to the NBA upon the end of the lockout .
More than 90 players decided to sign with foreign teams during the lockout . The New York Times called the migration of players overseas " one of the most overblown stories of the lockout " with a majority of those signing being " rookies , middling veterans and fringe players . " Deron Williams was the only 2011 All @-@ Star going overseas , signing a one @-@ year contract for $ 5 million to play for Beşiktaş of the Turkish Basketball League . Former first overall draft pick Kenyon Martin , a free agent , signed a one @-@ year contract with the Xinjiang Flying Tigers of the Chinese Basketball Association that would make him the highest paid player in the league 's history at $ 500 @,@ 000 a month . Unlike players who signed more lucrative contracts overseas , three @-@ time NBA champion Tony Parker opted to play for the minimum wage of $ 2 @,@ 000 per month with ASVEL Basket , the French team he partly owns . Parker joined several foreign players , such as Leandro Barbosa , Boris Diaw , Rudy Fernández , Andrei Kirilenko and Mehmet Okur , who opted to play in their home countries until the lockout ended .
An NBA player playing in Europe could earn as little as $ 50 @,@ 000 – $ 75 @,@ 000 per month , while the average NBA annual salary was $ 5 @.@ 8 million with the minimum around $ 500 @,@ 000 . The large contracts signed by Williams and Martin were extreme exceptions . In October after the cancellation of regular season games , it was not anticipated that many additional NBA players would be signed overseas ; leagues had started playing , their rosters were full , and new players could disrupt the teams .
= = = Other alternatives = = =
Many players opted to stay in the United States instead . The New York Times speculated that many Americans would have found it hard to leave and change their lifestyle . Some played in local pick @-@ up games , while others ranging from stars like Kevin Durant to players like Dorell Wright played in the more organized exhibition tournaments such as the Drew League in Los Angeles , the Melo League located in Baltimore and the Goodman League in Washington , D.C. An exhibition game between two of the leagues was played on August 20 , 2011 , with the Goodman League defeating the Drew League , 135 – 134 . Drew commissioner Dino Smiley said such pro – am games during the NBA off @-@ season were not new , but " the lockout has taken these games to a new level " . A tournament of NBA @-@ only players was held in September in Las Vegas , Nevada , featuring eight teams with seven to eight players each . Named the Impact Basketball Competitive Training Series , the league was dubbed by The New York Times as the " Lockout League " .
Training camp was not expected to be long if there ended up being a season . Some players organized workouts for their teams to build team chemistry . The NBPA announced it was setting up workout centers in Las Vegas , Los Angeles , Houston and possibly Miami for players to work out at the union 's expense .
The continuing lockout in October and the canceled preseason allowed Renaldo Balkman , José Juan Barea and Carlos Arroyo to play for Puerto Rico in the Pan American Games that month . Puerto Rico won the gold medal .
= = Outside impact = =
= = = Olympics = = =
Although the 2012 Olympic men 's basketball tournament was then more than a year away , qualifying tournaments in all five of FIBA 's continental zones were to be held in the Northern Hemisphere summer of 2011 ( the traditional basketball offseason throughout the world ) . The lockout resulted in the suspension of an agreement between the NBA and FIBA by which the NBA would take on most of the costs for insuring the value of its players ' contracts in the event they were injured during international competition . As a result , national federations that wish to have NBA players on their squads must now provide full coverage instead of supplemental insurance .
These costs are surprisingly high — one agent who represents an unnamed NBA player set to earn $ 10 million in the 2010 – 11 season said the player had received a $ 400 @,@ 000 quote to insure his contract for his national team 's FIBA qualifier . The Spanish Basketball Federation said that insuring all the NBA players on its national team for EuroBasket 2011 , which doubles as the European Olympic qualifiers , could cost as much as $ 5 @.@ 67 million . Basketball Australia announced that Andrew Bogut would not be available for the 2011 FIBA Oceania Championship ; his agent indicated that the final deal @-@ breaker was when insurers stated that they would not insure his remaining $ 39 million in NBA salary unless pre @-@ existing elbow , wrist , and back injuries were excluded from the policy .
The French , Russian and Argentine federations were able to insure their NBA players , and several other federations were also expected to be able to do so . Over 30 NBA players participated in EuroBasket 2011 , while Ben Gordon and Marcin Gortat opted out due to insurance concerns .
= = = Other sports = = =
A couple of weeks before the NBA season was originally scheduled to start , Reuters and Bloomberg Businessweek speculated on the prospect of increased interest in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) among NBA fans . The NHL had experienced steady growth since the 2005 – 06 season , and they again opened the 2011 – 12 season in early October to record crowds . Businessweek wrote , " Just maybe , the NBA ’ s sketchy situation is already having a positive effect on the NHL . " However several NHL teams ( nearly half of which do not have an NBA team in their market ) had no plans to market directly to NBA fans during the lockout .
The University of Texas at San Antonio ( UTSA ) , in its inaugural college football season , drew 40 @,@ 000 fans to its games in September . The San Antonio Business Journal speculated on UTSA 's opportunities to grow its fan base with the canceled NBA games in San Antonio .
Boston Herald speculated that NCAA college basketball would have higher television ratings and attendance during the lockout . However , Sporting News noted that " there was no obvious boost in popularity in the college game " during the previous lockout when college basketball attendance increased by an average of 21 people per game .
= = = NBA cities = = =
Mayors from 14 NBA cities wrote an open letter to NBA commissioner David Stern and NBPA chief Billy Hunter , requesting that they end the lockout based on " the perspective [ of city ] residents and the negative impact a canceled season might have on them , our cities , and our local economies . " TIME noted that arena workers would be affected by the cancellation of games . However , separate studies by University of Maryland , Baltimore County and Lake Forest College found no historic significant effect to the economies of cities with sports franchises affected by work stoppages . Explanations included consumer shifting of spending on sporting events to other forms of entertainment , reduced local government spending on crowd and traffic control , and higher productivity by the general workforce without the distraction of games .
= = = Other businesses = = =
It was estimated that a complete lockout had cost an upwards of $ 1 billion in lost television advertisement revenue . The lockout had dealt a sizable blow to the current licensed product market which was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 7 billion , and had created a big loss in television ratings for networks that cover NBA games such as the regional sports networks , TNT and ESPN .
= = Rescheduled season = =
The NBA revised the schedule to play two preseason games and a 66 @-@ game regular season schedule per team rather than the standard seven preseason games and an 82 @-@ game regular season schedule . Teams were allowed to contact players ' agents on November 30 . Players could begin working out voluntarily at team facilities with trainers on December 1 , but coaches and general managers were not allowed to observe the workouts nor could any drills be conducted . NBA teams began talking to free agents on December 5 , 2011 at 10 a.m. EST . Training camps and free agency started on December 9 with the regular season beginning on Christmas Day with five games , two more than the original schedule . ESPN / ABC analyst Jeff Van Gundy said about the NBA opening on Christmas Day : " It 's a different opening day than has ever happened in the past and Christmas Day games have always been a big day for the NBA . This unique situation combined with the unveiling of a championship banner for the Mavericks in a finals rematch , and then to see the Lakers and the debut of Mike Brown as head coach , those things are all going to be very compelling . "
The league built a new schedule from scratch based on available arena dates . In October , the league had allowed arenas in Los Angeles and Chicago to reassign NBA dates for other events . The number of games between conferences was affected as was the case in the 1999 lockout , when each team played only five or six interconference games in a 50 @-@ game schedule . Normally , each team plays teams in the other conference twice each . Teams played 48 conference games and 18 non @-@ conference games in a 66 @-@ game schedule , compared to 52 conference games and 30 non @-@ conference games in a normal 82 @-@ game season . Teams played on average two more games per month and also played three @-@ consecutive games at least once in the season . In total , the league had 42 sets of back @-@ to @-@ back @-@ to @-@ back games , with 11 teams playing two such sets . The three @-@ game set , or " triple " , had not occurred since the shortened 1999 season , which featured 64 triples and sloppier play due to tired players . Before that , the last occurrence was two decades earlier . During the season , there were 29 occasions when teams played five games in six days .
With fewer off days during the season , the level of play was lower due to fatigue , and some older players rested to avoid burnout and recuperate from injuries . When the San Antonio Spurs rested Tim Duncan for a game in March at the end of a back @-@ to @-@ back @-@ to @-@ back , coach Gregg Popovich submitted the description of Duncan 's absence as " Old " . Nonetheless , some players still sustained injuries . In the 2012 playoffs , the Chicago Bulls were eliminated after losing Derrick Rose and Joakim Noah to injuries , and the New York Knicks lost to the Miami Heat while losing Baron Davis and Iman Shumpert to knee injuries . The Heat were not immune , losing Chris Bosh for most of the playoffs en route to their NBA championship . Stern initially said there was no connection between the injuries and the 66 @-@ game schedule compressed into 124 days ; however , he backed off those comments a week later , saying more research was needed .
= Jan Willem Spruyt =
Jan Willem Spruyt ( 4 July 1826 in Uithoorn , Netherlands – 8 September 1908 in Inanda , Natal ) , also known as Jan Willem Spruijt and Jan Willem Landskroon Spruijt ( birthname ) , was a South African civil servant , lawyer and statesman of Dutch descent . Spruyt was government secretary ( 1856 – 1862 ) and several times acting state president of the Orange Free State , and state secretary of the South African Republic ( 1866 – 1869 ) .
Spruyt grew up in the Netherlands , studied law , but did not complete his studies , and worked as a schoolteacher , before coming to South Africa . Here he practised as law agent in private practice in both Boer republics . Soon after his arrival he was also quickly enrolled in the administration of the Orange Free State , and attained a powerful position as government secretary . In this capacity he stood in for state president M.W. Pretorius several times in the period 1860 – 1862 . In the third quarter of the nineteenth century several many Afrikaner politicians and government officials served in both Boer republics . So did Spruyt , who finished his career as state secretary of the South African Republic .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and migration = = =
Spruyt was the son of Jacobus Spuyt ( 1796 – 1839 ) , a Dutch medical doctor , and Antje Landskroon . Both the Spruyt and Landskroon families stood in a tradition of medical practice , and three of the four brothers Spruyt had were doctors in the Netherlands . Spruyt himself trained as a lawyer at Leiden University , but probably did not finish his studies . He went on to work as a schoolteacher in the village of Oosterwolde in the north of the Netherlands . It was here that professor U.G. Lauts recruited him for South Africa in 1851 . Lauts was one of a group of Dutchmen , interested in the development of good education in the new Boer settlements in South Africa . As such , Spruyt was one of the many Dutch immigrants that settled in the new Boer republics around the middle of the nineteenth century .
Arriving in Delagoa Bay on a ship with J.A. Smellekamp as supercarga – he later became a well @-@ known figure in South Africa – and his two travel companions and fellow migrants , Hendrik van der Linden and W.P.J. Poen , he travelled across the Lebombo Mountains in an ox @-@ cart into the Transvaal . In March 1852 Spruyt was appointed schoolteacher in the town of Rustenburg . Because of disputes among the Dutchmen in the Transvaal , more specifically between Rev. Dirk van der Hoff and J.A. Smellekamp , who had now also settled there , Spruyt moved to the Orange Free State , where he established himself in Bloemfontein .
= = = Civil servant in the Orange Free State = = =
In Bloemfontein Spruyt worked as clerk of the Landdrost ( 1854 – 1855 ) , and in that capacity he acted as secretary of the Volksraad on two occasions ( September 1854 and February 1855 ) , also filling in as Government Secretary . On the strength of his capacities Spruyt was appointed clerk to the State President in September 1855 . Soon after , during the illness of Government Secretary Groenendaal , Spruyt again took up that position . In October 1856 he was appointed to the vacancy and succeeded J. Groenendaal as Government Secretary of the Orange Free State . Spruyt was regarded by his colleagues as an accurate civil servant , but as a lesser politician and statesman , reason that he was not appointed Acting State President when State President Boshoff went on leave in 1858 . However , Boshoff trusted Spruyt fully , and he allowed him to represent the presidency in meetings of the Volksraad on several occasions in 1861 and 1862 .
Later Spruyt acted as State President during the absences of President Pretorius from Bloemfontein . Although general opinion had it that Spruyt was a man of lesser qualities , on his resignation he was praised by State President Pretorius as very loyal and accurate in his work .
As civil servant , Spruyt made an impact on the nascent state apparatus of the Orange Free State . He designed the coat of arms of the state , and laid the foundation of the model state the Orange Free State was to become in later years . Having worked in secretarial functions for the State President himself ( as clerk ) , but also as a servant of parliament , the government , and the State , Spruyt left a clear mark on the early administration and its organisation . Spruyt was also sensitive to good labour relations within the state apparatus , and propagated a rise in the officials ' salaries . In this he did not succeed , however , and eventually the matter of the salaries instigated his own resignation . Spruyt felt that his salary was insufficient to live on with a family , and tendered his resignation .
= = = Law agent , publisher , state secretary = = =
After his resignation he established himself as law agent ( wetsagent ) in Bloemfontein , and acted as publisher of the Dutch language weekly paper De Tijd . Staatkundig Nieuws- en Advertentieblad voor den Oranje @-@ Vrijstaat ( The Times . Political Newspaper and Advertiser for the Orange Free State ) , started by H.A.L. Hamelberg as a competitor to the English language newspaper The Friend .
In 1865 Spruyt was declared insolvent , and he subsequently moved back to the Transvaal . Here the government of the South African Republic appointed him State Secretary in November 1866 on the advice of State President Pretorius . This appointment lasted till 1869 .
In 1870 Spruyt returned to the Orange Free State and to private law practice . He established himself in Ladybrand , a territory conquered by the Orange Free State in the last Basotho War of 1867 . His insolvency kept following him , however , and as late as 1871 some of his possessions , including a building complex in Rustenburg , were publicly sold for a minute sum of money .
Efforts to regain a public position in the Orange Free State failed , and in 1888 Spruyt once more returned to the South African Republic . He was allowed to work as law agent in the lower courts , and – being well @-@ known and popular – set up a successful law practice . Until the end of his life he kept a healthy interest in the affairs of the state , especially in land cases .
In the last period of his life Spruyt lived in Troyeville , Johannesburg . He died while on a visit to Natal , aged 82 .
= = = Family = = =
Spruyt married in Bloemfontein on 31 December 1856 with Elizabeth Emma Hanger ( 1826 – 1918 ) , originating from Peddie in the Cape Colony . The couple had five sons and five daughters , Emma , William , Gerard , Victor , Henrietta , George , Rudolf , Alicia , Elizabeth and Catherine .
= = = Literature = = =
Anon . ( 19 January 1968 ) . " President Spruyt of the Orange Free State " . Carletonville Herald .
Muller , H.P.N. ( 1907 ) . Oude tyden in den Oranje @-@ Vrystaat . Naar Mr. H.A.L. Hamelberg 's nagelaten papieren beschreven . Leiden : E.J. Brill. pp. 383p .
van der Schoor , P.F. ( 1972 ) . " Spruijt , Jan Willem Landskroon " . Suid @-@ Afrikaanse Biografiese Woordeboek 2 . Kaapstad & Johannesburg. p . 720 .
= And Then We Kiss =
" And Then We Kiss " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) . It was written by Spears , Mark Taylor and Paul Barry , while production was handled by Taylor . The song did not make the final track listing of In the Zone and was later remixed by Junkie XL for inclusion on Spears ' first remix album , B in the Mix : The Remixes ( 2005 ) . It was also included in the EP released to promote the remix album , called Key Cuts from Remixed . The remix was released as the promotional single from the album in Australia and New Zealand . The original version by Taylor leaked online in September 2011 .
The Junkie XL Remix of " And Then We Kiss " is an euro @-@ trance song with influences of techno and usage of dance @-@ rock guitars , synthesizers and symphonic strings . The lyrics speak about a kiss and the different sensations that a woman experiences , including trembling , crying and moaning . Junkie XL explained that he wanted to make the song a 2006 version of Depeche Mode 's " Enjoy the Silence " . The Junkie XL Remix of " And Then We Kiss " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , with some noticing its potential to be a radio or club hit . The song failed to appear on any major charts . However , it peaked at number fifteen on the US Billboard Hot Dance Airplay . The songs appears in Dance Dance Revolution Supernova 2 .
= = Background = =
" And Then We Kiss " was written by Spears , Mark Taylor and Paul Barry , while produced by Taylor . The song was recorded in the same sessions as " Breathe on Me " , and was originally intended for In the Zone ( 2003 ) . This version produced by Taylor features an electronica vibe reminiscent of Madonna 's Ray of Light ( 1998 ) , and contains a flamenco guitar with prominent lead vocals by Spears . " And Then We Kiss " was set to be included on a bonus disc of Britney & Kevin : Chaotic ( 2005 ) , but was left out for unknown reasons .
The song was remixed by Junkie XL and released on her remix album B in the Mix : The Remixes ( 2005 ) . In the album credits , both Taylor and Junkie XL were listed as producers of the song . All instruments , including guitar , bass guitar , synths and drums , were played by Junkie XL . Audio mastering was done by Chaz Harper at Battery Mastering . In September 2005 , it was announced by Billboard that the remix would serve as the music for the ad campaign behind Spears ' fragrance , Fantasy . The Junkie XL Remix was released as promotional single from B in the Mix : The Remixes on October 31 , 2005 in Australia and New Zealand , as " And Then We Kiss " . The version of the song produced by Taylor remained unreleased for years , until a new mix of the song labeled as the original version leaked online on September 2 , 2011 . After suggestions that it may be a fake , Taylor confirmed its authenticity to Bradley Stern of Muumuse.com on September 5 , 2011 .
= = Composition = =
" And Then We Kiss " is four minutes and twenty @-@ eight seconds long . It is an euro @-@ trance song with influences of techno and usage of synthesizers . The song blends dance @-@ rock guitars and symphonic strings and closes with an orchestral overtone . Its lyrics talk about a kiss and the different sensations that the protagonist experiences , including trembling , crying and moaning . At the beginning she sings the lines " Lying alone / touching my skin " which suggest that the whole song may actually be a fantasy . Spears 's vocals are much less prominent than on the original version . In an interview with About.com , Junkie XL said he wanted to turn the song " into a 2006 version of Enjoy the Silence with really electronic chunky beats and nice melodic guitar lines . Besides the fact that [ Britney ] ' s singing on it , it could be a track off my album because it 's the same vibe . I 'm really happy with the end result and so are they . "
= = Reception = =
The Junkie XL Remix of " And Then We Kiss " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Jennifer Vineyard of MTV noted " And Then We Kiss " had " the potential to be a radio or club hit — if Jive were actively promoting [ B in the Mix ] " . Barry Walters of Rolling Stone said the remix " brings a simpatico blend of symphonic strings and dance @-@ rock guitars " in its melody , while Spence D. of IGN noted Junkie XL makes " the remix an understated swatch of atmospheric neo @-@ goth poing and staccato rhythms . " A reviewer of Yahoo ! Shopping considered the song " dreamy " . Kurt Kirton of About.com said that the remixes of " And Then We Kiss " , " Toxic " , " Touch of My Hand " , " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " and " ... Baby One More Time " " hold their own " ; Gregg Shapiro of the Bay Area Reporter , however , said " the many flaws in Spears ' reedy , cold and mechanical voice are brought to the forefront " in the remixes . MTV writer Bradley Stern praised Junkie XL , writing , " the sublime remix found producer Junkie XL taking the ( still ) unreleased studio version of " And Then We Kiss " [ ... ] and smoothing it over into one of Britney 's most lush , mature musical moments of all time . "
" And Then We Kiss " was not officially released as promotional single in the United States , therefore it was not eligible at the time to appear on Billboard 's Hot 100 . Even so , promotional vinyls were sent to radio stations , who started to play the song unofficially and it managed to garner enough airplay to appear on the Hot Dance Airplay chart of Billboard in early 2006 . It debuted at number 25 on the chart issue dated February 25 , 2006 , reaching a new position of 23 on the following issue . After five weeks on the chart , " And Then We Kiss " reached a peak of 15 , on the chart issue dated March 25 , 2006 . The song spent a total of eleven weeks on the chart , making its last appearance on the week of May 6 , 2006 . Despite being released in Australia and New Zealand , " And Then We Kiss " failed to appear on major charts of both countries .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" And Then We Kiss " – 4 : 28
12 " Vinyl
" And Then We Kiss " ( Junkie XL Remix ) – 4 : 28
" And Then We Kiss " ( Junkie XL Remix Instrumental ) – 4 : 28
" And Then We Kiss " ( Junkie XL Undressed Remix ) – 4 : 41
" And Then We Kiss " ( Junkie XL Undressed Remix Instrumental ) – 4 : 41
= = Credits and personnel = =
Britney Spears — lead vocals , songwriting
Michael Taylor — songwriting
Paul Barry — songwriting
Mark Taylor — producer
Junkie XL — producer , remixer , all instruments
Chaz Harper — audio mastering
Source :
= = Charts = =
= 1882 Navy Midshipmen football team =
The 1882 Navy Midshipmen football team represented the United States Naval Academy in the 1882 college football season . The team was the second intercollegiate football squad to represent the United States Naval Academy , and the first since 1879 . The team was coached by player @-@ coach Vaulx Carter , and was entirely student @-@ operated . It was captained by squad member Alex Jackson . The team played just a single game , an 8 to 0 ( 8 – 0 ) shutout of Johns Hopkins , which was the school 's first ever win . The squad was entirely student operated , and was not supported by the Naval Academy 's faculty . The season would mark the beginning of eight season rivalry between the Midshipmen and Johns Hopkins .
= = Prelude = =
It is widely believed by football researchers that the playing of intercollegiate football began in November 1869 , when a player at Rutgers University challenged another player at the nearby College of New Jersey ( now Princeton ) . The contest more closely resembled soccer , with teams scoring by kicking the ball into the opponent 's net , and lacked a uniform rules structure . The game developed slowly ; the first rules were drafted in October 1873 , and only consisted of twelve guidelines . Even though the number of teams participating in the sport increased , the game was still effectively controlled by the College of New Jersey , who claimed eight national championships in ten years . Only Yale presented any form of challenge , claiming four national championships in the same time period .
The Naval Academy 's first ever football team was fielded in 1879 . The squad was entirely student @-@ operated , receiving no official support from Naval Academy officials . The team was entirely funded by its members and their fellow students . This would continue until 1892 , when that season 's team was led by coach Ben Crosby . The 1879 team participated in just one game , which resulted in a scoreless tie . It was played against the Baltimore Athletic Club , at most likely an unused drill field on the Naval Academy campus . Navy would not field a football team in 1880 or 1881 , likely due to the lack of support .
= = Schedule = =
= = Season summary = =
= = = Navy 8 , Johns Hopkins 0 = = =
The 1882 season began when second @-@ year cadet Vaulx Carter formed a team , which he led as both a player and the coach . Alex Jackson was appointed captain of the squad . Carter scheduled a single game for the season , which was played on Thanksgiving Day against the Baltimore @-@ based Clifton Football Club . The Clifton team was made up of players from Johns Hopkins University , who were unable to play for their school due to their administrator 's negative views towards the sport . Navy 's team itself played without official permission ; the first year the team received approval was in 1885 , when , according to Morris Allison Bealle , " some of the faculty actually gave in and admitted that football might , at that , be or become an interesting diversion " .
It snowed heavily before the game , to the point where players for both teams had to clear layers of snow off of the field , making large piles of snow along the sides of the playing ground . The field was 110 yards by 53 yards , with goalposts 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) apart and 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high . The first half of the game went scoreless ; the Baltimore American reported that " the visitors pushed Navy every place but over the goal line in the first half " . During play , the ball was kicked over the seawall a number of times , once going so far out it had to be retrieved by boat before play could continue . The American described the second half in detail :
After ten minutes interval the ball was again put in play , this time being kicked off by the Cliftons . The rest period had apparently stiffened the Cliftons , for the Academy making a vigorous spurt got the ball thru them , and Street , following it up well , scored a touchdown for the Academy .
The try at goal failed , but the ball , instead of going to the Cliftons behind the line , fell into the field and into the hands of one of the Academy team . By a quick decisive run , he again got the ball over the Cliftons goal line and scored a touchdown .
Cadet George Washington Street , of Wisconsin , was identified as the first person ever to score a touchdown for the Naval Academy . The Baltimore Sun stated that William Abrose O 'Malley , of Pennsylvania , was the cadet who caught Street 's blocked kick and scored the second touchdown . The Sun also covered , in detail , the uniforms the squads wore ; Johns Hopkins sported blue , black , and white striped uniforms , while the Naval Academy wore maroon and white uniforms . Both teams also nailed strips of leather to the bottom of their shoes to help deal with slipping .
= = Players and coaching staff = =
= = = Players = = =
The 1882 Naval Academy team was made up of eleven players at five different positions . The squad consisted of four rushers , two ends , two tackles , two guards , and a center :
= = = Coaching staff = = =
Vaulx Carter took on coaching duties for the 1882 team . He was the academy 's first coach ; it was not until a decade later , in 1892 , when Ben Crosby was hired as the school 's next coach . The squad also appointed an official umpire , the only time it would ever do so . Its three staff members were :
= = Postseason and aftermath = =
The first postseason college football game would not be played until 1902 , with the Pasadena Tournament of Roses ' establishment of the east @-@ west tournament game , later known as the Rose Bowl . The Midshipmen would not participate in their first Rose Bowl until the 1923 season , when they went 5 – 1 – 2 and tied with the Washington Huskies 14 – 14 in the match . As a result of the lack of a competition , there were no postseason games played after the 1882 season . According to statistics compiled by the National Championship Foundation , Parke Davis , and the Billingsley college football research center , Yale was declared the 1882 season champion , giving them their eighth championship overall .
The Midshipmen 's win was the first in school history , and continued the team 's shutout streak . They would lose their only game in the 1883 season , ending the consecutive shutouts , and the Naval Academy would not get another shutout until the 1886 season , when they defeated Johns Hopkins 6 – 0 . The 1882 season also marked the start of an eight @-@ season long rivalry with Johns Hopkins , which Navy would win , five games to four . The team would not have another coach until the 1892 season , when Ben Crosby was hired to lead . Navy would finish the 1880s with four winning seasons , and an overall record of 14 – 12 – 2 . The squad would outscore their opponents 292 – 231 , and would finish the 19th century with an overall record of 54 – 19 – 3 .
= Aesthetics of Hate =
" Aesthetics of Hate " is a song by heavy metal band Machine Head from their sixth studio album The Blackening . Written by Machine Head vocalist and guitarist Robert Flynn , the song is a retaliation to an article written by William Grim . Grim wrote that late guitarist Dimebag Darrell was " an ignorant , barbaric , untalented possessor of a guitar " , among other comments which angered Flynn deeply enough to write the song . It was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 50th Grammy Awards .
= = Background = =
" Aesthetics of Hate " was written by Machine Head vocalist and guitarist Robb Flynn . It was written as a retaliation to an article by William Grim for the web site Iconoclast . Titled " Aesthetics of Hate : R.I.P. Dimebag Abbott , & Good Riddance " , Grim wrote the article stating Darrell was " part of a generation that has confused sputum with art and involuntary reflex actions with emotion " , " an ignorant , barbaric , untalented possessor of a guitar " who looks " more simian than human " .
After reading the article , Flynn was furious and wrote " Aesthetics of Hate " as a condemnation of Grim 's article , and Dimebag detractors . He wrote a message on the band 's forum expressing his friendship with Darrell and spoke about Grim :
What would YOU know about love or values ? What would YOU know about giving to the world ? All that you know is teaching prejudice , and your heart is as black as the ' ignorant , filthy , and hideously ugly , heavy metal fans ' you try and paint in your twisted , fictitious ramblings . It 's because of people like YOU , that there are Nathan Gales in this world , NOT the Dimebags and metal musicians who work to unite people through music .
= = Recording = =
In February 2005 , Machine Head had penned a rough version of " Aesthetics of Hate " . A 13 @-@ track November 2005 demo featured the song , although it contained what Flynn described as a " totally fucking lame ' Angel of Death ' rip off . I hated it every time we played it so I was glad to see that part go ! " The band entered Sharkbite Studios , in Oakland , California on August 21 , 2006 to begin recording . Production duties were handled by Flynn with assistance from Mark Keaton , and mixing by Colin Richardson .
= = Critical reception = =
" Aesthetics of Hate " received positive reviews from music critics . Blabbermouth.net 's Don Kaye described the track as " literally breathtaking " and said that the song " channels its title emotion into a blazing volcano of pure speed and furious guitarwork from Flynn and Phil Demmel . " Reviewing for France 's Hard ' N Heavy magazine , Anthrax 's Scott Ian felt that the song is " a riff @-@ o @-@ rama showing off Robb Flynn and Phil Demmel 's killer guitar work . " Thom Jurek of Allmusic felt " the intense dual arpeggios between both guitarists -- Flynn and Phil Demmel on ' Aesthetics of Hate ' ( as just one example ) are among the tightest ever " . However , J.D. Considine of Blender commented that the song " cuts from screaming guitars to an ominously whispered , ' May the hands of God strike them down ' . Without oversize hooks , calls for biblical vengeance just sound silly . "
" Aesthetics of Hate " received a nomination for Best Metal Performance at the 50th Grammy Awards . The ceremony took place on February 12 , 2008 , with Machine Head being beaten out by Slayer 's " Final Six " . Flynn commented on the nomination , " We are completely blown away , and honored by this . It 's incredible that the anger of this song has connected with so many people . It proves to Dimebag 's detractors the positive impact he had on his fans and fellow bands alike . "
On August 8 2008 , the song was confirmed to be as part of the " Roadrunner Records " pack in Rock Band .
= = Personnel = =
Robb Flynn – lead vocals , guitar
Dave McClain – drums
Adam Duce – bass , backing vocals
Phil Demmel – guitar
= Captain Munnerlyn =
Captain Munnerlyn ( born April 10 , 1988 ) is an American football cornerback for the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He played college football at South Carolina for three years . He was drafted by the Carolina Panthers in the seventh round , 216th overall of the 2009 NFL Draft .
Munnerlyn played high school football at Murphy High School in Mobile , Alabama , where he was named All @-@ region three times . Following high school , he chose to play college football for the South Carolina Gamecocks after receiving scholarship offers from two other teams . As a freshman in 2006 , he played in 11 games and recorded a season high five tackles in two . In 2007 , Munnerlyn was both a nickel back and return specialist for the Gamecocks . Following the season he was named All – Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) . In 2008 , he was elevated to starting cornerback while also returning kicks and punts . Against Kentucky , he returned a kickoff 84 yards and a blocked field goal 81 yards . On the second day of the 2009 NFL Draft , Munnerlyn was selected by the Carolina Panthers in the seventh round ( 216th overall ) .
= = Early years = =
Munnerlyn was born three months premature and at birth weighed three pounds , eight ounces . He grew up in Happy Hills , which was a crime @-@ infested part of Mobile . While living there , he attended the Josephine Allen branch of Boys & Girls Clubs of South Alabama .
When he was growing up , his father was murdered and both of his brothers sold drugs . His oldest brother , Timothy , was convicted in 1996 of murder and was sentenced to life in prison . After the shooting , Munnerlyn 's mother converted to Christianity and he eventually did the same . Munnerlyn eventually said of the conversion and his mother 's prayers that he would stay out of trouble , " Without her prayers , I don 't think I could be here in the NFL right now " .
= = High school career = =
Munnerlyn attended Murphy High School in Mobile , Alabama , where he starred in both football and track . In football , he was a three @-@ time All @-@ region selection and participated in the Junior All – Star Game . He helped lead Murphy High to a 10 @-@ 2 record and a 6A Regional runner @-@ up finish his senior year , earning a spot on the Alabama Sports Writers Association All @-@ State team . He graduated from Murphy in 2006 .
During high school , Munnerlyn was also a standout track & field sprinter . He competed in the 100 @-@ meter dash and long jump at the 2004 Junior Olympics . In 2006 , he earned a second @-@ place finish in the long jump event at the AHSAA State T & F Meet , recording a career @-@ best leap of 6 @.@ 85 meters ( 22 ft , 4 @.@ 75 in ) . He clocked personal @-@ best times of 10 @.@ 53 seconds in the 100 @-@ meter dash and 22 @.@ 39 seconds in the 200 @-@ meter dash as a senior .
= = College career = =
After high school , Munnerlyn was recruited by South Carolina , West Virginia and Kansas State . He chose South Carolina on January 13 , 2006 . As a freshman , Munnerlyn was not redshirted and played in 12 games . He missed one game due to an infection in his forearm . For the season , he recorded 36 tackles with his season high of five coming against Tennessee and Houston . Munnerlyn also recorded two interceptions and five pass deflections .
In 2007 , as a sophomore , Munnerlyn split time at cornerback and kick returner and was called a " shut down corner " on Rivals.com. Against Vanderbilt , to whom South Carolina lost 17 – 6 , Munnerlyn returned a punt 46 yards and also forced a fumble . In the same game , South Carolina wide receiver Kenny McKinley fielded a punt and flipped it to Munnerlyn who gained eight yards . Following , the season he was named First – team All – SEC .
Head coach Steve Spurrier benched Munnerlyn for the first series against Ole Miss due to Munnerlyn missing class and team weightlifting sessions . Against Kentucky , Munnerlyn returned a kickoff 84 yards before being tackled on the 16 yard line . On the
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constructed partial suits that were worn on set . Townsend explained that " Invariably we 'd shoot a soft @-@ suit with Robert then we 'd also put tracking markers on his trousers . He would also wear lifts in his shoes or be up in a box so he 'd be the correct height — Iron Man is 6 ' 5 " . During shooting we used multiple witness cams , Canon C300s , and we had two or three running whenever there was an Iron Man or Extremis character . " The artists studied time lapse photography of decaying fruit and vegetables and actual phenomena such as the aurora borealis as reference for the effect of the glowing Extremis characters .
The film 's production was delayed following Downey 's leg injury , and for certain shots they were forced to create a double for Downey . Townsend explained that " The collective VFX [ supervisors ] and unit leads ran into a room as soon as the incident happened to try to ascertain what sequences could they shoot . " Certain shots were filmed with a body double on set , and Weta Digital created a digital body double for others .
A total of three hours and 15 minutes of footage were shot before editing , where it was brought down to 130 minutes ( 119 without the credits ) , marking the longest stand @-@ alone Iron Man film . Post @-@ production also had a 3D conversion and a digital remaster for the IMAX release . Todd @-@ AO mixed the sound in Dolby Atmos to enhance the immersive experience .
= = Music = =
In October 2012 , Brian Tyler signed on to score the film . According to Tyler , he was approached more for his " thematic " scores such as The Greatest Game Ever Played , Annapolis and Partition rather than his " modern " action scores such as The Fast and Furious films , with Kevin Feige asking a theme that was recognizable and featured those dramatic tones . To employ the " deeply thematic component with a strong melody , " the score employs mostly orchestra sounds . The main theme for Iron Man focuses on horns and trumpets , to be " both a march and anthem . " Tyler mentioned that John Williams ' work in Raiders of the Lost Ark was the first thing he thought as an influence , and the cue for the Well of Souls in Raiders influenced the Extremis motif , as Tyler felt it should enhance an spiritual side for having a " technology so advanced that nears magic . " Echoing the Mandarin 's amalgamated personality , his theme was religious music " that borrows from many cultures , " from " Monastic , Gothic , and Christian chants to music from the Middle @-@ East . " The score was recorded with the London Philharmonic Orchestra at Abbey Road Studios . Tyler is the third primary composer to score an Iron Man film , following Ramin Djawadi of Iron Man and John Debney of Iron Man 2 .
Along with Tyler 's soundtrack album , Hollywood Records released a concept album inspired by the film , Heroes Fall . It features twelve original alternative rock and indie rock songs , with only one appearing in the film itself , Awolnation 's " Some Kind of Joke . "
= = Release = =
Iron Man 3 was distributed worldwide by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures1 with the exception of China , where it was released by DMG Entertainment , and Germany and Austria , where it was released by Tele München Group . The Chinese version of the film offers specially prepared bonus footage made exclusively for the Chinese audience . This version features a four @-@ minute longer cut of the film , with a scene showing Dr. Wu on the phone with Iron Man visible on a television screen behind him , as well as a longer scene of Dr. Wu operating on Stark . The extra material also features product placement for various Chinese products .
The film 's premiere happened at Le Grand Rex in Paris , on April 14 , 2013 , with Robert Downey , Jr. and Gwyneth Paltrow in attendance . While the UK premiere of the film was originally set for April 17 , the funeral of former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher taking place in that date made the event be pushed to the following day . Downey , Ben Kingsley and Rebecca Hall were present for the advance screening at London 's Odeon Leicester Square . The El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles hosted the United States premiere of Iron Man 3 on April 24 . The film opened in 46 countries through April 22 – 24 , with the United States release , in 4 @,@ 253 screens , happening one week later . Regal Cinemas , AMC Theatres and Carmike Cinemas put presale tickets on hold , two weeks before the US premiere . The cinemas were in a contract dispute with Disney , who wished to receive more of the ticket sale profit than they currently did , largely based on the projected premiere @-@ weekend intake Iron Man 3 was expected to have . Carmike was the first to come to terms with Disney . It was later reported that Cinemark Theatres had also stopped selling presale tickets , and Regal Cinemas had removed all marketing material for the film from its locations . On April 25 , 2013 , Regal , AMC and Disney ended their dispute , which allowed Regal and AMC to proceed with selling presale tickets again .
IMAX screenings began on April 25 , 2013 internationally and May 3 in the United States . The film was shown in the 4DX format , featuring strobe lights , tilting seats , blowing wind and fog and odor effects in selected countries . In Japan , the technology opened its first room at the Korona World theatre in Nagoya , Japan with the release of the film .
= = = Marketing = = =
In July 2012 , at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , a new Iron Man armor from the movie , the Mark XLII , was on display on the convention floor , along with the Marks I @-@ VII from the first two Iron Man movies and The Avengers . A panel was held , during which Shane Black , Robert Downey , Jr . , Don Cheadle , Jon Favreau and Kevin Feige discussed making the film , and several minutes of footage from the movie were shown . The first television advertisement aired during Super Bowl XLVII on the CBS network in the United States . On March 25 , 2013 , Marvel and Disney revealed on the official Iron Man Facebook page , " Iron Man 3 : Armor Unlock , " to reveal suits Stark has made before the events of the film . In January 2013 , Marvel Comics released a two @-@ issue comic book prelude by writers Christos Gage and Will Corona Pilgrim with art by Steve Kurth and Drew Geraci . The story set between the second and third Iron Man films centers on War Machine , revealing why he was absent during the battle in New York of The Avengers .
Like with the first two films , Audi again provided product placement with various vehicles . Oracle also returned from Iron Man 2 , showcasing both the Oracle Cloud and the Oracle Exadata server . Verizon FiOS and TCL 's flat panel televisions and Alcatel One Touch smartphones are also featured in the film , and the Chinese cut also shows a Zoomlion crane and Yili milk . Promotional deals were arranged with Subway and the Schwan Food Company , and tie @-@ ins included Lego sets , Hasbro action figures , and a mobile phone game by Gameloft .
Disney also promoted the film at its domestic theme parks . Disneyland 's Innoventions attraction received a Stark Industries exhibit beginning April 13 , and Monorail Black of the Walt Disney World Monorail System was given an exterior Iron Man scheme . The exhibit , entitled Iron Man Tech Presented by Stark Industries , features the same armor display that was shown at the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , with the Marks I @-@ VII and the new Mark XLII . In addition , there is a simulator game , titled " Become Iron Man , " that uses Kinect @-@ like technology to allow the viewer to be encased in an animated Mark XLII armor and take part in a series of " tests , ” in which you fire repulsor rays and fly through Tony Stark 's workshop . The game is guided by J.A.R.V.I.S. , who is voiced again by Paul Bettany . The exhibit also has smaller displays that include helmets and chest pieces from the earlier films and the gauntlet and boot from an action sequence in Iron Man 3 .
= = = Home media = = =
Iron Man 3 was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment in digital download form on September 3 , 2013 . This was followed by the film 's release on Blu @-@ ray disc , 3D Blu @-@ ray , DVD , digital copy , and on demand on September 24 , 2013 . The home video release includes a Marvel One @-@ Shot short film titled Agent Carter starring Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter from Captain America : The First Avenger . It debuted atop the DVD and Blu @-@ ray charts in the United States , and second in the rental charts behind World War Z. As of January 31 , 2014 , Iron Man 3 is the eighth best @-@ selling DVD of 2013 , earning more than $ 79 million in sales in the U.S.
The film was also collected in a 13 @-@ disc box set titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase Two Collection " , which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on December 8 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Iron Man 3 grossed $ 409 million in North America and $ 806 @.@ 4 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $ 1 @.@ 2 billion . Worldwide , it is the 10th highest @-@ grossing film , the second highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 , the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( behind Marvel 's The Avengers and Avengers : Age of Ultron ) , the highest @-@ grossing film of the Iron Man film series , the fifth highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Disney , and the highest @-@ grossing threequel . It achieved the sixth @-@ largest worldwide opening weekend with $ 372 @.@ 5 million . On the weekend of May 3 – 5 , 2013 , the film set a record for the largest worldwide weekend in IMAX with $ 28 @.@ 6 million . On its 23rd day in theaters , Iron Man 3 became the sixth Disney film and the 16th film overall to reach $ 1 billion . It is the first Iron Man film to gross over $ 1 billion , the second Marvel film to do so after The Avengers , and the fourth @-@ fastest film to reach the milestone . As part of the earlier distribution agreement made with Disney in 2010 , Paramount Pictures received 9 % of the box office gross generated by Iron Man 3 . Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $ 391 @.@ 8 million , when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film .
= = = = North America = = = =
Iron Man 3 is the 18th highest @-@ grossing film , the second highest @-@ grossing 2013 film , as well as the fourth highest @-@ grossing comic @-@ book and superhero film . By the end of its opening day , Iron Man 3 made $ 68 @.@ 9 million ( including $ 15 @.@ 6 million from late Thursday shows ) , achieving the seventh highest @-@ grossing opening day . By the end of its opening weekend , the film earned $ 174 @.@ 1 million , making it the fourth @-@ highest opening weekend of all time ( behind Jurassic World , The Avengers , and Avengers : Age of Ultron ) . Of the opening @-@ weekend audience , 55 % was over 25 years old , and 61 % were males , while only 45 % of the gross originated from 3 @-@ D screenings . Opening @-@ weekend earnings from IMAX amounted to $ 16 @.@ 5 million . It topped the box office during two consecutive weekends and achieved the fifth largest second @-@ weekend gross with $ 72 @.@ 5 million .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
Iron Man 3 is the 10th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film , the second highest @-@ grossing 2013 film , the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing superhero and comic @-@ book film , and the fifth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film distributed by Disney . The film earned $ 13 @.@ 2 million on its opening day ( Wednesday , April 24 , 2013 ) from 12 countries . Through Sunday , April 28 , it earned a five @-@ day opening weekend of $ 198 @.@ 4 million from 42 countries . The film 's opening @-@ weekend gross included $ 7 @.@ 1 million from IMAX venues . It set opening @-@ day records in the Philippines ( surpassed by Man of Steel ) , Taiwan , Singapore , Vietnam , Malaysia , China , Ukraine , Russia and the CIS , both single and opening day records in Thailand and South Africa , as well as a single @-@ day record in Hong Kong . It also scored the second @-@ biggest opening day in Argentina ( only behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ) . The film set opening @-@ weekend records in the Asia Pacific region , in Latin America , and in individual countries including Argentina ( first surpassed by Fast & Furious 6 , when including weekday previews ) , Ecuador , Hong Kong , Indonesia , Vietnam , Taiwan , the Philippines , Malaysia , Singapore , Thailand , South Africa , and the United Arab Emirates . It also achieved the second @-@ largest opening weekend in Mexico , Brazil , and Russia and the CIS . In India , it had the second @-@ best opening weekend for a Hollywood film after The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . IMAX opening @-@ weekend records were set in Taiwan , the Netherlands , Brazil , and the Philippines . It is the highest @-@ grossing film in Indonesia , Malaysia and Vietnam and the second highest @-@ grossing film in Singapore and the Philippines ( behind The Avengers ) . It topped the weekend box office outside North America three consecutive times .
In China , where part of the production took place , the film set a midnight @-@ showings record with $ 2 @.@ 1 million , as well as single @-@ day and opening @-@ day records with $ 21 @.@ 5 million ( on its opening day ) . Through its first Sunday , the film earned an opening @-@ weekend total of $ 64 @.@ 1 million , making China 's opening the largest for the film , followed by a $ 23 @.@ 1 million opening in Russia and the CIS , and a $ 21 @.@ 2 million opening in the UK , Ireland and Malta . With total earnings reaching $ 124 million , it was the highest @-@ grossing American film in China in 2013 , and the country is the film 's highest @-@ grossing market after North America , followed by South Korea ( $ 64 @.@ 2 million ) and the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 57 @.@ 1 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 79 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 / 10 based on 286 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " With the help of its charismatic lead , some impressive action sequences , and even a few surprises , Iron Man 3 is a witty , entertaining adventure and a strong addition to the Marvel canon . " Metacritic gave a score of 62 out of 100 , based on 44 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
In an early review by the trade magazine The Hollywood Reporter , Todd McCarthy said that , " After nearly crashing and burning on his last solo flight in 2010 , Iron Man returns refreshed and ready for action in this spirited third installment ... [ that ] benefits immeasurably from the irreverent quicksilver humor of co @-@ writer and director Shane Black . Calling the film " darker and more serious than its predecessors , " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times credited Black for " chang [ ing ] this billion @-@ dollar @-@ plus franchise 's tone for the better while keeping the same actor as Tony Stark . ... There is quite a bit of Black 's trademark attitude and humor here as well , things like a throwaway reference to the sci @-@ fi classic Westworld and a goofy character who has Tony Stark 's likeness tattooed on his forearm . Black and company throw all kinds of stuff at the audience , and though it doesn 't all work , a lot of it does and the attempt to be different and create unguessable twists is always appreciated . " Rafer Guzman of Newsday characterized Iron Man as " the anti @-@ Batman , all zip and zingers . He 's also , suddenly , rather family @-@ friendly . Some of the movie 's best moments are shared by Stark and latchkey kid Harley ( Ty Simpkins ) , who mock their budding father @-@ son relationship while acting it out . " Psychology Today concluded that the film presented an accurate portrayal of Tony Stark 's posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms .
Nick De Semlyen of the UK film magazine Empire had criticisms , even while giving the film four of five stars . Finding it " a swinging caper with wit , balls , heart and exploding baubles , " he said the villainous " super @-@ soldiers who can regenerate body parts and survive astounding damage [ are ] visually interesting ... but their motivation is murky and unconvincing . " Likewise Joshua Rothkopf of Time Out New York bestowed 3 of 5 stars , saying , " Black has massively upped the verbal sparring and kept the broad inventiveness of comic @-@ book malleability in mind . ... The most wonderful of Black 's surprises harkens back to his ' 80s reputation for character revision and is simply too good to ruin here . " But , he asked , " [ W ] hy , finally , are we down at the docks — in the dark , no less — for one of those lumbering climaxes involving swinging shipping cranes ? The energy bleeds out of the film ; it 's as if the producers were scared the crowd would riot over not enough digital fakeness . "
Reacting more negatively , Stephen Whitty of The Star @-@ Ledger found the film " slickly enjoyable " for the visual effects , but said , " [ T ] here 's something empty about the film . Like Tony 's suits , it 's shiny and polished . But this time , there 's nobody inside ... This movie has neither the emotionalism of the first film , nor the flashy villains of the second ... Tony 's relationship with girlfriend Pepper Potts is in inexplicable jeopardy — and then simply fixes itself . A supposedly cute kid sidekick — a true sign of authorial desperation — is introduced , and then dropped . " Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune echoed this , saying , " [ I ] n a gleefully cynical bid for a preteen audience ( a few years too young for the violence in Iron Man 3 , I 'd say ) , Stark befriends a bullied 8 @-@ year @-@ old [ sic ] ( Ty Simpkins ) who becomes his tag @-@ along and sometime savior ... Stark no longer needs to be in the Iron Man suit . He 's able to operate the thing remotely when needed . The movie 's like that too . It 's decent superhero blockbustering , but rather remote and vaguely secondhand . At this point , even with Black 's flashes of black humor , the machinery is more or less taking care of itself , offering roughly half of the genial wit and enjoyment of the first Iron Man . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Future = =
= = = Possible sequel = = =
In March 2013 , Black stated that Downey 's original contract with Marvel Studios , which expired after the release of Iron Man 3 , may be extended in order for the actor to appear in a second Avengers film and at least one more Iron Man film . He said : " There has been a lot of discussion about it : ' Is this the last Iron Man for Robert [ Downey , Jr . ] ? ' Something tells me that it will not be the case , and [ he ] will be seen in a fourth , or fifth . " In April 2013 , Cheadle stated that Iron Man 3 could be the final film in the series , saying , " The door is always left open in these kinds of movies especially when they do as well as they have done . I know there was talk of making sure we did this one right , and if it worked it could be the last one . There 's room for more to be done with these characters . We 're getting to a sweet spot with Tony and Rhodey , anyway . " In September 2014 , in regards to a fourth film , Downey said , " There isn 't one in the pipe ... No , there 's no plan for a fourth Iron Man . " Despite this , in April 2016 , Downey stated that he was open to reprising his role in a potential fourth Iron Man film , saying " I feel like I could do one more . "
= = = Marvel One @-@ Shot = = =
In February 2014 , Marvel released the One @-@ Shot film , All Hail the King , on Thor : The Dark World 's home media , featuring Kingsley reprising his role as Trevor Slattery , and continues Slattery 's story from the end of the film .
= Hipposideros besaoka =
Hipposideros besaoka is an extinct bat from Madagascar in the genus Hipposideros . It is known from numerous jaws and teeth , which were collected in a cave at Anjohibe in 1996 and described as a new species in 2007 . The site where H. besaoka was found is at most 10 @,@ 000 years old ; other parts of the cave have yielded H. commersoni , a living species of Hipposideros from Madagascar , and some material that is distinct from both species . H. besaoka was larger than H. commersoni , making it the largest insectivorous bat of Madagascar , and had broader molars and a more robust lower jaw . As usual in Hipposideros , the second upper premolar is small and displaced from the toothrow , and the second lower premolar is large .
= = Taxonomy and distribution = =
In 1996 , a team led by biologist David Burney collected breccias containing bats and other animals from the cave of Anjohibe in northwestern Madagascar . The bats in the sample were described by Karen Samonds ( previously Irwin ) in her 2006 Ph.D. dissertation and a 2007 paper . She found several living species in addition to two extinct ones , Triaenops goodmani and Hipposideros besaoka , that she described as new . Hipposideros , the genus to which H. besaoka is assigned , contains the living species Hipposideros commersoni from Madagascar , among many others . The specific name besaoka is the Malagasy for " big chin " . The material of H. besaoka is from locality TW @-@ 10 within the cave and is about 10 @,@ 000 years old or younger . A cladistic analysis using morphological data suggests that H. besaoka is most closely related to the mainland African H. gigas and H. vittatus , previously included in H. commersoni , and somewhat more distantly to H. commersoni itself .
Samonds also found Hipposideros material in other sites at Anjohibe , but did not assign it to H. besaoka . In Old SE , also at most 10 @,@ 000 years old , a single fourth upper premolar ( P4 ) was found with dimensions different from those seen in both H. commersoni and H. besaoka and lacking a cusp on the front lingual ( inner ) corner , present in both other species ; Samonds assigned this specimen to Hipposideros sp. cf . H. commersoni . In NCC @-@ 1 ( estimated 69 @,@ 600 to 86 @,@ 800 years old ) , a lower incisor and a third lower molar ( m3 ) were found ; these teeth resemble H. commersoni and are distinct from H. besaoka , so Samonds assigned them to the former species . Locality SS2 , which could not be dated , contained a few teeth and isolated jaws of Hipposideros . Some of these showed measurements distinct from both Hipposideros species , rendering the assignment of the material doubtful ; Samonds referred it to H. sp. cf . H. commersoni .
= = Description = =
Hipposideros besaoka is known from numerous jaw bones and isolated teeth . The material is identifiable as Hipposideros by the dental formula of 1 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 ( one incisor , one canine , two premolars , and three molars in the upper dentition on both the left and right ; two incisors , one canine , two premolars , and three molars in the lower dentition on the left and right ) ; the second upper premolar ( P2 ) is shifted out of the toothrow toward the side of the skull , so that the canine ( C1 ) and P4 touch or nearly touch ; and the second lower premolar ( p2 ) is large and has a broad , steep facet on the buccal ( outer ) side . Morphometric analysis shows that H. besaoka is significantly different from H. commersoni and falls outside the substantial variation within that species . In particular , the upper molars are broader and the mandible ( lower jaw ) is more robust . In bats , robust mandibles are often associated with a diet that includes hard objects . H. besaoka was the largest insectivorous bat of Madagascar , a position now filled by the smaller H. commersoni .
= = = Jaws = = =
The premaxillary bones each house a single incisor , which is located at the front tip . They end in a V shape at the front margin and in a narrow point at the back margin . Inside each premaxilla is a large opening , the anterior palatal foramen . The maxillary bone contains the other upper teeth . The mandible ranges from thin to robust and houses the lower teeth .
= = = Teeth = = =
The upper incisors are small and flat @-@ crowned and are weakly divided into two lobes . A single large cusp is present on C1 , with a smaller shelf at the back side . P2 is very small and P4 contains a high cusp at the front , a smaller cusp before it on the inner ( lingual ) side , and a shelf behind the high cusp . The length of P4 averages 2 @.@ 13 mm , with a standard deviation ( SD ) of 0 @.@ 104 mm , and width is 2 @.@ 52 mm with an SD of 0 @.@ 168 mm . On the first upper molar ( M1 ) , the protofossa , a basin between cusps at the front of the tooth , is closed . The second molar ( M2 ) is similar , but smaller and more squared . M3 is much smaller and has a reduced crown pattern resembling a W.
The two incisors on each side of the lower jaw are small and have three cusps . The lower canine ( c1 ) has one high and narrow cusp . The second lower premolar ( p2 ) is a large tooth with a high central cusp and high crests connecting this cusp to the front and back edges . A second , smaller cusp is present in the back crest . The fourth premolar ( p4 ) also has a high central cusp ; in addition , there are smaller roots before and behind it on the lingual side . This tooth has two roots . In the first lower molar ( m1 ) , a large tooth , the cusp complex at the front ( the trigonid ) is high and the one at the back ( the talonid ) is lower . Among the cusps of the trigonid , the protoconid is highest and the metaconid and paraconid are lower and about equally high . The cingula ( shelves ) at the front and the back are low . The second molar ( m2 ) is similar and only a trifle smaller , but m3 is much smaller and has a reduced talonid . Length of m3 averages 2 @.@ 37 mm ( SD 0 @.@ 098 mm ) and width 1 @.@ 76 mm ( SD 0 @.@ 076 mm ) .
= Ski flying =
Ski flying is an individual sport discipline derived from ski jumping , in which much greater distances can be achieved . It is a form of competitive Nordic skiing where athletes descend at very fast speeds along a specially built takeoff ramp using skis only ; jump from the end of it with as much power as they can generate ; then glide – or ' fly ' – as far as possible down a steeply sloped hill ; and ultimately land in a stable manner . Points are awarded for distance and stylistic merit by five judges , and events are sanctioned by the International Ski Federation ( FIS ) .
The rules and scoring in ski flying are mostly the same as they are in ski jumping , and events under the discipline are usually contested as part of the Ski Jumping World Cup season , but the hills ( of which there are only five , all in Europe ) are constructed to a different standard in order to enable jumps of up to two thirds longer in distance . There is also a stronger emphasis on aerodynamics and harnessing the wind , as well as an increased element of danger due to athletes flying much higher and faster than in ski jumping .
From its beginnings in the 1930s , ski flying has developed its own distinct history and given rise to all of the sport 's world records . The first hill intended specifically for ski flying was built in Slovenia in 1934 , after which both Germany and Austria built their own hills in 1950 . This was followed by Norway in 1966 , the United States in 1970 , and the Czech Republic in 1980 . In the 1960s to 1980s , a friendly rivalry between the European venues saw world records being set regularly , together with evolutions in technique to fly longer distances .
Ski flying remains very popular in Slovenia and Norway , where the most recent world records over the past two decades have been set in front of audiences numbering 30 @,@ 000 – 60 @,@ 000 .
= = History = =
= = = 1930s – 40s = = =
= = = = Breaking the 100 metre barrier and the birth of ski flying = = = =
The origins of ski flying can be traced directly to 15 March 1936 in Planica , Slovenia ( then a part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) , when 18 @-@ year @-@ old Austrian Josef " Sepp " Bradl became the first man in history to land a ski jump of over 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . His world record jump of 101 @.@ 5 m ( 333 ft ) was set at Bloudkova velikanka ( " Bloudek giant " ) , a new hill designed and completed in 1934 by engineers Stanko Bloudek and Ivan Rožman , together with Joso Gorec . With jumps now in the triple digits , Bloudek enthused : " That was no longer ski jumping . That was ski flying ! " It was with these words that ski flying took on a life of its own . Such was the awe and disbelief at these massive jumps , the units of measurement were trivialised by the media , who suggested that the metre used in Yugoslavia was shorter than elsewhere in Europe .
Bradl later spoke fondly of the jump which made him an icon in the sport :
The air pushed violently against my chest ; I leaned right into it and let it carry me . I had only one wish : to fly as far as possible ! ... [ After landing the jump ] , many thousands of curious eyes looked up at the judges ' tower . I could hardly believe it when an additional ' 1' popped up on the scoreboard !
= = = = Dispute between the FIS and Planica = = = =
In the early 1930s , prior to the construction of Bloudkova velikanka , the FIS had deemed ski jumping hills with a K @-@ point ( German : Konstruktionspunkt ) of 70 m ( 230 ft ) to be the absolute largest permissible . Athletes who chose to compete on hills with a K @-@ point of more than 80 m ( 260 ft ) were outright denied a licence to jump , and events allowing for distances beyond 90 m ( 300 ft ) were strongly discouraged – even denounced – on the grounds that they were unnecessarily dangerous and brought the sport into disrepute . Bloudek and his team nonetheless went ahead and flouted the rules in creating a so @-@ called " mammoth hill " specifically designed for previously unimaginable distances . Bloudkova velikanka originally had a K @-@ point of 90 m , by far the largest of any hill at the time , but was upgraded in less than two years to 106 m ( 348 ft ) in eager anticipation of the 100 + m jumps to come . In 1938 , exactly two years to the day of his milestone jump , Josef Bradl improved his world record by a wide margin to 107 m ( 351 ft ) .
After a period of wrangling and increasing public interest in the novelty of this new ' extreme ' form of ski jumping , the FIS relented . In 1938 , a decision was made at the fifteenth International Ski Congress in Helsinki , Finland to allow for " experimental " hill design , thereby officially recognising ski flying as a sanctioned discipline . Despite this reluctant recognition , the FIS still frowned upon the practice of aiming predominantly for long distances over style , and to this day refuse to publish lists of world records in an official capacity . Furthermore , the rules for ski flying would not be fully established until after World War II .
In 1941 , with the K @-@ point increased further to 120 m ( 390 ft ) , the world record was broken five times in Planica : it went from 108 m ( 354 ft ) to 118 m ( 387 ft ) in a single day , shared between four athletes . After World War II had passed , Fritz Tschannen matched the K @-@ point with a jump of 120 m in 1948 . This marked the last time Planica would hold the world record for almost two decades , as emerging new hills would soon provide stern competition .
= = = 1950s – 60s = = =
= = = = New hills across Europe = = = =
A challenger to Planica arrived in 1949 with the construction of Heini @-@ Klopfer @-@ Skiflugschanze ( " Heini Klopfer ski flying hill " ) in Oberstdorf , West Germany . Designed by former ski jumper turned architect Heini Klopfer , as well as then @-@ active ski jumpers Toni Brutscher and Sepp Weiler , the hill had a K @-@ point of 120 m to match that of Bloudkova velikanka . The FIS , still wary of the rising popularity of ski flying and wanting to keep it in check , refused to sanction the construction of the hill , having previously denounced the 1947 and 1948 events in Planica .
The stance of the FIS eased once again , as the inaugural event in Oberstdorf was given approval to be staged in 1950 . During this week @-@ long event , an estimated crowd of altogether 100 @,@ 000 witnessed the world record fall three times , with Dan Netzell claiming the final figure of 135 m ( 443 ft ) . Tauno Luiro eclipsed it the following year by jumping 139 m ( 456 ft ) , a world record which would stay in place for almost ten years until Jože Šlibar jumped 141 m ( 463 ft ) in 1961 . The past two decades of Planica holding a near @-@ monopoly over the world record now seemed a distant memory , as it would instead be Oberstdorf 's turn to do exactly the same .
Also in 1950 , a ski flying hill was built at Kulm in Tauplitz / Bad Mitterndorf , Austria . Peter Lesser first equalled the world record there in 1962 , improving it three years later to 145 m ( 476 ft ) . Another hill entered the scene in 1966 , when Vikersundbakken ( " Vikersund hill " ) in Vikersund , Norway was rebuilt to ski flying specifications , having originally opened as a ski jumping hill in 1936 . On this newly rebuilt hill the world record was first equalled , then broken twice to end up at 154 m ( 505 ft ) in 1967 . Although hills in Norway were still at the forefront of ski jumping , their prominence in ski flying was short @-@ lived , as it would be the last time Vikersund would hold a world record until four decades later .
Seeking to co @-@ operate on hill design and event organisation , the venues at Kulm , Oberstdorf and Planica formed the KOP working group in 1962 ( KOP being an abbreviation of Kulm / Oberstdorf / Planica ) . This group would go on to consult with the FIS in all aspects of ski flying , celebrating their 50th anniversary in 2012 . In 1953 , Kulm hosted the first International Ski Flying Week , which would be the premier event in ski flying until 1972 .
= = = = Breaking the 150 metre barrier = = = =
In 1967 , in Oberstdorf , Lars Grini became the first to reach 150 m ( 490 ft ) . Planica triumphantly reclaimed its world record in 1969 with a new hill named Velikanka bratov Gorišek ( " Giant by brothers Gorišek " ) . This was the brainchild of Slovenian brothers Janez and Vlado Gorišek , both engineers , who opted to design a new hill with a K @-@ point of 153 m ( 502 ft ) instead of enlarging the adjacent Bloudkova velikanka , which was showing signs of deterioration . Today , Janez is affectionately called the " father " of modern ski flying and a revered figure in Slovenia . Bloudkova velikanka was subsequently recategorised as a ski jumping hill .
At the opening event of Velikanka bratov Gorišek , five world records were set : Bjørn Wirkola and Jiří Raška traded it among themselves four times , until Manfred Wolf ended their run with a jump of 165 m ( 541 ft ) . It can be said that competition between hill locations , all vying for world record honours , truly began at this time . The 1960s remains the decade with the highest amount of world records since the advent of ski flying , with seventeen in total being set on the hills in Oberstdorf , Planica , Kulm and Vikersund . By contrast the 1950s had the fewest with four , all being set in Oberstdorf .
= = = 1970s = = =
= = = = Planica vs. Oberstdorf = = = =
The world record stayed in Planica for four years , during which the K @-@ point at Velikanka bratov Gorišek was upgraded to 165 m in time for the inaugural Ski Flying World Championships in 1972 , which eventually superseded International Ski Flying Week . This new event was sanctioned a year earlier by the FIS at their 28th International Ski Congress in Opatija , Croatia ( then a part of Yugoslavia ) . Much like in 1938 when the discipline received official recognition from the FIS , another milestone had been reached as ski flying was now granted its own world championship @-@ level event on par with the Ski Jumping World Championships , having spent almost four decades as a mere ' special attraction ' alongside its older and more prestigious sibling .
With no world records set at the 1972 event , the organisers in Oberstdorf got to work by upgrading their hill to a K @-@ point of 175 m ( 574 ft ) for the 1973 Ski Flying World Championships . Janez Gorišek was brought in to oversee the project following Heini Klopfer 's death in 1968 . With the gauntlet laid down , the results were showcased immediately when Heinz Wossipiwo set a world record of 169 m ( 554 ft ) in Oberstdorf . Determined to claim the world record for himself , Walter Steiner – the reigning Ski Flying World Champion – jumped 175 m ( 574 ft ) and 179 m ( 587 ft ) but crashed heavily on both attempts , sustaining a concussion and a fractured rib . He would finish the event with a silver medal , behind winner Hans @-@ Georg Aschenbach .
A year later in Planica , in front of a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd , Steiner finally achieved the world record he had been striving for , landing a jump of 169 m to equal that of Wossipiwo in 1973 . Spectators were astonished and the event organisers momentarily bewildered , as Steiner had landed well beyond the markers used to indicate distance alongside the hill , which only went as far as the existing K @-@ point of 165 m . For the first time since their respective hills had been built , the competition was levelled between Oberstdorf and Planica . On the next day of the event in the latter , Steiner tried to go even further : he landed at 177 m ( 581 ft ) but fell down on what was almost flat ground , although this time he managed to walk away ( albeit on unsteady legs ) with only cuts to his face .
= = = = Safety issues arise = = = =
All these increasingly long distances came at a price , as illustrated by filmmaker Werner Herzog in his 1974 documentary The Great Ecstasy of Woodcarver Steiner . During both the aforementioned events in Oberstdorf and Planica , several athletes including Steiner had far exceeded the limits of the hill by simply ' running out of slope ' or ' out @-@ jumping ' the hill . Jumps were much further than in the 1950s , during which the old Kongsberger technique was still in use . The results were now potentially fatal each time : athletes were coming only metres away from landing on completely flat ground , or the equivalent of falling from a multi @-@ storey building . Furthermore , only a wool cap and goggles – or no headgear at all – were worn ; an antiquated feature left unchanged from the very earliest days of ski jumping more than 150 years prior . In 1979 , at their 32nd International Ski Congress in Nice , France , the FIS mandated helmets to be worn by athletes at all ski jumping and flying events .
In Herzog 's documentary , Steiner is shown to reflect with trepidation in Oberstdorf :
Ski flying has reached the point where it 's beginning to present real dangers . We 've just about reached the limit , I believe , as far as speed is concerned . ... Maybe I 'd prefer to turn back [ and ] go back to flying off 150- or 130 @-@ metre hills , but it 's the thrill of flying so far that nevertheless gives me a kick .
Further down the hill and pointing to a wooden marker indicating Steiner 's failed efforts , Herzog explains solemnly :
This mark is , in fact , the point where ski flying starts to be inhuman . Walter Steiner was in very great danger . If he 'd flown 10 m ( 33 ft ) more , he 'd have landed down here on the flat . Just imagine , it 's like falling from a height of 110 m ( 360 ft ) onto a flat surface : to a certain death .
In Planica , Herzog quoted Steiner as having said that he felt like he was in an arena with 50 @,@ 000 people waiting to see him crash . On the third day of the event , while talking to journalists after a jump , Steiner appeared jaded at the organisers ' pressure on him to set more world records at the expense of his well @-@ being : " They let me jump too far four times . That shouldn 't happen . It 's scandalous of those Yugoslav judges up there who are responsible . "
The stalemate between the venues did not last long , as four world records were set in Oberstdorf within a span of four days in 1976 , bringing the official figure up to 176 m ( 577 ft ) set by Toni Innauer at the end of the event . Three years later , Planica drew level once again when Klaus Ostwald equalled the world record . Elsewhere , in the Western Hemisphere , the United States opened its own ski flying venue in 1970 : Copper Peak in Ironwood , Michigan had a K @-@ point of 145 m , therefore not designed for world record distances from the outset . It is the only ski flying hill to have been built outside of Europe .
= = = 1980s = = =
= = = = Harrachov joins in , Planica vs. Oberstdorf continues = = = =
Planica and Oberstdorf briefly had a new challenger when the Čerťák K165 hill in Harrachov , Czech Republic ( then a part of Czechoslovakia ) was opened in 1980 . For one year , all three venues shared the world record when Armin Kogler jumped 176 m at Harrachov 's opening event . He improved this to 180 m ( 590 ft ) in 1981 , this time in Oberstdorf . Notably , at the 1980 Harrachov event , 16 @-@ year @-@ old rookie Steve Collins won all three competitions with jumps consistently close to world record figures . At the 1983 Ski Flying World Championships , Pavel Ploc brought the world record back to Harrachov ( which had since been upgraded to K185 ) by jumping 181 m ( 594 ft ) ; this remains the last time a world record was set in Harrachov .
The issue of safety in ski flying became a serious talking point at the aforementioned 1983 event . In only a single day , the hill in Harrachov – a location named " Devil 's Mountain " – became notorious for causing violent accidents . Horst Bulau crashed and suffered a concussion , while Steinar Bråten and Jens Weißflog had their own crashes . Ploc also crashed heavily in 1980 and 1985 . All escaped serious injury , but it was a chilling precursor of more to come .
Over the next few years , the one @-@ upmanship continued as the world record was again traded between Planica and Oberstdorf . In 1984 , Matti Nykänen jumped 182 m ( 597 ft ) twice on the same day in Oberstdorf . By improving this to 185 m ( 607 ft ) the next day , Nykänen became the first athlete since Reidar Andersen in 1935 to set three world records in the space of 24 hours . It would be the end of an era as this was the last time a world record was set in Oberstdorf ; altogether twenty were set there .
In 1985 , to coincide with that year 's Ski Flying World Championships , Planica underwent another upgrade to increase the K @-@ point to 185 m . World records were again shattered as a result . Mike Holland first jumped 186 m ( 610 ft ) to become the first American world record holder since Henry Hall in 1921 . Nykänen would follow this up by landing a metre further . In the final round of that event , and in a show of dominance as he closed in on his second Ski Jumping World Cup title , Nykänen wowed the crowd with a jump of 191 m ( 627 ft ) to punctuate his title win and effectively bring the Planica – Oberstdorf rivalry to a close .
Mike Holland later described his own jump :
The world record jump was very smooth . It felt like I was lying on my stomach on a glass coffee table , watching a movie projected on a screen underneath the table . Although the flight was very smooth , it seemed like the movie projector was running the film faster than intended .
= = = = Safety issues reach their peak = = = =
The 1986 Ski Flying World Championships in Kulm highlighted the dangers of the sport in a most graphic way . In the second competition of the event , Andreas Felder equalled the world record to win the gold medal , ahead of Nykänen who won bronze . However , this was overshadowed by a series of horrific accidents which took place earlier . In treacherous crosswind conditions , Masahiro Akimoto lost control moments after takeoff , falling suddenly from a height of 9 m ( 30 ft ) onto his back . He suffered a fractured ankle in addition to chest and shoulder injuries . A few minutes later Rolf Åge Berg frighteningly lost control at the same height , at an estimated inrun speed of 112 kilometres per hour ( 70 mph ) , but was able to land safely on both skis .
Immediately afterwards , Ulf Findeisen fell out of the air on his jump , crashing down head @-@ first from 9 m and flipping head over heels repeatedly along the slope , only coming to a stop several seconds later . Al Trautwig , commentating for American TV network
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came well after Hubbard had promised that Dianetics would provide " a cure for the very ailments that plagued the author himself then and throughout his life , including allergies , arthritis , ulcers and heart problems " .
The Church of Scientology says that Hubbard 's key breakthrough in the development of Dianetics was made at Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in Oakland , California . According to the Church ,
In early 1945 , while recovering from war injuries at Oak Knoll Naval Hospital , Mr. Hubbard conducts a series of tests and experiments dealing with the endocrine system . He discovers that , contrary to long @-@ standing beliefs , function monitors structure . With this revolutionary advance , he begins to apply his theories to the field of the mind and thereby to improve the conditions of others .
An October 1945 Naval Board found that Hubbard was " considered physically qualified to perform duty ashore , preferably within the continental United States " . He was discharged from hospital on December 4 , 1945 , and transferred to inactive duty on February 17 , 1946 . He resigned his commission with effect from October 30 , 1950 . The Church of Scientology says he quit because the U.S. Navy " attempted to monopolize all his researches and force him to work on a project ' to make man more suggestible ' and when he was unwilling , tried to blackmail him by ordering him back to active duty to perform this function . Having many friends he was able to instantly resign from the Navy and escape this trap . " The Navy said in a statement in 1980 : " There is no evidence on record of an attempt to recall him to active duty . "
The Church disputes the official record of Hubbard 's naval career . It asserts that the records are incomplete and perhaps falsified " to conceal Hubbard 's secret activities as an intelligence officer " . In 1990 the Church provided the Los Angeles Times with a document that was said to be a copy of Hubbard 's official record of service . The U.S. Navy told the Times that " its contents are not supported by Hubbard 's personnel record . " The New Yorker reported in February 2011 that the Scientology document was considered by federal archivists to be a forgery . One author , Colonel L. Fletcher , retired US Air Force , speculated that Hubbard may have “ worked in intelligence at a deep level ” after examination of his naval records . Fletcheralso wrote that Hubbard was awarded significant accolades such as the “ Unit Citation ” ( awarded by the United States president ) and the " Marine Medal " ( a rare award given to Navy line officers ) .
Nevertheless , the German Protestant theologian and history of religion scholar Marco Frenschkowski wrote in the Marburg Journal of Religion that the publicly available copies of Hubbard 's military records ( of which Frenschkowski has a complete collection ) are " much nearer " in his assessment to Hubbard 's statements about his military career than Miller 's Bare @-@ Faced Messiah .
= = Occult involvement in Pasadena = =
Hubbard 's life underwent a turbulent period immediately after the war . According to his own account , he " was abandoned by family and friends as a supposedly hopeless cripple and a probable burden upon them for the rest of my days " . His daughter Katherine presented a rather different version : his wife had refused to uproot their children from their home in Bremerton , Washington , to join him in California . Their marriage was by now in terminal difficulties and he chose to stay in California .
In August 1945 Hubbard moved into the Pasadena mansion of John " Jack " Whiteside Parsons . A leading rocket propulsion researcher at the California Institute of Technology and a founder of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Parsons led a double life as an avid occultist and Thelemite , follower of the English ceremonial magician Aleister Crowley and leader of a lodge of Crowley 's magical order , Ordo Templi Orientis ( OTO ) . He let rooms in the house only to tenants who he specified should be " atheists and those of a Bohemian disposition " .
Hubbard befriended Parsons and soon became sexually involved with Parsons 's 21 @-@ year @-@ old girlfriend , Sara " Betty " Northrup . Despite this Parsons was very impressed with Hubbard and reported to Crowley :
[ Hubbard ] is a gentleman ; he has red hair , green eyes , is honest and intelligent , and we have become great friends . He moved in with me about two months ago , and although Betty and I are still friendly , she has transferred her sexual affection to Ron . Although he has no formal training in Magick , he has an extraordinary amount of experience and understanding in the field . From some of his experiences I deduced that he is in direct touch with some higher intelligence , possibly his Guardian Angel . He describes his Angel as a beautiful winged woman with red hair whom he calls the Empress and who has guided him through his life and saved him many times . He is the most Thelemic person I have ever met and is in complete accord with our own principles .
Hubbard , whom Parsons referred to in writing as " Frater H " , became an enthusiastic collaborator in the Pasadena OTO . The two men collaborated on the " Babalon Working " , a sex magic ritual intended to summon an incarnation of Babalon , the supreme Thelemite Goddess . It was undertaken over several nights in February and March 1946 in order to summon an " elemental " who would participate in further sex magic . As Richard Metzger describes it ,
Parsons used his " magical wand " to whip up a vortex of energy so the elemental would be summoned . Translated into plain English , Parsons jerked off in the name of spiritual advancement whilst Hubbard ( referred to as " The Scribe " in the diary of the event ) scanned the astral plane for signs and visions .
The " elemental " arrived a few days later in the form of Marjorie Cameron , who agreed to participate in Parsons ' rites . Soon afterwards , Parsons , Hubbard and Sara agreed to set up a business partnership , " Allied Enterprises " , in which they invested nearly their entire savings — the vast majority contributed by Parsons . The plan was for Hubbard and Sara to buy yachts in Miami and sail them to the West Coast to sell for a profit . Hubbard had a different idea ; he wrote to the U.S. Navy requesting permission to leave the country " to visit Central & South America & China " for the purposes of " collecting writing material " — in other words , undertaking a world cruise . Aleister Crowley strongly criticized Parsons 's actions , writing : " Suspect Ron playing confidence trick — Jack Parsons weak fool — obvious victim prowling swindlers . " Parsons attempted to recover his money by obtaining an injunction to prevent Hubbard and Sara leaving the country or disposing of the remnants of his assets . They attempted to sail anyway but were forced back to port by a storm . A week later , Allied Enterprises was dissolved . Parsons received only a $ 2 @,@ 900 promissory note from Hubbard and returned home " shattered " . He had to sell his mansion to developers soon afterwards to recoup his losses .
Hubbard 's fellow writers were well aware of what had happened between him and Parsons . L. Sprague de Camp wrote to Isaac Asimov on August 27 , 1946 , to tell him :
The more complete story of Hubbard is that he is now in Fla. living on his yacht with a man @-@ eating tigress named Betty @-@ alias @-@ Sarah , another of the same kind ... He will probably soon thereafter arrive in these parts with Betty @-@ Sarah , broke , working the poor @-@ wounded @-@ veteran racket for all its worth , and looking for another easy mark . Don 't say you haven 't been warned . Bob [ Robert Heinlein ] thinks Ron went to pieces morally as a result of the war . I think that 's fertilizer , that he always was that way , but when he wanted to conciliate or get something from somebody he could put on a good charm act . What the war did was to wear him down to where he no longer bothers with the act .
Scientology accounts do not mention Hubbard 's involvement in occultism . He is instead described as " continu [ ing ] to write to help support his research " during this period into " the development of a means to better the condition of man " . The Church of Scientology has nonetheless acknowledged Hubbard 's involvement with the OTO ; a 1969 statement , written by Hubbard himself , said :
Hubbard broke up black magic in America ... L. Ron Hubbard was still an officer of the U.S. Navy , because he was well known as a writer and a philosopher and had friends amongst the physicists , he was sent in to handle the situation . He went to live at the house and investigated the black magic rites and the general situation and found them very bad ...
Hubbard 's mission was successful far beyond anyone 's expectations . The house was torn down . Hubbard rescued a girl they were using . The black magic group was dispersed and destroyed and has never recovered .
The Church of Scientology says Hubbard was " sent in " by his fellow science fiction author Robert Heinlein , " who was running off @-@ book intelligence operations for naval intelligence at the time " . However , Heinlein 's authorized biographer has said that he looked into the matter at the suggestion of Scientologists but found nothing to corroborate claims that Heinlein had been involved , and his biography of Heinlein makes no mention of the matter .
On August 10 , 1946 , Hubbard bigamously married Sara , while still married to Polly . It was not until 1947 that his first wife learned that he had remarried . Hubbard agreed to divorce Polly in June that year and the marriage was dissolved shortly afterwards , with Polly given custody of the children .
= = Origins of Dianetics = =
After Hubbard 's wedding to Sara , the couple settled at Laguna Beach , California , where Hubbard took a short @-@ term job looking after a friend 's yacht before resuming his fiction writing to supplement the small disability allowance that he was receiving as a war veteran . Working from a trailer in a run @-@ down area of North Hollywood , Hubbard sold a number of science fiction stories that included his Ole Doc Methuselah series and the serialized novels The End Is Not Yet and To the Stars . However , he remained short of money and his son , L. Ron Hubbard Jr , testified later that Hubbard was dependent on his own father and Margaret 's parents for money and his writings , which he was paid at a penny per word , never garnered him any more than $ 10 @,@ 000 prior to the founding of Scientology . He repeatedly wrote to the Veterans Administration ( VA ) asking for an increase in his war pension . In October 1947 he wrote :
After trying and failing for two years to regain my equilibrium in civil life , I am utterly unable to approach anything like my own competence . My last physician informed me that it might be very helpful if I were to be examined and perhaps treated psychiatrically or even by a psychoanalyst . Toward the end of my service I avoided out of pride any mental examinations , hoping that time would balance a mind which I had every reason to suppose was seriously affected . I cannot account for nor rise above long periods of moroseness and suicidal inclinations , and have newly come to realize that I must first triumph above this before I can hope to rehabilitate myself at all .
The VA eventually did increase his pension , but his money problems continued . On August 31 , 1948 , he was arrested in San Luis Obispo , California , and subsequently pleaded guilty to a charge of petty theft , for which he was ordered to pay a $ 25 fine . According to the Church of Scientology , around this time he " accept [ ed ] an appointment as a Special Police Officer with the Los Angeles Police Department and us [ ed ] the position to study society 's criminal elements " and also " worked with neurotics from the Hollywood film community " .
In late 1948 Hubbard and Sara moved to Savannah , Georgia . Here , Scientology sources say , he " volunteer [ ed ] his time in hospitals and mental wards , saving the lives of patients with his counseling techniques " . Hubbard began to make the first public mentions of what was to become Dianetics . He wrote in January 1949 that he was working on a " book of psychology " about " the cause and cure of nervous tension " , which he was going to call The Dark Sword , Excalibur or Science of the Mind . In April 1949 , Hubbard wrote to several professional organizations to offer his research . None were interested , so he turned to his editor John W. Campbell , who was more receptive due to a long @-@ standing fascination with fringe psychologies and psychic powers ( " psionics " ) that " permeated both his fiction and non @-@ fiction " .
Campbell invited Hubbard and Sara to move into a cottage at Bay Head , New Jersey , not far from his own home at Plainfield . In July 1949 , Campbell recruited an acquaintance , Dr. Joseph Winter , to help develop Hubbard 's new therapy of " Dianetics " . Campbell told Winter :
With cooperation from some institutions , some psychiatrists , [ Hubbard ] has worked on all types of cases . Institutionalized schizophrenics , apathies , manics , depressives , perverts , stuttering , neuroses — in all , nearly 1000 cases . But just a brief sampling of each type ; he doesn 't have proper statistics in the usual sense . But he has one statistic . He has cured every patient he worked with . He has cured ulcers , arthritis , asthma .
Hubbard collaborated with Campbell and Winter to refine his techniques , testing them on science fiction fans recruited by Campbell . The basic principle of Dianetics was that the brain recorded every experience and event in a person 's life , even when unconscious . Bad or painful experiences were stored as what he called " engrams " in a " reactive mind " . These could be triggered later in life , causing emotional and physical problems . By carrying out a process he called " auditing " , a person could be regressed through his engrams to re @-@ experiencing past experiences . This enabled engrams to be " cleared " . The subject , who would now be in a state of " Clear " , would have a perfectly functioning mind with an improved IQ and photographic memory . The " Clear " would be cured of physical ailments ranging from poor eyesight to the common cold , which Hubbard asserted were purely psychosomatic .
Winter submitted a paper on Dianetics to the Journal of the American Medical Association and the American Journal of Psychiatry but both journals rejected it . Hubbard and his collaborators decided to announce Dianetics in Campbell 's Astounding Science Fiction instead . In an editorial , Campbell said : " Its power is almost unbelievable ; it proves the mind not only can but does rule the body completely ; following the sharply defined basic laws set forth , physical ills such as ulcers , asthma and arthritis can be cured , as can all other psychosomatic ills . " The birth of Hubbard 's second daughter Alexis Valerie , delivered by Winter on March 8 , 1950 , came in the middle of the preparations to launch Dianetics . A " Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation " was established in April 1950 in Elizabeth , New Jersey , with Hubbard , Sara , Winter and Campbell on the board of directors .
Hubbard described Dianetics as “ the hidden source of all psychosomatic ills and human aberration ” when he introduced Dianetics to the world in the 1950s . He further claimed that “ skills have been developed for their invariable cure . ” Dianetics was duly launched in Astounding 's May 1950 issue and on May 9 , Hubbard 's companion book Dianetics : The Modern Science of Mental Health was published by Hermitage House . Hubbard abandoned freelance writing in order to promote Dianetics , writing several books about it in the next decade , delivering an estimated 4 @,@ 000 lectures while founding Dianetics research organizations . The etymological origin of the word Dianetics are the words dia , meaning " through " and nous , meaning " soul . " Hubbard defined it as “ a spiritual healing technology ” and “ an organized science of thought . ”
= = From Dianetics to Scientology = =
Hubbard called Dianetics " a milestone for man comparable to his discovery of fire and superior to his invention of the wheel and the arch " . It was an immediate commercial success and sparked what Martin Gardner calls " a nationwide cult of incredible proportions " . By August 1950 , Hubbard 's book had sold 55 @,@ 000 copies , was selling at the rate of 4 @,@ 000 a week and was being translated into French , German and Japanese . Five hundred Dianetic auditing groups had been set up across the United States .
Dianetics was poorly received by the press and the scientific and medical professions . The American Psychological Association criticized Hubbard 's claims as " not supported by empirical evidence " . Scientific American said that Hubbard 's book contained " more promises and less evidence per page than any publication since the invention of printing " , while The New Republic called it a " bold and immodest mixture of complete nonsense and perfectly reasonable common sense , taken from long acknowledged findings and disguised and distorted by a crazy , newly invented terminology " . Some of Hubbard 's fellow science fiction writers also criticized it ; Isaac Asimov considered it " gibberish " while Jack Williamson called it " a lunatic revision of Freudian psychology " .
Several famous individuals became involved with Dianetics . Aldous Huxley received auditing from Hubbard himself ; the poet Jean Toomer and the science fiction writers Theodore Sturgeon and A. E. van Vogt became trained Dianetics auditors . Van Vogt temporarily abandoned writing and became the head of the newly established Los Angeles branch of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation . Other branches were established in New York , Washington , D.C. , Chicago , and Honolulu .
Although Dianetics was not cheap , a great many people were nonetheless willing to pay ; van Vogt later recalled " doing little but tear open envelopes and pull out $ 500 checks from people who wanted to take an auditor 's course " . Financial controls were lax . Hubbard himself withdrew large sums with no explanation of what he was doing with it . On one occasion , van Vogt saw Hubbard taking a lump sum of $ 56 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 0 @.@ 5 million at 2010 prices ) out of the Los Angeles Foundation 's proceeds . One of Hubbard 's employees , Helen O 'Brien , commented that at the Elizabeth , N.J. branch of the Foundation , the books showed that " a month 's income of $ 90 @,@ 000 is listed , with only $ 20 @,@ 000 accounted for " .
Hubbard played a very active role in the Dianetics boom , writing , lecturing and training auditors . Many of those who knew him spoke of being impressed by his personal charisma . Jack Horner , who became a Dianetics auditor in 1950 , later said , " He was very impressive , dedicated and amusing . The man had tremendous charisma ; you just wanted to hear every word he had to say and listen for any pearl of wisdom . " Isaac Asimov recalled in his autobiography how , at a dinner party , he , Robert Heinlein , L. Sprague de Camp and their wives " all sat as quietly as pussycats and listened to Hubbard . He told tales with perfect aplomb and in complete paragraphs . " As Atack comments , he was " a charismatic figure who compelled the devotion of those around him " . Christopher Evans described the personal qualities that Hubbard brought to Dianetics and Scientology :
He undoubtedly has charisma , a magnetic lure of an indefinable kind which makes him the centre of attraction in any kind of gathering . He is also a compulsive talker and pontificator ... His restless energy keeps him on the go throughout a long day — he is a poor sleeper and rises very early — and provides part of the drive which has allowed him to found and propagate a major international organization .
Hubbard 's supporters soon began to have doubts about Dianetics . Winter became disillusioned and wrote that he had never seen a single convincing Clear : " I have seen some individuals who are supposed to have been ' clear , ' but their behavior does not conform to the definition of the state . Moreover , an individual supposed to have been ' clear ' has undergone a relapse into conduct which suggests an incipient psychosis . " He also deplored the Foundation 's omission of any serious scientific research . Dianetics lost public credibility in August 1950 when a presentation by Hubbard before an audience of 6 @,@ 000 at the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles failed disastrously . He introduced a Clear named Sonya Bianca and told the audience that as a result of undergoing Dianetic therapy she now possessed perfect recall . However , Gardner writes , " in the demonstration that followed , she failed to remember a single formula in physics ( the subject in which she was majoring ) or the color of Hubbard 's tie when his back was turned . At this point , a large part of the audience got up and left . "
Hubbard also faced other practitioners moving into leadership positions within the Dianetics community . It was structured as an open , public practice in which others were free to pursue their own lines of research and claim that their approaches to auditing produced better results than Hubbard 's . The community rapidly splintered and its members mingled Hubbard 's ideas with a wide variety of esoteric and even occult practices . By late 1950 , the Elizabeth , N.J. Foundation was in financial crisis and the Los Angeles Foundation was more than $ 200 @,@ 000 in debt . Winter and Art Ceppos , the publisher of Hubbard 's book , resigned under acrimonious circumstances . Campbell also resigned , criticizing Hubbard for being impossible to work with , and blamed him for the disorganization and financial ruin of the Foundations . By the summer of 1951 , the Elizabeth , N.J. Foundation and all of its branches had closed .
The collapse of Hubbard 's marriage to Sara created yet more problems . He had begun an affair with his 20 @-@ year @-@ old public relations assistant in late 1950 , while Sara started a relationship with Dianetics auditor Miles Hollister . Hubbard secretly denounced the couple to the FBI in March 1951 , portraying them in a letter as communist infiltrators . According to Hubbard , Sara was " currently intimate with [ communists ] but evidently under coercion . Drug addiction set in fall 1950 . Nothing of this known to me until a few weeks ago . " Hollister was described as having a " sharp chin , broad forehead , rather Slavic " . He was said to be the " center of most turbulence in our organization " and " active and dangerous " . The FBI did not take Hubbard seriously : an agent annotated his correspondence with the comment , " Appears mental . "
Three weeks later , Hubbard and two Foundation staff seized Sara and his year @-@ old daughter Alexis and forcibly took them to San Bernardino , California , where he attempted unsuccessfully to find a doctor to examine Sara and declare her insane . He let Sara go but took Alexis to Havana , Cuba . Sara filed a divorce suit on April 23 , 1951 , that accused him of marrying her bigamously and subjecting her to sleep deprivation , beatings , strangulation , kidnapping and exhortations to commit suicide . The case led to newspaper headlines such as " Ron Hubbard Insane , Says His Wife . " Sara finally secured the return of her daughter in June 1951 by agreeing to a settlement with her husband in which she signed a statement , written by him , declaring :
The things I have said about L. Ron Hubbard in courts and the public prints have been grossly exaggerated or entirely false . I have not at any time believed otherwise than that L. Ron Hubbard is a fine and brilliant man .
Dianetics appeared to be on the edge of total collapse . However , it was saved by Don Purcell , a millionaire businessman and Dianeticist who agreed to support a new Foundation in Wichita , Kansas . Their collaboration ended after less than a year when they fell out over the future direction of Dianetics . The Wichita Foundation became financially nonviable after a court ruled that it was liable for the unpaid debts of its defunct predecessor in Elizabeth , N.J. The ruling prompted Purcell and the other directors of the Wichita Foundation to file for voluntary bankruptcy in February 1952 . Hubbard resigned immediately and accused Purcell of having been bribed by the American Medical Association to destroy Dianetics . Hubbard established a " Hubbard College " on the other side of town where he continued to promote Dianetics while fighting Purcell in the courts over the Foundation 's intellectual property .
Only six weeks after setting up the Hubbard College and marrying a staff member , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Mary Sue Whipp , Hubbard closed it down and moved with his new bride to Phoenix , Arizona . He established a Hubbard Association of Scientologists International to promote his new " Science of Certainty " — Scientology . W. Vaughn Mccall , distinguished Professor and Chairman , Georgia Regents University , differentiates Scientology and Dianetics : Dianetics is all about releasing the mind from the “ distorting influence of engrams , ” and Scientology “ is the study and handling of the spirit in relation to itself , universes and other life . ”
= = Rise of Scientology = =
The Church of Scientology attributes its genesis to Hubbard 's discovery of " a new line of research " — " that man is most fundamentally a spiritual being " . Non @-@ Scientologist writers have suggested alternative motives : that he aimed " to reassert control over his creation " , that he believed " he was about to lose control of Dianetics " , or that he wanted to ensure " he would be able to stay in business even if the courts eventually awarded control of Dianetics and its valuable copyrights to ... the hated Don Purcell . "
Hubbard expanded upon the basics of Dianetics to construct a spiritually oriented ( though at this stage not religious ) doctrine based on the concept that the true self of a person was a thetan — an immortal , omniscient and potentially omnipotent entity . Hubbard taught that the thetans , having created the material universe , had forgotten their god @-@ like powers and become trapped in physical bodies . Scientology aimed to " rehabilitate " each person 's thetan to restore its original capacities and become once again an " Operating Thetan " . Hubbard insisted humanity was imperiled by the forces of " aberration " , which were the result of engrams carried by the immortal thetans for billions of years .
In 2012 , Ohio State University professor Hugh Urban asserted that Hubbard had adopted many of his theories from the early to mid 20th century astral projection pioneer Sylvan Muldoon stating that Hubbard 's description of exteriorizing the thetan is extremely similar if not identical to the descriptions of astral projection in occult literature popularized by Muldoon 's widely read Phenomena of Astral Projection ( 1951 ) ( co @-@ written with Hereward Carrington ) and that Muldoon 's description of the astral body as being connected to the physical body by a long thin , elastic cord is virtually identical to the one described in Hubbard 's " Excalibur " vision .
Hubbard introduced a device called an E @-@ meter that he presented as having , as Miller puts it , " an almost mystical power to reveal an individual 's innermost thoughts " . He promulgated Scientology through a series of lectures , bulletins and books such as A History of Man ( " a cold @-@ blooded and factual account of your last sixty trillion years " ) and Scientology : 8 @-@ 8008 ( " With this book , the ability to make one 's body old or young at will , the ability to heal the ill without physical contact , the ability to cure the insane and the incapacitated , is set forth for the physician , the layman , the mathematician and the physicist . " )
Scientology was organized in a very different way from the decentralized Dianetics movement . The Hubbard Association of Scientologists ( HAS ) was the only official Scientology organization . Training procedures and doctrines were standardized and promoted through HAS publications , and administrators and auditors were not permitted to deviate from Hubbard 's approach . Branches or " orgs " were organized as franchises , rather like a fast food restaurant chain . Each franchise holder was required to pay ten percent of income to Hubbard 's central organization . They were expected to find new recruits , known as " raw meat " , but were restricted to providing only basic services . Costlier higher @-@ level auditing was only provided by Hubbard 's central organization .
Although this model would eventually be extremely successful , Scientology was a very small @-@ scale movement at first . Hubbard started off with only a few dozen followers , generally dedicated Dianeticists ; a seventy @-@ hour series of lectures in Philadelphia in December 1952 was attended by just 38 people . Hubbard was joined in Phoenix by his 18 @-@ year @-@ old son Nibs , who had been unable to settle down in high school . Nibs had decided to become a Scientologist , moved into his father 's home and went on to become a Scientology staff member and " professor " . Hubbard also traveled to the United Kingdom to establish his control over a Dianetics group in London . It was very much a shoestring operation ; as Helen O 'Brien later recalled , " there was an atmosphere of extreme poverty and undertones of a grim conspiracy over all . At 163 Holland Park Avenue was an ill @-@ lit lecture room and a bare @-@ boarded and poky office some eight by ten feet — mainly infested by long haired men and short haired and tatty women . " On September 24 , 1952 , only a few weeks after arriving in London , Hubbard 's wife Mary Sue gave birth to her first child , a daughter whom they named Diana Meredith de Wolfe Hubbard .
In February 1953 , Hubbard acquired a doctorate from the unaccredited Sequoia University . According to a Scientology biography , this was " given in recognition of his outstanding work on Dianetics " and " as an inspiration to the many people ... who had been inspired by him to take up advanced studies in this field ... " The British government concluded in the 1970s that Sequoia University was a " degree mill " operated by Joseph Hough , a Los Angeles chiropractor . Miller cites a telegram sent by Hubbard on February 27 , 1953 , in which he instructed Scientologist Richard de Mille to procure him a Ph.D. from Hough urgently — " FOR GOSH SAKES EXPEDITE . WORK HERE UTTERLY DEPENDANT ON IT . " Hough 's " university " was closed down by the Californian authorities in 1971 . British government officials noted in a report written in 1977 : " It has not and never had any authority whatsoever to issue diplomas or degrees and the dean is sought by the authorities ' for questioning ' . "
A few weeks after becoming " Dr. " Hubbard , he wrote to Helen O 'Brien — who had taken over the day @-@ to @-@ day management of Scientology in the United States — proposing that Scientology should be transformed into a religion . As membership declined and finances grew tighter , Hubbard had reversed the hostility to religion he voiced in Dianetics . His letter to O 'Brien discussed the legal and financial benefits of religious status . The idea may not have been new ; Hubbard has been quoted as telling a science fiction convention in 1948 : " Writing for a penny a word is ridiculous . If a man really wants to make a million dollars , the best way would be to start his own religion . " Scholar J. Gordon Melton notes , " There is no record of Hubbard having ever made this statement , though several of his science fiction colleagues have noted the broaching of the subject on one of their informal conversations . " The Church of Scientology has denied that Hubbard said this and insists that it is a misattributed quote that was said instead by George Orwell . Hubbard outlined plans for setting up a chain of " Spiritual Guidance Centers " charging customers $ 500 for twenty @-@ four hours of auditing ( " That is real money ... Charge enough and we 'd be swamped . " ) . He wrote :
I await your reaction on the religion angle . In my opinion , we couldn 't get worse public opinion than we have had or have less customers with what we 've got to sell . A religious charter would be necessary in Pennsylvania or NJ to make it stick . But I sure could make it stick .
O 'Brien was not enthusiastic and resigned the following September , worn out by work . She criticized Hubbard for creating " a temperate zone voodoo , in its inelasticity , unexplainable procedures , and mindless group euphoria " . He nonetheless pressed ahead and on December 18 , 1953 , he incorporated the Church of Scientology , Church of American Science and Church of Spiritual Engineering in Camden , New Jersey . Hubbard , his wife Mary Sue and his secretary John Galusha became the trustees of all three corporations . Hubbard later denied founding the Church of Scientology , and to this day , Scientologists maintain that the " founding church " was actually the Church of Scientology of California , established on February 18 , 1954 , by Scientologist Burton Farber . The reason for Scientology 's religious transformation was explained by officials of the HAS :
[ T ] here is little doubt but what [ sic ] this stroke will remove Scientology from the target area of overt and covert attacks by the medical profession , who see their pills , scalpels , and appendix @-@ studded incomes threatened ... [ Scientologists ] can avoid the recent fiasco in which a Pasadena practitioner is reported to have spent 10 days in that city 's torture chamber for " practicing medicine without a license . "
Scientology franchises became Churches of Scientology and some auditors began dressing as clergymen , complete with clerical collars . If they were arrested in the course of their activities , Hubbard advised , they should sue for massive damages for molesting " a Man of God going about his business " . A few years later he told Scientologists : " If attacked on some vulnerable point by anyone or anything or any organization , always find or manufacture enough threat against them to cause them to sue for peace ... Don 't ever defend , always attack . " Any individual breaking away from Scientology and setting up his own group was to be shut down :
The purpose of the suit is to harass and discourage rather than to win . The law can be used very easily to harass , and enough harassment on somebody who is simply on the thin edge anyway , well knowing that he is not authorized , will generally be sufficient to cause his professional decease . If possible , of course , ruin him utterly .
The 1950s saw Scientology growing steadily . Hubbard finally achieved victory over Don Purcell in 1954 when the latter , worn out by constant litigation , handed the copyrights of Dianetics back to Hubbard . Most of the formerly independent Scientology and Dianetics groups were either driven out of business or were absorbed into Hubbard 's organizations . Hubbard marketed Scientology through medical claims , such as attracting polio sufferers by presenting the Church of Scientology as a scientific research foundation investigating polio cases . One advertisement during this period stated :
Plagued by illness ? We 'll make you able to have good health . Get processed by the finest capable auditors in the world today [ ... ] Personally coached and monitored by L. Ron Hubbard .
Scientology became a highly profitable enterprise for Hubbard . He implemented a scheme under which he was paid a percentage of the Church of Scientology 's gross income and by 1957 he was being paid about $ 250 @,@ 000 annually — equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 9 million at 2010 prices . His family grew , too , with Mary Sue giving birth to three more children — Geoffrey Quentin McCaully on January 6 , 1954 ; Mary Suzette Rochelle on February 13 , 1955 ; and Arthur Ronald Conway on June 6 , 1958 . In the spring of 1959 , he used his new @-@ found wealth to purchase Saint Hill Manor , an 18th @-@ century country house in Sussex , formerly owned by Sawai Man Singh II , the Maharaja of Jaipur . The house became Hubbard 's permanent residence and an international training center for Scientologists .
= = Controversies and crises = =
By the start of the 1960s , Hubbard was the leader of a worldwide movement with thousands of followers . A decade later , however , he had left Saint Hill Manor and moved aboard his own private fleet of ships as the Church of Scientology faced worldwide controversy .
The Church of Scientology says that the problems of this period were due to " vicious , covert international attacks " by the United States government , " all of which were proven false and baseless , which were to last 27 years and finally culminated in the Government being sued for 750 million dollars for conspiracy . " Behind the attacks , stated Hubbard , lay a vast conspiracy of " psychiatric front groups " secretly controlling governments : " Every single lie , false charge and attack on Scientology has been traced directly to this group 's members . They have sought at great expense for nineteen years to crush and eradicate any new development in the field of the mind . They are actively preventing any effectiveness in this field . "
Hubbard believed that Scientology was being infiltrated by saboteurs and spies and introduced " security checking " to identify those he termed " potential trouble sources " and " suppressive persons " . Members of the Church of Scientology were interrogated with the aid of E @-@ meters and were asked questions such as " Have you ever practiced homosexuality ? " and " Have you ever had unkind thoughts about L. Ron Hubbard ? " For a time , Scientologists were even interrogated about crimes committed in past lives : " Have you ever destroyed a culture ? " " Did you come to Earth for evil purposes ? " " Have you ever zapped anyone ? "
He also sought to exert political influence , advising Scientologists to vote against Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election and establishing a Department of Government Affairs " to bring government and hostile philosophies or societies into a state of complete compliance with the goals of Scientology " . This , he said , " is done by high @-@ level ability to control and in its absence by a low @-@ level ability to overwhelm . Introvert such agencies . Control such agencies . "
The U.S. Government was already well aware of Hubbard 's activities . The FBI had a lengthy file on him , including a 1951 interview with an agent who considered him a " mental case " . Police forces in a number of jurisdictions began exchanging information about Scientology through the auspices of Interpol , which eventually led to prosecutions . In 1958 , the U.S. Internal Revenue Service withdrew the Washington , D.C. Church of Scientology 's tax exemption after it found that Hubbard and his family were profiting unreasonably from Scientology 's ostensibly non @-@ profit income . The Food and Drug Administration took action against Scientology 's medical claims , seizing thousands of pills being marketed as " radiation cures " as well as publications and E @-@ meters . The Church of Scientology was required to label them as being " ineffective in the diagnosis or treatment of disease " .
Following the FDA 's actions , Scientology attracted increasingly unfavorable publicity across the English @-@ speaking world . It faced particularly hostile scrutiny in Victoria , Australia , where it was accused of brainwashing , blackmail , extortion and damaging the mental health of its members . The Victorian state government established a Board of Inquiry into Scientology in November 1963 . Its report , published in October 1965 , condemned every aspect of Scientology and Hubbard himself . He was described as being of doubtful sanity , having a persecution complex and displaying strong indications of paranoid schizophrenia with delusions of grandeur . His writings were characterized as nonsensical , abounding in " self @-@ glorification and grandiosity , replete with histrionics and hysterical , incontinent outbursts " . Sociologist Roy Wallis comments that the report drastically changed public perceptions of Scientology :
The former conception of the movement as a relatively harmless , if cranky , health and self @-@ improvement cult , was transformed into one which portrayed it as evil , dangerous , a form of hypnosis ( with all the overtones of Svengali in the layman 's mind ) , and brainwashing .
The report led to Scientology being banned in Victoria , Western Australia and South Australia , and led to more negative publicity around the world . Newspapers and politicians in the UK pressed the British government for action against Scientology . In April 1966 , hoping to form a remote " safe haven " for Scientology , Hubbard traveled to the southern African country Rhodesia ( today Zimbabwe ) and looked into setting up a base there at a hotel on Lake Kariba . Despite his attempts to curry favour with the local government — he personally delivered champagne to Prime Minister Ian Smith 's house , but Smith refused to see him — Rhodesia promptly refused to renew Hubbard 's visa , compelling him to leave the country . In July 1968 , the British Minister of Health , Kenneth Robinson , announced that foreign Scientologists would no longer be permitted to enter the UK and Hubbard himself was excluded from the country as an " undesirable alien " . Further inquiries were launched in Canada , New Zealand and South Africa .
Hubbard took three major new initiatives in the face of these challenges . " Ethics Technology " was introduced to tighten internal discipline within Scientology . It required Scientologists to " disconnect " from any organization or individual — including family members — deemed to be disruptive or " suppressive " . According to church @-@ operated websites , “ A person who disconnects is simply exercising his right to communicate or not to communicate with a particular person . " Hubbard stated : “ Communication , however , is a two @-@ way flow . If one has the right to communicate , then one must also have the right to not receive communication from another . It is this latter corollary of the right to communicate that gives us our right to privacy . ” Scientologists were also required to write " Knowledge Reports " on each other , reporting transgressions or misapplications of Scientology methods . Hubbard promulgated a long list of punishable " Misdemeanors " , " Crimes " , and " High Crimes " . The " Fair Game " policy was introduced , which was applicable to anyone deemed an " enemy " of Scientology : " May be deprived of property or injured by any means by any Scientologist without any discipline of the Scientologist . May be tricked , sued or lied to or destroyed . "
At the start of March 1966 , Hubbard created the Guardian 's Office ( GO ) , a new agency within the Church of Scientology that was headed by his wife Mary Sue . It dealt with Scientology 's external affairs , including public relations , legal actions and the gathering of intelligence on perceived threats . As Scientology faced increasingly negative media attention , the GO retaliated with hundreds of writs for libel and slander ; it issued more than forty on a single day . Hubbard ordered his staff to find " lurid , blood sex crime actual evidence [ sic ] on [ Scientology 's ] attackers " .
Finally , at the end of 1966 , Hubbard acquired his own fleet of ships . He established the " Hubbard Explorational Company Ltd " which purchased three ships — the Enchanter , a forty @-@ ton schooner , the Avon River , an old trawler , and the Royal Scotman [ sic ] , a former Irish Sea cattle ferry that he made his home and flagship . The ships were crewed by the Sea Organization or Sea Org , a group of Scientologist volunteers , with the support of a couple of professional seamen .
= = Commodore of the Sea Org = =
After Hubbard created the Sea Org " fleet " in early 1967 it began an eight @-@ year voyage , sailing from port to port in the Mediterranean Sea and eastern North Atlantic . The fleet traveled as far as Corfu in the eastern Mediterranean and Dakar and the Azores in the Atlantic , but rarely stayed anywhere for longer than six weeks . Ken Urquhart , Hubbard 's personal assistant at the time , later recalled :
[ Hubbard ] said we had to keep moving because there were so many people after him . If they caught up with him they would cause him so much trouble that he would be unable to continue his work , Scientology would not get into the world and there would be social and economic chaos , if not a nuclear holocaust .
When Hubbard established the Sea Org he publicly declared that he had relinquished his management responsibilities . According to Miller , this was not true . He received daily telex messages from Scientology organizations around the world reporting their statistics and income . The Church of Scientology sent him $ 15 @,@ 000 a week and millions of dollars were transferred to his bank accounts in Switzerland and Liechtenstein . Couriers arrived regularly , conveying luxury food for Hubbard and his family or cash that had been smuggled from England to avoid currency export restrictions .
Along the way , Hubbard sought to establish a safe haven in " a friendly little country where Scientology would be allowed to prosper " , as Miller puts it . The fleet stayed at Corfu for several months in 1968 – 1969 . Hubbard renamed the ships after Greek gods — the Royal Scotman was rechristened Apollo — and he praised the recently established military dictatorship . The Sea Org was represented as " Professor Hubbard 's Philosophy School " in a telegram to the Greek government . In March 1969 , however , Hubbard and his ships were ordered to leave . In mid @-@ 1972 , Hubbard tried again in Morocco , establishing contacts with the country 's secret police and training senior policemen and intelligence agents in techniques for detecting subversives . The program ended in failure when it became caught up in internal Moroccan politics , and Hubbard left the country hastily in December 1972 .
At the same time , Hubbard was still developing Scientology 's doctrines . A Scientology biography states that " free of organizational duties and aided by the first Sea Org members , L. Ron Hubbard now had the time and facilities to confirm in the physical universe some of the events and places he had encountered in his journeys down the track of time . " In 1965 , he designated several existing Scientology courses as confidential , repackaging them as the first of the esoteric " OT levels " . Two years later he announced the release of OT3 , the " Wall of Fire " , revealing the secrets of an immense disaster that had occurred " on this planet , and on the other seventy @-@ five planets which form this Confederacy , seventy @-@ five million years ago " . Scientologists were required to undertake the first two OT levels before learning how Xenu , the leader of the Galactic Confederacy , had shipped billions of people to Earth and blown them up with hydrogen bombs , following which their traumatized spirits were stuck together at " implant stations " , brainwashed with false memories and eventually became contained within human beings . The discovery of OT3 was said to have taken a major physical toll on Hubbard , who announced that he had broken a knee , an arm , and his back during the course of his research . A year later , in 1968 , he unveiled OT levels 4 to 6 and began delivering OT training courses to Scientologists aboard the Royal Scotman .
Scientologists around the world were presented with a glamorous picture of life in the Sea Org and many applied to join Hubbard aboard the fleet . What they found was rather different from the image . Most of those joining had no nautical experience at all . Mechanical difficulties and blunders by the crews led to a series of embarrassing incidents and near @-@ disasters . Following one incident in which the rudder of the Royal Scotman was damaged during a storm , Hubbard ordered the ship 's entire crew to be reduced to a " condition of liability " and wear gray rags tied to their arms . The ship itself was treated the same way , with dirty tarpaulins tied around its funnel to symbolize its lower status . According to those aboard , conditions were appalling ; the crew was worked to the point of exhaustion , given meagre rations and forbidden to wash or change their clothes for several weeks . Hubbard maintained a harsh disciplinary regime aboard the fleet , punishing mistakes by confining people in the Royal Scotman 's bilge tanks without toilet facilities and with food provided in buckets . At other times erring crew members were thrown overboard with Hubbard looking on and , occasionally , filming . David Mayo , a Sea Org member at the time , later recalled :
We tried not to think too hard about his behavior . It was not rational much of the time , but to even consider such a thing was a discreditable thought and you couldn 't allow yourself to have a discreditable thought . One of the questions in a sec [ urity ] check was , " Have you ever had any unkind thoughts about LRH ? " and you could get into very serious trouble if you had . So you tried hard not to .
From about 1970 , Hubbard was attended aboard ship by the children of Sea Org members , organized as the Commodore 's Messenger Organization ( CMO ) . They were mainly young girls dressed in hot pants and halter tops , who were responsible for running errands for Hubbard such as lighting his cigarettes , dressing him or relaying his verbal commands to other members of the crew . In addition to his wife Mary Sue , he was accompanied by all four of his children by her , though not his first son Nibs , who had defected from Scientology in late 1959 . The younger Hubbards were all members of the Sea Org and shared its rigors , though Quentin Hubbard reportedly found it difficult to adjust and attempted suicide in mid @-@ 1974 .
= = Life in hiding = =
During the 1970s , Hubbard faced an increasing number of legal threats . French prosecutors charged him and the French Church of Scientology with fraud and customs violations in 1972 . He was advised that he was at risk of being extradited to France . Hubbard left the Sea Org fleet temporarily at the end of 1972 , living incognito in Queens , New York , until he returned to his flagship in September 1973 when the threat of extradition had abated . Scientology sources say that he carried out " a sociological study in and around New York City " .
Hubbard 's health deteriorated significantly during this period . A chain @-@ smoker , he also suffered from bursitis and excessive weight , and had a prominent growth on his forehead . He suffered serious injuries in a motorcycle accident in 1973 and had a heart attack in 1975 that required him to take anticoagulant drugs for the next year . In September 1978 , Hubbard had a pulmonary embolism , falling into a coma , but recovered .
He remained active in managing and developing Scientology , establishing the controversial Rehabilitation Project Force in 1974 and issuing policy and doctrinal bulletins . However , the Sea Org 's voyages were coming to an end . The Apollo was banned from several Spanish ports and was expelled from Curaçao in October 1975 . The Sea Org came to be suspected of being a CIA operation , leading to a riot in Funchal , Madeira , when the Apollo docked there . At the time , The Apollo Stars , a musical group founded by Hubbard and made up entirely of shipbound members of the Sea Org , was offering free on @-@ pier concerts in an attempt to promote Scientology , and the riot occurred at one of these events . Hubbard decided to relocate back to the United States to establish a " land base " for the Sea Org in Florida . The Church of Scientology attributes this decision to the activities on the Apollo having " outgrow [ n ] the ship 's capacity " .
In October 1975 , Hubbard moved into a hotel suite in Daytona Beach . The Fort Harrison Hotel in Clearwater , Florida , was secretly acquired as the location for the " land base " . On December 5 , 1975 , Hubbard and his wife Mary Sue moved into a condominium complex in nearby Dunedin . Their presence was meant to be a closely guarded secret but was accidentally compromised the following month . Hubbard immediately left Dunedin and moved to Georgetown , Washington , D.C. , accompanied by a handful of aides and messengers , but not his wife . Six months later , following another security alert in July 1976 , Hubbard moved to another safe house in Culver City , California . He lived there for only about three months , relocating in October to the more private confines of the Olive Tree Ranch near La Quinta . His second son Quentin committed suicide a few weeks later in Las Vegas .
Throughout this period , Hubbard was heavily involved in directing the activities of the Guardian 's Office ( GO ) , the legal bureau / intelligence agency that he had established in 1966 . He believed that Scientology was being attacked by an international Nazi conspiracy , which he termed the " Tenyaka Memorial " , through a network of drug companies , banks and psychiatrists in a bid to take over the world . In 1973 , he instigated the " Snow White Program " and directed the GO to remove negative reports about Scientology from government files and track down their sources . The GO was ordered to " get all false and secret files on Scientology , LRH ... that cannot be obtained legally , by all possible lines of approach ... i.e. , job penetration , janitor penetration , suitable guises utilizing covers . " His involvement in the GO 's operations was concealed through the use of codenames . The GO carried out covert campaigns on his behalf such as Operation Bulldozer Leak , intended " to effectively spread the rumor that will lead Government , media , and individual [ Suppressive Persons ] to conclude that LRH has no control of the C of S and no legal liability for Church activity " . He was kept informed of GO operations , such as the theft of medical records from a hospital , harassment of psychiatrists and infiltrations of organizations that had been critical of Scientology at various times , such as the Better Business Bureau , the American Medical Association , and American Psychiatric Association .
Members of the GO infiltrated and burglarized numerous government organizations , including the U.S. Department of Justice and the Internal Revenue Service . After two GO agents were caught in the Washington , D.C. headquarters of the IRS , the FBI carried out simultaneous raids on GO offices in Los Angeles and Washington , D.C. on July 7 , 1977 . They retrieved wiretap equipment , burglary tools and some 90 @,@ 000 pages of incriminating documents . Hubbard was not prosecuted , though he was labeled an " unindicted co @-@ conspirator " by government prosecutors . His wife Mary Sue was indicted and subsequently convicted of conspiracy . She was sent to a federal prison along with ten other Scientologists .
Hubbard 's troubles increased in February 1978 when a French court convicted him in absentia for obtaining money under false pretenses . He was sentenced to four years in prison and a 35,000FF ( $ 7 @,@ 000 ) fine . He went into hiding in April 1979 , moving to an apartment in Hemet , California , where his only contact with the outside world was via ten trusted Messengers . He cut contact with everyone else , even his wife , whom he saw for the last time in August 1979 . Hubbard faced a possible indictment for his role in Operation Freakout , the GO 's campaign against New York journalist Paulette Cooper , and in February 1980 he disappeared into deep cover in the company of two trusted Messengers , Pat and Anne Broeker .
For the first few years of the 1980s , Hubbard and the Broekers lived on the move , touring the Pacific Northwest in a recreational vehicle and living for a while in apartments in Newport Beach and Los Angeles . Hubbard used his time in hiding to write his first new works of science fiction for nearly thirty years — Battlefield Earth ( 1982 ) and Mission Earth , a ten @-@ volume series published between 1985 and 1987 . They received mixed responses ; as writer Jeff Walker puts it , they were " treated derisively by most critics but greatly admired by followers " . Hubbard also wrote and composed music for three of his albums , which were produced by the Church of Scientology . The book soundtrack Space Jazz was released in 1982 . Mission Earth and The Road to Freedom were released posthumously in 1986 .
In Hubbard 's absence , members of the Sea Org staged a takeover of the Church of Scientology and purged many veteran Scientologists . A young Messenger , David Miscavige , became Scientology 's de facto leader . Mary Sue Hubbard was forced to resign her position and her daughter Suzette became Miscavige 's personal maid .
= = Death and legacy = =
For the last two years of his life , Hubbard lived in a luxury Blue Bird motorhome on Whispering Winds , a 160 @-@ acre ranch near Creston , California . He remained in deep hiding while controversy raged in the outside world about whether he was still alive and if so , where . He spent his time " writing and researching " , according to a spokesperson , and pursued photography and music , overseeing construction work and checking on his animals . He repeatedly redesigned the property , spending millions of dollars remodeling the ranch house — which went virtually uninhabited — and building a quarter @-@ mile horse @-@ racing track with an observation tower , which reportedly was never used .
He was still closely involved in managing the Church of Scientology via secretly delivered orders and continued to receive large amounts of money , of which Forbes magazine estimated " at least $ 200 million [ was ] gathered in Hubbard 's name through 1982 . " In September 1985 , the IRS notified the Church that it was considering indicting Hubbard for tax fraud .
Hubbard suffered further ill @-@ health , including chronic pancreatitis , during his residence at Whispering Winds . He suffered a stroke on January 17 , 1986 , and died a week later . His body was cremated and the ashes were scattered at sea . Scientology leaders announced that his body had become an impediment to his work and that he had decided to " drop his body " to continue his research on another planet , having " learned how to do it without a body " .
Hubbard was survived by his wife Mary Sue and all of his children except his second son Quentin . His will provided a trust fund to support Mary Sue ; her children Arthur , Diana and Suzette ; and Katherine , the daughter of his first wife Polly . He disinherited two of his other children . L. Ron Hubbard , Jr. had become estranged , changed his name to " Ronald DeWolf " and , in 1982 , sued unsuccessfully for control of his father 's estate . Alexis Valerie , Hubbard 's daughter by his second wife Sara , had attempted to contact her father in 1971 . She was rebuffed with the implied claim that her real father was Jack Parsons rather than Hubbard , and that her mother had been a Nazi spy during the war . Both later accepted settlements when litigation was threatened . In 2001 , Diana and Suzette were reported to still be Church members , while Arthur had left and become an artist . Hubbard 's great @-@ grandson , Jamie DeWolf , is a noted slam poet .
The copyrights of his works and much of his estate and wealth were willed to the Church of Scientology . In a bulletin dated May 5 , 1980 , Hubbard told his followers to preserve his teachings until an eventual reincarnation when he would return " not as a religious leader but as a political one " . The Church of Spiritual Technology ( CST ) , a sister organization of the Church of Scientology , has engraved Hubbard 's entire corpus of Scientology and Dianetics texts on steel tablets stored in titanium containers . They are buried at the Trementina Base in a vault under a mountain near Trementina , New Mexico , on top of which the CST 's logo has
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Paul Lieberstein 's work on this show [ ... ] it 's that he understands what makes the main characters tick , and is able to use that for real emotional resonance [ ... ] When the show wants to give Jim , or Pam , or Dwight , or now Andy a quiet , emotional moment , it 's usually still able to do so very well , and that includes most of Andy and Darryl 's interaction here in " Lotto " . He was , however , more critical of the episode 's humor , noting that many of gags had been done before . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt called the episode superior to the previous episode commenting that " While perhaps not monumentally better than last week 's outing and damaged by a weak B @-@ story , ' Lotto ' had a greater sense of purpose that holds greater value to the season as it moves forward " . He also complimented the writers for not focusing too much on Andy . He ultimately gave the episode a " B " .
Cindy White of IGN awarded the episode a seven out of ten , denoting a " good " episode . She wrote that the entry " felt like a mid @-@ season episode , passably amusing , but nothing all that special or memorable " . White did , however , call Pam and Jim 's discussion about their lottery fantasy " the weakest part of the episode " . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode three out of five stars . He called the premise " an interesting buddy story " with " a tremendously inspiring speech from Andy to Darryl " . Despite the lackluster rating , Forcella wrote that the episode had its fair share " of hilarious moments " . Screencrave reviewer Jeffrey Hyatt awarded the episode a six out of ten and wrote that the episode was not an " a @-@ plus episode [ but ] the show still delivered some kick @-@ ass dialogue that had me laughing out loud . "
Critical reception to the Jim , Dwight , Kevin , and Erin in the warehouse was more mixed . Sepinwall criticized the warehouse subplot for " selling them [ the characters ] out for the sake of a joke " . Forcella , who gave the majority of the episode a positive review , was more critical of the installments subplot . Andrew Daglas of ChicagoNow , on the other hand , was more positive towards the subplot , calling it " generally amusing " . He called " Ellie Kemper with a smudge of dirt " on her face " totes [ sic ] adorbs . "
= Basingstoke =
Basingstoke ( / ˈbeɪzᵻŋstoʊk / BAY @-@ zing @-@ stohk ) is the largest town in Hampshire in south central England . It lies across a valley at the source of the River Loddon . It is 30 miles ( 48 km ) northeast of Southampton , 48 miles ( 77 km ) southwest of London , and 19 miles ( 31 km ) northeast of the county town and former capital Winchester . According to the 2011 census the town ( including its outer suburbs ) had a population of 107 @,@ 355 . It is part of the borough of Basingstoke and Deane and part of the parliamentary constituency of Basingstoke . Basingstoke is nicknamed " Doughnut City " or " Roundabout City " because of the number of large roundabouts .
Basingstoke is an old market town expanded in the 1960s as a result of an agreement between London and Hampshire County Councils . It developed rapidly after World War II , along with other towns in the United Kingdom , to accommodate part of the London ' overspill ' as perceived in the Greater London Plan in 1944 . Basingstoke market was mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 , and remained a small market town until the 1950s . At the start of World War II the population was little more than 13 @,@ 000 . It has a regular market , but is now larger than Hampshire County Council 's definition of a market town .
Basingstoke became an important economic centre during the second half of the 20th century .
= = Etymology = =
The name Basingstoke ( A.D 990 ; Embasinga stocæ , Domesday ; Basingestoches ) is believed to derived from the town 's position as the outlying , western settlement of Basa 's people , and the suffix -stoke refers to a stockade ( of which there is now no trace ) that surrounded the settlement in medieval times . Basing , now Old Basing , a village 2 miles ( 3 km ) to the east , is thought to have the same etymology , but is considered to be the older settlement .
= = History = =
= = = Early settlements = = =
A Neolithic campsite from around 3000 BC beside a spring on the west of the town is the earliest known human settlement in the area , but the Willis Museum has flint implements and axes from nearby fields that date from Palæolithic times . The hillfort at Winklebury ( 2 miles ( 3 km ) west of the town centre ) , known as Winklebury Camp or Winklebury Ring dates from the Iron age and there are remains of several other earthworks around the town , including a long barrow near Down Grange . The site is now home to Fort Hill Community School . To the west , Roman Road and Kempshott Lane mark the course of a Roman road that ran between Winchester and Silchester . Further to the east , another Roman road from Chichester passes through the villages of Upton Grey and Mapledurwell . The Harrow Way is an Iron @-@ age ancient route to the south of the town . These cross @-@ cutting highways , and good agricultural land led to the establishment of numerous Roman villas in northern Hampshire , the farming enterprises of Romanised native aristocracy ( Roman villa ) . The first recorded historical event here was the victory gained by Æthelred of Wessex and Alfred the Great over the Danes in 871 . In 904 Basingstoke saw a savage battle between Edward the Elder , Alfred 's only son , and his cousin Æthelwald .
= = = Market town = = =
Basingstoke is recorded as being a market site in the Domesday Book , and has held a regular Wednesday market since 1214 . During the Civil War , and the siege of Basing House between 1643 and 1645 , the town played host to large numbers of Parliamentarians . During this time , St. Michael 's Church was damaged whilst being used as an explosive store and lead was stripped from the roof of the Chapel of the Holy Ghost , leading to its eventual ruin . It had been incorporated in 1524 , but was effectively out of use after the Civil War . The 17th century saw serious damage to much of the town and its churches , because of great fires in 1601 and 1656 . Cromwell is thought to have stayed here towards the end of the siege of Basing House , and wrote a letter to the Speaker of the House of Commons addressed from Basingstoke .
The cloth industry was important in the development of the town until the 17th century along with malting . Brewing became important during the 18th and 19th centuries , and the oldest and most successful was May 's Brewery , established by Thomas and William May in 1750 in Brook Street .
= = = Victorian history = = =
The London and South Western Railway built a line from London in 1839 and within a year it was extended to Winchester and Southampton . In 1848 a rival company , sponsored by the Great Western Railway built a branch from Reading , and in 1854 a line was built to Salisbury . In the 19th century Basingstoke moved into industrial manufacture , Wallis and Haslam ( later Wallis & Steevens ) , began producing agricultural equipment including threshing machines in the 1850s , moving into the production of stationary steam engines in the 1860s and traction engines in the 1870s .
Two traders who opened their first shops within a year of each other in the town , became household names nationally : Thomas Burberry in 1856 and Alfred Milward in 1857 . Burberry became famous after he invented gabardine and Milward founded the Milwards chain of shoe shops , which could be found on almost every high street until the 1980s .
Ordinary citizens were shocked by the emotive , evangelical tactics of the Salvation Army when it arrived in the town in 1880 , but the reaction from employees of the breweries or the licenced trade grew openly hostile . Violent clashes became a regular occurrence culminating on Sunday 27 March 1881 with troops being called on after the mayor had read the Riot Act . The riot and its causes led to questions in Parliament and a period of notoriety for the town . The town was described as ' Barbarous Basingstoke ' by one London newspaper in 1882 .
In 1898 John Isaac Thornycroft began production of steam @-@ powered lorries and Thornycroft 's grew to become the town 's largest employer .
= = = Recent history = = =
Basingstoke was fortunate during the Second World War to suffer very little bomb damage with mainly a stick of German bombs falling along Flaxfield Road near to St Michael 's Church . After the war , the town had a population of 25 @,@ 000 .
As part of the London Overspill plan , along wth places such as Ashford and Swindon , Basingstoke was rapidly developed in the late 1960s as an ' expanded town ' , in similar fashion to Milton Keynes . Many office blocks and large estates were built , including a ring road . The shopping centre was built in phases . The first phase was completed by the 1970s and was later covered in the 1980s , and was known as The Walks . The second phase was completed by the early 1980s , and became The Malls . The third phase was abandoned and the site was later used to build the Anvil concert hall . The central part of the shopping centre was rebuilt in 2002 and reopened as Festival Place . This has brought a dramatic improvement to shoppers ' opinions of the town centre , but it is unclear if it has softened the town 's overall image .
Later that year , the Basingstoke Gazette launched its " Basingstoke – A Place to be Proud of " campaign , aimed at changing people 's perception of the town . The campaign is ongoing ( as of September 2014 ) and marked by the presentation of annual awards to individuals , organisations or businesses nominated by the public for commendable local achievement . As a mark of the improving image of the town as place to live , the borough entered the top 50 best places to live in the 2011 Halifax survey at number 47 .
Further work to improve the image of the town continues with the latest Central Basingstoke Vision project coordinated by the Borough Council . In the mid @-@ 1990s , numerous reports described sightings of the Beast of Basingstoke , a big cat believed to be a lion or a puma , possibly two . Local legend suggests the animal was shot and killed , although no official news sources document any capture or killing of the beast .
Basingstoke houses the UK headquarters of De La Rue , Sun Life Financial , The Automobile Association , ST Ericsson , GAME , Motorola , Barracuda Networks , Eli Lilly and Company , BNP Paribas Leasing Solutions , the leasing arm of BNP Paribas in the UK , and Sony Professional Solutions . It houses the European headquarters of the TaylorMade @-@ Adidas Golf Company . Other industries include publishing ( Palgrave Macmillan , etc . ) , IT , telecommunications , insurance and electronics .
During the severe snow storms of December 2009 , Basingstoke and the surrounding area was one of the worst hit regions in the United Kingdom , where an estimated 3000 motorists were forced to abandon their vehicles around the town and on the ring road during the evening rush hour of the Christmas holidays .
= = Geography = =
Situated in a valley through the Hampshire Downs at an average altitude of 88 metres ( 289 ft ) Basingstoke is a major interchange between Reading , Newbury , Andover , Winchester , and Alton , and lies on the natural trade route between the southwest of England and London .
= = = Physical geography and geology = = =
The precise size and shape of Basingstoke today are difficult to identify , as it has no single official boundary that encompasses all the areas contiguous to its development . The unparished area of the town represents its bulk , but several areas that might be considered part of the town are separate parishes , namely Chineham , Rooksdown , and Lychpit . The unparished area includes Worting which was previously a separate village and parish , extending beyond Roman Road and Old Kempshott Lane , which might otherwise be considered the town 's ' natural ' western extremity . The ward boundaries within the parliamentary constituency are not ( as of August 2007 ) coterminous with the parish boundaries .
Basingstoke is situated on a bed of cretaceous upper chalk with small areas of clayey and loamy soil , inset with combined clay and flint patches . Loam and alluvium recent and pleistocene sediments line the bed of the river Loddon . A narrow line of tertiary Reading beds run diagonally from the northwest to the southeast along a line from Sherborne St John through Popley , Daneshill and the north part of Basing . To the north of this line , encompassing the areas of Chineham and Pyotts Hill , is London clay .
= = = Divisions and suburbs = = =
Basingstoke 's expansion has absorbed much surrounding farmland and scattered housing , transforming it into housing estates or local districts . Many of these new estates are designed as almost self @-@ contained communities , such as Lychpit , Chineham , Popley , Winklebury , Oakridge , Kempshott , Brighton Hill , Viables , South Ham , Black Dam , Buckskin and Hatch Warren . The M3 acts as a buffer zone to the south of the town , and the South Western Main Line constrains the western expansion , with a green belt to the north and north @-@ east , making Basingstoke shaped almost like a kite . As a result , the villages of Cliddesden , Dummer , Sherborne St John and Oakley , although being very close to the town limits , are considered distinct entities . Popley , Hatch Warren and Beggarwood are seeing rapid growth in housing .
= = = Demography = = =
The population has increased from around 2 @,@ 500 in 1801 to over 52 @,@ 000 in 1971 ; the most significant growth occurring during the later half of the 20th century . The borough of Basingstoke was merged with other local districts in 1974 to form the borough of Basingstoke and Deane . Since then most census data has been for the larger area : before 1974 , census information was published for the town as a separate entity .
Figures published for the most recent UK census in 2001 for the Borough of Basingstoke and Deane , give a population of 152 @,@ 573 and a population density of 2 @.@ 41 persons per hectare . The number of women at 50 @.@ 48 % slightly exceeded that of men . 96 @.@ 56 % of the population were White British , 1 @.@ 22 % Asian or Asian British , 1 @.@ 02 % mixed race , 0 @.@ 58 % Black or Black British and 0 @.@ 61 % Chinese or other ethnic group . With regard to religion , 74 @.@ 02 % of the population were Christian , 16 @.@ 98 % had no religion and 7 @.@ 22 % did not respond . Other religions in total accounting for less than 2 % . Among other findings were that 74 @.@ 33 % felt they were in good health , 50 @.@ 98 % were economically active full @-@ time employees ( over 10 % higher than the National Average ) and 48 @.@ 73 % were buying their property with a mortgage or loan ( almost 10 % higher than the national average ) . Amongst the working population , 64 @.@ 2 % travelled less than 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to work . The biggest percentage of employees , 17 @.@ 67 % worked in real estate , renting and business activities .
= = Governance = =
Basingstoke is part of a two @-@ tier local government structure and returns county councillors to Hampshire County Council . When the cities of Southampton and Portsmouth attained unitary authority status in 1998 , Basingstoke became the largest settlement in the county administered by the county council , although it remains the third largest settlement in the ceremonial county .
Basingstoke and Deane is the local Borough Council and has its offices in the town centre . Elections to the council take place in 3 out of every 4 years . After the latest election in 2012 and 2 Conservative defections thereafter , the council has under no overall control but with a Conservative majority . As of 2014 , the council is compiled of 30 Conservative , 14 Labour , 11 Liberal Democrat , 4 independent and 1 UKIP councillors . The Basingstoke parliamentary constituency was formed under the 1885 Act and is currently served by Conservative Member of Parliament ( MP ) Maria Miller , who was elected in the 2005 general election . In September 2012 , Miller was appointed as Secretary of State for Culture , Media & Sport under the Prime Minister 's cabinet reshuffle , a position from which she resigned in April 2014 .
Under the town twinning scheme , the local council have twinned Basingstoke with Alençon in France , Braine @-@ l 'Alleud in Belgium , and Euskirchen in Germany .
= = Facilities = =
The former Town Hall , adjoining the old marketplace , houses the Willis Museum ( originally the Basingstoke Museum , until 1956 ) . This was founded and directed by Alderman George W. Willis , a local clocksmith , who served as Mayor of Basingstoke in 1923 @-@ 24 . He established the museum in 1931 and with much public support was able to build it up into a major collection on local history , with a particularly extensive collection ( largely made by him ) of prehistoric implements and of antique clocks and watches . His association with the expanding museum continued for forty years . Its central location today is where , once upon a time , Jane Austen and her sister used to go to dances . Although ostensibly set in Hertford , Austen 's novel Pride and Prejudice , written in 1797 , is thought to have been based on her view of Basingstoke society two centuries ago .
The Top of Town is the historic heart of Basingstoke , housing the Museum in the former Town Hall building ( rebuilt 1832 ) as well as several locally run shops , the post office , and the market place . Basingstoke is also home to multiple theatrical organisations : The Anvil , and the Haymarket , situated in the former Corn Exchange .
Festival Place , opened in October 2002 , gave a huge boost to the town centre whilst transforming the former The Walks Shopping Centre and the New Market Square . Aside from a wide range of shops , there is also a range of cafés and restaurants as well as a large multiscreen Vue cinema ( formerly Ster Century from Festival Place 's opening until their takeover in 2005 ; the pre @-@ existing Vue in the Leisure Park was sold to Odeon ) .
Central Basingstoke has two further shopping areas : The Malls and the Top of Town . The Malls area had declined since the opening of Festival Place and the closure of its Allders department store , though still home to several major retailers . The leasehold was purchased in 2004 by the St Modwen development group in partnership with the Kuwait property investment company Salhia Real Estate , with provision for redevelopment The redevelopment of The Malls started in late 2010 , and the shopping centre was given a major facelift . The existing canopies were removed and a clear roof canopy installed , to protect the centre from bad weather , but still allow natural light and air in . The whole shopping centre has been repaved and new street furniture installed . A new gateway entrance to The Malls links it to the rail station . The redevelopment was completed in the last quarter of 2011 . The redevelopment work has been carried out by Wates Group using a variety of subcontractors .
Immediately outside the Malls , in the centre of Basingstoke 's Wote Street stands the most noticeable Willy , the heaviest sculpture of a male organ on public display in the UK , weighing seven tons . The image of a mother and child is carved into the side of the sculpture .
The town 's nightlife is split between the new Festival Square , and the traditional hostelries at the Top of Town , with a few local community pubs outside the central area . The town has four nightclubs , two in the town itself , one on the east side and one 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) out to the west .
In Portchester Square is the Basingstoke Sports Centre which has a subterranean swimming pool , sauna , jacuzzi and steam room . Above ground there is a gym , aerobics studios , squash courts and main hall . There is also a playden for young children .
= = = Sports and leisure = = =
Outside the town centre , there is a leisure park featuring the Aquadrome swimming pool , which opened in May 2002 . The park includes an ice rink , bowling alley , Bingo club and a ten screen Odeon ( formerly Vue prior to the takeover of the Ster Century cinema in Festival Place , and before that , Warner @-@ Village ) cinema , as well as a restaurant and fast food outlets . The leisure park is home to the Milestones Museum which contains a network of streets and buildings based on the history of Hampshire .
Basingstoke has a football club , Basingstoke Town F.C. the Basingstoke Rugby Football Club , and the Basingstoke Bison ice hockey team . Basingstoke also has a swimming team , known as the Basingstoke Bluefins and an American Flag Football Team known as the Basingstoke Zombie Horde . The diversity of sporting activity in the area is also illustrated by organisations such as Basingstoke Demons Floorball Club , Basingstoke Volleyball Club , Basingstoke Bulls Korfball Club and Lasham Gliding Society . The home ground of Basingstoke & North Hants Cricket Club , Mays Bounty was until 2000 used once a season by Hampshire County Cricket Club . As of 2011 , Basingstoke has a roller derby league and team , the Basingstoke Bullets . Due to difficulty finding a suitable venue , the team practice in nearby Whitchurch .
Plans have recently been announced for a new multimillion @-@ pound sports facility at Down Grange , which would be suitable for many sports . Proposals include a stadium for Basingstoke Town FC and Basingstoke RFC which would be up to the standard of the Football League , a new 8 lane athletics track and hockey pitch , as well as a gym , swimming pool , hotel and conference facilities .
= = = Musical groups = = =
Basingstoke has a wide diversity for musical groups ranging from brass bands to symphony orchestras . The Basingstoke Concert Band is a traditional wind band which has now been in existence for more than 35 years . The band was started by Lawrie Shaw when Brighton Hill Community School opened in Basingstoke in 1975 where he was the first headteacher . Lawrie formed the band as an evening class for amateur wind players and it was then known as the Brighton Hill Centre Band . In the years immediately after World War II the Basingstoke Symphony Orchestra was being conducted by D. Cecil Williams .
= = = Media = = =
Basingstoke is served by regional radio stations The Breeze serving North Hampshire and parts of Surrey and Sussex and Heart Berkshire , broadcast from Reading and London also provides regional coverage in the area . BBC Berkshire is available in the town . The town has coverage from digital radio ; the BBC , Independent National and Now Reading multiplexes can be received in the town , and the outskirts can receive London and South Hampshire stations as well . The BBC national stations and DAB coverage is enhanced by a small relay just south of the town centre .
Local TV coverage is provided by BBC South and ITV Meridian , with BBC London and ITV London also received in the town . There are three local newspapers – the Basingstoke Gazette which also publishes the Wednesday Extra , and the Basingstoke Observer . The town is also covered by the broadsheet newspaper Hampshire Chronicle .
= = Education = =
The Holy Ghost School ( subsequently Queen Mary 's School for Boys ) was a state funded grammar school operating in Basingstoke for four centuries , from 1556 until 1970 , producing nationally @-@ recognised alumni such as Revd . Gilbert White ( 1720 @-@ 1793 ) , a pioneer naturalist , and the famed cricket commentator , John Arlott ( 1914 @-@ 1991 ) .
In modern times education in Basingstoke has been co @-@ ordinated by Hampshire County Council . Each neighbourhood in the town has at least one primary school , while secondary schools are distributed around the town on larger campuses . Basingstoke has two large further education colleges : a sixth form college , Queen Mary 's College ( QMC ) and Basingstoke College of Technology ( BCoT ) . The University of Winchester had a campus in Basingstoke ( Chute House Campus ) which closed in July 2011 ; it had offered full @-@ time and part @-@ time university courses in subjects including childhood studies , various management pathways , community development and creative industries . Bournemouth University 's health and social care students can work on placement at the North Hampshire Hospital . However , the hospital only caters for midwifery students .
= = Transport = =
Basingstoke is at Junction 6 and Junction 7 of the M3 motorway , which skirts the town 's southeastern edge , linking the town to London and to Southampton and the south @-@ west . The central area of the town is encircled by a ring road constructed in the 1960s named The Ringway and bisected from east to west either by the A3010 or Churchill Way . The A33 runs north east to Reading and the M4 Motorway and south west to Winchester . The A30 runs east to Hook and west to Salisbury . The A303 begins a few miles south west of Basingstoke to head west towards Wiltshire and the West Country , sharing the first few miles with the A30 . The A339 runs south east to Alton and north west to Newbury . Basingstoke has a reputation for having a large density of roundabouts , and with some larger roundabouts dealing with traffic from six directions , this only adds to the illusion , as does the fact some multilevel junctions on the Ringway were never built or completed .
The South Western Main Line railway runs east and west through the centre of the town and Basingstoke railway station linking it to the West of England Main Line to Salisbury and the South West of England , London Waterloo ( the fastest train Basingstoke to London takes 44 minutes ) , Winchester , Southampton , Bournemouth and Weymouth , and via the Eastleigh to Fareham Line and West Coastway Line to Portsmouth and Brighton . The West of England Main Line to Salisbury and Exeter diverges at Worting Junction , to the west . The Basingstoke Branch runs north @-@ east to Reading , providing services to Oxford , Birmingham , the north of England and Scotland . The town was the terminus of the defunct Basingstoke and Alton Light Railway . Current rail services from Basingstoke are operated by South West Trains , CrossCountry and First Great Western .
Most bus services in the town operate from Basingstoke Bus Station . The majority are provided by the Stagecoach Group through their Stagecoach in Hampshire sub @-@ division , Newbury and District also operate over individual routes and Cango operate a service linking villages between Basingstoke and Alton . A Park and Ride service links Basingstoke leisure park with Basing View , via Basingstoke Railway Station . This service provides a daytime service at roughly 10 @-@ minute intervals throughout the week . The buses on this service being provided by Basingstoke and Deane Borough Council . Currently ( 2010 ) , a complementary peak time service is also provided by Courtney Coaches Limited between Chineham Business Park and the railway station . National Express offers direct coach services to London , Heathrow Airport and Southampton from the bus station .
Separating provision for cyclists from other road traffic was not part of the remit of the 1960s town redevelopment , and in 1996 the perception of provision for cyclists was very poor . A Basingstoke Area Cycling Strategy was developed in 1999 and subsequently an extensive cycle network has been developed mainly utilising on @-@ road routes or off @-@ road routes that run parallel with and directly alongside roads . Basingstoke was linked to Reading on the National Cycle Network route 23 in May 2003 and the route was extended south to Alton and Alresford in April 2006 .
= = = Basingstoke Canal = = =
The Basingstoke Canal started at a canal basin , roughly where the cinema in Festival Place is located . From there the canal ran alongside the River Loddon following the line of Eastrop Way . The old canal route passes under the perimeter ring road and then follows a long loop partly on an embankment to pass over small streams and water meadows towards Old Basing , where the route goes around the now ruined palace of Basing House and then through and around the eastern edge of Old Basing . It followed another loop to go over small streams near the Hatch public house ( a lot of this section was built over when constructing the M3 ) and headed across fields on an embankment towards Mapledurwell . The section of the canal from Up Nately to the western entrance of the Greywell Tunnel still exists and is a nature reserve ; there is water in the canal and the canal towpath can be walked . A permissive footpath at the western entrance to the tunnel allows walkers to access public footpaths to get to the eastern entrance of the tunnel . The limit of navigation is about 500m east of the Greywell Tunnel . The renovated sections of the canal can then be navigated east towards West Byfleet where it joins the Wey Navigation , which itself can be navigated to the River Thames at Weybridge .
Plans to reconnect Basingstoke with the surviving sections of the Canal have been delayed several times in the past and this remains a long term aim of the Surrey and Hampshire Canal Society .
= = Religious sites = =
The notable Anglican church of St. Michael 's is west of Festival Place and the chancel dates from 1464 ; the south chapel may be older . The nave and aisles were added 50 years later by Richard Foxe , Bishop of Winchester . The Memorial Chapel at the north east corner of the church was completed in 1921 . The ruined Chapel of the Holy Ghost , north of the railway station , has not been a place of worship for the past four centuries , an effect of the Reformation . It was built by the first Lord Sandys , beginning in 1524 , when King Henry VIII issued a charter of incorporation . However the west tower of a 13th @-@ century building survives . It is surrounded by an ancient cemetery ; Lord William Sandys himself lies buried in the chapel with his wife . According to the authors of Premature burial and how it may be prevented , a lady by the name of Blunden was buried alive in this cemetery by accident in a family vault . Schoolboys were supposed to have heard her struggles in her coffin , which was opened too late to save her life . The Church of St Mary , Eastrop is an old church enlarged in 1912 . All Saints ' Church was built in 1915 , designed by Temple Moore . St Peter 's Church was built in 1964 @-@ 5 designed by Ronald Sims and is in a housing estate built in the 1960s . In 2014 a group named Basingstoke Community Churches covered an area of six churches in the town . There is also an Assemblies of God church called Wessex Christian Fellowship , two very new Roman Catholic churches , St. Bede 's and St. Joseph 's , and churches of other denominations .
= = Cultural associations = =
The Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera Ruddigore uses the word " Basingstoke " as a catchprase , reminding the " mad " character Margaret not to relapse into abnormal behaviour . In 1895 , Thomas Hardy referred to Basingstoke as " Stoke Barehills " in Jude the Obscure . Patrick Wilde 's 1993 play , What 's Wrong with Angry ? is set in Basingstoke . It was later adapted into the 1998 film , Get Real , which was filmed at various locations around Basingstoke .
Park Prewett Hospital was the unnamed setting for the novel " Poison in the Shade " ( 1953 ) by the local author and sculptor Eric Benfield , who was working as an art therapist there when it was a mental hospital .
Basingstoke 's North Hampshire Hospital was one of two hospitals used for the filming of Channel 4 's hit comedy Green Wing . George Formby 's film , " He Snoops to Conquer , " was partly shot in the town in 1944 . And in 1974 the National Film Board of Canada produced a documentary here called " Basingstoke — Runcorn : British New Towns " .
= You Can Dance =
You Can Dance is the first remix album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on November 17 , 1987 , by Sire Records . The album contains remixes of tracks from her first three studio albums — Madonna ( 1983 ) , Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) and True Blue ( 1986 ) — and a new track , " Spotlight " . In the 1980s , remixing was still a new concept and technology , by which a particular vocal phrase could be endlessly copied , repeated , chopped up , transposed up and down in pitch and give them more echo , reverberation , treble or bass . Madonna became interested in the concept , noting that she hated when others remixed her songs and wanted to do it by herself .
Madonna turned to her old friend and producer John " Jellybean " Benitez to help her remix the songs , and also enlisted the help of Patrick Leonard , the producer of True Blue . The mixes on You Can Dance exhibited a number of typical mixing techniques . Instrumental passages were lengthened to increase the time for dancing , which undermined the tighter structure of the original pop song . Vocal phrases were repeated and subjected to multiple echoes , panned across the stereophonic sound outlets . At certain points , almost no music is heard except the drums and at other times , the drums are removed with only the hi @-@ hat left to keep time . The album cover denoted Madonna 's continuous fascination with Hispanic culture .
After its release , You Can Dance received generally mixed reviews from critics , some of whom noted how the already known songs appeared to them in a complete new structure , calling it an essential album to be played at parties . You Can Dance was a commercial success , earning a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of a million copies , and reaching the top twenty of the Billboard 200 . It reached the top ten of the album charts of France , Italy , Japan , Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway and the United Kingdom , and went on to sell five million copies worldwide , making it the second best @-@ selling remix album of all time , behind only Blood on the Dance Floor from Michael Jackson . " Spotlight " was the only single released from the album in Japan , but charted on the airplay charts of Billboard due to radio play .
= = Background = =
In November 1987 , Warner Bros. Records commissioned the release of You Can Dance — Madonna 's first retrospective — which was aimed at the dance segment of her audience . It was an album containing seven of Madonna 's songs in remixed format , which was still a revolutionary concept in the 1980s . By the mid @-@ eighties , post @-@ disco dance music was extremely popular and the concept of remix was widely regarded as a new direction of music . Several artists were remixing their tracks and compiling them to create new albums . Mixing was an interpretative process , where the artist was usually involved , but the development was generally looked after the record producer . The different parts of a song , including the lead vocals , background vocals , guitars , bass , synths , drum machine — all went through the process of mixing to sound considerably different from their original counterpart . Mixing determined how loud these instruments were going to sound in relation to each other and what particular sound effects should be added to each instrument . Improvements in studio technologies meant the possibility of shaping the sound of a song in any way , after it has been recorded . The arrangements were itself created at the mixing stage , rather than being created previously . A particular vocal phrase could be endlessly copied , repeated , chopped up , transposed up and down in pitch and give them more echo , reverberation , treble or bass .
It was this concept which intrigued Madonna , while she was developing her third studio album True Blue ( 1986 ) . She said , " I hate it when people do master mixes of my records . I don 't want to hear my songs changed like that . I don 't know that I like it , people screwing with my records . The jury is out on it for me . But the fans like it , and really , this one was for the fans , for the kids in the clubs who wanted to hear these songs in a fresh new way . " She went to Warner with the idea of releasing her songs by remixing them in a complete dance tune . From Warner 's point of view , the rise of remix was a commercial boon , because it meant making more money out of the same piece of music . Instead of paying Madonna to go to studio and record different tracks , they found that allowing her to record the same tracks in different formats was much less costly . Hence they decided to release the album , but gave full freedom to Madonna to choose the producers with whom she wanted to develop the remixes .
= = Development = =
Madonna turned to her old friend and producer John " Jellybean " Benitez to help her remixing the songs , and also enlisted the help of Patrick Leonard , the producer of True Blue . Together they chose six of Madonna 's old songs and decided to give it a remixed form . The songs chosen were " Holiday " , " Everybody " and " Physical Attraction " from Madonna ( 1983 ) , " Into the Groove " and " Over and Over " from Like a Virgin ( 1984 ) , and lastly , " Where 's the Party " from True Blue . Along with the pre @-@ released tracks , a never @-@ before released song called " Spotlight " was included as a bonus . Madonna said that she was inspired by the song " Everybody Is a Star " ( 1970 ) , by American rock band Sly and the Family Stone . Written by Madonna , Stephen Bray and Curtis Hudson , " Spotlight " was originally recorded during the True Blue recording sessions . It was omitted from the album because Madonna felt that it was similar in composition and structure to " Holiday " .
After the remixing of the songs started , Benitez noted , " We decided on basic questions like ' How loud should the drums be ? How much should the vocals stand out ? ' These are creative decisions which will change the finished piece of music . " Shep Pettibone , one of the producers of the album commented that " normally , without some music to work on , the remixer has nothing . But we already had Madonna 's catalogue of danceable songs which was enough material for lifetime . " The mixes on You Can Dance exhibited a number of typical mixing techniques . Instrumental passages were lengthened to increase the time for dancing , which undermined the tighter structure of the original pop song . Vocal phrases were repeated and subjected to multiple echoes , panned across the stereophonic sound outlets . At certain points , almost no music is heard except the drums and at others , the drums are removed with only the hi @-@ hat left to keep time .
The album cover denoted Madonna 's continued fascination with Spanish culture and fashion . She wore a female toreador outfit with a lacy bustier , embroidered bolero jacket and a cummerbund with a flouncy bustle . Jeri Heiden , who had worked on the cover art for True Blue , was given the task of editing the photos and making them compatible for appearance in an album cover . Shot by Herb Ritts , the cover showed Madonna again as a platinum blond . Heiden explained in an interview with Aperture magazine in October 2006 that the cover was not meant to be a tie @-@ in with the True Blue cover . " It was just Madonna 's look at the time – Platinum Blond . And of course the handwriting reappears on that album . " The album sleeve included a free poster and the gold wrap @-@ around liner notes contained approximate running time to indicate the difference between the length of the remix and the original track . Brian Chin , a Rolling Stone journalist , wrote the liner notes for the album , explaining the process of remix and why the seven songs were chosen for the tracklist .
= = Composition = =
According to Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , " Improvements in studio technology meant that possibilities for shaping the sound after it has been recorded are almost limitless . " Such possibility were applied in the song composition and the remixes present in You Can Dance . Previously to change the sound of an instrument , or to jump from one sound to another , recordings used to stop playing the instrument and the drums at that point . But for the remixes on You Can Dance , the fade engineering technology was applied to the songs , wherein the fader was simply pulled down , and was pushed up again when the sound of the instruments were made to come up to the surface . The first song on the album is " Spotlight " which begins with the sound of drums , bass synths and handclaps , followed by Madonna uttering the words " Spotlight , shine bright " . After the first verse , the sound of keyboard is heard during the chorus . It continues like this through the second verse , which is followed by an interlude featuring vocal echoes , a piano segment and violin phrases . Madonna follows the music played by the piano and utters the words " Pa @-@ da @-@ pa @-@ da @-@ pappa pappa pa pa " in the same melody . The lyrics deal with Madonna making the listener remember that " everybody is a star " and that if one wants to be famous and be under the " spotlight " , the person should sing about it and reality may catch up with him or her . According to the sheet music published at SheetMusicPlus.com , the song is set in the time signature of common time , with a tempo of 100 beats per minute . It is set in the key of F major with Madonna 's voice spanning from the notes of C5 to B ♭ 5 . " Spotlight " has a basic sequence of Am – C – Am – C – G – F as its chord progression .
The second track is " Holiday " , which Benitez said that he always wanted to remix , commenting " There are new sounds on the 1987 remix [ of ' Holiday ' ] , but it had a groove that needed no improvement . " The sound of the guitar is brought to the front in the remix , with a piano break and a middle section consisting of drum beats . The mix for " Everybody " starts with four repetitions of the vocal hook and then moves into a rhythm centered arrangement . Like " Holiday " , the middle section of " Everybody " features a drum break , with a synth tune backing it up . The word " dance " is echoed and slowed @-@ down continuously through the break , gradually changing into the intermedia verse . At the very end , the drums are pulled out , leaving Madonna repeating the " get up and do your thing " phrase , which hovers over to the intro of the next song " Physical Attraction " . It begins with the arrangement of the original song , until the middle eight , where the composition is varied . A disconcerting sound is present at the end of the track , which , after sometime increases in volume until then next track " Over and Over " begins . In the " Into the Groove " remix , overdubs are present with the continuous repetition of the phrase " c 'mon " . The first verse does not start until about ninety seconds into the remix . After the first " Now I know you 're mine " line is sung , there is a percussion break , and repetition of the phrases " step to the beat " and " c 'mon " . The last verse incorporates echoing on the vocals , causing overlap of the phrases . The remix ends with instrumentation from congas , whistles and timbales , giving it a Mexican ending .
= = Critical reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic said that " [ You Can Dance ] keeps the spotlight on her first record , adding non @-@ LP singles like ' Into the Groove ' for good measure , along with a bonus track of ' Where 's the Party ' . Since it is a dance album , it doesn 't matter that ' Holiday ' and ' Into the Groove ' are here twice , once each in dub versions , because the essential grooves and music are quite different in each incarnation . It is true that some of this now sounds dated — these are quite clearly extended mixes from the mid 80s — but that 's part of its charm , and it all holds together quite well . Not essential , but fun . " In The Village Voice , Robert Christgau considered that " the effects , repeats , breaks , and segues added by a star crew of remixers [ ... ] amount to new music — this time the songs don 't surface , they reach out and grab you " . He also argued that You Can Dance reminded the audience that before MTV , they " loved the way she sounded " . Author J. Randy Taraborrelli noted that " You Can Dance made one point clear about Madonna . While she was evolving into a serious pop star , musically she still knew how to host the best party . " He complimented the remixed versions of " Holiday " , " Everybody " , " Physical Attraction " and " Into the Groove " .
Timothy Green from The Miami Herald said that " [ The album has ] got a good beat and you can dance to it . Madonna 's new album isn 't really new , but rather a collection of danceable hits , remixed by club deejays masterful at that peculiar art of taking the artists ' work , track by track , and reconstructing it . Most such remixes become 12 @-@ inch dance singles , and You Can Dance , is basically a compilation of these . The remixes sound fresh and gives a new outlook on the already famous and popular songs . " Jan DeKnock from the Chicago Tribune was not impressed with the album , calling it calculative . However , Daniel Brogan from the same newspaper praised the album , saying that " Madonna has brought a new joy to the people buying gifts for Christmas , as You Can Dance is a fun @-@ filled , fast @-@ paced retrospective that will burn the dance floor till New Year . " Richard Harrington from The Washington Post called the album " an energetic collection of extended dance remixes , that will surely be the highlight of the party crowds flocking around the town . " John Milward from USA Today felt that " although the remixes sound a little exhaustive , its nevertheless party time with Madonna 's album . "
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , the album was released on November 18 , 1987 , and reached a peak of number 14 on the Billboard 200 . The LP cuts debuted at number 41 on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart , and moved up to number 17 the next week . An extended series of remixes called " You Can Dance – LP Cuts " was serviced to the dance radio stations later . The LP cuts ultimately topped the Dance chart , becoming Madonna 's seventh number one on the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart . The album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of one million copies across United States . In Canada , the album debuted at number 55 on the RPM Albums Chart on December 5 , 1987 . After five weeks , it reached a peak of number 11 on the chart . It was present for a total of 21 weeks on the chart .
In Australia , You Can Dance debuted at number 15 on the Kent Music Report albums chart , and peaked at number 13 . It was certified platinum by
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The scheduled opening of the second phase of the LGV Est for commercial service was delayed three months , from 3 April 2016 to 3 July 2016 .
= = Background = =
The LGV Est européenne ( often shortened to LGV Est ) is a high @-@ speed rail line connecting Paris and Strasbourg . Development has been divided into two phases . The first phase , from Vaires @-@ sur @-@ Marne near Paris , to Baudrecourt opened on 10 June 2007 . Construction on the 106 km ( 66 mi ) second phase , from Baudrecourt to Vendenheim , near Strasbourg , began in 2010 . The final weld of rails on the second phase occurred in March 2015 , marking the completion of the line , although some work remained . At the time of the derailment , the line was scheduled to open for commercial service on 3 April 2016 , following commissioning trials and training for operators .
The scheduled tests for the line consisted of four phases :
Factory testing of components of the line , completed in 2013 – 14 ;
On @-@ site testing of components and functioning of subsystems , completed in 2013 – 2014 ;
Static testing of subsystems with slow @-@ moving trains , completed from late 2014 to August 2015 ;
Dynamic testing of the line with trains operating at high speed , began in September 2015 and scheduled to have been completed in November 2015 .
A specialized test train , Dasye set 744 in a commemorative livery , arrived to conduct the fourth phase of testing , which began on 28 September 2015 . During this phase , more than 200 test runs would be performed on the line . The test runs would test ride smoothness , performance of the catenary , radio communications , and the signalling system . During some runs , the test train would operate at 10 % above the planned operational speeds for the line when it enters service . Some automated safety systems were disabled to allow the test train to operate beyond normal operating conditions . Orientation training for operators was scheduled to take place between January and March 2016 prior to the start of commercial service on the line , which was scheduled for 3 April 2016 at the time of the accident . In January 2016 , SNCF announced that the opening of the line would be delayed until to 3 July 2016 .
= = Accident = =
= = = Departure = = =
Tests scheduled for 11 and 14 November were to traverse each of the two tracks , in both directions of travel and at a test speed 10 % above the speed limit when the line is in commercial service . On the afternoon of 14 November , the test train was scheduled to depart Meuse TGV Station at 14 : 18 and arrive at Strasbourg Station at 15 : 17 . At 14 : 26 , authorization was given to begin the test and the test train left Meuse TGV Station two minutes later . During this test , the test train traveled eastbound on Track 2 , the southern track on the east @-@ west oriented LGV Est , in the direction opposite normal operation ( Strasbourg towards Paris ) . The Meuse @-@ Strasbourg run was the last series of tests on the line during the fourth phase of tests .
The train reached a maximum speed of 352 km / h ( 220 mph ) on sections where the speed limit will be 320 km / h ( 200 mph ) . As the train approached the flying junction in the commune of Vendenheim , it should have slowed from 352 to 176 km / h ( 220 to 110 mph ) before reaching Kilometer Point ( KP ) 403 @.@ 809 , where the speed limit for commercial service will be 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . As the track begins a long , right @-@ hand curve into the flying junction , it is raised on an embankment , approximately 5 – 8 m ( 16 – 26 ft ) high , and crosses a bridge over the Marne – Rhine Canal . The flying junction marks the end of the LGV Est line , after which the train was to continue on an existing , non @-@ high @-@ speed rail line leading to Strasbourg Station .
= = = Derailment = = =
As the train entered the right @-@ hand curve into the flying junction , the rear bogie of the lead power car derailed to the left ( outside of the curve ) at 15 : 04 : 42 at approximately KP 404 @.@ 003 . Violent transverse movements at the rear of the lead power car caused it to separate from the rest of the train . The rear of the lead power car struck a concrete parapet ( KP 404 @.@ 209 ) on the leading abutment to the bridge over the Marne – Rhine Canal . The impact broke apart the lead power car and caused oil to leak from the lead power car 's transformer , which ignited and was spread across the bridge and canal banks . The rear bogie of the lead power car remained where it impacted the concrete parapet . The transformer of the lead power car landed on the east bank of the canal . The remainder of the lead power car slid along the left parapet of the bridge . At the end of the bridge , it overturned , slid down the embankment and came to a rest 150 metres ( 490 ft ) beyond the end of the bridge .
Cars 2 – 7 derailed before the bridge and traveled off the embankment with enough speed to overshoot the canal and come to rest 80 – 130 m ( 260 – 430 ft ) beyond the beginning of the bridge . Cars 8 – 9 came to rest on the east bank of the canal and the rear power car ended up partially submerged in the canal .
= = = Response and casualties = = =
At 15 : 05 , the train disappeared from the approach zone for the Vendenheim junction on the display being monitored by staff at the signalling control center . At 15 : 10 , the control center initiated emergency procedures for the loss of a train and closed the non @-@ high @-@ speed rail lines that pass through the Vendenheim junction . At approximately the same time , one of the companies involved in the construction of the line received a call from an employee aboard the train , who informed them of the derailment . Shortly before 17 : 45 , the local mass casualty plan was enacted . Emergency medical and fire rescue services along with 100 gendarmes responded to the incident . At its height , 104 engines from three départments responded to the incident — 65 from Bas @-@ Rhin and 39 from Moselle and Haut @-@ Rhin . Those with minor injuries were treated by responders from the French Red Cross , which operated at the school in Eckwersheim . The French Minister of Ecology , Sustainable Development and Energy , Ségolène Royal , and the Secretary of State for Transport , Alain Vidalies , travelled to the site shortly after the crash . The president of SNCF , Guillaume Pepy , and the president of SNCF Réseau , Jacques Rapoport , also travelled to the site in the hours after the accident .
The train was carrying 53 persons , including four children , ages 10 – 15 , who were not officially authorized to be aboard . The derailment resulted in 11 deaths , which included four employees of SNCF , five technicians from the engineering firm responsible for the tests , and two guests . Ten died at the crash scene , one died the following evening , and one seriously injured person remained in hospital as of February 2016 . Among the dead was the director of the LGV Est line for SNCF Réseau , which owns France 's railroad infrastructure . Despite breaking in two pieces and the severe impact with the parapet , there were no deaths among the seven people in the front cab . The second @-@ to @-@ last car impacted the canal wall and was the car with the highest death toll . It was the first fatal derailment in the history of the TGV and the third derailment since the TGV entered commercial service in 1981 .
= = Investigation = =
Three investigations have been opened . The French Land Transport Accident Investigation Bureau ( BEA @-@ TT , Bureau d 'Enquêtes sur les Accidents de Transport Terrestre ) is responsible for investigating rail accidents in France and will conduct a non @-@ judicial technical investigation . A criminal investigation and internal investigation by SNCF have also been opened . Among the subjects which SNCF will investigate is whether there was a dereliction of duties by an SNCF employee that resulted in the unauthorized children riding on the train . The president of SNCF has exclaimed : " This is not a practice that SNCF recognizes . A test train is a test train . " The derailment occurred the day after the November 2015 Paris attacks , initially sparking fears that the derailment was the work of terrorists .
On 19 November , SNCF announced the initial findings of their investigation . The train 's event recorder indicated that the train entered the curve at 265 km / h ( 165 mph ) and was travelling at 243 km / h ( 151 mph ) at the moment it derailed , which investigators have determined to be a result of centrifugal forces . The speed at the moment of derailment was 67 km / h ( 42 mph ) above the train 's assigned operating speed on the curve . According to the SNCF , the " immediate cause " of the accident was " a late braking sequence " ; the braking should have begun at least 1 km ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) or 12 seconds earlier . The investigation has found no fault for the accident in the infrastructure , train , or member of the technical team . There were seven people in the driving cab at the time of the accident , all of whom survived . Investigators have suggested that this may have been a factor in the late braking . SNCF will begin disciplinary proceedings and take punitive measures against employees responsible for , among other things , the " reckless presence " of children on the test train , presence of seven people in the cab , the lack of rigor in creating lists of those onboard and controlling access to the train , and " without doubt " the human errors in the cab .
= = Aftermath = =
SNCF held a minute of silence , for the victims , during the course of operations on Monday , 16 November . The following day , a memorial service was held in the church in Mundolsheim , which was attended by SNCF President Guillaume Pepy . SNCF suspended all test trials at high speeds until the lessons learned from the investigation can be integrated into testing processes . The scheduled opening of the second phase of the LGV Est for commercial service has been delayed by three months , from 3 April 2016 to 3 July 2016 . Trains will operate on the single intact track until the damaged track is repaired , which will take 7 months once the judicial inquiry lifts its hold on the track .
= Oscar Taveras =
Oscar Francisco Taveras ( June 19 , 1992 – October 26 , 2014 ) was a Dominican – Canadian professional baseball outfielder who played one season for the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Known as " El Fenómeno " ( Spanish for " The Phenomenon " ) in the Dominican Republic , the Cardinals signed him at age 16 in 2008 as an international amateur free agent and he made his MLB debut in 2014 . Over six minor league seasons , he batted .321 with a .519 slugging percentage . He played all three outfield positions while spending most of the time in center field .
With prodigious batting skills , Taveras was a consensus top @-@ five minor league prospect in 2013 and 2014 . He elicited comparisons to former MLB outfielder and fellow Dominican Vladimir Guerrero – with a powerful and smooth , balanced stroke , Taveras successfully hit pitches well outside of the strike zone . Also similar to Guerrero , he possessed a strong and accurate throwing arm . The outfielder was the recipient of a litany of awards and won batting titles in two minor leagues , including hitting .386 for the Midwest League title in 2011 . The next year , he won the Texas League batting title and was the Texas League Player of the Year and Cardinals organization Player of the Year .
On May 31 , 2014 , Taveras homered in his major league debut against the San Francisco Giants and went on to hit .239 in 80 regular season games , playing mostly right field . He also hit a game @-@ tying home run in Game 2 of the 2014 National League Championship Series against the Giants . On October 26 , 2014 , he died in a car accident in the Dominican Republic shortly after the Cardinals were eliminated from the playoffs .
= = Early life = =
Originally from Puerto Plata , Dominican Republic , Oscar Taveras grew up in a town called Sosúa . He began taking interest in baseball early in life . According to his father , Francisco Taveras , about age 5 , he started to call himself " El Fenómeno , " which was Spanish for " The Phenomenon . " " He would say , ‘ I ’ m going to make you the happiest dad in the world . I want to be a star . I want to be a major leaguer . I ’ m the phenomenon . I ’ m the best , ’ " recounted his father .
Taveras ' father was an outfielder in the Milwaukee Brewers ' minor league system . Taveras lived in Montreal from ages 12 to 16 and obtained Canadian citizenship . Afterwards , he returned to the Dominican Republic ; had he stayed in Canada , he would have entered the draft after high school .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
= = = = DSL Cardinals , Johnson City , and Quad Cities ( 2009 – 11 ) = = = =
The St. Louis Cardinals signed Taveras as an international amateur free agent on November 25 , 2008 for $ 145 @,@ 000 . They assigned him to the rookie league Dominican Summer League Cardinals the next season . Although he hit just .265 with one home run ( HR ) and 42 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 65 games , Taveras earned a promotion to the Johnson City Cardinals of the Rookie @-@ level Appalachian League in 2010 . The talent of whom scouts discovered in the Dominican Republic quickly actualized , as he hit .322 with eight HR and 43 RBI in 53 games .
Taveras earned another promotion to the Quad Cities River Bandits of the Class A Midwest League ( MWL ) in 2011 and spent the entire season there . From May 11 to June 11 , he was out of action due to a hamstring injury . Despite missing a full month , his hitting continued to improve by obtaining 33 multi @-@ hit games , 17 three @-@ hit contests and five four @-@ hit games . Further , he earned two MWL Player of the Week ( PoW ) awards . The first was for the week of July 17 , after batting .600 ( 15 hits in 25 at bats ) with five multi @-@ hit games , 10 runs scored and five RBI .
The second PoW award Taveras earned with the River Bandits was for the week ending August 28 . He batted .581 ( 18 – 31 ) with another five multi @-@ hit games , two home runs and 11 RBI . That week , he also achieved three three @-@ hit games and two four @-@ hit games . After coming off the bench in the August 28 game against Burlington , he went 3 @-@ for @-@ 3 with a home run and missed hitting for the cycle by a double . For the season , Taveras batted .386 with a .444 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) , .584 slugging percentage ( SLG ) , eight HR and 62 RBI in 78 games . He earned the Midwest League batting title with the highest average in the league since 1956 . He was actually 31 plate appearances short of qualifying ; however , his adjusted batting average after adding the hitless at @-@ bats still gave him the title . He was the first Cardinals minor leaguer to win the MWL batting title since Brendan Ryan in 2004 .
= = = = Springfield and Memphis ( 2012 – 14 ) = = = =
After winning the Midwest League batting title at age 19 , Taveras began to garner notice outside the Cardinals organization . Baseball America named him the Cardinals ' third @-@ best prospect prior to the 2012 season and ranked him 74th in all of baseball . The Cardinals assigned him to play for the Springfield Cardinals of the Class AA Texas League . There , he spent the entire season , playing 124 games , before participating in winter league play .
Taveras won his first of two Cardinals Minor League Player of the Month awards in 2012 for April after batting .340 ( 32 – 94 ) with six HR and 21 RBI . On June 4 , he achieved his first career five @-@ hit game against Corpus Christi with four runs scored . He earned PoW honors for the week ending June 10 – which included the five @-@ hit game – after batting .500 ( 14 – 28 ) with two home runs , four RBI and 11 runs scored . Taveras won his second organizational Player of the Month award of 2012 – and third of his career – for June after totaling a .347 average ( 34 – 98 ) , six HR and 19 RBI . Beginning June 8 , he amassed a 12 @-@ game hitting streak .
Selected to the Texas League All @-@ Star team , Taveras started in center field and batted fourth . His 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 , home run , double and two @-@ RBI effort helped earn him unanimous Most Valuable Player honors for the game . He also played in the Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Futures Game for the World squad . He started in right field and batted third , collecting one hit in three at @-@ bats . He ended the season with a 22 @-@ game on @-@ base streak that spanned from August 4 to September 3 . Taveras logged 43 multi @-@ hit games , including 12 three @-@ hit games , five four @-@ hit games and one five @-@ hit game . In his 124 total games , he played 93 in center field , 15 in right and one in left . He hit safely in 94 games and reached base in 107 . He batted .346 ( 47 of 136 ) with eight HR and 72 RBI with runners in scoring position ( RISP ) and .321 with RISP and two outs , including 17 RBI . He also hit .372 ( 73 of 196 ) with 12 HR and 49 RBI in the sixth inning and later .
Taveras ' season totals for 2012 included 23 HR , 94 RBI and a league @-@ leading .321 batting average , his second minor league batting title . In addition , he led the Texas League in extra base hits ( 67 ) , doubles ( 37 ) , total bases ( 273 ) and intentional walks ( 10 ) . He ranked second in hits ( 153 ) , RBI and slugging percentage ( .572 ) , and tied for fourth both in home runs and triples ( 7 ) . In nine playoff games , he hit .235 with four doubles and two RBI as Springfield won the Texas League championship . Baseball America conferred the club with their Minor League Team of the Year award . Taveras was named the Texas League Player of the Year .
Further , Taveras led all Cardinals minor leaguers in hits , doubles , triples , home runs , RBI , SLG and on @-@ base plus slugging ( .953 ) , while also finishing in the top five in batting average and runs . He was named the Cardinals ' Minor League Player of the Year . He played another 39 games in the after @-@ season Dominican Professional Baseball League for the Águilas Cibaeñas . He won the league Rookie of the Year award after batting .316 with five home runs and 17 RBI as the Águilas clinched the league 's best record . In a skills ( " Best Tools " ) survey , Baseball America found Taveras the " Best Hitter for Average . "
Entering the 2013 season , Baseball America ranked Taveras as the Cardinals ' best prospect and the third @-@ best prospect in all of baseball . MLB.com also ranked Taveras as the Cardinals ' number @-@ one prospect , and the number @-@ three prospect in its Top 50 Prospects . Prior to the 2013 World Baseball Classic , Taveras ' agent was approached about him playing for the Canadian national baseball team . The Cardinals promoted him to the Triple @-@ A Memphis Redbirds of the Pacific Coast League .
In each game from May 6 – 10 , Taveras collected at least one RBI . He batted .362 with 17 hits in 47 at bats for the month of May . However , injury obstructed his in @-@ game action . While sliding into second base in a May 12 game , his ankle caught and pronated awkwardly on the bag , resulting in a high @-@ ankle sprain . He played in just 15 games after that for the season and in 46 total . Surgery to correct the sprain , performed by Dr. Robert Anderson , ended his season in August .
For the season , Taveras rendered a .306 batting average with twelve doubles , five home runs and 32 RBI . It was the fourth consecutive season in which he batted at least .300 . Especially productive against right @-@ handed pitching , he forged a .366 batting average ( 37 @-@ for @-@ 101 ) with four HR and 24 RBI . Further , he generated three four @-@ hit games and 15 multi @-@ hit games while hitting safely in 31 overall . In 18 games , he provided at least one RBI , and in nine , recorded multiple runners driven in . In Baseball America 's " Best Tools " survey , he was rated the " Best Hitter for Average " in the Cardinals organization . The Cardinals added Taveras to their 40 @-@ man roster on November 20 , 2013 .
= = = St. Louis Cardinals ( 2014 ) = = =
Beginning in the 2014 season , MLB.com ranked Taveras as the second @-@ best prospect in all of MLB , behind only Byron Buxton of the Minnesota Twins organization . The Cardinals invited him to spring training . Although team officials believed that his ankle had fully healed in time for 2014 spring training , he hesitated to fully trust the ankle in performance . A hamstring injury followed , limiting him to just six at @-@ bats . The Cardinals optioned him to minor league camp on March 14 .
On May 30 , 2014 , the Cardinals called Taveras up to their MLB roster in one of the most anticipated promotions in all MLB . He became the first from Sosúa to reach the major leagues . At that point , he had been batting .325 with a .373 OBP and a .524 SLG at Memphis . Other totals included seven HR and 40 RBI in 49 games and 191 at @-@ bats . Taveras was held hitless in consecutive games just once . In his last ten games , he collected hits in all but one , batting .462 . During those same 10 games , he fashioned two three @-@ hit games and one four @-@ hit outing . In 209 plate appearances , he walked just 14 times , but also struck out just 25 for a 12 @.@ 1 % strikeout rate .
Making his MLB debut at Busch Stadium on the afternoon of Saturday , May 31 , against the San Francisco Giants , Taveras flied out in his first at bat . However , he launched his first hit and home run , which traveled 418 feet ( 127 m ) , in his next at bat . It occurred with one out in the bottom of the fifth inning against starting pitcher Yusmeiro Petit . He became the youngest to hit a home run in his major league debut for the Cardinals since Eddie Morgan in 1936 . It also started to rain , immediately forcing a 47 @-@ minute delay . The home run proved to be the game @-@ winning run as the Cardinals won , 2 – 0 .
Taveras hit his first MLB single the next day , June 1 . When Matt Adams came off the DL June 19 , Taveras ' 22nd birthday , the Cardinals optioned him back to Memphis after batting .189 with a .225 OBP and .297 SLG in 40 PA . Despite the low rate statistics , he showed a marked ability to get contact on MLB pitching . His contact rate of 92 @.@ 3 % on pitches outside of the strike zone surpassed the MLB average of 65 @.@ 7 % for all non @-@ pitchers . His miss rate of 2 @.@ 5 % on swinging strikes was significantly lower than the MLB average of 9 @.@ 1 % .
One month after his first call @-@ up , the Cardinals recalled Taveras on June 30 . He was batting .318 with a .502 SLG at Memphis . To allow him more playing opportunities , the Cardinals traded slumping incumbent right fielder Allen Craig to the Boston Red Sox on the July 31 non @-@ waiver trade deadline . His first career three @-@ hit game was on September 7 against the Milwaukee Brewers . That series , he played three of the four games , collecting five hits in eight at @-@ bats with a home run and four RBI . It was one of eight multi @-@ hit games on the year . Taveras finished the 2014 season with a batting average of .239 in 80 major league games . He appeared on the postseason roster for the Cardinals , playing exclusively as a pinch hitter , and collected three hits and two runs scored in seven total at bats . His postseason debut was in the National League Division Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers . One hit was a home run that tied the score in Game 2 of the National League Championship Series against the Giants , the only game the Cardinals won in the series ; as it turned out , it was the final hit in his career . His final tweet was " Thanks for all the fan support ! " on October 13 .
= = Skills profile = =
Regarded as a left @-@ handed hitting version of Vladimir Guerrero ( also a native of the Dominican Republic ) , one of Taveras ' prized skills was an ability that few possess to square the bat on – and effectively hit – pitches that are out of the strike zone , much as the case was with Guerrero . Because of his bat speed and the wide range of pitch locations of which he could hit , Taveras successfully unraveled what are termed as " pitcher 's pitches " , which helped contribute to his high batting average . An aggressive hitter , Taveras maintained control with his smooth swing .
With a wide batting stance and slight leg kick that " allows him to maintain both incredible balance and timing " , he shifted his weight on his left ( back ) leg " before connecting with the ball with an explosive , quick swing . " His combination of strong , quick hands and excellent hand @-@ eye coordination allowed him to assert considerable bat control to make constant , square contact with the incoming pitch . With an ability to drive the ball to all fields , his power ceiling was high , projected with 25 to 30 home runs in his peak . His preparation also received high marks . Through 2013 , Taveras ' career minor league batting average was .320 with 45 home runs and 275 RBIs in 374 games .
Although Taveras ' defensive skills were not as prodigious as his hitting abilities , he ran routes well and had solid instincts . Earlier in his professional career , he gained a reputation for concentrating too heavily on hitting at the expense of his fielding . However , Taveras worked to increase his abilities in the outfield . With a strong throwing arm , his defensive skills projected him to be a corner outfielder , particularly in right field . However , the Cardinals believed that Taveras showed the range and skill to be an effective center fielder so he began taking an apprenticeship to learn the position .
= = Death = =
On October 26 , 2014 , Taveras and his girlfriend , Edilia Arvelo , both died in a car accident on the Sosúa @-@ Cabarete freeway in Puerto Plata , Dominican Republic , in which his red Chevrolet Camaro ran off the road and hit a tree . Taveras suffered multiple injuries and was pronounced dead while receiving care at Sosúa Cabarete Medical Center . Avrelos suffered injuries to the head and to the chest . The accident occurred at 7 : 40 PM ET just before the start of Game 5 of the 2014 World Series . Cardinals chairman William DeWitt , Jr. issued the following statement :
We are all stunned and deeply saddened by the tragic loss of one of the youngest members of the Cardinals family . Oscar was an amazing talent with a bright future who was taken from us well before his time . Our thoughts and prayers are with his family and friends tonight .
Cardinals general manager John Mozeliak made a statement saying :
I simply can ’ t believe it . I first met Oscar when he was 16 years old and will forever remember him as a wonderful young man who was a gifted athlete with an infectious love for life who lived every day to the fullest .
Cardinals Manager Mike Matheny stated " there is not a more accurate word ( " love " ) for how a group of men share a deep and genuine concern for each other . We loved Oscar , and he loved us . That is what a team does . That is what a family does . " Commissioner of Baseball Bud Selig stated " With heavy hearts , tonight we play Game Five of the 2014 World Series in the memory of these two young people . "
= = = Aftermath and legacy = = =
Observances on behalf of Arvelos and Taveras were held for Game 6 of the World Series , including a moment of silence before the first pitch . Kansas City Royals starting pitcher Yordano Ventura wrote " R.I.P. O.T # 18 " on his hat along with other tributes on his cleats and glove . His hat was turned in for display at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum . On October 28 , the Cardinals left the right field lights on at Busch Stadium and released a Twitter photo of the scene the next day .
More than an estimated 5 @,@ 000 gathered for Taveras 's funeral in Sosúa , including about 40 who gathered on the rooftop of a cemetery church . Many of the mourners wore jerseys with " El Fenómeno " printed on their backs . " He was like Superman here . He was here to uplift kids and put the town on the map . He was the hope . " said teammate Carlos Martínez . Martínez requested to change his uniform number from 44 to 18 ( Taveras 's number ) to honor him in part because they were also friends . The team granted his request .
Taveras had left behind a one @-@ year @-@ old son , Oscar Yadier Taveras . Questions arose as to whether he was intoxicated in that fatal crash on the Sosúa @-@ Cabarete freeway . On November 11 , press releases confirmed that his blood alcohol content was 0 @.@ 287 , nearly six times the legal limit for the Dominican Republic . After the second alcohol @-@ related fatality to a Cardinals player in a decade — following that of Josh Hancock in 2007 , John Mozeliak lamented the circumstances of the player 's death . He declared that the team would take a greater role in educating young players to " avoid reckless actions . "
In January 2015 , DeWitt announced plans for the Cardinals to renovate a baseball field in Sosúa in Taveras 's honor , modeled after the Cardinals Care facilities in Greater St. Louis . The team would also wear black circular patches inscribed with OT ( Taveras 's initials ) inside a white circle on their jerseys . The patch will omit Taveras 's No. 18 because Martínez is already wearing it as his uniform number as a tribute . A large decal in his memorial was posted in the home team bullpen of Busch Stadium along with the ones of Hancock and former pitcher Darryl Kile , who died of coronary artery disease during the 2002 season while still active .
= = Awards = =
= Gasketball =
Gasketball is an action , sports video game for the iPad by Mikengreg , an independent development team of Michael Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend . Players flick basketballs through 2D physics puzzles into the hoop in single @-@ player , local multiplayer , and asynchronous HORSE @-@ style online multiplayer modes . The game is free @-@ to @-@ play with in @-@ app purchases . Development began in mid 2011 following Mikengreg 's successful Solipskier . They were able to live off of the earnings for Gasketball 's two year development at their previous salary , which afforded them the stability to try new avenues and reject prototypes , though they worked 100 @-@ hour weeks . Towards the end of their development , they ran out of money and lived on the couches of friends . It was released on August 9 , 2012 , and the game did not reach their desired conversion rate at the time of launch .
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Pocket Gamer gave the game their silver award , and Tim Rogers of Kotaku named Gasketball his 2012 game of the year , calling it " the beginning of the hardcore social game genre " .
= = Gameplay = =
Gasketball is a part @-@ basketball , part @-@ puzzler shot @-@ matching sports video game where players flick basketballs through 2D physics puzzles ( with flippers , portals , circular saw blades , and gravity switches ) into a basketball hoop . Some puzzles include banking the basketball shot off of multiple surfaces before making the basket . In the HORSE @-@ style games , the player must match the exact setup of the opponent 's shot , such as hitting the floor before entering the hoop . In the campaign , players get more points for making the shot without retrying , and have five attempts to make the hoop before moving to the next level shamefully . Players are awarded medals for the quality of their performance at the end of each chapter . Gold medals unlock new modes of play in the chapter . Every chapter has a unique theme , such as a construction site or outer space .
The game has local two @-@ player multiplayer with a divided iPad screen , and asynchronous online multiplayer where players construct levels for their opponents to complete . Players spin a wheel at the beginning of their turn to determine how many hazards they get to place via drag and drop . A few of the items are unlocked at first , and more are available with progress through the game or in @-@ app purchases . Gasketball uses a colorful palette and features a cranky robot , who provides a tutorial and resets the ball . It was released as free @-@ to @-@ play with the tutorial unlocked , and four to five chapters available as additional paid downloads .
= = Development = =
Gasketball was developed and produced by Mikengreg , an Iowa @-@ based two @-@ man team : Michael Boxleiter and Greg Wohlwend . After releasing their first game , the sport @-@ inspired Solipskier for iPhone and iPad , Boxleiter and Wohlwend lived off the profits for two years while working on Gasketball , paying themselves their same salaries from their Adobe Flash development days but having the security to try new ideas . Wohlwend made somewhat more income due to other collaborations , such as Puzzlejuice with Asher Vollmer , but shared his income with Boxleiter . Development began in mid 2011 . Even though Solipskier was successful , the duo did not have a following comparable to indie developers like Team Meat and thus did not feel pressured to meet high expectations . Instead , their pressure was internal . Wohlwend said he worked 100 @-@ hour weeks with no weekends or vacations while living off of the Solipskier funds . When they ran out of money , Boxleiter borrowed money from his parents , and eventually they both went homeless , living off of the couches of friends .
In making Gasketball , Boxleiter and Wohlwend felt that their game quality had been improving over time , though designing for a million @-@ person audience was " daunting " and Wohlwend questioned whether he could even recreate Solipskier 's success . The former game was designed in fits of creativity while the latter had no such moments , and took longer to produce . They discarded " everything " multiple times during their prototyping process with the understanding that anything less than what they wanted would lead to a subpar end result . Boxleiter had difficulty accepting praise towards the end of development , considering the weight of having to leave the industry if the many 100 @-@ hour weeks did not pan out in an accepted product .
Mikengreg first announced the game on March 1 , 2012 , and it was later released for iPad on August 9 , 2012 . Mikengreg decided to release the game as free @-@ to @-@ play for the base game with in @-@ app purchases for the extended content . Wohlwend saw that a quarter of the top grossing games on iOS used in @-@ app purchases ( albeit with predatory practices ) and felt that they could follow the model with a more ethical strategy : free to play , but pay once to unlock forever . Wohlwend later remarked that , " So far , humanity is proving to us that we can 't have it both ways . " They were told by friends that the purchase function was too hidden , which they later fixed . Journalists had noted the difficulty in purchasing the full version as well . Gasketball had been downloaded 200 @,@ 000 times in its August 2012 launch week and was briefly ranked near the top of an iTunes top downloads ranking , though it did not break the top 200 grossing chart . The game 's conversion rate from its free @-@ to @-@ play base package to the paid version was 0 @.@ 67 % — lower than their goal of at least 2 % of an estimated five million downloads . The paid addition includes 100 additional levels and 10 new objects .
= = Reception = =
The game received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review score aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers noted the game 's character and creative vision . Pocket Gamer gave the game their silver award . Gasketball was Tim Rogers of Kotaku 's 2012 game of the year .
Edge noted Mikengreg 's deft ability with simple sound effects , citing their previous work with Solipskier . They praised the " sweet and personable " art design and the mix of " freewheeling creativity with arcade precision " . Edge also praised the addition of the " decent " single @-@ player campaign alongside the multiplayer . Pocket Gamer 's Harry Slater called the single @-@ player " entertaining " but felt the asynchronous multiplayer was the highlight . TouchArcade 's Brad Nicholson called the game a cross between Amazing Alex and NBA Jam . While he found some puzzle designs imbalanced , Nicholson also felt that the interactions between the flipper and portal hazards were " surprisingly solid " and noted the game 's lighthearted " welcome playground sort of feel " even as the easy learning curve reached Rube Goldberg @-@ like complexity . Tim Rogers of Kotaku called Gasketball the " inverse Rube Goldberg " and " the beginning of the hardcore social game genre , of asynchronous gameplay as meaningful as FPS deathmatches " .
= National Industrial Recovery Act =
The National Industrial Recovery Act ( NIRA ) was a law passed by the United States Congress in 1933 to authorize the President to regulate industry in an attempt to raise prices after severe deflation and stimulate economic recovery . It also established a national public works program known as the Public Works Administration ( PWA , not to be confused with the WPA of 1935 ) . The National Recovery Administration ( NRA ) portion was widely hailed in 1933 , but by 1934 business ' opinion of the act had soured . By March 1934 the " NRA was engaged chiefly in drawing up these industrial codes for all industries to adopt . " However , the NIRA was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1935 and not replaced .
The legislation was enacted in June 1933 during the Great Depression in the United States as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's New Deal legislative program . Section 7 ( a ) of the bill , which protected collective bargaining rights for unions , proved contentious ( especially in the Senate ) , but both chambers eventually passed the legislation . President Roosevelt signed the bill into law on June 16 , 1933 . The Act had two main sections ( or " titles " ) . Title I was devoted to industrial recovery , authorizing the promulgation of industrial codes of fair competition , guaranteed trade union rights , permitted the regulation of working standards , and regulated the price of certain refined petroleum products and their transportation . Title II established the Public Works Administration , outlined the projects and funding opportunities it could engage in . Title II also provided funding for the Act .
The Act was implemented by the NRA and the Public Works Administration ( PWA ) . Very large numbers of regulations were generated under the authority granted to the NRA by the Act , which led to a significant loss of political support for Roosevelt and the New Deal . The NIRA was set to expire in June 1935 , but in a major constitutional ruling the U.S. Supreme Court held Title I of the Act unconstitutional on May 27 , 1935 , in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States , 295 U.S. 495 ( 1935 ) . The National Industrial Recovery Act is widely considered a policy failure , both in the 1930s and by historians today . Disputes over the reasons for this failure continue . Among the suggested causes are that the Act promoted economically harmful monopolies , that the Act lacked critical support from the business community , and that it was poorly administered . The Act encouraged union organizing , which led to significant labor unrest . The NIRA had no mechanisms for handling these problems , which led Congress to pass the National Labor Relations Act in 1935 . The Act was also a major force behind a major modification of the law criminalizing making false statements .
= = Background and enactment = =
The Depression began in the United States in October 1929 and grew steadily worse to its nadir in early 1933 . President Herbert Hoover feared that too much intervention or coercion by the government would destroy individuality and self @-@ reliance , which he considered to be important American values . His laissez @-@ faire views appeared to be shared by the Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon . To combat with the growing economic decline , Hoover organized a number of voluntary measures with businesses , encouraged state and local government responses , and accelerated federal building projects . However his policies had little or no effect on economic recovery . Toward the end of his term , however , Hoover supported several legislative solutions which he felt might lift the country out of the depression . The final attempt of the Hoover administration to rescue the economy was the passage of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act ( which provided funds for public works programs ) and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation ( RFC ) ( which provided low @-@ interest loans to businesses ) .
Hoover was defeated for re @-@ election by Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential election . Roosevelt was convinced that federal activism was needed to reverse the country 's economic decline . In his first hundred days in office , the Congress enacted at Roosevelt 's request a series of bills designed to strengthen the banking system , including the Emergency Banking Act , the Glass – Steagall Act ( which created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ) , and the 1933 Banking Act . The Congress also passed the Agricultural Adjustment Act to stabilize the nation 's agricultural industry .
= = = Enactment = = =
The National Industrial Recovery Act was enacted at the very end of the Hundred Days . Hugh S. Johnson , Raymond Moley , Donald Richberg , Rexford Tugwell , Jerome Frank , and Bernard Baruch — key Roosevelt advisors — believed that unrestrained competition had helped cause the Great Depression and that government had a critical role to play through national planning , limited regulation , the fostering of trade associations , support for " fair " trade practices , and support for " democratization of the workplace " ( a standard work week , shorter working hours , and better working conditions ) . Roosevelt himself , the former head of a trade association , believed that government promotion of " self @-@ organization " by trade associations was the least @-@ intrusive and yet most effective method for achieving national planning and economic improvement . Some work on an industrial relief bill had been done in the weeks following Roosevelt 's election , but much of this was in the nature of talk and the exchange of ideas rather than legislative research and drafting . The administration , preoccupied with banking and agriculture legislation , did not begin working on industrial relief legislation until early April 1933 . Congress , however , was moving on its own industrial legislation . In the Senate , Robert F. Wagner , Edward P. Costigan , and Robert M. La Follette , Jr. were promoting public works legislation , and Hugo Black
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version on the afternoon of June 10 . The House approved the conference committee 's bill on the evening of June 10 . After extensive debate , the Senate approved the final bill , 46 @-@ to @-@ 39 , on June 13 . President Roosevelt signed the bill into law on June 16 , 1933 .
= = Structure of the Act = =
The National Industrial Recovery Act had two major titles .
Title I was devoted to industrial recovery . Title I , Section 2 empowered the President to establish executive branch agencies to carry out the purposes of the Act , and provided for a sunset provision nullifying the Act in two years . The heart of the Act was Title I , Section 3 , which permitted trade or industrial associations to seek presidential approval of codes of fair competition ( so long as such codes did not promote monopolies or provide unfair competition against small businesses ) and provided for enforcement of these codes . Title I , Section 5 exempted the codes from the federal antitrust laws .
Title I , Section 7 ( a ) guaranteed the right of workers to form unions and banned yellow @-@ dog contracts :
... employees shall have the right to organize and bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing , and shall be free from the interference restraint , or coercion of employers of labor , or their agents , in the designation of such representatives or in self @-@ organization or in other concerted activities for the purpose of collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection ; [ and ] ( 2 ) that no employee and no one seeking employment shall be required as a condition of employment to join any company union or to refrain from joining , organizing , or assisting a labor organization of his own choosing ... .
Title I , Section 7 ( b ) permitted the establishment of standards regarding maximum hours of labor , minimum rates of pay , and working conditions in the industries covered by the codes , while Section 7 ( c ) authorized the President to impose such standards on codes when voluntary agreement could not be reached . Title I , Section 9 authorized the regulation of oil pipelines and prices for the transportation of all petroleum products by pipeline . Section 9 ( b ) permitted the executive to take over any oil pipeline company , subsidiary , or business if the parent company was found in violation of the Act .
Title II established the Public Works Administration . Title II , Section 201 established the agency and provided for a two @-@ year sunset provision . Section 202 outlines the types of public works which the new agency may seek to fund or build . Title II , Section 203 authorized the Public Works Administration to provide grants and / or loans to states and localities in order to more rapidly reduce unemployment as well as to use the power of eminent domain to seize land or materials to engage in public works . Title II , Section 204 explicitly provided $ 400 million for the construction of public highways , bridges , roads , railroad crossings , paths , and other transportation projects .
Title II , Section 208 authorized the president to expend up to $ 25 million to purchase farms for the purpose of relocating individuals living in overcrowded urban areas ( such as cities ) to these farms and allowing them to raise crops and earn a living there .
Title II , Sections 210 – 219 provided for revenues to fund the Act , and Section 220 appropriated money for the Act 's implementation .
Title III of the Act contained miscellaneous provisions , and transferred the authority to engage in public works from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to the Public Works Administration .
= = Implementation = =
Implementation of the Act began immediately . Hugh Johnson spent most of May and June planning for implementation , and the National Recovery Administration ( NRA ) was established on June 20 , 1933 — a scant four days after the law 's enactment . Roosevelt angered Johnson by having him administer only the NRA , while the Public Works Administration ( PWA ) went to Harold L. Ickes . NRA and PWA reported to different cabinet agencies , making coordination difficult , and PWA money flowed so slowly into the economy that NRA proved to be the more important agency by far .
The premiere symbol of the NIRA was the Blue Eagle .
NIRA , as implemented by the NRA , became notorious for generating large numbers of regulations . The agency approved 557 basic and 189 supplemental industry codes in two years . Between 4 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 business practices were prohibited , some 3 @,@ 000 administrative orders running to over 10 @,@ 000 pages promulgated , and thousands of opinions and guides from national , regional , and local code boards interpreted and enforced the Act .
The backlash against the Act was so significant that it generated a large loss of political support for the New Deal and turned a number of Roosevelt 's closest aides against him . Roosevelt himself shifted his views on the best way to achieve economic recovery , and began a new legislative program ( known as the " Second New Deal " ) in 1935 .
Implementation of Section 7 ( a ) of the NIRA proved immensely problematic as well . The protections of the Act led to a massive wave of union organizing punctuated by employer and union violence , general strikes , and recognition strikes . At the outset , NRA Administrator Hugh Johnson naïvely believed that Section 7 ( a ) would be self @-@ enforcing , but he quickly learned otherwise . In addition , the National Labor Board was established under the auspices of the NRA to implement the collective bargaining provisions of the Act . The National Labor Board , too , proved to be ineffective , and on July 5 , 1935 , a new law — the National Labor Relations Act — superseded the NIRA and established a new , long @-@ lasting federal labor policy .
The leadership of the Public Works Authority was torn over the new agency 's mission . PWA could initiate its own construction projects , distribute money to other federal agencies to fund their construction projects , or make loans to states and localities to fund their construction projects . But many in the Roosevelt administration felt PWA should not spend money , for fear of worsening the federal deficit , and so funds flowed slowly . Furthermore , the very nature of construction ( planning , specifications , and blueprints ) also held up the disbursement of money . Harold Ickes , too , was determined to ensure that graft and corruption did not tarnish the agency 's reputation and lead to loss of political support in Congress , and so moved cautiously in spending the agency 's money . Although the U.S. Supreme Court would rule Title I of NIRA unconstitutional , the severability clause in the Act enabled the PWA to survive . Among the projects it funded between 1935 and 1939 are : the USS Yorktown ; USS Enterprise ; the 30th Street railroad station in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; the Triborough Bridge ; the port of Brownsville ; Grand Coulee Dam ; Boulder Dam ; Fort Peck Dam ; Bonneville Dam ; and the Overseas Highway connecting Key West , Florida , with the mainland . The agency survived until 1943 , when the Reorganization Act of 1939 consolidated most federal public works and work relief functions of the federal government into the new Federal Works Agency .
President Roosevelt sought re @-@ authorization of NIRA on February 20 , 1935 . But the backlash against the New Deal , coupled with continuing congressional concern over the Act 's suspension of antitrust law , left the President 's request politically dead . By May 1935 , the issue was moot as the U.S. Supreme Court had ruled Title I of NIRA unconstitutional .
= = Legal challenge and nullification = =
On April 13 , 1934 , the President had approved the " Code of Fair Competition for the Live Poultry Industry of the Metropolitan Area in and about the City of New York . " The goal of the code was to ensure that live poultry ( provided to kosher slaughterhouses for butchering and sale to observant Jews ) were fit for human consumption and to prevent the submission of false sales and price reports . The industry was almost entirely centered on New York City . Under the new poultry code , the Schechter brothers were indicted on 60 counts ( of which 27 were dismissed by the trial court ) , acquitted on 14 , and convicted in 19 . One of the counts on which they were convicted was for selling a diseased bird , leading Hugh Johnson to jokingly call the suit the " sick chicken case " .
Even before these legal aspects became widely known , a number of court challenges to the NIRA were winding their way through the courts . The constitutionality of the NIRA was tested in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States , 295 U.S. 495 ( 1935 ) . Courts identified three problems with the NIRA : " ( i ) was the subject matter sought to be regulated by the power of congress ; ( ii ) if the regulations violated the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution ; and ( iii ) had Congress properly delegated its power to the executive . "
Although Roosevelt , most of his aides , Johnson , and the NRA staff felt the Act would survive a court test , the U.S. Department of Justice had on March 25 , 1935 , declined to appeal an appellate court ruling overturning the lumber industry code on the grounds that the case was not a good test of the NIRA 's constitutionality . The Justice Department 's action worried many in the administration . But on April 1 , 1935 the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the constitutionality of the NIRA in the Schechter case . Although Donald Richberg and others felt the government 's case in Schechter was not a strong one , the Schechters were determined to appeal their conviction . So the government appealed first , and the Supreme Court heard oral argument on May 2 and 3 .
On May 27 , 1935 , Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote for a unanimous Court in Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States that Title I of the National Industrial Recovery Act was unconstitutional . First , Hughes concluded that the law was void for vagueness because the critical term " fair competition " was nowhere defined in the Act . Second , Hughes found the Act 's delegation of authority to the executive branch unconstitutionally overbroad :
To summarize and conclude upon this point : Section 3 of the Recovery Act ( 15 USCA 703 ) is without precedent . It supplies no standards for any trade , industry , or activity . It does not undertake to prescribe rules of conduct to be applied to particular states of fact determined by appropriate administrative procedure . Instead of prescribing rules of conduct , it authorizes the making of codes to prescribe them . For that legislative undertaking , section 3 sets up no standards , aside from the statement of the general aims of rehabilitation , correction , and expansion described in section 1 . In view of the scope of that broad declaration and of the nature of the few restrictions that are imposed , the discretion of the President in approving or prescribing codes , and thus enacting laws for the government of trade and industry throughout the country , is virtually unfettered . We think that the code @-@ making authority thus conferred is an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power .
Finally , in a very restrictive reading of what constituted interstate commerce , Hughes held that the " ' current ' or ' flow ' " of commerce involved was simply too minute to constitute interstate commerce , and subsequently Congress had no power under the Commerce Clause to enact legislation affecting such commercial transactions . The Court dismissed with a bare paragraph the government 's ability to regulate wages and hours . Although the government had argued that the national economic emergency required special consideration , Hughes disagreed . The dire economic circumstances the country faced did not justify the overly broad delegation or overreach of the Act , the majority concluded . " Extraordinary conditions may call for extraordinary remedies . But the argument necessarily stops short of an attempt to justify action which lies outside the sphere of constitutional authority . Extraordinary conditions do not create or enlarge constitutional power . "
Although the decision emasculated NIRA , it had little practical impact , as Congress was unlikely to have reauthorized the Act in any case .
= = Criticism = =
A key criticism of the Act at the time as well as more recently is that the NIRA endorsed monopolies , with the attendant economic problems associated with that type of market failure . Even the National Recovery Review Board , established by President Roosevelt in March 1934 to review the performance of the NRA , concluded that the Act hindered economic growth by promoting cartels and monopolies . One of the economic effects of monopoly and cartels is higher prices — this was seen as necessary because the severe deflation of 1929 @-@ 33 had depressed prices 20 % and more . There is anecdotal evidence that these higher prices led to some stability in industry . < ref = " Horwitz " / > But were these prices so high that economic recovery was inhibited ? A number of scholars answer in the affirmative . But other economists disagree , pointing to far more important monetary , budgetary , and tax policies as contributors to the continuation of the Great Depression . Others point out that the cartels created by the Act were inherently unstable ( as all cartels are ) , and that the effect on prices was minimal because the codes collapsed so quickly .
A second key criticism of the Act is that it lacked support from the business community , and thus was doomed to failure . Business support for national planning and government intervention was very strong in 1933 , but had collapsed by mid @-@ 1934 . Many studies conclude , however , that business support for NIRA was never uniform . Larger , older businesses embraced the legislation while smaller , newer ones ( more nimble in a highly competitive market and with less capital investment to lose if they failed ) did not . This is a classic problem of cartels , and thus NIRA codes failed as small business abandoned the cartels . Studies of the steel , automobile manufacturing , lumber , textile , and rubber industries and the level and source of support for the NIRA tend to support this conclusion . Without the support of industry , the Act could never have performed as it was intended .
A third major criticism of the Act is that it was poorly administered . The Act purposefully brought together competing interests ( labor and business , big business and small business , etc . ) in a coalition to support passage of the legislation , but these competing interests soon fought one another over the Act 's implementation . As a consequence , NRA collapsed due to failure of leadership and confusion about its goals . By the end of 1934 , NRA leaders had practically abandoned the progressive interventionist policy which motivated the Act 's passage , and were supporting free @-@ market philosophies — contributing to the collapse of almost all industry codes .
There are a wide range of additional critiques as well . One is that NIRA 's industry codes interfered with capital markets , inhibiting economic recovery . But more recent analyses conclude that NIRA had little effect on capital markets one way or the other . Another is that political uncertainty created by the NRA caused a drop in business confidence , inhibiting recovery . But at least one study has shown no effect whatsoever .
As noted above , Section 7 ( a ) led to significant increases in union organizing , as intended by the Act . But the enforcement of Section 7 ( a ) and its legal limitations led to clear failures . Although Section 7 ( a ) was not affected by the Supreme Court 's decision in Schechter v. Poultry , the failure of the section led directly to passage of the National Labor Relations Act in July 1935 .
Historian Alan Brinkley stated that by 1935 the NRA was a " woeful failure , even a political embarrassment . " Many liberals , probably including Roosevelt , were quietly relieved by its demise . However , New Dealers were worried by the Supreme Court 's strict interpretation of the interstate commerce clause and worried that other legislation was jeopardized .
= = Legacy = =
In 1934 , at the request of the Secretary Ickes , who wished to use the statute criminalizing making false statements to enforce Section 9 ( c ) of the NIRA against producers of " hot oil " , oil produced in violation of production restrictions established pursuant to the NIRA , Congress passed Pub.L. 73 – 394 , 48 Stat . 996 , enacted June 18 , 1934 , which amended the False Claims Act of 1863 to read :
… or whoever , for the purpose of obtaining or aiding to obtain the payment or approval of such claim , or for the purpose and with the intent of cheating and swindling or defrauding the Government of the United States , or any department thereof , or any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder , shall knowingly and willfully falsify or conceal or cover up by any trick , scheme , or device a material fact , or make or cause to be made any false or fraudulent statements or representations , or make or use or cause to be made or used any false bill , receipt , voucher , roll , account , claim , certificate , affidavit , or deposition , knowing the same to contain any fraudulent or fictitious statement or entry , in any matter within the jurisdiction of any department or agency of the United States or of any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder …
This form of the statute , in slightly modified form , still exists today at 18 U.S.C. § 1001 .
= Battle on Snowshoes ( 1757 ) =
The 1757 Battle on Snowshoes was a skirmish fought between Rogers ' Rangers and French and Indian troops during the French and Indian War on January 21 , 1757 . The battle was given this name because the British combatants were wearing snowshoes .
On January 21 , 1757 , Captain Robert Rogers and a band of his rangers were on a scouting expedition near Fort Carillon on Lake Champlain when they were ambushed by a mixed troop of French regulars , Canadien militiamen , and Indians . The fighting ended when darkness set in , with significant casualties on both sides . The French in their reports claimed the British had a distinct advantage due to their snowshoes .
= = Background = =
The French and Indian War broke out in 1754 between British and French colonists over territorial disputes along their colonial frontiers , and escalated the following year to include regular troops . By 1756 , the French had enjoyed successes in most of their frontier battles against the British . Their only notable failure occurred when the British stopped their southward advance from Lake Champlain in the 1755 Battle of Lake George . From bases at Fort St. Frédéric ( located at what is now Crown Point , New York ) and Fort Carillon ( known to the British as Fort Ticonderoga ) , the French and their Indian allies continued to scout and probe the British defenses on Lake George and the upper Hudson River . The British , who had fewer Indian allies , resorted to companies of rangers for their scouting and reconnaissance activities . The ranger companies were organized and directed by Robert Rogers , and eventually became known as Rogers ' Rangers .
= = Prelude = =
In the winter of 1757 , Rogers and several companies of his rangers were stationed at Fort William Henry at the southern end of Lake George and at Fort Edward on the upper Hudson . These forts were principally garrisoned by elements of the 44th and 48th Regiments , and formed the frontier between the British province of New York and the French province of Canada .
Captain Rogers led a scouting expedition from Fort Edward on January 15 , stopping at Fort William Henry to acquire provisions , snowshoes , and additional soldiers . The company left Fort William Henry on January 17 with 86 men , heading down the frozen Lake George . The next day twelve men turned back because of injuries . The remaining men continued north , reaching Lake Champlain at a point between Fort Carillon and Fort St. Frédéric on January 21 . They spotted a sled moving on the lake toward Fort St. Frédéric , so Rogers sent Lieutenant John Stark and some men to intercept it . However , more sleds were spotted , and Stark 's men were seen before they could retreat back into the woods . The sleds turned back toward Carillon . The British gave chase , but most of the French escaped . Rogers succeeded in taking seven prisoners .
Rogers learned from questioning the prisoners that a French and Indian war party had just arrived at Carillon , and that the two forts were garrisoned by a thousand regulars . Concerned that the escaped sleds would raise the alarm , Rogers immediately ordered a return to their last camp . His council disapproved of the return by the same route ( a violation of Rogers ' own ranging guidelines ) , but he overruled them , citing the need for speed and the deep snow . By early afternoon they had returned to their camp , rested , and were on their way south .
M. de Rouilly , the leader of the supply convoy Rogers had intercepted , returned to Carillon and alerted Paul @-@ Louis de Lusignan , the fort 's commander . According to Lusignan 's report , he immediately sent out a party of about 90 regulars from the Languedoc regiment under the command of Capitaine de Basserode , accompanied by about 90 Canadian militia and Indians . The Indians were primarily Ottawa under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade , one of the French @-@ Indian leaders at Braddock 's defeat in 1755 .
= = Battle = =
Rogers ' men then walked into an ambush , according to his estimate , by " 250 French and Indians . " The British were fortunate that many of the French muskets misfired due to wet gunpowder , as the surprise was nearly complete . Lieutenant Stark , who was bringing up the rear of the ranger column , established a defensive line on a rise with some of his men , from which they gave covering fire as those in the front retreated to that position . As they retreated Rogers ordered his captives slain so that his men might move more freely .
The fight lasted several hours and ended only after sunset , when neither side could see the other . Rogers was injured twice during the battle , once to the head and once to the hand . The French reported that they were at a disadvantage , since they were without snowshoes and " floundering in snow up to their knees " . Once darkness set in , Rogers and his survivors retreated 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to Lake George , where he sent Stark with two men to Fort William Henry for assistance . On January 23 , Rogers returned to Fort William Henry with 48 able @-@ bodied and six wounded soldiers .
= = Aftermath = =
Bougainville questioned some of the men captured during the battle . He learned from them the disposition of men and materials all the way from Albany to Fort William Henry . Other captured British ended up as slaves to the Indians . Thomas Brown , who published a pamphlet that vividly described his captivity , spent almost two years in slavery , traveling as far as the Mississippi River before reaching Albany in November 1758 .
A similar battle was fought the following year , in which Rogers was very nearly killed and his company was decimated .
= Don 't Say You Love Me ( M2M song ) =
" Don 't Say You Love Me " is the debut single by M2M , a Norwegian pop duo composed of singers Marion Raven and Marit Larsen . The song first appeared on Radio Disney before its official US radio and single release in October 1999 . It was released on the soundtrack to the film Pokémon : The First Movie in November 1999 and appears in the film 's closing credits . The song was featured on M2M 's debut album , Shades of Purple ( 2000 ) , and also appeared on their compilation album The Day You Went Away : The Best of M2M ( 2003 ) .
The song received positive reviews : Robert Christgau said it was one of the " impossibly touching " songs on Shades of Purple ; Chuck Taylor said it was " absolutely enchanting " and would appeal to both young and mature listeners . It reached number 2 in Norway , number 4 in both Australia and New Zealand , number 16 in the UK and number 21 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . It was certified gold in the US and Australia and remained M2M 's biggest hit . M2M performed the song on episodes of the TV series One World , Top of the Pops and Disney Channel in Concert . Two similar music videos were released for the song , with one showing clips from Pokémon : The First Movie .
= = Background and composition = =
Marion Raven and Marit Larsen were 14 and 15 @-@ years @-@ old respectively when the tracks from their debut album Shades of Purple , including " Don 't Say You Love Me " , were recorded . They had previously released a children 's album , Synger Kjente Barnesauger , under the band name Marit & Marion . That album was nominated for a Spellemannprisen award when they were both 12 years old . After taking some time off from recording music , the two began recording under the name M2M , which reflected the initials of both their first names . Atlantic Records received one of their demo recordings and signed them to a worldwide contract in 1998 . " Don 't Say You Love Me " was M2M 's debut single .
The song was written by Raven , Larsen , Peter Zizzo and Jimmy Bralower . It was produced by Zizzo and Bralower and was mixed by Tom Lord @-@ Alge . Lyrically , the song is about getting " the rules straight on a budding relationship . Slow down and don 't say you love me until you give me some time and get to know me . " There is a slight difference in lyrics between the version used in Pokémon : The First Movie version and the version released on Shades of Purple . The Shades of Purple version includes the line " then you start kissing me , what 's that about ? " In the Pokémon version , the lyric is " then you said you love me , what 's that about ? " When asked about the lyric change in an interview , M2M replied " the Pokémon people didn 't find it appropriate to have kissing in the lyrics , because it was for younger kids . We think [ the lyric change ] was stupid . The original version is on [ Shades of Purple ] , and that 's the one we wanted to go with . " M2M had not heard of Pokémon until the song was chosen for the soundtrack , as the franchise was not yet popular in Norway .
= = Release and appearances = =
" Don 't Say You Love Me " appeared in " The List " , an episode in the TV series Felicity that aired in the US on 3 October 1999 and reached an audience of 5 million people , helping to generate interest in the song . On October 10 it appeared in the Jack & Jill episode " Moving On " . The song was already being played on Radio Disney before it made its official US debut on 26 October 1999 . The single was released on both CD and Compact Cassette . Within a month , more than 100 US top @-@ 40 radio stations were playing the song ; by 10 November it was the sixth @-@ most requested song on New York radio stations . The song appeared during the closing credits of the film Pokémon : The First Movie and on the film 's soundtrack ; both the film and soundtrack were released in the US on 10 November 1999 . " Don 't Say You Love Me " was the debut single from the album . The single first entered the charts in the US on 20 November , by which time more than 400 @,@ 000 units had already been shipped to record stores .
Despite the success in the US , in November 1999 it was reported that the single would not be released in the duo 's home country of Norway until the following year , as Warner Music Norway wanted to wait until both the Pokémon film and soundtrack were released in Europe to capitalise on the exposure . The single was released in Norway on radio on 24 November , and by 11 January the single was on sale in Norway and 25 other countries in Europe , the Americas , Asia and Oceania . It was expected to be released in the remaining European countries by the end of the month , though European countries where the single had not yet been released were already playing the song on the radio . The song was popular in Southeast Asia , receiving heavy airplay in Korea , Indonesia , the Philippines , Thailand and Singapore . On 12 January it was featured in the episode of Beverly Hills , 90210 , " Tainted Love " . The song was released in Japan on 25 January , in Spain on 22 February , and in the UK on 20 March on East West Records . It appeared on Shades of Purple , which was released in Europe in mid @-@ February and the US on 7 March , and in 2003 it appeared on M2M 's ' best of ' album , The Day You Went Away : The Best of M2M .
= = Reception = =
Robert Christgau gave a positive review , calling the song one of the " impossibly touching " tracks on Shades of Purple that " sets the standard " for the rest of the album . Chuck Taylor from Billboard said the song would appeal to both the young and mature listeners as it " neatly walks the line between pure pop and the cusp of the adult top 40 " . He added the song was " Absolutely enchanting in its youthful vocal and meaty series of hooks " . Michael Paoletta , also from Billboard , called the song an " infectious pop rocker " adding " what 's most dazzling about the track is the vocal verve of the girls ' harmonizing . " Heather Phares from AllMusic referred to the song as " sweet yet down @-@ to @-@ earth pop " . Marius Lillelien , the director of the Norwegian radio station NRK Petre , said " It 's a very well @-@ written , well @-@ produced pop song , they 're young and potentially the largest Norwegian pop success ever . The song is best suited to an audience aged 10 – 16 , but in my opinion it won 't scare away older listeners " . " Don 't Say You Love Me " was nominated for the year 's best song at the 2000 Spellemannprisen awards , though it lost to Propaganda by Briskeby .
In the US , " Don 't Say You Love Me " entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 72 , later peaking at number 21 . It also reached number 40 on both the Latin Pop Airplay and Tropical Songs charts . The single sold 39 @,@ 000 copies in the week preceding November 27 , and had sold 580 @,@ 000 units by May 2000 . It reached number 1 in Thailand , number 2 in Norway and number 4 in both Australia and New Zealand . It made the top 10 in Finland and Indonesia , the top 20 in Canada , the UK , Sweden and the Netherlands , the top 40 in Italy and Belgium and the top 80 in Germany , France and Switzerland . It was certified gold in the US on 6 December 1999 and in Australia in 2000 .
" Don 't Say You Love Me " was M2M 's biggest hit and is their most recognisable song . While their next single , " Mirror Mirror " , was a top 40 single in Australia and Canada , and reached number 62 on the Billboard Hot 100 , " Don 't Say You Love Me " would remain M2M 's only top @-@ 40 hit in the US , and their only hit at all in many other countries . The song has been called a one @-@ hit wonder . While speaking favourably of the duo , in 2014 Abby Devora from MTV ranked M2M and the song at number 2 on her list " 9 Girl Group One @-@ Hit Wonders You Need To Remember Right Now " . Jessica Booth from Gurl.com included the duo and song in her 2012 list " Flashback : 15 Old @-@ School Girl Singers We Miss " , calling the song " ridiculously catchy " . Kaitlin Cubria from Teen.com listed the duo and song in her 2014 list of " 12 forgotten girl groups from the ' 90s / ' 00s that are worth your time . " In 2014 Nathan Jolly from MAX said it was " one of those few pop songs that is happiness incarnate despite being a ' back the fuck off , dude ' anthem " .
= = Music video = =
The video was directed by Nigel Dick and was filmed from 4 to 6 October 1999 at the Mission Tiki drive @-@ in theatre in Montclair , California . In the video , Raven sings the song while she is in a car with a boy , while Larsen sings and plays the guitar in front of another car . This footage is mixed with M2M singing together at the drive @-@ in , people dancing , the projectionist struggling with his malfunctioning equipment , and the concession stand worker who has an overflowing popcorn maker . When the popcorn stand explodes , M2M continue to perform surrounded by people as popcorn rains down . Air cannons were used to fire 200 garbage bin @-@ sized bags of popcorn into the air to create the raining popcorn effect . In the US the music video made its premiere on 24 October on The WB following that nights screening of 7th Heaven . It began airing on The Box and MuchMusic in early November 1999 and began airing on MTV on November 15 .
Two similar versions of the video were released . In one , clips from Pokémon : The First Movie are played on the screen at the drive in theatre . In the other version , fewer images of the screen are shown ; when they are seen the Pokémon images are replaced with either clips of Raven and Larsen singing the song or words such as " M2M " and " Intermission " . The Pokémon version of the video uses the censored lyrics , while the other one uses the album version of the song . The Pokémon version was included on the DVD of the film , while the other version was included on the bonus disc in The Day You Went Away : The Best of M2M .
= = Live performances and covers = =
To promote the single Raven and Larsen made a six @-@ stop tour of shopping malls in the Northeastern US between 21 August and 2 October ; it was their first tour under the name M2M . On 9 November 1999 , the day before Pokémon : The First Movie was released , M2M performed the song live at the Warner Bros. Studio Store on Fifth Avenue , Manhattan , in front of fans and a large media presence . To promote the single M2M also toured Singapore , Hong Kong and Japan before returning to Norway on 24 November . They performed the song on the episode " Band on the Run " of the TV series One World , which aired on 27 November , and on 31 March 2000 they performed it on Top of the Pops . M2M performed the song live at Walt Disney Worlds Epcot park on 12 February 2000 . This performance was recorded and appeared on an episode of Disney Channel in Concert on 29 April , which focused on both M2M and BBMak . As it was their biggest hit , " Don 't Say You Love Me " was a popular song during live performances . In December 2001 the song was performed as an encore , along with " Everything You Do " , in front of a crowd of 4 @,@ 000 at an M2M concert in Kuala Lumpur .
M2M disbanded in 2002 , after which Raven and Larsen both pursued solo careers ; Larsen is known for performing a country music version of the song during solo performances . The Fillipino acoustic pop duo Krissy & Ericka covered the song on their 2009 self @-@ titled album .
= = Track listings = =
The European version of the single contained the B @-@ side track The Feeling is Gone , one of three tracks recorded for Shades of Purple which were left off the album . The standard US version featured the Pokémon : The First Movie instrumental score " Mewtwo Strikes Back Suite " as the B @-@ side .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Shane Morris =
Shane Ryan Morris ( born August 4 , 1994 ) is an American football quarterback for the Michigan Wolverines team where he is a redshirt junior for the 2016 team . He is a left @-@ handed quarterback known for his strong arm . He was a highly touted 5 @-@ star high school prospect from De La Salle Collegiate . Until he endured mononucleosis midway through his senior season . He played in the 2013 Under Armour All @-@ America Game . He serves as the backup quarterback for Michigan . He saw limited action as a freshman until starting in the 2013 Buffalo Wild Wings Bowl in place of starter Devin Gardner . At the beginning of the 2015 season after the graduation of Gardner , he lost a quarterback battle against Jake Rudock . He will again battle for the starting position for 2016 .
= = Early life = =
Morris ' was born to Bruce and Jennifer Morris on August 4 , 1994 . Morris has two younger siblings , Brent and Gracie Morris , who quarterbacked the all @-@ boys De La Salle Collegiate , led the 2009 freshman team to the Catholic League championship before being called up to finish the season with the varsity team . When the starting quarterback was injured in the fourth quarter of the scoreless district final game against Grosse Pointe South High School , he was put in the game because the backup had a broken thumb . He led the team to victory in that game and 27 – 6 victory over Southfield High School in the Division 2 Michigan High School Athletic Association ( MHSAA ) regional playoff game before losing 12 – 3 to Inkster High School in the state semifinals . This was the second straight year that future teammate Gardner led Inkster to the state championships .
As a sophomore , he totaled 1 @,@ 152 yards and 14 touchdowns , while helping De La Salle achieve a 9 – 3 record in 2010 . He led the team to the MHSAA Division 2 quarterfinals where they lost to eventual state champion Farmington Hills Harrison 33 – 23 . He began getting scholarship offers starting with Cincinnati , but as a lifelong Michigan fan , he hoped for an offer from Michigan once they abandoned Rich Rodriguez ' spread offense and hired head coach Brady Hoke and offensive coordinator Al Borges . Before Michigan made him an offer on March 28 , 2011 , he also received offers from Bowling Green and Toledo . He gave Michigan a verbal commitment on May 10 , 2011 . He became Michigan 's first commit of the class of 2013 in order to eliminate recruiting distractions . Once he committed , he actively recruited prospects for the team .
He participated as one of the four quarterbacks in the July 2011 Gridiron Kings event at Disney World ( with the top 24 quarterbacks participating in the 2011 Elite 11 ) , but he was overshadowed by Matt Davis . As a junior in the fall of 2011 , he passed for 1 @,@ 684 yards and 19 touchdowns . He led the team to the 2011 Division 1 MHSAA state quarterfinals where they lost 9 – 6 to eventual state champions Cass Technical High School . Prior to his senior season , he was regarded as one of the best quarterback prospects produced by the state of Michigan , a state whose greatest quarterback products have been Gary Danielson , Earl Morrall , Craig Morton and James Ninowski . From the start of ESPN 's rankings with the class of 2006 through the class of 2012 , no Michigan quarterback ever ranked in the top 100 . The closest were Rob Bolden ( 112th , 2010 ) and Gardner ( 128th , 2010 ) . Prior to his senior year , he was ranked as ESPN 's 37th best and Rivals.com 's 17th best prospect and rising in the national class of 2013 . Entering his senior season , he and Max Browne were the only two 5 @-@ star rated quarterbacks in the class of 2013 by Rivals.com. A few weeks into his senior season , he had risen to 26th at ESPN , but suffered season @-@ ending mononucleosis with five games remaining on the schedule . By the beginning of November , he was the top quarterback in the country according to some evaluators . He ended his high school career ranked 127th by ESPN and 81st by Rivals.com.
During the summer of 2012 , he was at first unable to qualify for the 2012 Elite 11 in his home region , but participated in a second regional contest and was named MVP , earning an invitation . Morris was described as having the strongest arm of the 25 quarterbacks at the Elite 11 finals , although he did not finish in the top 11 of the competition . On September 6 , 2012 , he was the first quarterback selected to participate in the January 4 , 2013 Under Armour All @-@ America Game for high school seniors . As he was attempting to regain momentum following his battle with mononucleosis , he was reported to have been unimpressive in the week of practice and in the game . In the game , he was notable for being the recipient of a vicious tackle by Matthew Thomas , who was the No. 1 ranked outside linebacker in the class of 2013 according to ESPN . The Detroit News named him as the top prospect in the state of Michigan on their 2013 Blue Chip List .
By January 2013 , Morris had been so inundated with media requests , that he chose to discontinue any direct media contact ( although he was an active social media participant ) until he arrived at Michigan . On February 7 , 2013 , Morris was the first player to commit in writing to Michigan on signing day with a 7 : 01 a.m submission of his National Letter of Intent .
= = College = =
= = = 2013 season = = =
After Denard Robinson left for the NFL , sophomore Russell Bellomy , the only scholarship quarterback on the roster other than Devin Gardner , endured a season @-@ ending anterior cruciate ligament injury . The injury left the team without a healthy backup who had ever taken an official snap . True freshman Morris competed with redshirt freshman walk @-@ on Brian Cleary for the backup role . On August 22 , 2013 as a true freshman , Morris was named backup quarterback to redshirt junior Gardner . He made his debut for the 2013 team in the season opener against Central Michigan . Passing for 59 yards on 4 @-@ for @-@ 6 passing , he was one of 11 true freshmen to play in the game for Michigan . Morris also played in the Michigan – Michigan State football rivalry on November 2 against the 2013 Michigan State Spartans , completing only one pass ( on three attempts ) for six yards . Gardner suffered a turf toe injury prior to the 2013 team 's 2013 Buffalo Wild Wings Bowl against Kansas State . With Gardner held out of practices , Morris got extensive work . Morris started in place of Gardner in the Buffalo Wild Wings Bowl , compiling 196 yards on 24 – 38 passing .
= = = 2014 season = = =
After Michigan began the season with a 2 – 2 record under senior starter Gardner and with head coach Hoke under pressure , Morris started in the September 27 Little Brown Jug rivalry game against Minnesota . Michigan lost the game 30 – 14 , earning its third loss earlier than it had ever done in the 135 year history of Michigan football . The 16 @-@ point loss was the largest loss to Minnesota since 1977 and the largest to Minnesota at home since 1962 . On September 30 , Michigan athletic director Dave Brandon revealed that Morris suffered a concussion during the game but still played after showing signs of a concussion . This revelation sparked calls for Brandon to be fired , including a protest on the Michigan campus . When Gardner was injured in week 7 ( October 11 ) against Penn State , Russell Bellomy and not Morris was the replacement , due to what was presumed to be lingering injuries ( high @-@ ankle sprain and / or concussion ) to Morris .
= = = 2015 season = = =
In the final days before the 2015 Michigan Wolverines football team began its season for new head coach Jim Harbaugh against Utah , Morris was in a quarterback battle with incoming graduate student transfer Jake Rudock , who had started the prior two seasons for Iowa . On Monday before the Thursday September 3 game , Harbaugh would not name his starter . Rudock started the game . After the second game , against Oregon State , there was controversy when Wilton Speight took the mopup snaps during the 35 – 7 victory instead of Morris . Harbaugh explained that since Speight had already used his redshirt season and Morris had not , there was no reason for Morris to lose a season unless it was for meaningful snaps , but that Morris is the # 2 quarterback . When Rudock was sidelined in the third quarter with the team trailing in the October 31 , 2015 , Little Brown Jug rivalry game against Minnesota , Speight engineered the game @-@ winning drive via his first touchdown pass with less than five minutes remaining in the fourth quarter . Harbaugh explained that Speight had earned the backup role in practice in the preceding weeks .
= = = 2016 season = = =
2016 Spring practice began on February 29 with a highly anticipated quarterback battle between Morris , junior transfer and favorite John O 'Korn , Speight , true freshman Brandon Peters and redshirt freshman Alex Malzone . As Spring practice wound down in late March , Speight , O 'Korn and Morris seemed to be the leading three , but in that order . O 'Korn and Speight were the starters in the April 1 Spring game , while Morris lined up at wide receiver early and threw an interception for a touchdown as a quarterback .
= Evicted ! =
" Evicted ! " is the twelfth episode of the first season of the American animated television series Adventure Time . The episode was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez , from a story by Adam Muto . It originally aired on Cartoon Network on March 18 , 2010 as a preview for the series ; it later officially aired on May 17 , 2010 . The episode guest stars Erik Estrada as King Worm . The episode marks the first appearance of Marceline the Vampire Queen ( voiced by Olivia Olson ) , who would go on to play a larger role in the series as a friend and companion to Finn and Jake .
The series follows the adventures of Finn ( voiced by Jeremy Shada ) , a human boy , and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake ( voiced by John DiMaggio ) , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . In this episode , Finn and Jake search the land of Ooo for a new home after Marceline claims the duo 's treehouse as her own . Finn and Jake search all of Ooo for a new home , before settling temporarily in a cave . After a final confrontation , Marceline relents and gives Finn and Jake their house back because she finds them entertaining .
The character of Marceline was present in the series ' pitch bible , but she had not yet appeared in an episode prior to " Evicted ! " . Olson was cast as the character after she initially read for the part of Princess Bubblegum ; she was later pleased with her casting , praising Marceline 's varied design . " Evicted ! " also features the first song that was produced for the series : " The House Hunting Song " . " Evicted ! " was watched by 1 @.@ 88 million people and received largely positive critical attention , with Cam Shea of IGN naming the episode the fourth best episode of Adventure Time 's first season , and Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club noting that the episode is an example of the emotional complexity of the series . " Evicted ! " also drastically increased Marceline 's popularity with fans of the series .
= = Plot = =
During a rainy night , Jake tells Finn a story about a supposed vampire that used to live in their tree fort . Finn , scared by the sounds outside the house , goes downstairs to talk to Jake . Suddenly , their window is blown open and the lights go out . Finn and Jake soon discover that Marceline the Vampire Queen has snuck into their house . Both Finn and Jake are terrified that Marceline will kill them and drink their blood , but she reveals that she has no intentions of killing them , noting that she really only eats the color red . However , she explains that the tree house used to belong to her , and she promptly evicts them from their residence .
Finn and Jake then attempt to find new homes . Initially they are unable to find a suitable home until they stumble upon a cave . They clean up the cave and hold a house @-@ warming party , which Marceline crashes . She explains that the cave also belongs to her . Finn , having had enough starts a fight with Marceline , who grows into a huge demonic bat . After she seemingly kills Jake , Finn goes into a rage and violently punches Marceline , who promptly shape @-@ shifts into her regular form and then kisses Finn on the cheek , making him blush . Jake — who was able to use his shape @-@ shifting powers to save himself — runs over to Finn , and Marceline states that the fight they had was fun and that the two of them can have their old house back , as a gift . Once Finn and Jake return to their old abode , they are promptly hypnotized by King Worm ( voiced by Erik Estrada ) .
= = Production = =
" Evicted ! " was written and storyboarded by Bert Youn and Sean Jimenez , from a story developed by Adam Muto . The entry was directed by Larry Leichliter . The storyboard for the episode is substantially different from the finished episode . The dialogue between Finn and Jake near the beginning is longer , and the " House Hunting Song " is not found ; instead , a dialogue note merely reads , " montage music begins " , and the storyboard shows Finn and Jake looking for new houses , sans dialogue . Substantially changed scene included Finn and Jake 's encounter with the Ice King ( in the original version , Finn and Jake huddle in a group of penguins , which incites the Ice King 's anger ) , the manner in which Finn and Jake discover the cave ( Finn and Jake fall through the top and are nearly impaled by stalagmites ) , as well as the ending ( which originally featured Jake and Finn dealing with a werewolf )
The aforementioned " House Hunting Song " was the first musical piece produced for " Adventure Time " . The song — which was originally called " Oh Marceline " — was sung by Ward and Olivia Olson . The lyrics were written by Ward , who recorded a rough demo of the song a cappella . Patrick McHale later re @-@ recorded the song with guitar , and Ward then recorded both a different , " high intensity " version and a more subdued variant . When the crew was deciding which version to use , Ward wanted to use McHale 's recording , but Derek Drymon urged Ward to use his own . McHale later posted his demo for the song through his official Twitter account . Ashley Dzerigian played all of the bass in the episode . According to series composer Casey James Basichis , she is " classically trained as a bassist and can do just about anything " . Ryan Conner recorded guitar feedback that Basichis later autotuned into melodies .
The episode marks the first appearance of Marceline , one of the main characters in Adventure Time . Although she did not appear in the series ' pilot , the groundwork for her design and character were present in the series pitch book , penned by Pendleton Ward . Marceline 's name is based on the name of a childhood friend of Ward 's friend , named Marie , whose middle name is Marceline . Ward described Marie as someone who likes the horror movie Psycho and wearing dark clothing . Ward purposely set out to make Marceline 's character complex , as he explained in an interview that " with the female characters it ’ s easy to either write them as clichés or write them as the extreme opposite of those clichés [ … ] I just try to make them have faults and strengths just like Finn and Jake have . "
Marceline is voiced by Olivia Olson ; she had originally auditioned for the role of Princess Bubblegum . After her initial audition , she was asked to read for the role of Marcelline , and was " definitely impressed by the character " after seeing design drawings . Olson is also the character 's singing voice . The artistic design for Marceline was created by Ward , with small changes and additions added by Phil Rynda , former lead character designer and prop designer for Adventure Time . Olson later related in an interview that she was impressed by her character because , " she has really cool style [ … ] I love what they come up with [ in ] every episode . " The episode also features the vocal talents of actor Erik Estrada as King Worm ; Estrada would reprise the role for the eponymous fourth season episode " King Worm " .
= = Reception = =
" Evicted ! " was previewed on Cartoon Network on March 18 , 2010 . The episode officially aired on May 17 , 2010 @.@ the episode was watched by 1 @.@ 88 viewers , and scored a 1 @.@ 2 / 2 percent Nielsen household rating . Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States , which means that the episode was seen by 1 @.@ 2 percent of all households and 2 percent of all households watching television at the time of the episode 's airing .
Critical reception to " Evicted ! " was largely positive . Cam Shea of IGN named Marceline 's introduction in " Evicted ! " as the fourth best moment in the series ' first season . He wrote that " sure , in this episode she evicts Finn and Jake from their home ... but hey , this is the first time we meet her and she 's awesome . " He later wrote that " Marceline = best " . Marceline has gone on to be one of the most popular characters with the Adventure Time fan base , and after the release of " Evicted ! " her popularity grew enormously . Ward later noted that he felt " good about that . It 's nice " . Oliver Sava of The A.V. Club named the episode one of the ten additional installments of the series that illustrates that " emotional complexity " lies " beneath Adventure Time 's weirdness " .
In the Ancient Psychic Tandem Warcast podcast , Zack Smith and Supernatural writer and producer Jenny Klein review the episode . Both Smith and Klein expressed an appreciate for Marceline as well as her voice actress , with the former noting that , " it 's pretty hard to get past the awesomeness that is Olivia Olson . " Klein compared the relationship between Marceline and Finn in this episode to the interactions between Kim Kelly ( Busy Philipps ) and Sam Weir ( John Francis Daley ) , characters from the short @-@ lived sitcom Freaks and Geeks . Klein also commended the " House Hunting Song " , applauding the fact that it was sung by Pendleton Ward ; she argued that it was an example of the author speaking directly to the audience , akin to listening to an audiobook .
= = Media release = =
The episode first saw physical release as part of the 2011 Adventure Time : My Two Favorite People DVD , which included 12 episodes from the series ' first two seasons . It was later re @-@ released as part of the complete first season DVD in July 2012 . In addition , the 2014 limited edition 12 " vinyl record release Marceline the Vampire Queen – Rock the Nightosphere included " The House Hunting Song " alongside other songs sung by Marceline .
= Horse Protection Act of 1970 =
The Horse Protection Act of 1970 ( HPA ) ; ( codified 15 U.S.C. § § 1821 – 1831 ) is a United States federal law , under which the practice of soring is a crime punishable by both civil and criminal penalties , including fines and jail time . It is illegal to show a horse , enter it at a horse show , or to auction , sell , offer for sale , or transport a horse for any of these purposes if it has been sored .
Soring is the practice of applying irritants or blistering agents to the front feet or forelegs of a horse , making it pick its feet up higher in an exaggerated manner that creates the movement or " action " desired in the show ring . Soring is an act of animal cruelty that gives practitioners an unfair advantage over other competitors . The Horse Protection Act is enforced by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ( APHIS ) , a branch of the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) . Although violations of the law are seen most often in the Tennessee Walking Horse industry , the Horse Protection Act covers all breeds .
Originally all inspectors were from APHIS , but a lack of funding led to a 1976 amendment to the act , which allows non @-@ USDA employees to be trained and certified as inspectors . This program has not always been successful , with some non @-@ USDA inspectors being more lenient on violators than others , and citations for violations tend to increase significantly when USDA inspectors are present at a show . Several methods are used to detect violations of the act , including observation , palpation and gas chromatography / mass spectrometry to identify chemicals on horses ' legs . Certain training techniques and topical anesthetics can be used to avoid detection by the first two methods . There have been a number of unsuccessful challenges to the act on the grounds on constitutionality , as well as challenges on varying other issues . In 2013 , an amendment to the act was proposed in the United States House of Representatives . The amendment would allow only USDA employees to perform inspections , toughen penalties for violations , and outlaw the use of action devices and " stacks " , or layers of pads attached to the bottom of the front hooves .
= = Background = =
Soring began in the 1950s with gaited horse trainers who were looking to improve their chances of winning at horse shows . To do this , they developed methods to enhance the desired high action gaits to levels greater than that produced by traditional training methods . Thus began the use of irritants , including chemicals and physical objects , or abusive shoeing and hoof @-@ trimming practices on the front legs . Attempting to relieve the pain in its legs , a sored horse lifts its front feet off the ground more quickly , creating a flashier gait . By the 1960s , soring had gained popularity , as horses so treated gained an edge in competition . However , public opposition to the practice also grew , and in 1966 , the American Horse Protection Association was created in part to address the issue of soring . In 1969 , Senator Joseph Tydings sponsored legislation to prohibit soring , leading to the passing of the Horse Protection Act in 1970 , amended in 1976 . While Tennessee Walking Horses , Racking Horses and other " high @-@ stepping breeds " are generally targeted by these abusive practices , the Horse Protection Act covers all breeds .
Soring is defined by the HPA with four meanings :
( 3 ) ( A ) an irritating or blistering agent has been applied , internally or externally , by a person to any limb of a horse ,
( B ) any burn , cut , or laceration has been inflicted by a person on any limb of a horse ,
( C ) any tack , nail , screw , or chemical agent has been injected by a person into or used by a person on any limb of a horse , or
( D ) any other substance or device has been used by a person on any limb of a horse or a person has engaged in a practice involving a horse , and , as a result of such application , infliction , injection , use , or practice , such horse suffers , or can reasonably be expected to suffer , physical pain or distress , inflammation , or lameness when walking .
= = Contents = =
The Horse Protection Act is found in Title 15 of the United States Code , which covers commerce and trade . Section ( § ) 1821 covers the definitions of the terms used in the act and § 1822 details the Congressional statement of findings . The requirements placed upon horse shows and exhibitions are covered in § 1823 . § 1824 covers the core provisions of the act , prohibiting the " shipping , transporting , moving , delivering , or receiving of any horse which is sore " as well as the actual showing , exhibition , entry into a show , sale , or auction of a sored horse , including offering a sored horse for sale , as well as outlining the responsibilities of show management and recordkeeping requirements . The export of horses is covered in § 1824a . § 1825 covers penalties for violations detailed previously in the act , which may be civil or criminal , with fines of up to $ 50 @,@ 000 and imprisonment of up to five years . § 1826 details the required notice of violations to the Attorney General of the United States . The utilization of USDA and state government staff is covered in § 1827 , as is non @-@ financial assistance to states . Rules and regulations pertaining to the act 's statutes are covered in § 1828 . § 1829 covers federal preemption of state laws , concurrent jurisdiction , and prohibitions on certain state actions . § 1830 is currently reserved for future use , and § 1831 details the authorization of appropriations for expenses related to the enforcement of the provisions of the act .
= = Implementation = =
As originally enacted , the Horse Protection Act was to be enforced by Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ( APHIS ) , a branch of the USDA . However , a lack of staff and funding meant little success , leading to the 1976 amendment to the act . With this amendment , Congress created a Designated Qualified Person ( DQP ) program . This program allows non @-@ USDA employees from within the equine community to take training and certification programs run by Horse Industry Organizations ( HIOs ) and supervised by the USDA ; after completing the training , they may complete inspections for violations of the HPA at public events . The USDA is then able to double check the work of DQP participants by making random inspections at a small number of shows . One member of the Tennessee Walking Horse world states that this creates " the potential for a " fox guarding the chicken coop " situation " , as if the HIO is not fully interested in preventing or detecting the practice of soring , the DQPs may not be fully trained or may deliberately overlook instances of soring . When APHIS inspectors are present at horse shows , the number of citations for violations increases significantly . Competitors and trainers at shows , viewing themselves as unjustly persecuted , have been known to leave when they find APHIS inspectors present , rather than allowing the inspectors to see their horses . In June 2012 , the USDA published a new rule requiring violations found by HIOs to have penalties assessed at a rate equal to or exceeding those given by APHIS inspectors . Previously , HIOs were allowed to set their own penalty rates , resulting in some organizations acting leniently towards violators of the HPA .
For the first decades following passage of the act , foreign substances applied to the legs , including chemicals , were detected by feel , sight or smell . Since 2006 , the USDA has used gas chromatography / mass spectrometry to identify chemicals found on horses ' legs at events . Samples of suspicious substances are swabbed at the show , and sent to a laboratory for analysis ; owners and trainers are later informed of the results . However , this method is only used by APHIS veterinary medical officers at present .
Soring can be also detected by observing the horse for lameness , assessing its stance and palpating the lower legs . Some trainers evaded detection from inspectors by training horses not to react to the pain that palpation may cause , often by severely punishing the horse for flinching after the sored area is touched . The practice is called " stewarding " , in reference to the horse show steward . Others use topical anesthetics , such as lidocaine and benzocaine , which are timed to wear off before the horse goes into the show ring . Use of chemicals can be completely avoided if pressure shoeing is also used . This process involves placing some type of hard foreign object ( such as a small piece of wood , stone , hard acrylic , or sharp object such as a tack or nail ) against the sole of the horse 's foot before applying the horseshoe and pads . It can also be done by trimming down the horse 's hoof to its sensitive structures , then shoeing . Either method causes pain when the horse places its foot on the ground .
= = Impact = =
There have been a number of challenges to the Horse Protection Act on the grounds of constitutionality , mainly regarding due process and equal protection , none of which were successful . Courts have also ruled on other issues with regard to the act , including whether knowledge of soring or intent to sore is required in order to prove a violation of the act , and courts have repeatedly held that it is not . The issue of digital palpation , one of the main methods used by inspectors to find and verify soreness , has been contested in several courts , and is
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, Saperstein flew back and forth among the involved countries to coordinate efforts and make sure production standards never dropped . Saperstein 's efforts for his first 12 episodes were enough to convince Lat to continue working with Matinee for the project .
The entire project took four years to complete ; each episode cost approximately 350 @,@ 000 United States dollars ( approximately 1 million Malaysian ringgit ) , partly funded by Measat , and took four to five months to produce . The pilot was shown over TV1 on 10 February 1997 , and the series began its broadcast over Astro Ria two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years later . Kinder Channel ( Germany ) and Teletoon ( Canada ) broadcast the series after buying the rights through London @-@ based distributor Itel , and the series has been broadcast in more than 60 countries since its first airing in Malaysia . Measat expected to recover their investment in approximately 10 years . Although Kampung Boy originated in Malaysia , most of its production took place abroad . It was local in concept , but could be construed as a foreign production in terms of animation . This led to laments that had Malaysian studios been hired to participate in animation work , the country 's industry would have benefited by learning from foreign animation expertise and methodology .
= = Characters = =
The protagonist of the series is a nine @-@ year @-@ old boy named Mat , who typically wears a sarong pelikat and a white singlet . Sporting a broad nose , small eyes , and untidy black hair , the short and rounded boy resembles his creator , Lat , as a child . Mat has a younger sister , Ana , and they live in a house with their father and mother , Yap and Yah , respectively . Their nuclear family structure is predominant in the village . Yap 's mother , Opah , does not live with them but is often seen in their house . Also frequently appearing are Mat 's buddies , Bo and Tak , whose names are components of the Malay word botak ( bald ) . The two are styled after comic characters of traditional wayang kulit ( shadow play ) ; Bo is the more intelligent of the pair , while Tak has a tendency to be a show @-@ off . Other supporting characters include Normah ( a girl formerly from the city ) and Mrs Hew ( Mat 's teacher ) .
The Malay and English voices of the characters were dubbed by Malaysian voice actors . Child actors were employed for the younger roles ; however , Mat , Ana , Bo , and Tak were voiced by actors who were in their early twenties . Certain actors had the task of voicing multiple roles ; for example , the voice director was responsible for speaking the roles of Mrs Hew and Yah . Initially , voice talents were hired in Los Angeles to dub the English version , but they " kept slipping into a Jamaican accent " . Although this soundtrack was not used in the series , the producers felt it was too funny to waste and included it in The Making of Kampung Boy , which was broadcast a week before the start of the series .
= = Setting = =
Whereas Kampung Boy the comic book was based on life in the 1950s , its animation spin @-@ off was set in the 1990s . Although the scenery and details are exaggerated , the animation is accurate in its depiction of the Malaysian village and the life of its inhabitants . Dr Rohani Hashim , of Universiti Sains Malaysia 's School of Communication , called the series a " detailed recreation of a rural Malay childhood " . The layout of Mat 's village and the style of its houses are patterned after those in the rural areas of Perak , Malaysia — clusters of houses line a river , which provides water for the villagers ' needs . The children play in the surrounding jungle , while the adults toil in the fields and commute to the city to work .
Saperstein directed the use of warm and soft colours in the series ; this colour scheme was modelled after that of Winnie the Pooh , bestowing a " soft , cuddly feel " , according to Far Eastern Economic Review journalist S. Jayasankaran , to the animation . Much of the show 's visuals followed Lat 's art style . Outlines are drawn in bold manner , making objects stand out from the background — an effect particularly aided by the rich use of brown , green , and yellow as the primary colours . The last two colours are heavily used in the depictions of nature , contrasting well with each other and separating the background from the middle ground . Aside from being the main colour for the houses , brown is used as the skin tone of the characters . Drawn with " short and round shapes " , Mat and his fellow Malays are highlighted with bright colours .
= = Themes and hallmarks = =
Kampung Boy 's episodes follow a structure reminiscent of Hollywood cartoons . Each episode contains two separate stories whose themes interweave each other as the show switches between scenes of the two stories . By the end of the episode , the two threads are resolved by a common idea . Generally , one story focuses on the kampung children , and the other on the adults . The creators of Kampung Boy refrained from copying ideas commonly found in Western and Japanese cartoons . Other Malaysian animations produced since the 1990s have not been as meticulously faithful to portraying images and themes familiar to the locals — for example , Sang Wira 's ( 1996 ) protagonist bears a striking resemblance to Doraemon , and the bear and bee in Ngat dan Taboh ( 2002 ) play out antics similar to those of Tom and Jerry . Lat 's close involvement with the project kept its portrayals faithful to Malaysian culture . Kampung life in the animation features " true @-@ blue Malaysian elements " such as supernatural superstitions ( pontianaks or female vampires ) , monkeys trained to pluck coconuts , and traditions that are forgotten in the transition from rural to urban living .
The cartoon series explores ideas through the activities of the characters , especially their interactions with one another . Rohani classified the genre of the show as comedy drama . According to her , the main theme in Kampung Boy is nostalgia , carrying Lat 's intention to portray rural childhood as a " much more interesting and creative " experience than growing up in an urban environment . Several episodes champion the kampung way of life . In " Orang Bandar Datang " ( " The City People Come to the Kampung " ) , Mat and his friends defeat a city football ( soccer ) team because of their toughness bred from doing hard work in the village . " SiMat Manusia Pintar " ( " Smart Like a Flying Fox " ) suggests that the unpolluted environment of the kampung promotes the upbringing of a healthier and more intelligent child . Normah arrives from the city in " Mat Main Wayang " ( " The Shadow Knows " ) , and although she disdains the kampung initially , she is won over by the villagers ' tenderness toward her .
The intrusion of modern technology and attitudes into this idyllic kampung way of life is also a main topic in the series . Several episodes introduce electrical appliances and ideas associated with urban lifestyles to the villagers . For example , the convenience of motor cars versus the traditional use of bullock carts is debated by the characters in " Naik Keretaku " ( " Dad 's Driving Test " ) . Despite the show 's support of the kampung lifestyle , it portrays aspects of modern living in a positive light as well . Opah , an old woman , is depicted as a capable modern woman , proficient in driving a van and fixing televisions . The city is characterized as a gateway to a range of cultures and ideas that are not found in a Malaysian rural village , as illustrated in the encounter and formation of a friendship between Mat and a Chinese boy in " Naik Keretaku " .
The series also explores changes in Malaysian rural society that had taken place during the 1950s to 1990s . For example , through flashbacks , " Yah , Kahwinkan Kami ! " ( " Gone With Kahwin " ) displays traditional marriage customs that are no longer practiced by urban dwellers . Family ties are shown to be strong in the rural community — family members show close attention and concern to one another . Conversely , those who immersed themselves in city life are depicted to have lost their communal bonds . Although Mat 's family is depicted to follow the rules of the Malay patriarchal society , modern values are in its portrayal . Yap does not leave the responsibilities of child @-@ rearing all to Yah ; he takes care of Ana while she watches over Mat . Although the series presents the female characters as housewives , it makes the point in " Nasib Si Gadis Desa " ( " It 's a Girl 's Life " ) that the traditional family role of the Malay woman is as equal and valuable as the man 's . The episode also mentions the achievements of women in careers such as space exploration and science .
Overall , Rohani said that Lat 's cartoon series was subtly recording a story of " rapidly vanishing Malay tradition and innocence " , while advising viewers to consider the societal changes around them . According to her , the cartoonist 's concern was to inspire the audience to consider the pace of urbanisation and to realise that the adoption or rejection of new values is a common decision by them . The show , in her opinion , suggests that changes should be carefully examined and adopted only if beneficial to the society . Furthermore , the adoption of new ideas and culture should be a gradual process , and the changes tailored accordingly to the society .
= = Reception , legacy , and achievements = =
Kampung Boy was submitted to the 1999 Annecy International Animated Film Festival in France . One of its episodes , " Oh , Tok ! " , won the Best Animation for a television series of 13 minutes and more . The episode was about a spooky banyan tree that became the object of Mat 's fear . Because of the local contents in the animation and the nostalgic appeal of the kampung lifestyle , Malaysian comics scholar Muliyadi Mahamood expected success for Kampung Boy in his country .
The 26 @-@ episode series was popular with the young and received positive reviews for technical details and content . It has also attracted criticism for similarities to United States cartoon series The Simpsons ; audiences noticed that Mat 's Malaysian family was similar in several ways to Bart Simpson 's dysfunctional American family . Similarly , some critics pointed out that the English spoken in Kampung Boy is substantially different from Malaysian English , which is heavily influenced by British English ; reporter Daryl Goh perceived an American accent to the English @-@ language voices . Lat explained that the producers had to tone down the use of " traditional Malay customs , locales and language " to market the series to a wider global audience . Rohani found the decision " regrettable " ; it made the animation less than an authentic Malay product .
The animation was regarded by Dr Paulette Dellios , of Bond University 's School of Humanities and Social Sciences , as a cultural artefact : a reminder and preservation of a country 's old way of life , created and produced by an international team , and displayed via modern technologies to the world . According to Rohani , Kampung Boy was a record of Malay traditions and transitions experienced by the rural community during the 1950s to 1990s . Among the several Malaysian animations that used local settings , Lat 's series was in veteran film director Hassan Abdul Muthalib 's view the best in portraying the country 's culture and traditions ; Hassan also said that the success in marketing the series overseas made Kampung Boy the benchmark for Malaysia 's animation industry .
= 2007 Navy vs. North Texas football game =
The 2007 Navy vs. North Texas football game was a regular @-@ season college football game between the Navy Midshipmen and the North Texas Mean Green , played on November 10 , 2007 at Fouts Field in Denton , Texas . The game holds the record for the most combined points scored in a National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) regulation game with 136 total points .
The mid @-@ season , non @-@ conference game was the first meeting between the two teams ; both came into the game with highly rated offenses and poorly rated defenses . Before the game the Midshipmen had a 5 – 4 record , most recently defeating the Notre Dame Fighting Irish to break a streak of 43 consecutive losses to that team . Another win would qualify them for a bowl game . The Mean Green held a 1 – 7 record , and could not become bowl eligible by winning its remaining games , but the team 's offense had improved over the course of the season .
During the first quarter of the game , the Mean Green led the Midshipmen by as much as 18 points . In the second quarter the teams combined to score 63 points , setting records for most points scored in a quarter and a half . The Midshipmen rallied around a strong rushing offense to take the lead at the beginning of the third quarter , and the Mean Green 's offensive momentum sputtered during the second half . Navy held the lead for the remainder of the game .
With the win the Midshipmen improved to 6 – 4 , making the team bowl @-@ eligible for the fifth straight year . After finishing the regular season with a record of 8 – 4 they played in the 2007 Poinsettia Bowl , losing to the Utah Utes . The loss against Navy gave the Mean Green a 1 – 8 record , and the team eventually finished with a 2 – 10 record for the season .
= = Pre @-@ game buildup = =
= = = Navy = = =
The Midshipmen , using a triple option offensive scheme under head coach Paul Johnson , had gained the most rushing yards of any team in the nation and had a record of 4 – 4 through the first eight games of the season . In their ninth game the team defeated the Notre Dame Fighting Irish in triple overtime , ending a 43 @-@ year losing streak in the Notre Dame – Navy rivalry and improving the team 's record to 5 – 4 . With three games remaining in the season , Navy needed to win at least one more to become bowl eligible . Sponsors had arranged for Navy ( which was unaffiliated with any college football conference ) to play in the Poinsettia Bowl if they won six games . The Midshipmen defense allowed an average of 38 @.@ 8 points per game .
= = = North Texas = = =
Using a spread offense scheme implemented by first @-@ year head coach Todd Dodge , the Mean Green experienced some offensive success ; however , defensive woes led to a 1 – 7 record through the first eight games of the season . In a rivalry game against SMU on September 8 Mean Green quarterback Daniel Meager threw for over 600 yards ( one of the top 20 single @-@ game performances in FBS history ) , but defensive errors and an interception returned for a touchdown during the fourth quarter led to another loss . After losing to the Arkansas Razorbacks 66 – 7 , Dodge replaced Meager with redshirt freshman Giovanni Vizza . After four games as a starter , Vizza had set a new passing record for freshmen at North Texas . Coming into the game , the Mean Green ranked 12th nationally in passing offense . Dodge 's defensive squad , however , continued to struggle ; the team had allowed an average of 209 yards of rushing per game , ranking 107th in the nation in rushing defense . It also ranked 119th in scoring defense , allowing opponents to score an average of 46 @.@ 5 points per game . Coming off a bye week , the team entered the game with a 1 – 7 record .
= = Game summary = =
The game was scheduled to begin at 3 p.m. Central Time at Fouts Field in Denton , Texas . Before the opening kickoff , the Green Brigade Marching Band performed " My Country , ' Tis of Thee " and " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " . At the conclusion of the national anthem , four United States Navy F / A @-@ 18 Hornet aircraft performed a flyover past the stadium .
= = = First quarter = = =
Although the Mean Green had not scored on its first possession in its previous eight games , the team scored on its opening drive against the Midshipmen when wide receiver Casey Fitzgerald caught a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass from quarterback Giovanni Vizza . The Mean Green recovered an onside kick on the ensuing kickoff and scored another touchdown on the following drive . After the Midshipmen kicked a field goal on their first possession , North Texas added another touchdown , giving them a 21 – 3 lead . Navy scored a touchdown with seven seconds remaining in the quarter . The period ended with the Mean Green ahead , 21 – 10 .
= = = Second quarter = = =
After Navy forced North Texas to begin the second quarter with a punt , Midshipmen running back Eric Kettani fumbled the ball on the second play of the next drive and the Mean Green recovered . The next eight possessions – four from each team – resulted in touchdowns . Four of the drives took less than a minute of game time to reach the end zone , and a fifth took barely over a minute . In the final two minutes of the half the Midshipmen forced the Mean Green to punt after three plays , and Navy quarterback Kaipo @-@ Noa Kaheaku @-@ Enhada threw a 47 @-@ yard pass to running back Reggie Campbell . The Midshipmen ran for another touchdown on the next play . North Texas got the ball back with seven seconds left in the half , but chose not to attempt to score again . At the end of the first half , the Mean Green led the Midshipmen 49 – 45 .
= = = Third quarter = = =
Navy began the third quarter with a 9 @-@ play , 60 @-@ yard touchdown drive composed completely of runs . This gave them their first lead of the game at 51 – 49 ( the extra point attempt was blocked ) . On the next North Texas drive , Midshipmen outside linebacker Ram Vela intercepted Giovanni Vizza 's pass at the Midshipmen 20 @-@ yard line . Three plays later , Navy running back Zerbin Singleton ran 65 yards for another touchdown , making the score 58 – 49 . The Mean Green responded with a 7 @-@ play , 59 @-@ yard drive , which ended with another Vizza touchdown pass to Casey Fitzgerald . On the next play from scrimmage , Kettani ran 49 yards . Two plays later he ran for another touchdown , bringing the score to 65 – 56 at the end of the third quarter .
= = = Fourth quarter = = =
The next Mean Green drive ended in another interception , this time by Midshipmen linebacker Matt Wimsatt . After the ensuing drive stalled at midfield , the Midshipmen downed a punt at the North Texas two @-@ yard line . Two plays later the Mean Green were called for holding in the end zone , giving Navy a safety . Campbell returned the ensuing free kick for a touchdown , giving the Midshipmen a 74 – 56 lead . Running back Micah Mosley scored another touchdown for the Mean Green , but their two @-@ point conversion attempt failed , leaving them down 74 – 62 . The Mean Green attempted another onside kick , but Navy recovered . One first down was enough to enable the Midshipmen to run out the clock for the win .
= = = Scoring summary = = =
Source :
= = Final statistics = =
With a combined 136 total points scored between both teams , the game set an NCAA Division I FBS record for most points scored in a regulation @-@ length game ( breaking the previous record of 133 points set when the San Jose State Spartans defeated the Rice Owls 70 – 63 in 2004 ) . The 63 combined points in the second quarter and 94 points scored in the first half set NCAA records . The game capped off a monthlong period during which four of the five highest @-@ scoring college football games were played . Giovanni Vizza 's eight touchdown passes – equaling the total from his previous four games – set an NCAA record for most touchdown passes by a freshman in a single game . The Midshipmen set a school record by running for 572 yards ( with 8 rushing touchdowns ) in the game , and tied another school record by scoring at least 30 points for an eighth consecutive game .
= = Post @-@ game effects = =
During a post @-@ game press conference Midshipmen head coach Paul Johnson described the game as " bizarre " , while defensive coordinator Buddy Green criticized his team 's defensive performance : " ... it was awful . Awful . Just awful . I can 't be any clearer than that . " The win guaranteed the Midshipmen a spot in the 2007 Poinsettia Bowl , held in San Diego , California on December 20 , 2007 ; Navy lost the game to the Utah Utes , 35 – 32 . It was the fifth straight bowl game for Navy .
The loss dropped the Mean Green to 1 – 8 , and the team finished the season with a 2 – 10 record . Mean Green coach Todd Dodge expressed astonishment at a post @-@ game press conference , saying " I have never been a part of a game quite like this . " The team finished the season averaging an FBS @-@ worst 45 @.@ 1 points allowed per game . After the final game of the season , Dodge fired defensive coordinator Ron Mendoza , who was replaced by Gary DeLoach . In the 2008 season the Mean Green would again finish at the bottom of the defensive rankings , allowing an average of 47 @.@ 6 points per game .
= HD 154672 =
HD 154672 is a yellow subgiant ( spectral type G3 IV ) . It is about 65 parsecs away from the Sun that is larger than , but of a similar mass to , the Sun . However , HD 154672 is much older . The star is very metal @-@ rich , which is one of the reasons why it was targeted for a planet search by the N2K Consortium , which discovered the gas giant planet HD 154672 b using Doppler Spectroscopy ; the discovery was reported in October 2008 . The N2K collaboration chose HD 154672 primarily because it aimed to discover the correlation between a star 's metallicity and the mass of orbiting planets .
HD 154672 was targeted by the Magellan Telescopes . It is the host of the first planet discovered from the telescopes by N2K .
= = Observational history = =
HD 154672 was first targeted for a planet search in 2004 by the N2K Consortium , a collaboration of astronomers hoping to take radial velocity measurements of previously untargeted stars using Doppler spectroscopy ; however , HD 154672 had been previously targeted by a series of surveys , and was previously included in the Henry Draper catalog and the catalog of the European Space Agency 's Hipparcos satellite .
N2K deliberately biased its search towards closely orbiting Jupiter @-@ size planets ( Hot Jupiters ) in the orbit of metal @-@ rich stars , as the consortium hoped to discover how the mass of a planet relates to its host star 's metal content . Initially , HD 154672 was noted as a host to a short @-@ orbit Hot Jupiter , although additional observations revealed that the prospective planetary body had a longer orbit than previously expected , as revealed by the Magellan Telescopes at Chile 's Las Campanas Observatory .
Use of the Magellan Clay telescope 's Magellan Inamori Kyocera Echelle spectrograph ( MIKE ) helped collect sixteen radial velocity measurements for HD 154672 ; a team of American astronomers and one from the Vatican City used these measurements to confirm the existence of planet HD 154672 b and to determine its mass .
The discovery of HD 154672 's planet was reported in the Astronomical Journal on October 7 , 2008 along with a planet in the orbit of HD 205739 .
= = Host star = =
HD 154672 is a sunlike G @-@ type star that has a mass of 1 @.@ 06 times that of the Sun and a radius that is 1 @.@ 27 times that of the Sun . Thus , it is slightly larger than the Sun , although it has a similar mass . The star has an effective temperature of 5714 K , slightly cooler than the Sun ; however , it is far richer in iron , with a measured metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = 0 @.@ 26 . This means that the star has 1 @.@ 82 times more iron than the Sun does . HD 154672 is far older than the Sun , as its estimated gyrochronological age is estimated at 9 @.@ 28 billion years . HD 154672 's spectrum suggests that the star 's chromosphere ( its outer layer ) is not active .
HD 154672 is located 65 @.@ 8 parsecs ( 214 @.@ 6 light years ) away from Earth . It has an apparent magnitude ( V ) of 8 @.@ 22 , making the star too dim to see from Earth with the naked eye . The star is slightly dimmer than planet Neptune as perceived with the naked eye , which has an apparent magnitude of 7 @.@ 78 at its brightest . The star 's actual brightness is measured with an absolute magnitude of 4 @.@ 12 , similar to that of the Sun .
= = Planetary system = =
HD 154672 b is a Hot Jupiter , as it is a closely orbiting planet with a high mass . Specifically , HD 154672 has a mass that is 5 @.@ 02 times greater than Jupiter 's mass . It also orbits at a distance of 0 @.@ 6 AU , or about 60 % of the mean distance between the Earth and Sun . This orbit is completed every 163 @.@ 91 days .
HD 154672 b has an orbital eccentricity of 0 @.@ 61 , denoting a very elliptical orbit . The planet 's discoverers noted that if water existed in the planet 's atmosphere , it might change from a liquid state to a gaseous state as the planet swings closer to its host star , increasing its temperature .
= Homer 's Odyssey ( The Simpsons ) =
" Homer 's Odyssey " is the third episode of the first season of The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 21 , 1990 . In this episode Homer becomes a crusader for citizen safety in Springfield , and is promoted to his current position as Nuclear Safety Inspector for the entire power plant . It was written by Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky and was the first Simpsons script to be completed , although it was the third episode produced .
= = Plot = =
Mrs. Krabappel takes Bart 's class on a field trip to the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , where everybody watches as Homer crashes an electric cart into a cooling vent and is fired . Homer searches for a new job without success . Feeling like a failure , he writes a suicide note to his family and decides to end his life by attaching a boulder to himself and jumping off a bridge .
Lisa finds Homer 's note and alerts the family . They hurry to the bridge to save him , but they are almost run over by a speeding truck . Homer pulls them to safety just in time , and he is suddenly filled with a new reason to live : to place a stop sign at the dangerous intersection . After successfully petitioning the city council , Homer embarks on a public safety crusade that involves placing speed bumps and warning signs throughout the town .
Unsatisfied with his own efforts , Homer takes on the biggest danger in Springfield , the nuclear power plant . After Homer rallies people to his cause , Mr. Burns decides to end the furor he is creating by offering him a new position as the plant safety inspector , along with a higher salary . Homer , torn between his principles and his livelihood , tearfully tells his followers that they must fight their battles alone from this point on and takes the job .
= = Production = =
Waylon Smithers made his first appearance in this episode , although he can be heard over a speaker in The Simpsons series premiere " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . In his first visual appearance , he was mistakenly animated with the wrong color and was made an African American by Gyorgi Peluci , the color stylist . David Silverman has claimed that Smithers was always intended to be " Mr. Burns ' white sycophant , " and the staff thought it " would be a bad idea to have a black sub @-@ servient character " and so switched him to his intended color for his next episode . Smithers ' skin tone was later explained as an " extreme tan " .
Blinky the Three @-@ Eyed Fish makes a brief cameo in this episode ; he later becomes of importance in episode four of the second season , " Two Cars in Every Garage and Three Eyes on Every Fish " . Also notable is that Marge was originally called Juliette in this script as a homage to Romeo and Juliet . Homer 's middle initial , J , is mentioned for the first time in this episode . According to Matt Groening , it was a reference to Bullwinkle J. Moose . Additionally , the following characters made their first appearances in this episode : Otto Mann , Chief Wiggum , Jasper Beardley , Sam & Larry , Mr. & Mrs. Winfield and Sherri and Terri .
The episode 's title comes from the Greek epic poem Odyssey , traditionally attributed to the legendary poet Homer . On the bus , Bart sings " John Henry was a Steel Driving Man " , an American folk @-@ song about a 19th @-@ century hero of the working @-@ class , building railroads across the West Virginia mountains .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Homer 's Odyssey " finished twenty @-@ eight in ratings for the week of January 15 – 21 , 1990 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 9 , equivalent to approximately 13 @.@ 7 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , beating Married ... with Children .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide stated that " the story rather fizzles out at the end , but there are many good moments , especially in the power plant . " Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode is " possibly the best of the [ first six ] shows " and further commented that the episode " suffers a little from an odd tone , as the characters hadn ’ t become settled . Still , it seems surprisingly clever and witty "
In September 2001 , in an DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of ½ / 5 and calls it " the first season at its worst " and continues that it was " notable for introducing Mr. Burns and ( a strangely African @-@ American ) Smithers , but otherwise boring and preachy . "
= = Home release = =
The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom , as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection , in which it was paired with the sixth episode of the season , " Moaning Lisa " . In the United Kingdom , it was once re released as part of VHS boxed set of the complete first season , released in November 1999 .
In the United States , the episode would finally see the home video release as a part of The Simpsons Season One DVD set , which was released on September 25 , 2001 . Groening , Archer , Kogen , and Wolodarsky participated in the DVD 's audio commentary . A digital edition of the series ' first season was published December 20 , 2010 in the United States containing the episode , through Amazon Video and iTunes .
= German destroyer Z15 Erich Steinbrinck =
Z15 Erich Steinbrinck was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . The ship was named after the First World War German naval officer Erich Steinbrinck . At the beginning of World War II on 1 September 1939 , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the North Sea to lay defensive minefields . In late 1939 and 1940 the ship laid multiple offensive minefields off the English coast that claimed 24 merchant ships and a destroyer . Steinbrinck was under repair for most of the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 and was transferred to France later that year .
After a lengthy refit in Germany , she returned to France in early 1941 where she escorted returning warships , commerce raiders , and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay for several months . After her refit was completed , Steinbrinck was transferred to Northern Norway in 1942 where she participated in several minor operations before she was damaged running aground and forced to return to Germany for repairs . The ship returned to Norway in mid @-@ 1943 where she escorted German capital ships as they moved between Norway and Germany and participated in the German attack ( Operation Zitronella ) on the Norwegian island of Spitzbergen , well north of the Arctic Circle . Steinbrinck was ordered home in November to begin a lengthy refit , during which she was badly damaged by Allied bombs , and was unserviceable for the rest of the war . She was turned over to the Soviet Union after the war as war reparations and only served a few years before she was converted into a training ship and then a barracks ship before being sold for scrap in 1958 .
= = Design and description = =
Erich Steinbrinck had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 239 long tons ( 2 @,@ 275 t ) at standard and 3 @,@ 165 long tons ( 3 @,@ 216 t ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 485 kW ; 69 @,@ 042 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Erich Steinbrinck carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 10 officers and 315 sailors .
Erich Steinbrinck carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Sufficient depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of sixteen charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of sixty mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines and an active sonar system was installed by the end of 1940 .
During the war the ship 's light anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented several times . In 1941 , improved 2 cm C / 38 guns replaced the original C / 30 guns and three additional guns were added . The two guns on the aft shelter deck were replaced at some point by a single 2 cm quadruple Flakvierling mount , probably in 1942 . Sometime in 1944 – 45 , Steinbrinck received the " Barbara " anti @-@ aircraft refit in which all of her existing 3 @.@ 7 cm and most of her 2 cm guns were replaced . She retained her Flakvierling mount and the remainder of her anti @-@ aircraft armament now consisted of seven twin 3 @.@ 7 cm SK M / 42 mounts and four twin 2 cm mounts on the forecastle and side of the bridge .
= = Construction and career = =
Erich Steinbrinck , named after the commander of the torpedo boat SMS V @-@ 29 killed during the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , was ordered on 19 January 1935 from Blohm & Voss . She was laid down at their shipyard in Hamburg on 30 May 1935 as yard number B504 , launched on 24 September 1936 and completed on 31 May 1938 . She was commissioned under the command of Korvettenkapitän Rolf Johannesson , later promoted to Fregattenkapitän , who commanded her until January 1942 . The ship participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 3rd Destroyer Division . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May 1939 .
When World War II began , Erich Steinbrinck was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sister ships in laying defensive minefields . She also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods in October . On the night of 18 / 19 November , Steinbrinck was Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Erich Bey 's flagship for an offensive minelaying mission off the British coast when she led her sister ships Friedrich Eckoldt and Hans Lody to the Humber Estuary that claimed seven ships of 38 @,@ 710 gross register tons ( GRT ) , including the Polish ocean liner M / S Piłsudski .
On the night of 12 / 13 December , German destroyers sortied to lay minefields off the British coast . Under the command of Commodore ( Kommodore ) Friedrich Bonte in his flagship Hermann Künne , Steinbrinck , Bruno Heinemann , Richard Beitzen , and Friedrich Ihn laid 240 mines off the mouth of the River Tyne , where the navigation lights were still lit . The British were unaware of the minefield 's existence and lost eleven ships totaling 18 @,@ 979 GRT . The destroyers were later ordered to escort the crippled light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg which had been torpedoed by the submarine HMS Salmon while covering the destroyers ' withdrawal . Ihn and Steinbrinck had machinery problems en route and were forced to return to port before they reached the cruisers . Steinbrinck and her sisters Friedrich Eckoldt and Ihn sortied again on the night of 18 December , but the British had turned off the navigation lights off Orfordness and the German were forced to abandon the attempt because they could not locate themselves precisely enough to lay the minefield in the proper position .
= = = 1940 – 41 = = =
Another minefield of 170 magnetic mines was laid by Steinbrinck , Ihn and Eckoldt on the night of 6 – 7 January 1940 off the Thames Estuary . The destroyer HMS Grenville and six merchant ships totalling 21 @,@ 617 GRT were lost to this minefield as well and another ship was damaged as well . The ship was under repairs during Operation Weserübung in April and did not leave the dockyard until May when she began working up as part of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla . Her work up was cut short to escort the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , as well as the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper participating in Operation Juno , a planned attack on Harstad , Norway , to relieve pressure on the German garrison at Narvik . The ships sortied on 8 June and sank the troop transport Orama , the oil tanker Oil Pioneer and the minesweeping trawler Juniper en route . The German commander , Admiral Wilhelm Marschall , then ordered the Admiral Hipper and all four destroyers to Trondheim because of the heavy weather , where they arrived in the morning of 9 June . The two battleships continued the sortie and sank the aircraft carrier Glorious and her two escorting destroyers , although Scharnhorst was badly damaged by a torpedo from the destroyer Acasta in the engagement . The battleship was escorted home by the destroyers Steinbrinck , Lody and Hermann Schoemann for repairs . Steinbrinck and Lody then returned to Trondheim to escort Gneisenau home , after she been torpedoed by a British submarine .
The flotilla laid defensive minefields in the North Sea in August and early September before it was transferred to the Atlantic Coast of France in mid @-@ September . Now based at Brest the flotilla laid a minefield in Falmouth Bay during the night of 28 / 29 September . Five ships totalling only 2 @,@ 026 GRT were sunk by this minefield . Led by Captain ( Kapitän zur See ) Erich Bey , Steinbrinck and four other destroyers sortied for the Southwest Approaches on 17 October and were intercepted by a British force of two light cruisers and five destroyers
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. The British opened fire at extreme range and were forced to disengage in the face of long @-@ range torpedo volleys and attacks by Luftwaffe bombers without having hit any of the German ships . Steinbrinck returned home on 7 November for a refit in Stettin .
Her refit was completed in late January 1941 , but she was trapped by thick ice so that she could not reach Gotenhafen to work up until mid @-@ February . Steinbrinck returned to France in April where she was based at La Pallice . There she was primarily occupied with escorting returning commerce raiders , warships and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay to bases in France . These included the raider Thor on 22 April , the supply ship Nordland , and the fleet oiler Ermland in late May . The heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen was escorted to Brest in early June after separating from the battleship Bismarck during Operation Rheinübung . By the late summer , Steinbrinck was well overdue for a refit and was suffering from boiler problems but her refit was postponed to allow her to escort the raider Orion on 21 August . Her departure was delayed when she ran aground at the beginning of the next month and she did not depart for Germany until 6 September .
= = = 1942 – 43 = = =
Steinbrinck only briefly operated in northern Norway where she participated in Operation Wunderland in August , where she and her sisters Eckoldt and Beitzen escorted the pocket battleship Admiral Scheer at the beginning and end of its mission to attack Soviet shipping in the Kara Sea . They also escorted the minelayer Ulm as it departed to lay a minefield off Cape Zhelaniya in mid @-@ August . Steinbrinck ran aground at the beginning of September and was sent home after temporary repairs were made at Trondheim . The ship returned to Norway in January 1943 where she was slightly damaged by a practice torpedo fired by the submarine U @-@ 703 . In early March she escorted Scharnhorst through the Skaggerak to Trondheim in heavy weather that washed two men overboard . By mid @-@ month , Steinbrinck was the flagship of Captain ( Kapitän zur See ) , commander of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla .
In September the ship participated in Operation Zitronella , ferrying troops of the 349th Grenadier Regiment to destroy Norwegian facilities on the island of Spitzbergen , together with the battleships Tirpitz and Scharnhorst , escorted by eight other destroyers . After unloading her troops , she bombarded targets on the island until her fire main broke from the shock of shooting and partially flooded one of her compartments . While successful , the operation was primarily intended to boost the morale of the ships stationed in the Arctic when fuel shortages limited their activities and the Allies reestablished the bases five weeks later . Steinbrinck and two other destroyers escorted the pocket battleship Lützow back to Germany in September and returned to Narvik . On 25 November she was ordered to return to Germany for an overhaul , but accidentally collided with a small Norwegian steamer en route later that night . The collision severely damaged her bow and she had to sail slowly to Trondheim for emergency repairs lest the forward bulkhead collapse . The ship then received temporary repairs in Oslo before departing for Germany on 18 December .
= = = 1944 – 45 = = =
After her refit was completed on 18 January 1944 , Steinbrinck and her sister Theodor Riedel spent the first half of the year laying minefields at the entrance to the Skaggerak and escorting convoys to and from Norway . On 3 May the ship passed through the Kiel Canal en route to Hamburg for a lengthy refit . While in the dockyard , she was struck by a bomb in the diesel generator room on 18 June . Despite the extent of the damage , the dockyard reported that her refit would be completed as scheduled on 20 November . On 4 November another bomb detonated alongside Steinbrinck and caused extensive flooding and shock damage from the explosion . The ship was patched up and towed to Wesermünde for more thorough repairs , but her completion was seriously delayed . By 1 April 1945 , only a single engine was operable and the Kriegsmarine made the decision to strip her crew for combat duties ashore after she was moved to Cuxhaven . She was still there in May when the Germans surrendered .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
The ship was moved to Wilhelmshaven over the summer under British control while the division of the surviving warships was decided among the victorious Allies . While this was being argued the ships were overhauled with a small maintenance crew aboard to preserve their value . The Allied Tripartite Commission allocated Steinbrinck to the Soviet Union at the end of 1945 and she sailed for Libau on 2 January 1946 . She was commissioned into the Soviet Navy under the name Pylky ( Russian : Пылкий ) and assigned to the Soviet 4th Fleet , based at Rostock , through 1948 . Renamed PK3 @-@ 2 , she served as a barracks ship until 19 February 1958 , when she was struck from the list . On 18 April 1958 , she was sold for scrap and broken up afterwards .
= Battle of Warsaw ( 1831 ) =
The Battle of Warsaw was fought in September 1831 between Imperial Russia and Poland . After a two @-@ day assault on the city 's western fortifications , the Polish defences collapsed and the city was evacuated . It was the largest battle and the final episode of the Polish – Russian War of 1830 – 31 , a conflict that became better known as the November Uprising .
After almost a year of heavy fighting , a large Russian force crossed the Vistula and besieged the capital of Poland on 20 August . Although the siege was partially lifted soon afterwards and a successful sortie allowed a communication route between the city and the rest of Poland , a large Russian force remained on the left bank of the Vistula and continued to threaten the city . Russian commander Ivan Paskevich counted on Polish surrender as his Polish counterpart , Jan Krukowiecki , was known to be a member of the moderate political forces , willing to negotiate with Russian tsar Nicholas I , who had been deposed from the Polish throne in January 1831 by the Sejm ( Polish parliament ) . When a less conciliatory faction gained power in Warsaw and the Russian offer of surrender was refused , Paskevich ordered his forces to launch an assault against Warsaw 's western defences .
The assault started on 6 September 1831 . Russian forces surprised the Poles by attacking the strongest Polish position in the suburb of Wola . Despite staunch defence of some of the ramparts , especially Fort 54 and Fort 56 , after the first day the outer line of Polish defences had been breached by Russian infantry and artillery . The following day fights resumed , but this time Russian artillery was close enough to shell the western boroughs of the city itself . Although losses were similar on both sides , Polish authorities decided not to risk another Massacre of Praga and ordered the evacuation of the city . On 8 September 1831 Warsaw lay in Russian hands , and the remainder of the Polish Army retreated to Modlin . The November Uprising ended soon afterwards , with the remnants of the Polish Army crossing the borders of Prussia and Austria , to avoid being captured by the Russians .
In the 19th century the fight for Warsaw became one of the icons of Polish culture , described by , among others , Polish romantic poets Adam Mickiewicz and Juliusz Słowacki . It was also the main inspiration behind Chopin 's Revolutionary Étude , initially called the Étude on the Bombardment of Warsaw . The fall of Warsaw also garnered sympathy for the Poles and their quest for independence .
= = Background = =
In 1830 a series of revolutions struck Europe : the July Revolution in France , the Belgian Revolution and smaller revolts in Italy threatened to overthrow the framework of European politics established at the Congress of Vienna . As the Russian tsars were among the strongest advocates of that status quo , the uprising in Poland and the ousting of the tsar as the king of Poland by the Sejm and Senate of Poland on 25 January 1831 were considered a serious irritant . Russia could not send its armies to Belgium or France before the rebellion in Poland was quelled . For that reason the capture of Warsaw was Russia 's main target in the war from the start of hostilities .
In the course of the uprising , the army of Russia unsuccessfully tried to capture the capital of Poland on two occasions . First in February 1831 , forces under Field Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch stormed the eastern suburb of Praga . After a bloody battle at Grochów , the Polish Army successfully retreated to Warsaw , and the capital remained in Polish hands .
Unable to capture Warsaw by a frontal assault , von Diebitsch devised a plan to outflank it and enter the city from the west . In early 1831 he sent his forces upstream on the Vistula , where the Russian divisions were to cross the river and head back north , towards Warsaw . The new plan was thwarted by the Polish defence in three successive battles around Wawer , Dębe Wielkie and Iganie . The Russians withdrew towards Siedlce , where von Diebitsch fell ill and died of cholera .
The successor of von Diebitsch as Commander in Chief of Russian forces in Poland , Count Ivan Paskevich , decided to wait for the Polish forces on other fronts to be defeated before he resumed his march on Warsaw . In June 1831 General Antoni Giełgud 's attack on Wilno failed , and his corps was forced to cross the border with Prussia to avoid complete destruction . Only a small detachment under General Henryk Dembiński managed to rejoin the main Polish force . This secured Paskevich 's northern flank and allowed his forces to devise a new plan of attack . Instead of attacking the city directly and risking yet another defeat , he intended to surround Warsaw , cut it off from other Polish @-@ controlled areas , and force it into submission .
Between 17 and 21 July 1831 he crossed the Vistula near Osiek with his main force , and moved towards Warsaw through Gąbin and Łowicz . Meanwhile , other Russian forces from other theatres were also directed towards the city . General Gregor von Rosen 's Corps ( 12 @,@ 000 men and 34 guns ) marched almost unopposed from Brześć Litewski and reached Praga on 10 August . General Theodor von Rüdiger 's corps ( 12 @,@ 000 men and 42 guns ) crossed the Upper Vistula at Józefów on 7 August and captured Radom .
The new Commander in Chief of the Polish Army , Jan Zygmunt Skrzynecki , was also hesitant to fight a major battle . Instead , he ordered Warsaw to be fortified and allowed the Russians to cross the Vistula unopposed . In his opinion , the war could only be won diplomatically , by interventions of the United Kingdom , Austria and France . Should those fail , Skrzynecki believed Warsaw would hold out at least several weeks under a siege , after which the main bulk of the Polish Army would still be intact to fight a decisive battle against the Russians , who by then would be cut off from their rear by the Vistula . On 10 August 1831 Skrzynecki was forced to resign and was replaced by Henryk Dembiński , the military governor of Warsaw .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Battlefield = = =
In the late 18th century and early 19th century Warsaw grew quickly . As Poland was going through a period of turmoil and constant devastating wars , it lacked modern permanent fortifications . To make up for it , three lines of earthworks , ramparts and palisades were constructed on both sides of the Vistula . The earthworks , usually several metres high and constructed mostly of sand and clay , were reinforced with gabions and surrounded by a dry moat , a stockade and a line of trous de loup .
The inner , third line ran approximately along the former Lubomirski Ramparts , demolished only a couple of years before . It was a continuous line of earthworks 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) high , strengthened by numerous forts and fortified houses .
The second line of defences consisted of forts 400 to 600 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 to 2 @,@ 000 ft ) in front of the inner line of defences . The strongest forts were along the road towards Kalisz .
The first , outer line of defences consisted of smaller forts and ramparts running along a semi @-@ circular line from Szopy , through Rakowiec , Wola and Parysów to the banks of the Vistula . The fortified outposts of the outer line were 1 @.@ 5 to 3 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 to 1 @.@ 86 mi ) in front of the third line . Their purpose was to withstand the initial attacks and divide the attacking Russian forces into smaller groups . There were five large groups of earthworks in the outer line :
Królikarnia ( Forts 44 and 45 )
Rakowiec ( Forts 48 to 53 )
Wola ( Fort 56 )
Parysów ( Forts 61 and 62 )
Marymont Forest ( Fort 66 )
The space between the large fortifications was covered by a series of smaller redans ( chevron @-@ shaped forts ) and barkans ( trapezoidal forts ) . The strongest fortification in the outer line of defences was Fort 56 in the suburb of Wola , built around the St Lawrence 's Church . It was supported by Lunette 57 in front of it , and two forts ( 54 and 55 ) to the south of it . The headquarters was in Fort 73 between Rakowiec and the Jerozolimskie Gate .
Polish headquarters decided to man the outer line of defences , the furthest from the densely populated areas . The reason was that in the 1830s 53 percent of buildings ( out of 3148 houses in Warsaw ) were made of wood and a fire could easily destroy the city . In case the enemy broke through all three lines of defences , the city centre was also fortified with 30 barricades , embrasures cut through the walls of several buildings and mines hidden beneath major street crossings .
= = = Opposing forces = = =
= = = = Russian Army = = = =
By 20 August 1831 Warsaw was almost entirely encircled by the Russians . Count Paskevich had at his disposal a formidable force . His main force on the left bank of the Vistula consisted of between 54 @,@ 000 and 55 @,@ 000 soldiers , supported by 324 guns of various calibres . A further 7000 soldiers and 20 guns guarded the river crossings . The II Corps under General Cyprian von Kreutz ( 21 @,@ 000 soldiers , 90 guns ) was heading towards the city from Osiek while von Rüdiger 's corps was tied down around Radom , fighting a large Polish corps under General Samuel Różycki .
By 5 September 1831 the main Russian force rose to 78 @,@ 500 men at arms , including 2000 sappers , 54 @,@ 000 infantry , and 17 @,@ 200 cavalry . Russian artillery outnumbered the Polish and had 382 cannons and 8 mortars operated by 7 @,@ 300 men . The forces assaulting Warsaw were divided as follows :
I Infantry Corps ( General Peter von der Pahlen ) – 11 @,@ 300 infantry , 424 cavalry , 66 cannons and 4 mortars
Cavalry Division ( Prince Stepan Khilkov ) – 2700 cavalry , 847 Cossacks , 10 cannons
II Infantry Corps ( General Cyprian Kreutz ) – 11 @,@ 200 infantry , 1110 cavalry , 68 cannons and 4 mortars
Cavalry Division ( General Georg Nostitz ) – 2100 cavalry , 16 cannons
Infantry Division ( General Nikolai Muraviev ) – 3100 infantry , 16 cannons
Corps of Imperial Guard ( in reserve , Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich ) – 15 @,@ 700 infantry , 56 cannons
Grenadier Corps ( General Ivan Shakhovskoy ) – 11 @,@ 000 infantry , 40 cannons
Cavalry Corps ( General Jan de Witte ) – 8500 cavalry , 40 cannons
artillery reserve – 60 cannons
2nd Light Division ( General Karl Gustav von Strandmann ) – 1400 infantry , 484 cavalry , 875 Cossacks and 6 cannons
The Russian force was superior , but faced severe logistical problems . Count Paskevich 's army was too big to sustain on food confiscated from captured lands . It relied on provisions transported from Russia , either directly through Polish territory or through – theoretically neutral – Prussia . The epidemic of cholera brought to Poland and East Prussia by Russian soldiers forced the Prussian authorities to close their borders to Russian transports . To avoid starving his army , Paskevich ordered two permanent bridges built across the Vistula , in Góra and Podgórze . Only the latter one had been completed by the start of the Russian assault of Warsaw .
= = = = Polish Army = = = =
The Polish Army in early September 1831 had around 62 @,@ 000 men . The garrison of Warsaw numbered 31 @,@ 100 infantry and 3 @,@ 800 cavalry . It was divided into the following units :
I Corps ( General Jan Nepomucen Umiński ) – 18 @,@ 100 infantry , 1 @,@ 400 cavalry , 34 guns
Reserve Corps ( General Henryk Dembiński ) – 11 @,@ 500 infantry , 1 @,@ 700 cavalry , 12 guns
Garrison of Warsaw and Praga – 1 @,@ 361 infantry , 524 cavalry
The artillery included 228 pieces of artillery of all types and 21 Congreve rocket batteries , manned by 4554 soldiers of the regular army and 200 members of the National Guard .
The crew was insufficient to man all the defences , and some forts had to be abandoned . The Engineering Committee predicted that Warsaw 's fortifications would require at least 60 @,@ 000 troops to be fully manned . There were 15 @,@ 000 able @-@ bodied members of the Security Guard ( Straż Bezpieczeństwa ) , the National Guard ( Gwardia Narodowa ) and the Jewish City Guard ( Gwardia Miejska Starozakonna ) militias willing to join the fight , but the army refused to provide them with arms for fear of losing control over the unruly plebeians .
The city was home to over 175 @,@ 000 civilians and refugees , and the defenders were low on food supplies . Ammunition supplies were excellent and would " allow the Polish Army to fight not one , but three major battles " . The Warsaw Arsenal alone stored 3 million rifle rounds and 60 @,@ 000 cannon shots , 200 shots per cannon .
The cholera epidemic struck Warsaw between 16 May and 20 August ; 4 @,@ 734 people fell ill and 2 @,@ 524 died . On 15 August a riot broke out in the city , with up to 3 @,@ 000 civilians and soldiers killing suspected spies and traitors . Between 36 and 60 people were killed . Order was restored , but the situation in the besieged city remained fragile .
= = = = Training , equipment and morale = = = =
Both sides were trained in a similar manner and used similar equipment . The standard rifle for both sides was the Model 1808 flintlock musket ( a copy of the Charleville musket ) and its modification , the Model 1826 Musket , with effective range not exceeding 250 metres ( 820 ft ) . Some units of the Polish infantry were still armed with hunting rifles or war scythes , but contrary to common misconception the scythe @-@ wielding kosynierzy were but a small minority of Polish forces . The artillery used by both sides was mostly 6 @-@ pounder and 12 @-@ pounder licornes ; heavier artillery included 20 @-@ pounders ( " half @-@ pood " ) and 10 @-@ pounders ( " quarter @-@ pood " ) cannons . Apart from Russian @-@ made artillery , both sides also used to a lesser extent foreign guns . The forces of both sides were a mixture of old , battle @-@ hardened soldiers trained in regular units before the war , and new , unproven recruits .
The Polish Army was made up primarily of volunteers and organised along the lines of Napoleon Bonaparte 's army , which meant that there was no corporal punishment in the military handbooks and the soldiers were highly motivated . The good morale of the first months of the uprising was long gone by the early days of September . A long string of defeats , partial victories , and retreats coupled with high command 's indecisiveness and frequent changes in command structure ( between 12 and 20 August the post of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief changed hands four times ) meant that the soldiers ' morale was low . Also , most of the generals in Warsaw lacked faith in the aims of the uprising set by the more liberal @-@ minded members of Sejm and instead were " only doing their job " , hoping the status quo would return as soon as the tsar was forced to stand by his promises . The generals supporting continued fighting ( Jan Nepomucen Umiński , Henryk Dembiński , Józef Bem , and Kazimierz Małachowski ) were in charge in early September , but they were outnumbered by generals who were willing to sign an armistice with the Russians , even against the will of the Sejm .
By contrast the Russian forces ' morale was extremely high . The Russian commanders had ample experience in siege operations ; Paskevich himself had captured at least six fortified cities in his career , including the capture of Erevan and Abbas @-@ Abbad Fortress in the Russo @-@ Persian War of 1826 and the battle of Akhalzic and siege of Kars during the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1828 .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial clashes = = =
Facing logistical problems , the new Polish Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Jan Krukowiecki , who had replaced Dembiński in mid @-@ August , ordered a sortie on the right bank . Like his predecessor , Krukowiecki was a conservative and believed the main aim of the November Uprising was the return of the status quo ante with the tsars of Russia as kings of Poland , but respecting the constitution and Polish laws . Unlike Skrzynecki , he believed foreign intervention to be unrealistic , and wanted to force the Russians to return to peace talks by defeating the Russian forces , breaking the siege or defeating the assault attempts .
According to the new strategy , the forces under Girolamo Ramorino and Tomasz Łubieński were to leave the city and stay on the right bank of the Vistula , harass the Russian forces under von Rosen and von Rüdiger , capture the river crossings at Osiek , provide the city with supplies , and force Paskevich to divert some of his forces to fight them . Both forces left the city between 16 and 20 August 1831 . Tomasz Łubieński 's Corps headed towards Płock , broke the encirclement , and delivered much @-@ needed supplies to Warsaw . His forces also broke the northern line of communications between Paskevich 's forces and East Prussia . Girolamo Ramorino 's II Corps in Podlasie defeated von Rosen 's Corps in several clashes , including the battles of Międzyrzec and Rogoźnica . Ramorino 's indecisiveness and disregard for orders allowed the defeated and numerically inferior Russians to retreat towards Brześć Litewski and avoid complete destruction .
The departure of regular units under Ramorino and Łubieński depleted the forces of the defenders , further weakening the crew manning the first line of defence . The garrison dropped to 28 @,@ 000 regular soldiers and 10 @,@ 000 fresh troops , poorly trained and often armed only with scythes .
Having defeated von Rosen at Międzyrzec on 29 August , Ramorino 's forces were ordered to return to Siedlce , but Ramorino disregarded that order and followed von Rosen towards Brześć . The order to return through Łuków to Siedlce was repeated on 4 September . From there , a forced march could allow the II Corps to cross the Vistula to the south of Warsaw and attack Paskevich from the rear , or rejoin the bulk of the Polish Army defending Warsaw . The repeated order was also ignored . A large part of the Polish forces , composed mostly of seasoned soldiers , high in morale thanks to recent victories , was wandering aimlessly through Podlasie , only a couple of days ' march from Warsaw . Instead of coming to the aid of Warsaw or following the fleeing forces of von Rosen , Ramorino waited in Podlasie for a week , and then headed south , away from the enemy .
On 4 September Paskevich sent an envoy to Warsaw requesting surrender and promising revision of the constitution . Only three out of ten members of the Diplomatic Commission voted in favour of further negotiations , and on 5 September the Russian commander was informed that the only acceptable solution had already been made known in the declaration of the Sejm . The Poles requested that all lands taken by Russia in the partitions of Poland be restored , and that the deposition of Nicholas I as the king of Poland ( of 25 January 1831 ) still be valid .
On the eve of the battle , the Russian Army moved from its positions in villages surrounding Warsaw , ( Nadarzyn , Wolica , Falenty , Dawidy and Raszyn ) closer to Polish positions . The Guards started moving towards Opacze Wielkie . The grenadiers , Cavalry Corps and the I Infantry Corps moved to the road to Kalisz near Szamoty , and the II Infantry Corps moved to Włochy . An infantry division under Muraviev occupied the fields between Okęcie and Rakowiec , and Cavalry Division of Nostitz moved to Zbarż . To complete the encirclement , the 2nd Light Division under von Strandmann took positions near Służew on the road towards Lublin , while Stepan Khilkov 's Cavalry Division moved to Chrzanów . The supply trains and reserves were left in Nadarzyn .
= = = Battle plans = = =
Although initially Paskevich opposed the idea of an all @-@ out assault of the city , the actions of Ramorino and Łubieński forced his hand . His force was low on provisions and supplies : by early September the main Russian force had only 5 days ' worth of food and horse fodder . On 28 August Paskevich accepted some of his generals ' advice , and ordered preparations for a general attack . After several days of quarrels within the Russian staff , it was decided on 4 September that the main thrust should be aimed at the strongest Polish positions behind the suburb of Wola . The assault was to focus on the central rampart in Wola , Fort 56 , and the surrounding fortifications . The Russian I Infantry Corps was to storm Fort 57 and continue towards Forts 56 and 58 . The II Infantry Corps was to focus on nearby Forts 54 and 55 . Other sectors of the front were to be only lightly pressed by diversionary attacks . Paskevich probably did not want to enter Warsaw , and counted on the Polish defenders to abandon the city or surrender once the outer ring of defences was pierced and the city centre was threatened with fire .
The Polish plan was based on fixed defence of the front line , with the forces under Umiński and Dembiński behind the second line of defences and acting as a mobile reserve , together with divisional artillery and cavalry . Umiński 's Corps was to cover the southern sector of the front , a line of approximately 7 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 4 mi ) from road to Puławy , through the road towards Kraków , to the line connecting Fort 18 and Fort 74 . Forces under Dembiński were to defend the western and northern sector , along a line of 9 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) running from Redoubt 54 to the suburb of Marymont . Most of the Polish forces were in the southern part of the city , as the Polish headquarters incorrectly assumed that the Russians would attack the weakest part of the defences , around Królikarnia , the suburbs of Mokotów and Czerniaków .
= = = 6 September = = =
Already before the battle Paskevich achieved devastating numerical superiority on the western front . The first Russian line facing Wola had 30 @,@ 200 soldiers , 144 pieces of artillery and eight mortars ; the second line was formed by 39 @,@ 200 soldiers and 196 pieces of artillery . Facing them were 5 @,@ 300 infantry , 65 cannons and 1 @,@ 100 cavalry under Dembiński , with another 4 @,@ 800 soldiers in reserve .
At 2 : 00 Polish observation posts on the Holy Trinity Church and the Astronomical Observatory at Ujazdów Avenue spotted enemy movements and sounded the alarm . The attack started around 4 : 00 , and within an hour Polish forts 54 and 57 opened fire on approaching Russians . Around 5 : 00 , eighty @-@ six guns of the I Infantry Corps started shelling Polish positions around Wola from a distance of 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) , and the battle started .
Fort 56 consisted of three wings , each surrounded by its own earthwork , stockades and a moat . Partially obscured by the trees of Brühl 's Garden , the central wing was further reinforced by the St. Laurence 's Church and the surrounding monastery . The fort , commanded by General Józef Sowiński , was manned by two battalions of the 8th Regiment of Line Infantry ( 1 @,@ 200 men ) , with 40 sappers , 13 cannons , two Congreve rocket launchers , and a small detachment from the 14th Regiment of Line Infantry ( 170 men ) . Directly in front of it , on a hill overlooking the battlefield , lay the smaller , irregularly @-@ shaped Fort 57 manned by 300 men under Maj. Józef Krassowski , armed with four pieces of artillery and two Congreve rocket launchers . To the north lay Fort 59 ( 4 cannons , 400 men under Maj. Józef Borzęcki ) , while to the south Fort 54 ( up to 350 men under Maj. Ignacy Dobrzelewski and 6 guns under Lt. Julian Konstanty Ordon ) . Even though the remaining forts of Wola ( Forts 55 , 58 , 60 and 61 ) were deprived of their garrisons to strengthen the defence , the most important Polish positions were still severely undermanned .
Further to the south , near Rakowiec , lay a group of forts of the outer line . All had already been abandoned by the Poles in early September , and were captured by Russian infantry under General Muraviev without a fight . Forces under General von Strandmann captured Szopy and started attacking Forts 44 , 45 and the fortifications around Królikarnia . Although von Strandmann 's unit did not have a clear numerical superiority ( 2 @,@ 900 Russians with six guns against 1 @,@ 700 Poles with six guns ) , they quickly pushed back the Polish defenders . Soon dense black powder smoke covered the battlefield . Unable to determine the direction of Russian attacks , the Polish commanders believed that the aim of the main thrust would be delivered against the positions at Królikarnia .
The first to realise the mistake was General Dembiński , the commanding officer of the Reserve Corps tasked with defending the western sector . He immediately asked for reinforcements , but was denied by General Krukowiecki . Forced to fight alone , Dembiński did not reinforce the first line with his reserve 3rd Infantry Division and instead sent forward only a token force : half a battalion to man Fort 58 and support Fort 57 . To make things worse for the Poles , General Umiński , the commanding officer of the southern sector , focused entirely on the skirmishes around Królikarnia and did not notice what was happening in Wola . Around 7 : 00 he reinforced Królikarnia with almost six battalions of infantry ( ca . 2 @,@ 800 men ) and three guns . Forts 54 and 55 received no reinforcements .
= = = = Fort 54 = = = =
Meanwhile , the outer earthworks protecting the forts around Wola were being destroyed by Russian artillery . From 6 : 00 , 108 pieces of Russian artillery were focused on forts 54 , 55 and 57 . Fort 54 held out and losses among the infantry were low , but the artillery of the isolated outposts was forced to hide behind the ramparts . Forts 59 and 61 could not support their neighbours as their crews fought their own artillery duel with horse artillery of Khilkov 's Cavalry Division , which suffered heavy casualties .
Out of 32 pieces of artillery held in reserve by Dembiński , only four were moved forward to Fort 58 . Around 6 : 30 , nine more guns joined the artillery duel around Wola , but their support was too weak and came too late . At that time two large assault columns were formed by Russian II Infantry Corps . The first , under General Nikolai Sulima , advanced on Fort 54 with Lutkovski 's Brigade ( 2 @,@ 500 men ) in the first line . The second , commanded by General Friedrich Caspar von Geismar , headed for Fort 55 . As soon as von Geismar realised that the redoubt was empty , he ordered 1 @,@ 500 men under Col. Pavel Liprandi to join the attack on Fort 54 instead . Despite serious losses , three battalions of Lutkovski 's Brigade reached the stockade surrounding the earthworks and started clearing obstacles .
Because of the smoke the commanders of the second line of Polish outposts could not see the approaching Russians and did not open fire . Contrary to the battle plan , the second line did not send reinforcements to the first . This was particularly important in the case of Forts 54 and 56 , as they had to face the enemy alone , without the support of Forts 21 , 22 and 23 behind them . The most important positions in the suburb of Wola received only token reinforcements from the main reserve and were forced to fight in isolation .
The Polish defenders of Fort 54 fired incessantly , but by then the Russian horse artillery had clear line of sight onto the top of the rampart . For unknown reasons the Poles did not use the grenades prepared for defence in close quarters . When the breach was completed , two Russian regiments ( 13th ' Belozerskiy ' and 14th ' Olonetskiy ' ) charged into the gap . Other Russian soldiers stormed the earthwork itself , using bayonets as steps to climb onto the parapet . After several salvoes , Polish infantry retreated to within the fort , to fire at Russian soldiers appearing on top of the rampart . The first to cross the obstacles was Pavel Liprandi with his men . With 10 : 1 Russian superiority , the bayonet fight was short , and between 60 and 80 surviving Poles were taken prisoner in a matter of minutes . Soon afterwards the gunpowder magazine was set on fire and exploded , killing over 100 Russians , among them the commanding officer of the 13th Regiment , Col. Ivan Khludenev . The explosion was fictionalised and immortalised in Adam Mickiewicz 's poem Reduta Ordona ( Ordon 's Redoubt ) . Altogether the Russian losses during the storming of Fort 54 were between 500 and 600 killed . The dead were buried in a mass grave in a shell @-@ hole , which later became the nucleus of the Orthodox Cemetery in Warsaw .
Expecting a Polish counter @-@ attack , Russian engineers started to repair Forts 54 and 55 . Initially only Polish artillery from forts 73 , 21 , 22 and 23 responded with fire , while Dembiński 's reserves remained passive . Seeing no activity on Polish side , Russian II Infantry Corps ' artillery started supporting its neighbours of the I Infantry Corps . Russian artillery suffered some losses , but its superiority was evident . Batteries of the I Corps approached Fort 57 to within 300 metres ( 980 ft ) , which forced the Polish artillery to be dismantled and withdrawn from the fort . Around 8 : 00 two columns of the I Corps ( under Alexander von Lüders and Ivan Nabokov ) assaulted the fort . Elements of four Russian regiments ( 3rd and 4th Marine Regiments , 7th ' Revelski ' Infantry Regiment and Moskovsky Regiment ) stormed the fort from three sides , hoping a three @-@ hour artillery barrage had destroyed the obstacles and palisade guarding the entry to Polish positions . The stockade was almost intact and Russian forces suffered considerable losses , both from small @-@ arms fire and from artillery of the 2nd line . The officers ordered a retreat , but the soldiers disregarded the order and continued to assault the fort on their own . Several assaults were repelled with heavy Russian losses . Despite the losses , Russian infantry entered the fort and captured it in a close quarters fight , without a shot fired . Only about 80 Poles were taken captive , and four managed to retreat to the Polish lines with their wounded commanding officer ; the remainder fought on and were killed almost to the last man . As the recently captured fort was well within the range of Polish artillery , the Russians withdrew and started hiding behind it .
= = = = Fort 56 = = = =
Despite the loss of forts 54 , 55 and 57 , Krukowiecki was still convinced that the attack on Wola was a diversion , and refused to grant General Dembiński more reinforcements . Only General Ludwik Bogusławski , commanding officer of the 3rd Infantry Division , disregarded his orders and sent a single battalion of the 10th Line Infantry Regiment to Fort 56 as reinforcements . The battalion was led by Col. Piotr Wysocki , the officer who started the entire November Uprising . Dembiński abandoned Fort 58 . Its artillery , along with 12 cannons and six rocket launchers from his reserves , was ordered to take positions between the first and second lines of defence , in front of Forts 21 , 22 and 23 . Around 9 : 00 , when Russian forces were preparing to push further into the second line of Polish defences , Brigadier Józef Bem arrived to Wola with his 12 cannon and positioned them not far from the recently @-@ lost Fort 54 , right on the flank of Kreutz 's infantry and Russian artillery shelling Fort 56 . Eight more guns and four rocket launchers arrived to the northern flank of Wola and joined the defence of Fort 58 . Around that time the combined artillery forces of both Russian infantry corps shifted their fire to Forts 56 , 59 and 23 . This time the Poles won the artillery duel . Despite Russian numerical superiority in guns and mortars , the Russian artillery suffered losses and was forced to withdraw , followed by infantry , likewise forced back into hiding behind the captured earthworks . Dembiński did not take advantage of this success , and the Polish infantry remained hidden behind fixed defences .
Seeing no activity , the commander of the Russian II Corps ordered all his cannons to shift fire onto the 14 guns under Józef Bem . Heavily pressed , Polish artillery withstood the fire for over half an hour before switching to new positions to the right of the road to Kalisz . It resumed fire on the II Corps , but was again targeted by enemy guns . The artillery duel continued , but the situation of Fort 56 was becoming critical . Shelled from three sides , the largest Polish fort around Warsaw was now isolated . Including reinforcements brought by Col. Wysocki , the crew of the fort included approximately 1 @,@ 660 infantrymen and ten pieces of artillery . By 10 : 00 most artillerymen had been killed or wounded ( including the fort 's artillery commander , Capt. Krzywicki ) and had to be replaced with untrained infantrymen , which seriously limited the Polish guns ' rate of fire and accuracy . All ramparts were successively damaged by Russian artillery , and there was a 30 @-@ metre breach in one of its sides .
Paskevich , who observed the artillery duel from Fort 55 , became convinced that his Polish counterpart would not come to the rescue of Fort 56 . Initially hesitant , he finally ordered Russian infantry to attack Fort 56 around 10 : 00 . The attack was carried out by 13 infantry battalions ( ca . 6 @,@ 900 men ) from columns commanded by General Lüders and Martinov . The forces of Lüders stormed the obstacles and crossed the stockade , but Polish defenders met them with rifle volleys from within the fort , and the attack was repelled . Lüders quickly ordered his second line ( 2 @,@ 300 men ) to advance as well . The new forces were twice pushed back into the moat by the commander of the northern wing , Maj. Franciszek Biernacki , but in the end the Polish defenders were overpowered and had to withdraw further into the fort . The Russians followed , but their battalions lost cohesion , which allowed the numerically inferior force under Biernacki to hold out inside the fort and cover the flank of the central wing .
Forces under General Martinov assaulted the central wing of Fort 56 . Here the obstacles were intact , and 200 Polish soldiers repelled three consecutive assaults by a famed Moscow Guards Regiment . The Russians lost two regimental commanders before their forces managed to reach the moat . When a force of 2 @,@ 900 Russians reached the top of the rampart , they were surprised by a staunch defence of a second rampart behind it . Russian infantry retreated and hid under the first rampart . Biernacki , fighting in the northern wing , managed to expel the Russian infantry , but was killed in action during the counter @-@ attack , and the Poles withdrew back into the trees on the far side of the fort . To stabilise the situation , General Sowiński ordered a company of the 8th Line Infantry Regiment to leave the central wing and join the fight in the north . The new commanding officer of the north wing , Maj. Lipski , organised yet another counter @-@ attack . Shouting " Mates , remember Grochów , remember Iganie ! " he led his men in a charge and pushed the Russians back once again , but the impetus was lost and the Russians retained control of the rampart to the north @-@ west . A short stalemate ensued , in which the Polish infantrymen and their single twelve @-@ pounder carronade prevented much larger enemy forces from entering the fort .
Seeing that their forces had failed , Paskevich and Pahlen decided to throw in even more forces into the fight . Elements of the 9th ' Ingermanland ' Infantry Regiment and 10th ' New Ingermanland ' Infantry Regiment ( 890 men and six guns ) were ordered to attack the eastern side of the northern wing . Simultaneously seven battalions ( ca . 4 @,@ 000 men ) were to attack the central and eastern wings from the south . About 70 pieces of artillery were ordered to fire on the second line of Polish defences to prevent Polish reinforcements from breaking through to the fort . This time several thousand Russians entered the northern wing in strict military formations . By then the garrison under Maj. Lipski had 800 men and was not strong enough to withstand the assault . Poles were again pushed back into the trees of the far side of the northern wing , and Maj. Lipski was killed . He was replaced by Maj. Dobrogoyski , who panicked and sounded a retreat , taking with him 500 men . The remaining 300 soldiers under Maj. Świtkowski tried again to force the Russians out , but were by then outnumbered 10 to 1 and around 10 : 30 had to withdraw towards the central wing . The central wing , by then under the command of Lt. Col. Wodzyński , held out against a large column led by General Lüders , composed of the elite regiments of Prince Wilhelm and Prince Charles .
By that time the central wing was defended by a mere 900 men and one cannon . The combined forces of Lüders , Martynov and Friedrich von Berg exceeded 6 @,@ 000 men and were preparing to storm it . Several assaults were repelled , but shortly after 11 : 00 the Polish position was attacked from the north and south simultaneously . The northern pincer stalled and the southern pincer , led by General Malinovski , was bloodily repelled . General Martynov was badly wounded . General Pahlen ordered a further 2 @,@ 300 men ( 5th Infantry Regiment and elements of Siberian Grenadiers ) to attack from the other side . The Siberian regiment entered the fort and forced the crews of carronades , commanded personally by General Sowiński , to withdraw within the walls surrounding the church . The largest group of Polish soldiers fighting in front of the church was offered capitulation , and Sowiński and the remainder of his crew laid down their arms . Another group of Polish soldiers still defending the church fired at the Russians , and angered Russian soldiers , General Sowiński among them , massacred the prisoners of war . As Russian authorities later confirmed he died on the field of duty , Sowiński soon became a Polish national hero , immortalised in a poem " Sowiński w okopach Woli " ( Sowiński in the trenches of Wola ) by Juliusz Słowacki .
The surrounded church was well prepared for defence , but its garrison was by then composed almost entirely of the wounded . By noon the defenders were overpowered , and the Russians entered the church . The fight for Fort 56 was over . Altogether the Russian side lost no less than 1 @,@ 000 killed in action during the storming of the fort . Polish casualties did not exceed 300 killed and wounded , with 1 @,@ 230 soldiers and officers taken prisoner . Only up to 500 soldiers managed to withdraw and reach Polish lines .
= = = = Fights for Wola and elsewhere = = = =
During the fights for the ramparts of Wola , only artillery of the second line gave limited support to the outnumbered Polish troops . Krukowiecki claimed after the war that he ordered Dembiński , Bem and General Franciszek Młokosiewicz to support the first line , but apparently none of them received the order . General Ludwik Bogusławski , commander of the 3rd Infantry Division manning the second line , could have supported the forts of the first line , but he could not see what was happening in Fort 56 due to dense smoke and the trees of Brühl 's Garden .
Paskevich expected a Polish counter @-@ attack aimed at recapturing the lost forts , so he ordered his troops to halt the advance , rebuild the ramparts and construct new artillery emplacements facing the city . Further movement in the vicinity of Wola was blocked by Polish artillery from Fort 59 , but within two hours Russian sappers prepared Fort 56 to serve as an artillery outpost for up to 20 pieces of artillery . Paskevich also sent tirailleurs and rifle @-@ armed skirmishers forward to probe and harass Polish defences around Fort 23 . Polish field artillery left Fort 21 and pushed back the Russian light infantry , but were then attacked by Russian I Corps ' artillery and forced to flee . Only then did General Bogusławski realise that Fort 56 might need assistance . To reconnoitre enemy movements and possibly deliver munitions to the fort he dispatched General Młokosiewicz with his infantry brigade of 1 @,@ 000 men . Two Russian rifle regiments fled before his columns and Młokosiewicz 's men almost reached the fort , but Russian artillery opened fire and inflicted several dozen casualties on the Poles . Młokosiewicz realised that Fort 56 was lost and quickly retreated towards Forts 21 and 22 . Two Russian rifle regiments ( 1st and 2nd ) tried to pursue , but were defeated by Polish artillery and retreated .
Unexpectedly , this weak push by Młokosiewicz and his men probably forced the Russians to reconsider their plans and postpone any further attacks until the following day . At that moment Paskevich was not sure what the Poles would do . He feared a Polish counter @-@ attack would retake the forts of Wola , or strike a wedge between his I and II Corps . He ordered all offensive actions in Wola halted . His artillery continued to duel with the Poles , but infantry was withdrawn and Paskevich himself left his forces to look for the Corps of General Muraviev to the south , somewhere between Szczęśliwice and the Jerozolimskie Gate .
Around that time General Małachowski arrived at Fort 23 to inspect the part of the front he had neglected until that point . Informed by General Młokosiewicz of the loss of Fort 56 , he ordered a counter @-@ attack . More preoccupied with holding the second line than with retaking the first , he committed only two battalions ( 1 @,@ 240 men ) out of 12 he had in reserve to the assault . The counter @-@ attack started around 13 : 00 and was supported by a token force of 14 pieces of horse artillery , while General Bem held 21 heavier field cannons in reserve . As soon as the Poles left their ramparts , the sortie came under fire of Russian artillery amassed in front of forts 54 , 55 and 56 . Despite heavy fire , the Poles reached a point 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) south @-@ east of Fort 56 , where they were met by elements of two Russian rifle regiments ( 1st and 2nd ; ca . 1 @,@ 800 men ) . Despite Russian numerical superiority , the Polish force broke through and pushed the Russians back , but was then defeated by Russian artillery on the eastern rampart of Fort 56 . When Russian reinforcements appeared on both his flanks , the Polish commander sounded retreat and returned to the Polish lines . The Polish counter @-@ attack failed . To make the situation even more serious , the retreating Poles were followed closely by a large Russian force of the two rifle regiments , reinforced with elements of 1st , 2nd and 5th Infantry Divisions .
The Russians assaulted the second Polish line and pierced it in numerous places . The position of Russian infantry was very difficult because it overtook the 14 Polish guns sent forward by General Bem to support the Polish counter @-@ attack , which meant that it was under artillery fire from the front , the sides and the rear . Eventually a counter @-@ attack by the 4th Line Infantry Regiment under Lt. Col. Kazimierz Majewski repelled the Russians storming the Polish lines . Several smaller Russian units broke through and tried to fortify a group of wooden houses in the suburb of Wola , but were quickly surrounded and killed . At that point , around 13 : 00 , Małachowski wanted to organise yet another counter @-@ attack aimed at Fort 56 , but his orders were overridden by Krukowiecki , who feared that the Russians might want to attack further south , near Jerozolimskie Gate , and preferred to keep his reserves intact . The Polish side ceased all offensive actions on the western front , and only the artillery remained active .
= = = = Artillery duel continues = = = =
Between 13 : 00 and 14 : 00 General Bem amassed at least 64 artillery pieces on a narrow front near Forts 21 , 22 and 23 , and started firing on the artillery and infantry of the I Russian Corps . In the artillery barrage that lasted until 17 : 00 , the forces of Russian I and II Corps were eventually forced to withdraw behind the ramparts of the captured forts . On several occasions the Russian cavalry of General Khilkov ( including the Cuirassier Regiment ) tried to charge the Polish artillery positions , but every time the charge was bloodily repelled with grapeshot and canister shot . Eventually the Russian cavalry withdrew from battle all the way to Górce . Half of the Russian artillery fought an intense artillery duel with the Poles , while the other half started shelling the suburb of Wola and Polish positions behind the second line of defences . Although the barrage prepared the field for yet another Polish counter @-@ attack , Krukowiecki would not risk it .
Paskevich held a war council with his generals . Karl Wilhelm von Toll and many other generals insisted that the assault on Wola be resumed , but Paskevich was sceptical . The Russians still had 25 @,@ 000 fresh troops , but the dusk was nearing , and Paskevich feared that after dark his forces might lose cohesion and suffer excessive losses . The Russian commander also thought that an attack on Wola might be hampered by positions of the first line still held by the Poles ( Forts 58 , 59 and 60 ; in reality Fort 58 had been abandoned ) , or by a Polish counter @-@ attack from the area of Czyste . He decided to postpone offensive actions until the following day . Paskevich also sent another envoy to Warsaw , but the hastily called session of the Sejm renounced his offer of a cease @-@ fire .
By that point the battle plan of the Russians was still not clear to the Polish Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief General Krukowiecki . Unsure whether the main attack was on Wola or the forts around Królikarnia , he did not reassign any sizable infantry force to the western front , despite the fact that the southern line was safely in Polish hands and repeated Russian attacks there were being repelled one by one . Out of 3000 casualties suffered by the Polish side on the first day only approximately 300 were in the southern sector near Królikarnia , including at most " several dozen killed " . Yet only a small detachment of horse artillery was dispatched to the second line near Wola . In the evening General Krukowiecki called a meeting of the government and described the situation of his forces as extremely difficult . He suggested that talks with Paskevich be resumed and sent General Prądzyński to Paskevich 's camp .
= = = 7 September = = =
= = = = First round of negotiations = = = =
The two met at the outskirts of Wola in the early hours of 7 September . Paskevich proclaimed a cease @-@ fire and invited Krukowiecki to meet him at 9 : 00 . The meeting was held in the village tavern of Wola . Paskevich demanded that Warsaw and Praga be surrendered unconditionally and that the Polish Army be evacuated and disarmed in Płock , where it was to await the decision of the tsar either to pardon the Polish soldiers or imprison them as rebels . Krukowiecki declined and insisted that the uprising was not a rebellion but a war waged by two independent states . He wanted Paskevich and Grand Duke Michael to promise the return of Poland 's independence and a general amnesty in exchange for revoking the act of deposition of Nicholas from the Polish throne . The negotiations were stormy and around noon the Polish commander departed for Warsaw to consult the Sejm about further actions . Paskevich agreed to extend the cease @
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